ADULTS LEARNING STYLES

By Yudi Setyaningsih

INTRODUCTION

As English that becomes lingua franca has accelerated globalization in any corner of this
world, the acquisition of English as second or foreign language is emphasized. Every year the
number of people studying English increases. Some of them, especially adults, go to English
speaking countries to study the language. Others take English course in private as well formal
education. Growing numbers of English native speakers also come to countries of ESL or EFL to
teach English. Some of them make friends with students and this will enhance the motivation of
adults learning English. But the existence of the English native speakers plays only a little in the
success of the learning. In fact, there are still other factors that influence the attainment of
English proficiency.
The factors that give influences are among others: motivation, relevance, goals, and also
from the working field are time (management), workload, interest, and environment. Those
internal as well external factors play important roles in adults learning a language. Adults learn
a new language voluntarily, meaning that it is their own motivation to learn. If English can be
applied in their professional or personal lives, then relevance factor becomes very important for
them. Adults also have specific goals in mind when entering the real world, they want to apply
what they have learned into practice as soon as possible but more often the desire to use the
language triggered, the more they have to face with the poor time management, heavy workload,
lack of interest, and unsupported environment.
As more and more adults are ready to make a career move, they are ready to equip
themselves with language abilities. It means that they will enter education environment in
language field. English teachers must be ready to understand what they want and accomplish.
Understanding adults will help teachers to differentiate with young learners in all aspects of
learning. Adults tend to be self-directed and independents while young learners depend on
teachers or other more mature tutors. Adults already have experiences and this make them slow
to learn while young learners learn more quickly. As there are still other aspects that differentiate
adults and young learners in learning a new language (English), everything must be prepared
1

very carefully in order to accommodate what adult learners need. This paper aims at suggesting
some learning styles as well as methods that can be used to enhance the motivation of adults
learning a new language especially English.

ADULT LEARNERS
Adults education is important as it carries a potential to be successful as long as there is
readiness from educators. First of all, it needs to be differentiated between adults and children in
terms of their learning stimulus or drive. Children, on one hand, think that learning is
compulsory, while adults must have motivations when learning as they have finished the most
part of their education. When it is compulsory, teachers play important role in initiating the
learning. Adults only learn when they want to learn. Teachers for children are very valuable as
they motivate, direct, and assess the learning. Adults will learn very seriously if they think that
the materials are relevant to what they need. Feedbacks are needed to encourage the development
after doing some reflections.
Adults learn when they have concrete experience which is then applied to their work.
When they fail or succeed, adults make some reflections to have the formation of abstract
concepts and generalization and again apply them with a new formula to have better results. As
experienced learners, adults make trial and error, input data they obtain from the learning, make
analysis using their logic and view of concepts and then apply them again and again. In fact,
adult learners are most successful when:
1. The learning is meaningful and relevant
2. The learner is actively involved
3. Objectives are identified
4. Positive feedback is given
5. The learner is encouraged to be reflective
(Zemke & Zemke, 1984)
Even though there are things aforementioned in the previous paragraph, but there are still
some constraints faced by adults when they must learn English, either by taking a course in
private as well as in a formal institution. Some constraints that need to be managed and handled
are time, workload, interest, and environment. The following sections will elaborate some

difficulties that might be faced by adults when dealing with their stances in working and
learning.

Time Management
Adult learners have constraints in time management. According to some experts in
adults learning (www.essortment.com/lifestyle/timemanagement_sjmu.htm), adults have poor
time management as well as failures in mastering and applying effective time management
techniques. Some suggestions are made for an effective time management. They are among
others: delegating tasks to other family members, doing a multi-tasking job, sharing calendar of
activities with others, and having time to relax at least once a week to refresh the mind. Adults,
who already have family could delegate the tasks to other members of the family (spouse and
children) in doing their daily tasks. By delegating the tasks, assignments from teachers can be
done without disturbance from small stuffs needed to be taken care of. Multi-tasking is also
helpful as other things can wait. Adults do not need to pay attention on certain tasks or activities
but instead, they can do multiple tasks at once and it will save time. Sharing ones activity
calendar to others will help others notify that it is time to study and it will not some disturbance
from others. And finally, adults must take a time to relax as to refresh their minds. This is very
important as adults, not like young learners, have already some burden in their life and this must
be shared and soothed with a relax time.

Workload and Environment

According to Darkenwald & Merriam (1982), workload, organizational support and work
environment become crucial obstacles in adults learning as adults are associated with various
roles in their lives. Workload in the office for example, could be burdens for adults who are still
learning. It is just like a two-sided coin, on one hand, the jobs must be finished appropriately, but
on the other hands, assignments from the study must also be accomplished. If the workload
cannot be shared evenly, there will be sacrifices and mostly, study is not considered as a priority
and then it tends to sacrifice the latter stuff. The environment that is friendly to adults having to
pursue their study can enhance their motivation in studying, whereas work environment that is
very unsupportive makes adults feel exhausted and desperate as they must study hard while the
people around do not want to know their condition. This will become a real obstacle if not solved
3

immediately. The employer or the immediate supervisor become the first people involve in
supporting adults when taking the course, while their peers will be the second priority in
influencing adults learning motivation.

LEARNING STYLES
If one is already identified with his/her learning style, it is easier for them to determine
ways or methods that could be used to make their learning more intensified. The learning styles
also enable adults to evaluate the way they prefer to learn or process information. They are also
useful in developing strategies to capitalize on strengths and compensate weaknesses. For
example, adult learners with strong auditory prefer traditional learning environment such as
taking notes as well as looking closely at monitors for computer-based learning. Those who are
categorized in visual learners tend to see more on graphics, charts, or even flashcards. Mc Vay
(1998) contends that there are some strategies that could be utilized by adult learners when
dealing with their learning styles.Table1 shows the category of learning styles as well as their
strategies to improve the learning.
Table 1. Strategies to improve learning (modified from McVay, 1998)
Learning Styles
Visual

Learning Strategy
Use all study materials both online and textbook and look at charts,
graphs, notes, and flashcards

Auditory

Use tapes, read aloud, tape own reading, considered to buy a

recording machine or even i-pod

Kinesthetic

Write concepts and facts down several times as the motion of

writing will help improve the learning.

TEACHERS PERSPECTIVE
Teachers play important roles in adults learning. When coming to the classroom, adult,
as self-directed learners, do not usually depend on their teachers. But, in order to make the
learning successful, teachers need to create an atmosphere that supports the learning environment
suit to adults. Teachers are responsible to make safe environment in the classroom. What is
4

meant by safe environment is that there will be mutual respect, encouragement and supports,
question asked and concept clarified, and room for discussion. In the following paragraphs, some
aspects in the safe environment will be discussed as this is how teachers help their adult
learners achieve their utmost learning.
Mutual respect created in the classroom can be in the form of sense of class community
meaning that all members of the class belong to the same group and they will work together
hand-in-hand. Dealing with the mutual respect with its sense of class community, teachers can
ask students to introduce themselves at the first meeting. The introduction could be about their
interest and enthusiasm on something. This is very useful to create groups having similar
interests. Teachers can also distribute a student introduction card containing some information
about the students. Students who feel inferior and do not have courage to speak in front of their
peers can read the card. When it comes to a discussion session or group work, teachers can ask
students to work together and it becomes easier as they can be grouped according to their
interests.
In the safe environment, adult learners need to have encouragement and supports. In
this element of safe environment, teachers can set the tone of the class by giving objectives of
the course, how class time will be spent (partly lecture, questions, partly discussion), and the
availability of teachers outside the classroom. Objectives of the course must be given as adults
will learn best when they have clear and systematic objectives. The objectives must relevant to
adults need in the workplace. And for the methods of teaching, teachers creativity is needed in
order that the learning will be lively and this is hoped that materials can be absorbed by adults
who already have burdens in their lives.
The need to have interactive activities is also needed by adult learners. In this interactive
situation, there are questions asked and teachers must be ready to answer. Some concepts need to
be clarified as adult learners want everything clear and sensible. Adults will learn best if they see
something that is clear. Therefore, clarification must be made so as to avoid confusion that leads
to reluctance. If there are things unsolved in the classroom, teachers must provide time outside
the class. Although the availability outside class is so demanding but teachers must be aware that
this is one of the safe environments created by teachers. Thus good teachers must: 1) help define

students learning need, 2) encourage students reflection, 3) ensure relevance of materials, 4)

contribute personal expertise, and 5) provide useful comments/feedback.
SETTING OF OBJECTIVES
As it has been discussed that adult learners will learn best if the objectives of the course
are identified. According to Bixler (2006), objectives are differentiated with goals. Goals are
broader and statement generalization of what to be learned. Whereas objectives, especially
instructional objectives to be used in the classroom, have several definitions, they among others:
1. Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable student
behaviors.
2. Objectives are the foundation upon which teachers can build lessons and assessments that
they can prove meet their overall course or lesson goals.
3. Objectives can be used as tools to make sure teachers and learners reach their goals. They
are the arrows to shoot towards the target (goal).
4. The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of
education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both
students and teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured.
Different archers have different styles, so do different teachers. Thus, how to shoot the
arrows (objectives) can be in many ways. The important thing is that they reach the target
(goals) and score that bullseye!
(Bixler, 2006)
If objectives are not specific and measurable, then we are not able to measure learners progress
or the quality and effectiveness of teaching.
In accordance with objectives, there are several reasons why language courses as well as
other courses need instructional objectives. The reasons are 1) objectives help to select methods
and media for teaching, 2) they help to asses and evaluate teaching and learning process, 3)
learners are helped to know what they expect, and 4) teachers will be able to structure subject
area. Teaching a new language for adults need special attention from teachers especially when it
deals with methods and media. This is not just a matter of giving a spoon-feeding method to
adult learners or using games in the classrooms. When applying appropriate method and media,
6

then the outcome is evaluated, objectives are really helpful for teachers as well as adults to know
what they expect and teacher can structure what will be given in the classroom.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Talking about instructional materials, there are numerous materials that must be chosen
in accordance with the needs of adult learners in learning a new language. This section is talking
about some materials and their use in the classroom. The materials chosen are:
1. Chalk (or board marker) and talk
2. Flip Chart
3. DVD or VCD
4. Hand-outs
5. PowerPoint slides

When using the materials for teaching, teachers need to pay attention to the content, how they are
delivered with appropriate body language, speech, and most important: feedback after conveying
the materials. Adult learners can accept feedback from teachers as well as their peers as long as
they are conveyed in appropriate ways. Negative critique could not be accepted as adults are not
ready for it but positive critique would enhance the learning environment. The following sections
will only discuss chalk and talk, hand-outs, and PowerPoint slides as flip chart and DVD or VCD
could be the supplement for using other materials aforementioned.
Chalk (or board marker) and talk
Fenton (2011) in her online article mentions about chalk and talk that means a silent
conversation in writing that allows students to have an equal opportunity to participate. It is a
versatile protocol that can be used for many purposes. The process of chalk and talk for writing
is that teacher writes some questions relevant to topic of the day, i.e. What did you learn
today?, What do you know about perfect tense?, What is your hobby? and etc. He/she then
hands a piece of chalk or a board marker to every student that will give comments by writing on
the board. Students can simply add new comments or draw lines to connect his/her opinion with
the previous comments (taken from National School Reform Faculty, 2011).

Still according to Fenton (2011), there are some practical uses for chalk and talk. They
are 1) assessing prior knowledge, 2) assessing what has learned, 3) discussing difficult issues, 4)
solving problems, 5) recording what was discussed, and 6) communicating to others. Assessing
prior knowledge means that students could use their previous knowledge and will revise or
increase after getting from the outset. By having chalk and talk, teachers can ask students what
they have learned then if find difficult issues in the learning process, teachers can encourage
students to express their ideas by writing after raising questions being brought up to a discussion.
In the discussion session, students must record what has been discussed and at the end of the
activity they can communicate with others using what they have been writing.
Hand-outs
A hand-out is a paper-based resource used to support teaching and learning which can
free students from excessive note taking or supplement information not easily available
elsewhere (www2.wmin.ac.uk). Still in the same article found in the website, types of hand-outs
with their advantages will be listed as to give teachers as well as adult learners make use the
most out of them. The types and advantages of hand-outs are:
1. Uncompleted or grapped handouts: this is the hand-out with gaps which students fill in.
The advantage of this type of hand-out especially is for listening comprehension where
students must fill the uncompleted notes of a song or information presented by recording
equipment (cassettes or CD for listening).
2. Skeletal notes containing a key statement, definition, or diagram with gaps or spaces to
be filled in by students. The advantage of this hand-out is for students to pay more
attention to teachers explanation in order that they must fill in the gaps with some
information or to complete the diagram of an activity or a summary of an article/story.
3. Worksheets contain problems or questions students must answer or solve. Laboratory
sheets can be used with a set of instructions to be followed and Briefing sheets for
covering how students approach to a case study or role play. The advantage is students
have the same information and it can be referred to as necessary.

There are also some general principles on the production of hand-outs, they are among
others: 1) for reading hand-outs, this will give students activities to complete or answer questions
8

whilst reading, 2) teachers must use WH-questions such as what, how, why, when, and where
appropriately, 3) avoiding long, dense hand-out and leave some blank spaces instead, 4) the
appearance of the materials in the hand-out must be up to standard, 5) if copied from a text-book,
beware of the copyright, and 6) use the smallest print size that is manageable for average readers.

PowerPoint Slides
Reynold (2005) in http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/slides.html mentions some
tips on presenting teaching materials using PowerPoint slides. According to him, there are things
that need to be considered before creating interactive slides. The ten tips for creating them are:
1. Keep it simple (key words, one topic, six lines, six words/lines)
2. Limit bullet points and text (not much text and bullets in one slide)
3. Limit transitions and builds (animation) (use object builds and transition judiciously)
4. Use high-quality graphics (use professional stock photography/high-quality pictures)
5. Have a visual theme but avoid using PowerPoint template (use unique design)
6. Use appropriate chart (Pie, Horizontal Bar, Vertical Bar, and Line Chart)
7. Use color well (good use of color increase learning improvement)
8. Choose the font well (use same fonts and no more than two complimentary fonts)
9. Use video or audio (use them when appropriate)
10. Spend time in the slide sorter (check how slides flow logically from slide sorter view)

TEACHING METHOD
In the educational framework, there are things to be done by teachers. Those things are 1)
Assessing needs, 2) Defining objectives, 3) Selecting teaching methods, 4) Creating materials, 5)
Teaching, and 6) Evaluating. This section discusses teaching method that can be selected in order
to make adults learning more successful. There are some methods that can be used to deliver the
materials. In the previous section, defining objectives have been discussed and in order to select
appropriate method of teaching, assessing needs is necessary. Teachers should know what
students know and what teacher want them to know. Some instruments could be used when
administering the need assessment, they are among others: questionnaires, pretest, interview, and
9

observation. The results of the need assessment, then, could be used to select which methods are
best for students.
Actually, there are no best methods for teaching, but at least some methods could be
implemented in the classroom whether they are mixed or integrated as well as stand alone. Some
methods of teaching can be lecture, discussion, case discussion (problem-based learning),
brainstorming, extension exercise, wordweb, snowball, etc. This section will not discuss all
methods as some of them are popular for teachers and useful when used alone or integrated.
Among several methods presented here: lecture, discussion, and problem-based learning are
elaborated as they are useful and handy in use especially in language teaching.
Lecture
A lecture is best for some activities such as revision of core material, making general
points specific for several groups, persuading or comparing or contrasting different point of
view, imparting of small amounts of new material not readily found elsewhere, and identification
of links between different learning approaches (www. chefedtoday.com). Before giving a lecture,
certain format must be arranged first. Some formats in the lecture are: set, dialog, and closure. In
setting the lecture, teacher must be aware the present level of students (beginner, intermediate,
and advance), what teachers want students to learn, what linkages can be establish with students
previous knowledge/experience, the timing for the lecture and classroom environment or seating
whether it could be controlled or not.
When the setting is ready, then come to dialog stage. Every lecture always has this stage
which also needs a very serious attention as dialog needs the right timing so that it will not
exceed or shorten the topic being discussed or explained. It is advisable to break down the dialog
into several chunks as students will not get bored and their interests of the topic are going right.
Pausing could be useful as to create audience interaction. In this interaction, keeping eye contact
is a must of not then students would feel ignored. As teachers must be good models, i.e. in
pronouncing the right words, students need to pay more attention to the teacher and there will be
a two-way communication involving eye contacts and interactive dialog. If dialog stage is over,
it is expected that students think and reflect on what has been discussed in the lecture.

10

Lecturing will not last forever, there are times when closure comes and sometimes it
would just come and the class is dismissed without giving student assignments or homework
when necessary. In order to have a good closure, teachers must take and answer questions before
the end of the class. It might be wise for teachers to think that questions are the only form of
feedback to get. The questions could be in forms of Yes/No question, Closed question e.g. the
cause of is , and Open-ended question i.e. your opinion of . In the end of closure stage,
teachers can summarize the talk and have a review on the discussed topic and then terminate.
Discussion
Gardiner (1998) states that when involving students in a discussion it develops higherorder thinking skills better than during a lecture. This statement may have been interpreted in
various ways as some people may think that a discussion is better than a lecture, but let us look at
from a positive point of view. In language teaching, a lecture could be used to implant some
theories or formula (in this case tenses) to students while a discussion could be used
afterwards. In discussion, some preparation is needed from both sides either from students or
teachers. In this stage, students must be responsible in a matter of participation, place to sit, and
role assignments (as the chair, scribe, and presenter). The time must also be set in order to have
an effective discussion. In setting the time, arrangement of activities are necessary so as to avoid
boredom or dominant students who are very talkative and try to push their opinion to be agreed
by other participant. It is advisable to shift activities in 20 minutes time. Discussion also need a
summary of what has been discussed and key points must also been determined to have the
extract of it.
There are two types of discussions elaborated in this section, they are: closed and open
discussion. Closed discussion, according to Killen (2006), could be one in which the teacher had
decided in advance what conclusions students are supposed to reach and then proceeded to guide
students to those conclusions. Open discussion means teachers would not guide students but
instead allow them to explore ideas that lead to conclusions. Below are some differences
between closed and open discussion:
Table 2. Some differences between closed and open discussion (adapted from Killen, 2006)

11

CLOSED

OPEN

Content-centered

Process-centered

Knowledge based

Experience-based

Acquiring facts

Reflecting on practice

Resolving ambiguity/dilemmas

Clarifying views

Acquiring information

In the open discussion, answers should be positively accepted and then related to the group
agenda, reflected to an individual or group, developed, and directed to another member. Beard
and Hartley (1984) contend some chair setting for discussion. According to them, people tend to
talk to person opposite, people who are sitting next to each other do not talk, and the most
centrally placed member emerge as leader who tends to sit in least crowded parts of room.
Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) has many advantages when implemented in language
learning especially for adults. PBL is a learning method which teachers present problems to
students and then students collect information and share knowledge with others. In this case,
teachers act as guides not sources. Teachers also act as facilitators or mentors. According to
Landsberger (1996) in his website http://www.studygs.net/pbl.htm, PBL will provide students
with opportunities to examine and try out what they know, discover what students need to learn,
develop skills for higher achievements in teams, improve students communication skills, state
and defend positions with evidence and sound argument, become more flexible in processing
information and meeting obligation, and practice skills students need after the education.
Lansberger (1996) also mentions some steps in PBL activities having advantages in
adults language learning. The steps are explore the issues, list what students know, develop and
write out the problem in students own words, list out possible solutions, list actions to be taken
with a time line, list what students need to know, write up the solutions with supporting
documentation and then submit them, and review the performance. Students will be active when
using this method as they would discover something and work with the content teachers
determined to be necessary to solve the problem.
12

ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK

Assessment and feedback can help both teachers and students, but only if appropriate
assessment tool are used and administered correctly. When the test is conducted in fair and
appropriately, the results then could be used for identify strengths and areas that need work,
show progress, and raise expectations for achievements (Cromley & Sweeney, 2002).
Assessment has some requirements in order to be valid, reliable, and feasible. Validity can have
a meaning that a test must show what they actually must show, while reliable would give similar
results for similar level of skills. A test should also be aligned with what is taught and
emphasized in classes, and it is used for the purpose for which they were designed.
Both teachers and students should have some practices of the tests so that they know
what to expect. The familiarization of the test format such as multiple choice questions, open
questions, essay, extended matching, or even observation is needed by both parties. When it
comes to the grading after the administration of the test, there should be emphasized that teachers
must show good reasons and proofs that students have the right to be fairly scored and graded.
Teachers must avoid bias grading as there are things that can influence such as students having
very nice behavior, hard-working students, those showing interests in the course, students
particular backgrounds, gender, or ethnics, and students who are attractive and have connection
with teachers.
Teachers would also have some feedback from students after the test administration.
They would have findings from the results of the teaching as well. The feedback is necessary to
evaluate the teaching by asking ourselves, students, and peers or colleagues. There are sources of
feedback used to evaluate, they could be from tests and exams (marks or scores), assignments
(marks and dialog), and workplace (comments and dialog). For students, it is advisable for
teachers to give feedback not from personal sides but from the work or assignments students
have produced. The feedback must be non-judgmental, specific, and with guidance. In this case,
teachers must provide special timing and place as adult learners are different from children in
terms of their maturity and sensitiveness.
13

CONCLUSION
Nowadays people are moving from one place to another very easily with the help of
technology such as air transportation. Technology could also mean the Internet which makes it
easier to communicate with just one click. With the influence of the globalization era the world
seems borderless, and people, especially adults, are free to connect one to another. Of course, the
ability to speak English is needed so badly. In order to be able to communicate in English, adults
try to learn English by studying it independently by going to English speaking countries,
studying it on-line or reading books, or taking English courses privately as well as formally.
When learning English, adults are influenced by many factors determining the success of the
attaining their proficiency. The factors could be from adults personal matters as well as from the
workplace.
The factors influencing adults learning could be from themselves such as motivation,
interest, and goals, and from outside environment such as relevance and workload. As adults are
humans with many responsibilities, they tend to learn the language consciously meaning that
they will learn best if the learning is meaningful and relevant to their jobs and needs, the
objectives are identified, positive feedback is given, and they are encouraged to be reflective.
Actually, not only adult learners who have the factors for their success in learning English but
teachers also play important roles when delivering the materials in the classroom. Teachers must
be able to know what learning styles adult learners have so that they can implement some
methods and strategies in teaching them.
Teachers might use certain strategies, methods, materials as well as that best suit to adult
learners. When some cycle of teaching and learning has been achieved, teachers must give
feedback to adult learners in order that they can reflect on what they achieve and put some
revision and modification in learning. Feedback could be obtained after teachers giving some
assessment on what has been given to adult learners. Appropriate assessment must be
administered as it must have validity, reliability, and feasibility. Not only to adult learners the
feedback is given, but teachers also need some evaluation from themselves, their students, and
14

their peers. If all factors influencing adult learners are treated appropriately and certain
strategies, methods, materials, feedback and assessment are implemented correctly, then it is
hoped that the learning will be successful as well as beneficial for both learners and teachers.
REFERENCES
Zemke, R & Zemke, S. 1984. 30 Things We Know for Sure about Adult Learning. Innovation
Abstracts, Vol VI, No 8, March 9.
www.essortment.com/lifestyle/timemanagement_sjmu.htm
Darkenwald, G. G.& Merriam, S. B. 1982. Adult Education: Foundations of practice. New
York: Harper and Row.
Mc Vay. M. 1998. How to be a successful distance student- learning on the internet. Simon
& Schuster Custom Publishing.
Bixler. 2006. Writing Educational Goals and Objectives (online) retrieved 8 February 2011 from
http://www.personal.psu.edu/bxb11/Objectives/
Fenton. J. 2001 Using Chalk Talk in the Classroom: An Opportunity to have a Conversation in
Writing (online) retrieved 14 February 2011 from
http://www.teachersnetwork.org/ntny/nychelp/mentorship/chalktalk.htm
Gibbs G, Habeshaw S et al (1995) 53 Interesting things to do in your lectures (TES) and
McShane, Dalene (1998) Presenting Information Visually (EIC Guide) in How to Use
Handouts Effectively (online) retrieved 17 February 2011 from
http://www.westminster.ac.uk/_data/assets/pdf_file/0011/30233/HowToHandoutsWEx.pdf
Reynold, G. 2005. Top Ten Slide Tips (online) retrieved 17 February 2011 from
http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/slides.html
Lecturing Techniques (online) retrieved 20 February 2011 A workshop handouts from
www.chefedtoday.com/images/Purdue%20CIe%20Lecturing.doc
Gardiner. M.F. 1998. "How study of arts, music may enhance pupil's skills in reading and math."
Paper presented at 1998 Annual Meeting of American Association for the Advancement
of Science (AAAS), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Feb. 17, 1998a. in Art and Training in
Education (online) retrieved February 18 2011 taken from
http://brown.edu/Administration/Sheridan_Center/pubs/teachingExchange/jan99/TE_artst
raining.pdf
Killen. 2006. Effective Teaching Strategies: Lessons from Research and Practice. Fourth
Edition. Newcastle: Thomson.
Beard. R & Hartley. J. 1984. Teaching and learning in higher education. Fourth Edition: Paul
Chapman Publishing Ltd.
15

Cromley, J. & Sweeney, J. 2002. Adult Learners: Teaching Strategies to Improve Learning and
Comprehension (online) retrieved 21 February 2011 taken from
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/federal_programs/esea/title1/part_b/even_start/adult_readin
g_instruction/adult_learners.pdf
Landsberger, J. 1996. Study Guides and Strategies: Problem-based Learning. (online) retrieved
26 February 2011 taken from http://www.studygs.net/pbl.htm

16