Lab Exercise No.

2
Rangel Daroya #, Orville Felicano#, Rafael Pangilinan#
#

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute, University of the Philippines

Diliman, Quezon city, Philippines
1

rangel_daroya@yahoo.com

ville.mfelicano@gmail.com
3

rmpangilinan@upd.edu.ph

Abstract This paper is about measuring and calculating

resistance using different methods with the aid of voltmeters and
ammeters. It applies Ohms law and shows the extent of the
errors and how these errors occur.
Keywords resistance; voltmeter; ammeter; Ohms Law;
measuring; errors

I. INTRODUCTION
This paper explores the three methods of measuring
resistance using an ammeter and a voltmeter.
The first method uses the concepts of Ohms Law and
voltage division to measure the unknown resistance [1]. The
second method will only use the idea of Ohms Law in two
ways: the first way is by measuring the voltage across the
resistor then the current through it and the second way is by
measuring the current through it and then the voltage across.
The third method involves the Wheatstone Bridge Method; it
measures the resistance by balancing the bridge between two
pairs or resistors in series.[1]
In the succeeding sections, the results gathered in each
method were analysed. Each method are compared with
respect to different attributes such as the simplicity, cost,
speed, accuracy, etc.
II. EQUIPMENT USED
A. Ammeter
A 1 mA movement ammeter was used for the experiment,
able to measure up to 1 mA of current. It can be connected in
series with circuit elements in order to measure the current.
The range of measurement of an ammeter can be extended by
connecting a shunt resistor in parallel.
B. Analog Multimeter
The analog multimeter (AMM) was used to measure
resistance in ohms (), current in amperes (A), DC voltage in
volts (V), and AC voltage in volts (V). It can therefore
function as an ohmmeter, ammeter, and voltmeter. It has
different ranges for each property to be measured, and is
powered by batteries.
C. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
The digital voltmeter was used to measure voltages more
accurately than the analog multimeter. It can measure voltages

up to 3 digits after the decimal point. It is powered by a 240V

AC source.
D. Variable DC Supply
The variable power supply was used to provide DC voltage
to circuits. It was connected to a 240 V AC power supply and
it provides DC voltage. Its knob can be adjusted to provide 0
V to 20 V. The polarity of the supply was indicated on the
equipment.
E. Protoboard
The protoboard was used to connect different circuit
elements. The latters terminals were inserted into the small
holes of the protoboard. The elements can be connected by
inserting them in the same column in the middle part of the
board, or by row at the top and bottom of the board.
F. Resistors
Resistors are circuit elements that dissipate heat. When
voltage is applied to a resistor, current can be produced and
regulated through it. Ten kilo-ohm, 22 k, 100 , and 100 k
resistors were used in the experiment. The power rating of the
resistors was 250 mW.
G. Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a variable resistor. It has three
terminals, with the wires connected to the middle and one of
the two outer terminals. Its resistance can be varied by turning
the knob, and ranges depending on the potentiometer a 500
k was used.
H. Wires and Conductor Clips
The connectors and clips were used to connect circuit
elements and the AMM probes that were too big to be inserted
into the protoboard. The connectors and clips are conductors
covered by an insulating rubber.
III. DATA GATHERING
A. The Series Ohmmeter Method
The circuit shown in Fig. 1 was connected where the
ammeter is the same 1 mA movement used in Lab Exercise
No. 1 which was found to have an internal resistance of 60 .

Fig. 1 Set Up for Measuring Resistances Using An Ammeter

Terminals a and b were shorted while R2 was adjusted until

the 1 mA movement indicated full scale.
Three resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc were taken randomly. Table
1 shows the deflection D (I mA/1 mA) produced by each
resistor in the 1 mA movement when the resistor is connected
to the circuit at terminals a and b.
TABLE I
DEFLECTION OF THREE RESISTORS WITH UNKNOWN VALUES

Resistance
Ra
Rb
Rc

Deflection
0.20
0.1
0.27

B. The Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

Fig. 2 shows the circuit used to measure the same
resistances Ra, Rb, and Rc where Ru is the unknown
resistance. An analog multimeter was used as the voltmeter
since the intended loading effects will not be observed if a
digital voltmeter was used. Vs was set to 9.8 V so that the 1
mA movement did not go beyond full scales and the
maximum power rating of the resistors were not exceeded.
Table 2 shows the measured voltages and currents of the
circuit.

Fig. 3. Alternative Method of Measurement Using Both the Ammeter and

the Voltmeter
TABLE III
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENTS OF THREE UNKNOWN RESISTORS
OF FIG. 3

Resistance
Ra
Rb
Rc

Voltmeter Reading
(V)
10
10
10

Ammeter Reading
(mA)
0.45
0.1
0.98

C. The Wheatstone Bridge Method

Fig. 4 illustrates the Wheatstone Bride circuit used to
measure the same resistances Ra, Rb, and Rc were Ru is the
unknown resistance. A voltmeter was used to verify that the
power rating 0f 0.25 W of R1 and R2 did not exceed when Vs
was set to 20 V.

Fig. 2 Set up for Measuring Resistance Using a Voltmeter and an

Ammeter
TABLE II
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENTS OF THREE UNKNOWN RESISTORS
OF FIG. 2

Resistance

Voltmeter Reading
Ammeter Reading
(V)
(mA)
Ra
9.8
0.5
Rb
9.8
0.15
Rc
9.8
1
The method above was repeated using the circuit of Fig. 3.
Table 3 shows the data gathered using this procedure.

Fig. 4. Circuit Diagram Used for the Wheatstone Bridge

Before turning the voltage supply on, the potentiometer R3

was set to maximum for minimum power dissipation and the
voltmeter was set to be able to read the maximum imbalance
of the bridge which is Vs. When the voltage supply was
turned on, it was checked that the voltmeter measured a
positive voltage.
The potentiometer was adjusted until the bridge was
balanced; i.e. the voltmeter read zero. Afterwards, the
potentiometer was disconnected and its resistance was
measured using a DVM. Table 4 shows the resistance of the
potentiometer measured for each unknown resistance for two
values of Vs.
TABLE IV

RESISTANCE VALUES OF R3 IN THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT.

Resistance
Ra
Rb
Rc

Rb
Rc

R3 Setting (k)
Vs=5 V Vs=10 V
11.5
11.5
52
51.7
4.7
5.0

1)
Show that the relationship between unknown
resistance Ru and deflection D for the series ohmmeter circuit
of Fig. 1 is given by Ru=Ro (1-D)/D, where D=1mA/1mA.
What is the value of Ro? Why was it not necessary to measure
the value of R2 to be able to determine the value of R2?
In Procedure I, the deflection on the 1mA movement as the
resistors were connected on terminals a and b of Fig. N. were
noted. These values can be used to determine the resistance of
the unknown resistor Ru using an equation derived by:
By Ohms Law,

Since

(1
)
(2
)
(3
)
(4
)

and let

100
10

90
27

-10
17

-10%
170%

The loading effect due to the potentiometer and the

ammeter resistance is in lower resistances since the whole
circuit is connected in series and the lower the resistance of
Ru, the less negligible the effect of the extra load because the
ratio of extra load to the equivalent resistance increases.

DISCUSSION

0.1
0.27

(5
)
(6
)

3)
From the voltage and current readings obtained in
Procedure II, compute the corresponding resistance values of
Ra, Rb, and Rc both for the circuit in Fig. 2 and the circuit of
Fig. 3. Neglect the loading effect of the meters. Compare
these with the actual values of Ra, Rb, and Rc. Tabulate your
results. Account for any differences obtained.
In Procedure 2, the values of the resistances Ra, Rb, and Rc
can be computed using Ohms Law given by,
(9
)
The computed values of Ru in procedure II.1 where Fig. 2
was used as circuit model is shown in Table 6.
TABLE VI
VOLTMETER AND AMMETER READINGS WITH COMPUTED RU VALUES

Ra
Rb
Rc

Voltmeter
Reading(V)
9.8
9.8
9.8

Ammeter
Reading(mA)
0.5
0.15
1

Computed
Resistance(k)
19.6
65.33
9.8

Nominal
Resistance(k)
22
100
10

Difference(k)
2.4
34.66
0.2

The computed values of Ru in procedure II.2. where Fig.

3was used as circuit model is shown in Table 7.
TABLE VII
VOLTMETER AND AMMETER READINGS WITH COMPUTED RU VALUES

With this relationship between R0 and Ru, we can get Ru

without having to measure R0 by:
(7)

(8)

2)
Use the equation given in 1 above to determine the
values of Ra, Rb, and Rc. Treat these as your experimental
results. Compare these with the actual values of R a, Rb, and Rc
given by your instructor. Account for any differences. Extend
Table 1 to show your results.
Using the equation 8, the values for Ra, Rb, and Rc
can be calculated. These values and the nominal values of Ra,
Rb, and Rc are shown in Table X.
TABLE V
COMPUTED AND NOMINAL VALUES FOR RA, RB, AND RC
Deflection
Ra

0.2

Nominal
Resistance(k)
22

Computed
Resistance(k)
40

Difference(k)
18

%
Difference
81.8%

Ra
Rb
Rc

Voltmeter
Reading(V)
10
10
10

Ammeter
Reading(mA)
0.45
0.1
0.98

Computed
Resistance(k)
22.22
100
10.2

Nominal
Resistance(k)
22
100
10

Difference(k)
.22
0
0.2

The loading effect in Procedure II.1. becomes relevant at

higher resistance values because the voltmeter is connected in
parallel to the Ru. The parallel ratio of the voltmeter resistance
to the equivalent resistance becomes higher which means that
more current starts to flow through the voltmeter making the
current flowing through the ammeter more significantly
divided between Ru and the voltmeter. This accounts for the
higher difference is nominal and computed resistance at
higher resistances.
The loading effect in Procedure II.2. can only be caused by
the ammeter resistance since the voltmeter is directly
connected to the source and the voltage seen by the series
combination of the ammeter and Ru is still equal to the
voltage source. Therefore the current reading on the ammeter
is given by:
(10
)

Given this relationship, the resistance of the ammeter is

negligible at relatively higher resistances.

TABLE IX
COMPUTED RESISTANCE FOR RU CONSIDERING THE LOADING EFFECT

4)
From the voltage and current readings obtained in
Procedure II, re-compute the corresponding resistance values
of Ra, Rb, and Rc taking into account the loading effect of the
meters. How do these compare with the previously computed
values and with the actual values of Ra, Rb, and Rc?
Since the effect of the voltmeter resistance can be observed
in higher resistance values in procedure II.1., the voltmeter
resistance can be calculated by:
(11
)
(12
)
Therefore,
(13
)
Substituting,
(14
)
Finding Rm,
(15
)
Using this value for Rm, we can now, get the actual
current passing through Ru through current division, and these
values are shown in Table 8:
TABLE VIII
CALCULATED VALUES FOR RU CONSIDERING THE LOADING EFFECTS OF THE
METERS.

Ra
Rb
Rc

Voltmeter
Reading(V)

Ammeter
Reading(mA)

Computed
Resistance(k)

Nominal
Resistance(k)

Difference(k)

9.8
9.8
9.8

0.5
0.15
1

21.8
100.13
10.3

22
100
10

0.2
0.13
0.3

The resistance of the ammeter can be neglected since the

voltage measured was only for Ru and the voltmeter, and the
current across the ammeter and the parallel combination of the
voltmeter and Ru is constant.
In Procedure II.2., the ammeter resistance can affects the
reading especially at lower values of Ru. The resistance of the
1mA movement is 60. Therefore we can get the voltage
across Ru by Ohms Law that is given by:
(16
)
The values calculated for Ru considering the loading
effect of the ammeter are given in Table 9.

Ra
Rb
Rc

Voltmeter
Reading(V)
10
10
10

Ammeter
Reading(mA)
0.45
0.1
0.98

Computed
Resistance(k)
22.1
99.9
10.1

Nominal
Resistance(k)
22
100
10

Difference(k)
0.1
0.1
0.1

The resistance of the voltmeter can be neglected since it is

directly connected to the voltage source and the voltage across
the series combination of the ammeter and Ru is still equal to
V.
The calculated resistance when the loading effects were
considered are more accurate. This can be specifically
observed at higher resistance values of Ru for Procedure II.1,
and at lower resistance values for Procedure II.2.
5)
Given the two possible arrangements for making
resistance measurements using the voltmeter-ammeter
method, when should one method be used instead of the other
if the resistance to be taken as the voltage reading divided by
the current reading?
Given the two ways of measuring resistance presented in
procedure II, procedure II.1. is preferably used at lower
resistances that are still relevantly higher with respect to the
ammeter resistance because the loading effect of the meters
would be avoided because almost no current will flow through
the voltmeter and the ammeter resistance will be negligible.
Procedure II.2. is preferable at resistances significantly
higher than the ammeter resistance since the voltmeter
contributes no loading effect since it is directly connected to
the voltage source, and the ammeter resistance will be
negligible.
6)
Derive the relationship between R1, R2, R3, and Ru for
the Wheatstone bridge circuit of Fig. 4 under balanced
conditions.
The relationship of the resistances in the Wheatstone bridge
shown in Fig. Q in balanced condition is derived by:
Since the voltmeter reading at balance condition is 0, we
can say that:
(17
)
Since R1 and R2 are in series and also R3 and Ru,
(18
)
Manipulating,
(19
)
7)
Taking into account the tolerances of the resistances
used in the bridge, compute for the range of possible values of
Ra, Rb, and Rc from the values of R3 obtained in Procedure III.

Do the actual values of Ra, Rb, and Rc fall within the computed
ranges?
Using this relationship, we can compute for the value Ru
while taking into consideration the tolerances of R1 (5%) and
R2 (5%). Table 10 shows the values obtained.
TABLE X
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF R1, R2 AND R3
R3(k)
Ra
Rb
Rc

11.5
52
4.7

Max
R1(k)
10.5
10.5
10.5

Min
R1(k)
9.5
9.5
9.5

Max
R2(k)
21
21
21

Max
R2(k)
19
19
19

Min
Ru(k)
25.42
114.9
10.3

Min
Ru(k)
20.8
94.09
8.5

The nominal values of the resistances are within the range

of values for the resistances of the Ra, Rb, and Rc.
8)
What was the actual effect of varying the power
supply voltage on the resistance measurements made using
the Wheatstone Bridge method? What should the actual
effects have been?
The effect of changing the voltage of the source of the
Wheatstone bridge on the resistance measurements is
negligible in the experiment. This is theoretically true since
the relationship between the resistances are independent of the
voltage source.
9)
Compare the three methods of making resistance
measurements taking into consideration simplicity, cost,
speed, accuracy of measuring equipment, tolerance of
resistances used, and any other points that may be of interest.
The Wheatstone bridge method is the most accurate among
the procedures presented in the experiment since there is no
loading in the measurements, and computations are easily
done once the relationship is derived although it may take
time to construct the circuit and it takes more resistors to
create. The method used in Procedure I is easier to construct
and requires less components although the measurements
acquired are less accurate due to loading especially at low
resistances. The calculations involved in Procedure I are
easily done once the relationship is obtained although the
relationship is hard to obtain. The method used in Procedure
II.1 is requires less components since it only involves the
measuring devices, the computations are also easy since they
only involve Ohms Law, but the measurements are only
accurate at low resistances that are significantly higher than
the ammeter resistance. The method in Procedure II.2. has the
same cost and ease of computations as II.1., but it has a wider
range accuracy which is resistances significantly larger than
the ammeter resistance.

CONCLUSIONS
There are many different of measuring the resistances
which vary in terms of accuracy, cost, and ease of
calculations. Different methods are accurate only on certain
ranges of resistances while others, such as the Wheatstone
bridge method, are accurate on any value of resistance which
means that different methods can only be used on certain
cases. Also, the loading effects of the measuring devices must
be considered in measurements since they play a big role in
the accuracy of the data.
REFLECTION
It was really cool how were finally able to see and observe
how the wheatstone bridge works. Ive always been curious
about it, and Im glad I was finally able to play with it. The
awesome thing about experiments like this is how we can
apply the concepts weve learned so far. When something
happens, we can rationalize it using previous topics. It kind of
makes all the hardships worth it.
RANGEL DAROYA
This experiment was fun because our group was able to
apply theories presented in EEE 31, especially the Wheatstone
Bridge Method. I was very happy because we had nearly
100% accuracy for our results because we were more careful
in constructing our circuits and in choosing resistance values
for the circuit so that the computation of expected values was
easier.
ORVILLE FELICANO
There are so many ways to obtain the data you want in
circuits. All you have to do is to play with the concepts and
theories. Also you cannot fully trust measuring devices since
sometimes, they are the source of errors. Also, it is sometimes
worth it to construct more complicated circuits since they are
more accurate in the data gathering.
RAFAEL PANGILINAN
REFERENCES
[2]
[3]
[4]

Alexander, C.K., & Sadiku, M. N. O. (2009). Fundamentals of Electric

Circuits (4th ed.). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Hayt, W.H., Kemmerly, J. E., & Durbin, S. M. (2007). Engineering
Circuit Analysis (7th ed.). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
Nilsson, J.W. & Riedel, S. A. (2010). Electric Circuits (9th ed.).
Jurong, Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.