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Copyright1996NationalEndowmentforDemocracyandtheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.All
rightsreserved.Thisworkmaybeused,withthisheaderincluded,fornoncommercialpurposes
withinasubscribedinstitution.Nocopiesofthisworkmaybedistributedelectronicallyoutsideofthe
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BernardLewis,"IslamandLiberalDemocracy:AHistoricalOverview,"Journalof
Democracy7.2(1996)5263
Inanecessarilybriefdiscussionofmajorissues,itisfatallyeasytogoastraybymisuseor
misinterpretationofsomeofthewordsthatoneuses.Therefore,IoughttosayfirstwhatImeanby
theterms"Islam"and"liberaldemocracy."
Democracynowadaysisawordmuchusedandevenmoremisused.Ithasmanymeaningsandhas
turnedupinsurprisingplacestheSpainofGeneralFranco,theGreeceofthecolonels,thePakistan
ofthegenerals,theEasternEuropeofthecommissarsusuallyprefacedbysomequalifyingadjective
suchas"guided,""basic,""organic,""popular,"orthelike,whichservestodilute,deflect,orevento
reversethemeaningoftheword.
AnotherdefinitionofdemocracyisembracedbythosewhoclaimthatIslamitselfistheonlyauthentic
democracy.Thisstatementisperfectlytrue,ifoneacceptsthenotionofdemocracypresupposedby
thosewhoadvancethisview.SinceitdoesnotcoincidewiththedefinitionofdemocracythatItakeas
thebasisofthisdiscussion,Iwillleaveitasideasirrelevantforpresentpurposes.
ThekindofdemocracyIamtalkingaboutisnoneofthese.Byliberaldemocracy,Imeanprimarily
thegeneralmethodofchoosingorremovinggovernmentsthatdevelopedinEnglandandthenspread
amongEnglishspeakingpeoplesandbeyond.
In1945,thevictorsoftheSecondWorldWarimposedparliamentarydemocracyonthethreemajor
Axispowers.Itsurvivesinallthree,[EndPage52]precariously,perhaps,inone.Innoneofthemhas
ityetconfrontedanycrisisoftrulymajorproportions.AmongtheAllies,BritainandFrance
bequeathedtheirownbrandsofdemocracywithvaryingsuccesstotheirformercoloniesduringthe
postwarretreatfromempire.
PerhapsthebestruleofthumbbywhichonecanjudgethepresenceofthekindofdemocracyImean
isSamuelP.Huntington'sdictumthatyoucancallacountryademocracywhenithasmadetwo
consecutive,peacefulchangesofgovernmentviafreeelections.Byspecifyingtwoelections,
Huntingtonrulesoutregimesthatfollowtheprocedurethatoneacuteobserverhascalled"oneman,
onevote,once."SoItakedemocracytomeanapolitywherethegovernmentcanbechangedby
electionsasopposedtoonewhereelectionsarechangedbythegovernment.
Americanstendtoseedemocracyandmonarchyasantitheticalterms.InEurope,however,democracy
hasfaredbetterinconstitutionalmonarchiesthaninrepublics.Itisinstructivetomakealistofthose
countriesinEuropewheredemocracyhasdevelopedsteadilyandwithoutinterruptionoveralong
period,andwherethereiseveryprospectthatitwillcontinuetodosointheforeseeablefuture.The
listofsuchcountriesisshortandallbutoneofthemaremonarchies.Theoneexception,Switzerland,
isliketheUnitedStatesinthatitisaspecialcaseduetospecialcircumstances.IntheFrench
Republic,establishedbyrevolutionmorethantwocenturiesago,themarchofdemocracyhasbeen
punctuatedbyinterruptions,reverses,anddigressions.InmostoftheotherrepublicsofEurope,and,
forthatmatter,intherestoftheworld,therecordisincomparablyworse.
Inallthis,theremaybesomelessonfortheMiddleEast,wherethedynasticprincipleisstill
remarkablystrong.ThemostpurelyArabandMuslimofMiddleEasternstates,SaudiArabia,derives
itsnameanditsidentityfromitsfoundingandrulingdynasty.So,too,didtheOttomanEmpirethe
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mostrecentandbyfarthemostenduringofalltheIslamicempires.Evensuchradicalrevolutionary
leadersasHafizalAssadinSyriaandSaddamHusseininIraqendeavortosecurethesuccessionof
theirsons.Inapoliticalculturewherethestrainofdynasticlegitimacyissostrong,democracymight
insomeplacesfarebetterbygoingwithitratherthanagainstit.
Whatofourotherterm,"Islam"?Ittoohasmultiplemeanings.Inonesense,itdenotesareligiona
systemofbelief,worship,doctrine,ideals,andideasthatbelongstothefamilyofmonotheistic,
scripturalreligionsthatincludesJudaismandChristianity.Inanothersense,itmeansthewhole
civilizationthathasgrownupundertheaegisofthatreligion:somethinglikewhatismeantbythe
oncecommonterm"Christendom."
WhenweintheWesttodaytalkofChristianart,wemeanvotiveart,religiousart.Ifwetalkof
Islamicart,however,wemeananyart[EndPage53]producedbyMuslimsorevenbynonMuslims
withinIslamiccivilization.Indeed,onecanstillspeakofIslamicastronomyandIslamicchemistry
andIslamicmathematics,meaningastronomy,chemistry,andmathematicsproducedundertheaegis
ofIslamiccivilization.Thereisnocorresponding"Christian"astronomyorchemistryormathematics.
Eachoftheseterms,IslaminthesenseofareligionandIslaminthesenseofacivilization,isitself
subjecttomanyvariations.IfwetalkaboutIslamasahistoricalphenomenon,wearespeakingofa
communitythatnownumbersmorethanabillionpeople,mostofwhomarespreadalongavastarc
stretchingalmost10,000milesfromMoroccotoMindanaothathasa14centurylonghistoryand
thatisthedefiningcharacteristicofthe53sovereignstatesthatcurrentlybelongtotheOrganization
oftheIslamicConference(OIC).Forobviousreasons,itisextremelydifficult(thoughnotimpossible)
tomakeanykindofvalidgeneralizationaboutarealityofsuchage,size,andcomplexity.
EvenifweconfineourselvestospeakingofIslamasareligion,significantdistinctionsmustbe
drawn.First,thereiswhatMuslimsthemselveswouldcalltheoriginal,pristine,pureIslamofthe
Koranandthehadith(thetraditionsoftheProphetMohammed)beforeitbecamecorruptedbythe
backslidingoflatergenerations.Second,thereistheIslamofthedoctorsoftheholylaw,ofthe
magnificentintellectualstructureofclassicalIslamicjurisprudenceandtheology.Mostrecently,there
istheneoIslamofthesocalledfundamentalistswhointroduceideasunknownaliketotheKoran,the
hadith,ortheclassicaldoctrinesofthefaith.
ClearlythislastversionofIslamisincompatiblewithliberaldemocracy,asthefundamentalists
themselveswouldbethefirsttosay:theyregardliberaldemocracywithcontemptasacorruptand
corruptingformofgovernment.Theyarewillingtoseeit,atbest,asanavenuetopower,butan
avenuethatrunsonewayonly.
HistoryandTradition
WhatthenofthetwoothershistoricIslamandIslamasasystemofideas,practices,andcultural
traits?
Afirstlookatthehistoricalrecordisnotencouraging.PredominantlyMuslimregionsshowveryfew
functioningdemocracies.Indeed,ofthe53OICstates,onlyTurkeycanpassHuntington'stestof
democracy,anditisinmanywaysatroubleddemocracy.Amongtheothers,onecanfinddemocratic
movementsandinsomecasesevenpromisingdemocraticdevelopments,butonecannotreallysay
thattheyaredemocracieseventotheextentthattheTurkishRepublicisademocracyatthepresent
time.
Throughouthistory,theoverwhelminglymostcommontypeofregimeintheIslamicworldhasbeen
autocracywhichisnottobeconfused[EndPage54]withdespotism.Thedominantpolitical
traditionhaslongbeenthatofcommandandobedience,andfarfromweakeningit,moderntimes
haveactuallywitnesseditsintensification.Withtraditionalrestraintsonautocracyattenuated,and
withnewmeansofsurveillance,repression,andwealthextractionmadeavailabletorulersbymodern
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technologiesandmethods,governmentshavebecomelessdependentthaneveronpopulargoodwill.
Thisisparticularlytrueofthosegovernmentsthatareenrichedbyrevenuesfromoil.Withnoneedfor
taxation,thereisnopressureforrepresentation.
Anothernoteworthyhistoricalandculturalfactistheabsenceofthenotionofcitizenship.Thereisno
wordinArabic,Persian,orTurkishfor"citizen."Thecognatetermusedineachlanguagemeansonly
"compatriot"or"countryman."IthasnoneoftheconnotationsoftheEnglishword"citizen,"which
comesfromtheLatincivisandhasthecontentoftheGreekpolites,meaningonewhoparticipatesin
theaffairsofthepolis.ThewordisabsentinArabicandtheotherlanguagesbecausetheideaofthe
citizenasparticipant,ofcitizenshipasparticipationisnotthere.
Atthesametime,however,wecandiscernelementsinIslamiclawandtraditionthatcouldassistthe
developmentofoneoranotherformofdemocracy.Islamboastsarichpoliticalliterature.Fromthe
earliesttimes,doctorsoftheholylaw,philosophers,jurists,andothershavereflectedcarefullyonthe
natureofpoliticalpower,thewaysinwhichpoliticalpoweroughttobeacquiredandusedandmaybe
forfeited,andthedutiesandresponsibilitiesaswellastherightsandprivilegesofthosewhoholdit.
Islamictraditionstronglydisapprovesofarbitraryrule.Thecentralinstitutionofsovereigntyinthe
traditionalIslamicworld,thecaliphate,isdefinedbytheSunnijuriststohavecontractualand
consensualfeaturesthatdistinguishcaliphsfromdespots.Theexerciseofpoliticalpowerisconceived
andpresentedasacontract,creatingbondsofmutualobligationbetweentherulerandtheruled.
Subjectsaredutyboundtoobeytherulerandcarryouthisorders,buttheruleralsohasdutiestoward
thesubject,similartothosesetforthinmostcultures.
Thecontractcanbedissolvediftherulerfailstofulfillorceasestobecapableoffulfillinghis
obligations.Althoughrare,therehavebeeninstanceswhensuchdissolutionstookplace.Thereis,
therefore,alsoanelementofconsentinthetraditionalIslamicviewofgovernment.
Manyhadithprescribeobedienceasanobligationofasubject,butsomeindicateexceptions.One,for
example,says,"Donotobeyacreatureagainsthiscreator"inotherwords,donotobeyahuman
commandtoviolatedivinelaw.Anothersays,similarly,"Thereisnodutyofobedienceinsin."That
istosay,ifthesovereigncommandssomethingthatissinful,thedutyofobediencelapses.Itisworth
notingthatPropheticutteranceslikethesepointnotmerelytoarightof[EndPage55]disobedience
(suchaswouldbefamiliarfromWesternpoliticalthought),buttoadivinelyordaineddutyof
disobedience.
Whenwedescendfromthelevelofprincipletotherealmofwhathasactuallyhappened,thestoryis
ofcoursecheckered.Still,thecentralpointremains:thereareelementsinIslamicculturethatcould
favorthedevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutions.
OneofthesayingstraditionallyascribedtotheProphetistheremark,"Differenceofopinionwithin
mycommunityisasignofGod'smercy."Inotherwords,diversityissomethingtobewelcomed,not
somethingtobesuppressed.ThisattitudeistypifiedbytheacceptancebySunniMuslims,eventoday,
offourdifferentschoolsofIslamicjurisprudence.Muslimsbelievetheholylawtobedivinely
inspiredandguided,yettherearefoursignificantlydifferentschoolsofthoughtregardingthislaw.
Theideathatitispossibletobeorthodoxevenwhiledifferingcreatesaprincipleoftheacceptanceof
diversityandofmutualtoleranceofdifferencesofopinionthatsurelycannotbebadforparliamentary
government.
ThefinalpointworthmentioninginthisinventoryisIslam'semphasisonthetwinqualitiesofdignity
andhumility.SubjectseventhehumblestsubjectshavepersonaldignityinthetraditionalIslamic
view,andrulersmustavoidarrogance.ByOttomancustom,whenthesultanreceivedthechief
dignitariesofthestateonholydays,hestooduptoreceivethemasasignofhisrespectforthelaw.
Whenanewsultanwasenthroned,hewasgreetedwithcriesof"Sultan,benotproud!Godisgreater
thanyou!"
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TheInfluenceoftheWest
Forthefirstthousandyearsofitshistory,Islamiccivilization'srelationshiptoChristendomwasoneof
dominance.ThelossofSpainandPortugalontheremotewesternperipheryhadlittleimpactinthe
heartlandsofIslam,andwasmorethancompensatedbytheadvancetowardtheheartofcontinental
Europe.Aslateas1683,anOttomanarmywasencampedbeforetheverygatesofVienna.Earlierin
theseventeenthcentury,NorthAfricancorsairswereraidingasfarnorthastheBritishIsles.Bythe
earlynineteenthcentury,however,IslamicpowerwasclearlyinretreatasEuropeanpowergrew.
Findingthemselvesthetargetsofconquestandcolonization,Muslimsnaturallybegantowonderwhat
hadgonewrong.Islamhadalwaysbeengenerally"successful"inworldlyterms.Unlikethefounder
ofChristianity,whowascrucifiedandwhosefollowerssawtheirreligionmadetheofficialfaithof
theRomanEmpireonlyaftercenturiesasapersecutedminority,Mohammedfoundedastateduring
hislifetime,andasrulerhecollectedtaxes,dispensedjustice,promulgatedlaws,commandedarmies,
andmadewarandpeace.[EndPage56]
EducatedMuslims,chagrinedbythenewfoundpotencyoftheirEuropeanrivals,asked:Whatarethey
doingrightandwhatarewedoingwrong,ornotdoingatall?Representative,constitutional
governmentwashighonthelist.Thenineteenthcenturysawtheriseofelectedassembliesina
numberofWesterncountries,anddemocracyinourcurrentsensewasbeginningtotakehold.Many
MuslimssuspectedthathereinthismostexoticandalienofWesternpracticeslaythesecrettothe
West'swealthandpower,andhopedthattheadoptionofconstitutionsandthecreationofelected
legislaturesintheIslamicworldwouldredressthecivilizationalbalance.
GettingusedtotheideawasnoteasythefirstMuslimvisitorstotheWestdislikedmuchofwhatthey
saw.TheearliestdetaileddescriptionofEnglandbyaMuslimtravellerisafascinatingaccountby
MirzaAbuTalibKhan,aTurkoPersianresidentofLucknowwhowasinEnglandbetween1798and
1803.HewatchedtheHouseofCommonsinaction,andhiscommentsareenlightening.The
governmentandoppositionMPssittingontheirbenchesfacingeachotheracrossthechamber
remindedhimoftreesfullofparrotssquawkingateachother,acommonsightbackhomeinIndia.
Whenhelearnedthatthepurposeofthenoisyassemblagewastomakelaws,hewasshocked.The
English,heexplainedtohisreaders,hadnotacceptedadivinelawandsowerereducedtothe
expedientofmakingtheirownlaws,inaccordancewiththeexperienceoftheirjudgesandthe
requirementsoftheirtime.
Lateraccountsweremorepositive.ThefirstEgyptianstudentmissionwenttoFrancein1826.Their
chaplain,asheikhfromalAzhar,learnedagreatdeal(probablymorethanhisstudentwards)and
wrotearemarkablebookaboutParis.InithediscussestheNationalAssemblyandthefreedomofthe
press,amongotherthings,andmakestheveryastuteobservationthattheFrench,whentheyspeakof
freedom,meanroughlywhatMuslimsaregettingatwhentheytalkofjustice.Withthisinsight,he
cutsrighttotheheartofakeydifferencebetweenEuropeanpoliticalcultureanditsIslamic
counterpart.
ToMuslims,theuseof"freedom"asapoliticaltermwasanimportednovelty,datingonlyfromthe
timeoftheFrenchRevolutionandGeneralNapoleonBonaparte'sarrivalinEgyptin1798.Before
that,ithadonlylegalandsocialconnotations,andmeantsimplytheconditionofnotbeingaslave.
ForMuslimthinkers,asthesheikhfromalAzharimplied,justiceistheideal,thetouchstoneby
whichonedistinguishesgoodgovernmentsfrombad.
Bythelatterpartofthenineteenthcentury,Islamicrulerswerecomingtothinkofaconstitutionas
somethingthatnowelldressednationcouldaffordtobewithout.Justasgentlemenwereabandoning
traditionalgarbinfavorofWesternstylefrockcoats,neckties,andtrousers,sothestatewouldsporta
constitutionandanelectedlegislatureasessentialaccoutrements.[EndPage57]
Yettheideaoffreedomunderstoodastheabilitytoparticipateintheformation,theconduct,and
eventhelawfulremovalandreplacementofgovernmentremainedalien.Thisnotion,whichbelongs
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totheinnerlogicofconstitutionalismandparliamentarism,isobviouslyatroublesomeonefor
dynasticautocracies,whichcanhardlyacceptitandremainwhattheyare.Therealquestion,then,
waswhetherconstitutions,elections,andparliamentstheinstitutionaltrappingsofdemocracy
wouldbeonlythat,orwouldactuallybecomemeansthatthegovernedcouldusetogainsomesayin
theirgovernment.
ThefirstseriouselectionsintheIslamicworldwereheldtochoosetheparliamentcalledforbythe
OttomanConstitutionof1876.Thisparliamentwasnodoubtmeanttobeatamebodythatwould
supplytheceremonialratificationofthesultan'sauthority.ButtheChamberofDeputiessoon
developedamindofitsown.On13February1878,thedeputieswentsofarastodemandthatthree
ministers,againstwhomspecificchargeshadbeenbrought,shouldappearintheChambertodefend
themselves.Thenextday,inresponse,thesultandissolvedtheparliamentandsentitsmembershome.
ItdidnotmeetagainuntiltheyearaftertheYoungTurkRevolutionof1908.Thatphase,too,wasof
briefduration,andamilitarycoupendedthestormyintervalofparliamentaryrule.
Sincethen,parliamentarismhasnotfaredespeciallywellintheIslamicworld.Alltoooften,elections
arelessawayofchoosingagovernmentthanaritualdesignedtoratifyandsymbolizeachoicethat
hasalreadybeenmadebyothermeanssomethinglikeapresidentialinaugurationintheUnitedStates
oracoronationinBritain.Thisisnotalwayssothereareintervalsandcaseswhereelectionsmean
something,andtheybecomemorecommonintherecordasonegoesfromthenineteenthintothe
twentiethcentury,inspiteof(orperhapsbecauseof)anumberofdramaticmovesintheopposite
direction.
ARoughClassificationofRegimes
Anothercomplicationsurroundingtheterm"freedom"isalegacyofimperialism.Whenoutsiders
ruledmuch,thoughnotall,oftheIslamicworld,freedomcamealso,orevenprimarily,tomean
communalornationalindependence,withnoreferencetotheindividual'sstatuswithinthebody
politic.
MostofthecountriesintheIslamicworldtodayarefreefromexternaldomination,butnotfree
internally:theyhavesovereignty,butlackdemocracy.Thissharedlack,however,doesnotpreclude
theexistenceofverygreatdifferencesamongthem.PredominantlyMuslimsocieties(Turkey,aswe
sawearlier,beingthegreatexception)areruledbyawidevarietyofauthoritarian,autocratic,
despotic,tyrannical,andtotalitarianregimes.Aroughclassificationwouldincludefivecategories.
[EndPage58]
1)Traditionalautocracies.Thesearethecountries,likeSaudiArabiaandtheGulfsheikhdoms,where
establisheddynasticregimesrestonthetraditionalpropsofusage,custom,andhistory.Theseregimes
arefirmlyauthoritarianincharacter,butthesametraditionsthatsustainthemalsobindthem:their
legitimacyreliesheavilyonacceptance,andtoomuchopenrepressionwouldshatterit.Theirprops
arenotquitewhattheyusedtobe,however,havingbeenpartlyunderminedbynewideasandforces.
Therulersusemoderndevicestohelpmaintainthemselves,butthesamedevicesespecially
electroniccommunicationsmediaarenowalsoavailabletothosewhowouldoverthrowtheexisting
order.
TheIranianRevolution,whichoverthrewtheShahin1979,wasthefirstelectronicrevolutionin
history.Itwillnotbethelast.KhomeinicoulddonothingwhilehewasinIran,andverylittlefrom
nearbyIraq.ButwhenhewenttoParisandbeganrecordingcassettetapesandcallingIranviathe
directdialtelephonesystemthattheShahhadinstalled,hereachedavastaudience,withresultswe
knowalltoowell.Satellitetelevision,thefaxmachine,andelectronicmailcanallcarrythemessage
ofsubversioninwaysdifficulttopreventorcontrol.ThemethodsusedbytheIslamicrevolutionaries
againsttheShaharenowbeingusedinamoresophisticatedformbythosewhoseektooverthrow
theIslamicRepublic.Otherdissidentgroupsethnic,religious,ideologicalareusingthesame
methodsagainsttheregimesthatruleintheircountries.
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2)Modernizingautocracies.TheseareregimesonethinksofJordan,Egypt,andMoroccoin
particularthathavetheirrootsintraditionalautocracybutaretakingsignificantstepstoward
modernizationanddemocratization.Nonereallyfitsthedescriptionofliberaldemocracyasgiven
above,butnoneisanythinglikeatotalautocracy,either.Allthreearemovingtowardgreater
freedom.Difficulties,setbacks,andproblemsmayabound,butthebasicdirectionofchangeisclear.
3)Fasciststyledictatorships.Theseregimes,especiallytheonepartyBa'athistgovernmentsinHafiz
alAssad'sSyriaandSaddamHussein'sIraq,aremodeledonEuropeanfascism.Inmattersofprecept,
practice,andstyle,theyoweagreatdealtotheexampleofBenitoMussoliniand,toalesserextent,
AdolfHitler.
4)RadicalIslamicregimes.Therearetwoofthesesofar,IranandSudan.Theremaybeothersto
follow,perhapsinAfghanistanorAlgeria,thoughthelatterpossibilitynowseemstobedwindling
ratherthangrowing.EgypthasapotentradicalIslamicmovement,buttheEgyptianpoliticalclass
alsohasaremarkableknackformaintainingitselfinpower.Moreover,thethreattothesovereign
stateposedbypanIslamicradicalismhasbeengreatlyexaggerated.Khomeiniusedtosaythatthere
werenofrontiersinIslam,buthealsostipulatedintheconstitutionthatthepresidentoftheIslamic
RepublicofIranmustbeofIranianbirthandorigin.InKhomeini'sownpractice,letalonethat[End
Page59]ofhissuccessors,theIranianelementremainedparamount.Elsewhere,thereisasimilar
disinclinationamongeventhemostfanaticalIslamicgroupstosinktheirnationalorterritorial
integrityintosomelargerwhole.
5)TheCentralAsianrepublics.Afinalgroupofcountries,classifiablemorebyhistoryandgeography
thanbyregimetype,arethesixformerSovietrepublicswithmostlyMuslimpopulations,sometimes
knownnowadaysas"thefive'stans"plusAzerbaijan.Icanventurenocharacterizationoftheregimes
inthesecountries,butwillonlyobservethattheyseemtobehavingthesameproblemsdisentangling
themselvesfromtheirformerimperialmastersastheEgyptians,NorthAfricans,Syrians,andIraqis
hadwiththeirrespectiveformermastersearlierinthiscentury.Aftertheformalrecognitionof
independencecomesthepostimperialhangover,aperiodofinterference,unequaltreaties,privileges,
basingagreements,andsoon.Thebigdifferencethistime,ofcourse,isthattheformercolonial
peoplesaredealingnotwithLondonorParis,butwithMoscow.Thismaygiverisetodifferent
results.
MuslimsOutsidetheMiddleEast
TherearealsohundredsofmillionsofMuslimsinSouthandSoutheastAsia,butspacelimitationsand
myownrelativeignoranceoftheselandsleadmetoofferonlyabriefandsuperficialimpressionof
whatishappeninginthem.Pakistan,Bangladesh,Malaysia,andIndonesiaallappeartoresemble
EgyptorMoroccomorethanSyriaorIraq,whichisencouraging.IsaythattheSouthAsiancountries
resembletheMiddleEasternorNorthAfricancountries(andnotviceversa)forareason.Thereare
almostasmanyMuslimsinIndonesia,forexample,asinthewholeoftheArabworld,butthelinesof
influencerunfromthelattertotheformer.ThehistoricalheartlandsofIslamhavehithertoenjoyed
thekindofinfluenceintheIslamicworldthattheoutlyingregionscouldrarely,ifever,achieve.With
theoverwhelmingnumericalpreponderanceofSouthandSoutheastAsianIslamandthegrowing
importanceoftheIslamiccommunitiesintheWest,thismaychange.
AnotherrelativelysmallgroupofMuslimswhomaymatteragreatdealarethoseadherentsofIslam
whohaveemigratedtononMuslimcountriesinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica.Thesegroups
areextremelyimportant,notsomuchbecauseofwhatishappeninginthecountriesoftheirpresent
residence,asbecauseoftheimpactthattheyhaveontheircountriesoforigin.AsMuslimminorities
go,ofcourse,theyareatinyhandful.India'sMuslimminority(equalto11percentofitstotal
population)isbyfarthelargestconcentrationofMuslimsinanonMuslimcountry.Indeed,onlytwo
othercountries(Indonesiaand[EndPage60]Bangladesh)havemoreMuslimslivingwithintheir
borders.IntheMiddleEast,thereisasizeableMuslimminorityinIsrael.Ethiopia,aChristian
countrywhosechurchtracesitsoriginstoapostolictimes,hasasignificantMuslimminority,and
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manyothercountriesinsubSaharanAfricahaveMuslimmajoritiesorsubstantialminorities.
TherearealsooldMuslimminoritiesinEurope,intheBalkanstates,andaboveallintheRussian
Federationitself,whichmaybeasmuchas15percentMuslim.
LikeKhomeiniamidtheIranianexilecommunityinthe1970s,someofthepoliticalgroupsthatmove
amongthenewMuslimcommunitiesinEuropeandNorthAmericaareseekingtorecruitsupportfor
strugglesagainstthoseinpowerathome.TheseparatistmovementofTurkishKurds,forinstance,is
highlyactiveamongtheKurdishpopulationinGermany.TheIslamicfundamentalistmovementin
NorthAfricacollectsmoney,buysweapons,andorganizesinFrance,andvariousmovementsarenow
usingtheUnitedStatesinthesameway.
ThevastmajorityofMuslimimmigrantsinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,itshouldbenoted,
hasnointerestinextremistorrevolutionarymovements.Onthecontrary,theseimmigrantsare
increasinglytakingpart(sometimesascitizens)inthedemocraticprocessesoftheiradoptedsocieties
whileremainingintouchwiththeircountriesoforigin.Theviewsthattheyformasaresultoftheir
experienceofdemocracymaywellbeamongthemostsignificantfactorsshapingthepoliticalfuture
oftheIslamicworld.
ReligionandtheState
InIslam,aswasmentionedabove,thereisfromthebeginninganinterpenetration,almostan
identification,ofcultandpower,orreligionandthestate:Mohammedwasnotonlyaprophet,buta
ruler.Inthisrespect,IslamresemblesOldTestamentJudaismandlooksquitedifferentfrom
Christianity.Christianity,torepeat,beganandenduredforcenturiesunderofficialpersecution.Even
afteritbecamethestatereligionofRomeundertheEmperorConstantineinthefourthcentury,a
distinctionwasmaintainedbetweenspiritualandtemporalpowers.Eversincethen,allChristianstates
withoutexceptionhavedistinguishedbetweenthroneandaltar,churchandstate.Thetwopowers
mightbecloselyassociated,asunderthecaesaropapismoftheByzantineEmpire,ortheymightbe
separatedtheymightworkinharmonyortheymightcomeintoconflictonemightdominatefora
timeandtheothermightdisplaceitbutthedualityremains,correspondingtothedistinctionin
ChristianRomebetweenimperium(imperialpower)andsacerdotium(priestlypower).
Islaminitsclassicalformhasnoorganizationalequivalent.Ithasnoclergyorclericalhierarchyin
anythingliketheChristiansenseofthe[EndPage61]word,andnoecclesiasticalorganization.The
mosqueisabuilding,notaninstitutioninthesensethatthechurchis.Atleastthiswassountil
comparativelyrecently,forKhomeiniduringhisruleseemstohaveeffectedakindof
"Christianization"ofIran'sIslamicinstitutions,withhimselfasaninfalliblepope,andwiththe
functionalequivalentofahierarchyofarchbishops,bishops,andpriests.Allofthiswastotallyalien
toIslamictradition,andthusconstitutedan"Islamicrevolution"inasensequitedifferentfromthe
oneusuallyconveyedbyreferencestoKhomeini'slegacy.
Islamiccivilizationhasproducedawealthoftheological,philosophical,andjuridicalliteratureon
virtuallyeveryaspectofthestate,itspowers,anditsfunctions.Whatisnotdiscussedtoanygreat
extentisthedifferencebetweenreligiousandtemporalpowers.Thewordsfor"secular"and
"secularism"inmodernIslamiclanguagesareeitherloanwordsorneologisms.Therearestillno
equivalentsforthewords"layman"and"laity."JuristsandotherMuslimwritersonpoliticshavelong
recognizedadistinctionbetweenstateandreligion,betweentheaffairsofthisworldandthoseofthe
next.ButthisinnowaycorrespondstothedichotomyexpressedinsuchWesternpairsoftermsas
"spiritual"and"temporal,"or"lay"and"ecclesiastical."Conceptually,thisdichotomysimplydidnot
arise.Ithasarisennow,anditmaybethatMuslims,havingcontractedaChristianillness,will
consideraChristianremedy,thatistosay,theseparationofreligionandthestate.
Ofcourse,IamwellawarethattheReformationwasastageintheevolutionofChristendomandthe
EnlightenmentastageinthehistoryofEurope,andIamnotsuggestingthatthepastoftheWestcan
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somehowbegraftedontothefutureofIslam.ThereisnoreasonwhateverwhytheMuslimscanor
shouldbeexpectedtofollowpreciselythesamepattern,bythesameroute.Iftheytakeupthe
challengeatall,theywillhavetotackleitintheirownway.Sofar,alas,thereislittlesignthatthey
arewillingtotakeitup,butonemayhope.
Turkeyalonehasformallyenactedtheseparationofreligionandthestate.Itsconstitutionandlaws
declareitasecularrepublic.Inmanypracticalrespects,however,Islamremainsanimportantand
indeedagrowingfactorintheTurkishpolityandintheTurks'senseoftheirownidentity.
Asarule,gradualandunforcedchangeisbetterthansuddenandcompulsorychange.Democracy
cannotbebornlikeAphroditefromtheseafoam.Itcomesinslowstagesforthatreason,placeslike
Egyptand[EndPage62]Jordan,wherethereisevolutioninabroadlydemocraticdirection,seemto
offerthebestprospects.InIraqandSyria,anoverthrowofthepresentdictatorsisunlikelytoleadto
theimmediateestablishmentofaworkabledemocracy.Thenextchangeofregimeinthosecountries
willprobablyjustproducelessbrutaldictatorships,whichmightthenevolveintoreforming
autocraciesintheEgyptianorJordanianstyle.Thatwouldnotbedemocracy,butitwouldbeahuge
stepforwardnonetheless.
Theplacesthatofferthebestprospectsfordemocracyarethosewherethereisaprocessofgradual
changeinthedirectionoffreerinstitutions.Democracyusuallyevolvesoutofamovementtoward
freedom.TheliberaldemocraciesoftheWestcertainlydidnotcomeaboutallatonce.Oneneedonly
thinkofthehistoryofslaveryintheUnitedStatesorthedisenfranchisementofwomeninmostofthe
Westernworldtoseethat,evenunderfavorableconditions,democraticprogresstakestimeandeffort
andmaybehardwonindeed.
ImperialistpowersdeprivedmostoftheIslamicworldofsovereigntytheprimedemand,therefore,
wasforindependence.Foreignrulewasequatedwithtyranny,tobeendedbywhatevermeans
possible.Buttyrannymeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.InthetraditionalIslamicsystem,the
converseoftyrannyisjusticeinWesternpoliticalthought,theconverseoftyrannyisfreedom.Atthe
presentday,mostIslamiccountriesarediscoveringthatwhiletheyhavegainedindependence,they
enjoyneitherjusticenorfreedom.Therearesomeandsoon,perhaps,therewillbemanymorewho
seeindemocracythesurestwaytoattainboth.
BernardLewisisClevelandE.DodgeProfessor(emeritus)ofNearEasternStudiesatPrinceton
University.FormerlyprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofLondon,heistheauthorofmanybooks,
includingThePoliticalLanguageofIslam(1988)andTheArabsinHistory(1960).Thepresentessay
isbasedonremarkshedeliveredon13October1995attheInternationalForumforDemocratic
StudiesinWashington,D.C.CopyrightBernardLewis,1996.
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