Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

SEISMIC REFRACTION PRINCIPLES AND INTERPRETATION

Ch. Subba Rao, Research Officer

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Seismic refraction method is a widely accepted tool for in situ investigations of geotechnical
problems primarily because the seismic velocity is an indicator of relative quality and rippability of
subsurface strata and rock mass. It is one of the reliable techniques for determination of depth to bedrock.
Since the propagation of compressional and shear waves is dependent on the elastic properties of the rock,
seismic refraction technique is being increasingly used for determining the dynamic properties of the rock at
low strains. The end product of a seismic refraction survey is a model of velocities and depths of the
subsurface layers, which can be correlated, with the strength of the strata. Seismic refraction method is
useful in:
1)

Determining depth to bedrock and delineating bedrock topography

2)

Evaluating quality of rock

3)

Delineation of weak zones i.e. shear and fault zones

4)

Determining engineering parameters (e.g. Poisson's ratio, dynamic Young's and shear
moduli of elasticity)

5)

Assessing the rippability of earth materials

With the help of data from a few boreholes, seismic refraction technique yields an almost
unambiguous interpretation reliably, rapidly and economically. In complex sites traversed by faulting,
buried channels and differential weathering etc, borehole data alone are inadequate and could be
misleading at times. Seismic refraction surveys are conducted to help select a site amongst a number of
alternatives in the reconnaissance stage of an engineering project.

Its demand is also on the rise for

solving environmental problems. Bureau of Indian Standards has finalized the code of practice of its
application to water resources development projects (IS
15681:2006).

Source

Receiver

2.0 PRINCIPLES
V1

Seismic refraction method is based on principles

analogous to those used in geometric optics.
1) Fermats principle of least time

V2

Fig. 1 Fermats principle

2) Principle of reciprocity
L2

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

3) Huygens principle of wave propagation

4) Snells law
2.1 Fermats principle:
Seismic energy follows a minimum travel path
time between two points in a solid. Among the paths
available for travel from source to receiver (Such as
ABGH, ACFH in Fig.1), the seismic pulse takes that
path which requires the least time.

This path need

not be the shortest path.

2.2 Principle of Reciprocity:

A corollary of Fermats principle is that the

Fig. 2 Principle of reciprocity

travel path and travel time between two points are the
same in either direction and is known as the principle
of reciprocity.

Wave fronts

In Fig. 2, for a 2 layer case, the travel path in

either direction i.e. when source is S1 and G12 is the
receiver (path ABCD)& vice versa (path DCBA) is the
same.
2.3 Huygens principle:
Fig. 3 Huygens Principle
Each point on a wave front acts as a source of
secondary wavelets and after a period of time, the new
position of the wave front is the envelope of the
secondary waves. Applied to plane wave propagation

Incident
P-wave

i
Interface

through homogeneous and inhomogeneous media, the

principle is illustrated in Fig.3

V1
V2

2.4 Snells law:

For any ray path, the ratio of the sine of the

Refracted
P-wave
i angle of incidence
r angle of refraction

angle of incidence at a surface of constant velocity

divided by the velocity at the surface is a constant for

L2

Fig. 4 Snells law for the general case

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

the ray path i.e.

Sin i/V1 = Sin r/V2 = p, a constant OR,
Sin i/Sin r = V1/V2
In the case of an interface between two layers of velocities V 1 and V2 (Fig. 4) such as the case of
ground and an underlying interface of a different velocity, i and r are the angles of incidence and
refraction for a ray travelling from a medium of velocity V1 to a medium of velocity V2 .
The refracted ray bends away from the
normal when V2>V1. For a particular angle of
incidence, ic, known as critical angle, the angle of

Incident
P-wave

iC
Interface

refraction is 90 . This gives rise to a critically

refracted ray, which travels in the lower medium

V1
V2

with the velocity V2 (Fig. 5)

Refracted
P-wave

i angle of incidence
r angle of refraction

Snells law in this case becomes

Sin ic / V1 = Sin 900 /V2 i.e.

Fig. 5 Snells law for critical refraction

Sin ic = V1/V2
The critically refracted ray re-enters

the V1 layer at critical angle. These re- entering waves can be

recorded on the ground surface and information about the refracting layer can be obtained. This method is
known as seismic (critical) refraction method. The term critical is omitted but understood. At angles of
incidence greater than ic, there will be total internal reflection of the incident ray.
3.0 SEISMIC WAVES
When a stress is applied to an elastic body suddenly (e.g. when it is hit with a hammer) or when
the stress is suddenly released (when a previous state of stress is altered

by fracturing), the

corresponding change in strain is propagated outwards from the point of disturbance as an elastic wave.
There are two principal types of elastic waves.
(1) Body waves

and (2) Surface waves

3.1 Body Waves :

A homogeneous and isotropic elastic medium can be subjected to two types of deformations:
compression and shear. These waves travel through the medium. The compressional waves entail a volume
L2

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

change without any rotation of the elastic material element, while the latter entails a rotation without any
change of volume. These two types of deformations give rise to two types of waves and these are:
3.1.1 Longitudinal or Primary waves:

In compressional/dilatational or Pwaves the motions of the

particles of the

medium are parallel to the direction of wave

propagation, involving alternating expansion
and contraction of the medium, as in the case of

Fig. 6 Particle motion in a longitudinal wave

sound waves shown in (Fig. 6). The speed of

propagation of Longitudinal waves (Vp) is given by

K
Vp

4
3

(1-)E
(1 )(1-2)

(1)

where 'K' is Bulk modulus '' is shear modulus and

is Poisson 's ratio
1.2 Transverse (shear) or Secondary waves:

In shear or S-waves, the motion of the

particles of the medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (like waves on a
vibrating

string, Fig. 7). Only rigid (solid)

bodies can transmit shear waves.

Vs

E
2( 1 )

(2)

Fig. 7 Particle motion in a shear wave

It follows from equations 1 and 2 that Vp > Vs. For most of the rocks, = 0.25, Vp =1.7 Vs. Since
the density does not vary by more than a factor of 2 in rocks and also is usually around 0.25, it
follows from eq.(1) and (2) that the elastic parameter E i.e. Young's modulus is the most important
variable controlling the velocity of seismic waves in rocks.

L2

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

3.2 Surface Waves

These waves which travel only along the free surface of an elastic solid. There are two types of
surface waves in solids, and both of these are characterized by a logarithmic decrease of amplitude with
depth so that the energy is confined to a zone near the surface. These two types of surface waves are:
(1) Raleigh waves
(2) Love waves
An important characteristic of surface waves is their dispersion ( dependence of velocity on
wavelength). In applied seismology (mainly for geological mapping and prospecting operations) the most
important elastic waves are the P- and S- waves. In earthquake seismology, both P and S waves are
important in studying the interior of the earth. Recently, the dispersion studies of surface waves have
become an effective tool for investigating the velocity structure in the outer part of the earth
complements the information

that

available from body waves. Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves

(MASW) is finding increasing application in engineering, environmental, and groundwater studies.

4.0 ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Seismic methods depend primarily on the propagation of waves in elastic media. Materials that
deform when subjected to forces but return to their original condition when the applied forces are
withdrawn are known as elastic bodies. The propagation of seismic waves in earthen media is controlled by
the elastic properties of the media.
4.1 Stress, Strain, Hooke's Law
While

considering

the

elastic
Plastic yield
Rupture

properties of earth media, we assume that

the medium is homogeneous and isotropic,
otherwise

seismic

wave propagation

becomes complicated. In practice, this

assumption simplifies the interpretation of

Strain
Elastic limit

the measured effects (time anomalies) in

terms of departures from assumed uniform
conditions, which occur inside the earth.
Elasticity of the material is studied by using
the concept of stress and strain.

L2

Stress
Fig. 8 Stress-Strain relation

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

4.1.1 Hookes law:

The quantities "Stress" and "Strain" in an elastic body are related by Hooke's law which states that
within the elastic limits (Fig 8), strain is directly proportional to the applied stress. This involves the
assumption that the displacements are small and the body returns exactly to its original form or

condition after the displacing force is removed. Hooke's law holds good for most of the rocks if
the strain and stress are not very large. It is expressed as:
Stress
-------- = Constant
Strain

(3)

4.2 Elastic Constants and their inter-relationship

The various elastic constants are defined as the ratio of different stresses (tension, compression,
pressure, shear etc.) to the resulting deformations produced. The commonly used elastic constants for
homogeneous

and isotropic

media and the inter-

relationship between them are as follows.

4.2.1 Young's modulus (E) :
It is a measure of stress/strain ratio for a
simple tension or compression (Fig 9) and is given by
the relation.
Fig. 9 Youngs Modulus

F
E

A
L
L

... (4)

Where L is change in length caused by a longitudinal stress F/A (Force/Area)

Longitudinal Stress

... (5)

Longitudinal Strain

For engineering site investigations, it is expressed in

kg/cm2. The greater the value of E for a solid, the lesser
will

be

the

deformation for the applied tensile or

compressive stress. For most rocks, it lies between 1010

and 1011 dynes/cm2
Fig. 10 Bulk Modulus

L2

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

4.2.2 Bulk Modulus (K) :

It is a measure of stress to strain ratio for hydrostatic pressure P' that produces a change in volume
(Fig 10)
F

P
A = Vol.Stress =
V
V
Vol.Strain
V
V

... (6)

4.2.3 Rigidity or Shear modulus ():

It is a measure of

the stress/strain ratio

of a

simple tangential (shear) stress (Fig 11). The shearing

strain is the resulting deformation without change

of

volume (as a pile of cards can be sheared without affecting

the total volume of cards) and is often measured as an
angle of deformation,
F

A
tan

... (7)

Shear modulus has the dimension of force per unit

area.

Fig. 11 Shear modulus

The value of shear modulus for most of the

materials is between 1/2 and 1/3 of the Youngs modulus.

4.2.4 Poissons ratio, :

It is a measure of the geometrical change in the

shape of an elastic body. For instance, a cylinder of length
L and diameter D when subjected to a tensile stress
parallel to L would be elongated in length by L, but at
the same time it will be shortened in diameter by D. In the
case of a compressional stress acting parallel to L there
would be a shortening in length and an increase in

Fig. 12 Poissons ratio

diameter (Fig 12). In either case Poisson's ratio which is a

dimensionless quantity, is expressed as :

L2

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

... (8)

The maximum limit for value of is 0.5. For most of the rocks it is approximately 0.25. Only two of the
four elastic constants mentioned above are independent and all the four elastic constants can be expressed in
terms of any two i.e.:
E

(9)

2(1 )
E

(10)

3(1 - 2 )
9K

(11)

(3K

( 3K

2 )

(12)

5.0 INTERPRETATION - SHALLOW EARTH MODELLING

5.1 Plane Boundaries and Layered Earth:
Although the earth can be thought of being composed of layers, the boundaries between the layers
are seldom planes. The surface of the earth also may not be plane. In addition, there could be lateral velocity
changes within the strata. The travel time equations are derived from theoretical layered earth model of
simple geometry by a straightforward method of ray tracing. These can be used for modelling and getting an
insight into the seismic refraction method. Ray
paths that obey Snells law at layer boundaries are

Critical
distance

generated and simple relations between distance,

time and velocity are used to calculate the travel
Ti1

t = X / V1

5.1.1 Two Layer Case:

Offset distance

Consider a simple case of a two layer

earth model in which the layer boundary is

P- wave
source

velocities

of

respectively.

L2

the

V1 and V2 are the

first and

second

Geophones

A
i1

horizontal and plane.

t from eq.14

Cross over
distance

Intercept time
Time (t)

time along various parts of the total ray path.

Secondary arrivals

i1

i1

i1

h1
V1

layers
B

V2

Fig. 13 Two layer earth model with horizontal boundary

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

From the Fig. 13, the total time required by the seismic wave to travel along the refracted ray path ABCD is
t = tAB+tBC+tCD

AB

BC

CD

V1

V2

V1

.. (13)

It can be shown that

X
V2

(14)

Ti1

This is the travel time equation for two layer case with horizontal boundary representing a line of
slope 1/V2 and intercept time ti = 2h1 Cosi1/V1, the intercept of line on time axis. The intercept time is given
by
Ti1

2h 1

Cosi1
V1

2
2 1
(V2
V1 ) 2
2h 1
V1V2

Solving for refractor depth

h1

Ti1 V1 V2
1
2
2
2(V2 - V1 ) 2

(15)

Thus, by analysis of the travel-time curves of direct and refracted arrivals, V1 and V2 can be derived
( reciprocal of the gradient of the direct and refracted curves) and from the intercept time t i, the refractor
depth h1 can be determined.

Travel times, when plotted against corresponding distances will yield a travel-time curve as shown in
Fig 13. The critically refracted waves from the layer boundary begin to arrive at the surface from a particular
distance from the shot point. This distance is called Critical distance. However, the arrival times of these
waves are later to those of direct waves from the shot point (through the first layer). Beyond a particular
distance from the shot, the critically refracted waves overtake the direct waves. This distance is called
Crossover distance (XCross).
At the crossover distance XCross, the travel times of direct and refracted rays are equal.

L2

X Cross

X Cross

V1

V2

2
2 1
(V2
V1 ) 2
2h 1
V1V2
9

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

X Cross

1
V1 2
V1

V
2h 1 2
V2

. (16)

From this equation, it is seen that the crossover distance is always greater than twice the depth to the
refractor.

h1

X Cross
2

V2
V2

V1
V1

1
2

(17)

The travel time equation 15 forms the basis of the seismic refraction method for determining the
depth to an interface. It may be seen from the time-distance curve that the refraction method relies essentially
on the measurement of the travel time of the earliest arrivals and this is relatively a easier than observing
reflected arrivals that occur later in a complex record.

Time (t)

5.1.2 Three Layer Case:

The geometry of ray path in case of

Ti2

1/ V3

critical refraction at the second interface is

1/ V2

Intercept times

shown in Fig 14. The seismic velocities of the

three interfaces are V1, V2 (>V1) and V3 (>V2).

Ti1

1/ V1

The angle of incidence of the ray on the upper

Offset distance
X

interface is i13 and on the lower interface is

P- wave
source

i23(critical angle). The thicknesses of layers 1

B'

C'

D'

i13

i13

and 2 are h1 and h2 respectively.

E'

h1

V1

By analogy for the two-layer case, the

V2

i23

i23

E
h2

travel time along the refracted ray path ABCDEF

to an offset distance X, involving critical

V3

refraction at the second interface, can be written

Fig 14 Three layer earth model with horizontal boundary

as

AB
V1

BC
V2

CD
V3

DE
V2

EF
V1

It can be shown that

L2

2h 1Cosi13

2h 2 Cosi 23

V3
x

V1

V2

V
3

T
i1

(18)

T
i2
10

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

where ti1 is the intercept time on the time axis of the travel-time curve for rays critically refracted at the upper
interface and Ti2 is the difference between Ti1 the intercept of the curve for rays critically refracted at the
lower interface (Fig 14).
5.1.3 Multi Layer Case:
Proceeding as above, we can interpret the intercept-time equation for n layers with horizontal
boundaries as follows:
Tn

n 1 2h i Cosi n,i

Vn
where Vn is the velocity of the n th layer

(19)

Vi

i 1

5.2 Dipping Boundaries:

5.2.1 Two Layer Dipping Case
For the case of a two layer case with a dipping boundary, the travel path is as shown in Fig 14 i 1 is
critical angle for the boundary V1 & V2 and
the bed dips at an angle

is angle of dip of the refractor. From Fig 15 we observe that

with the horizontal. The path travelled by the ray is given by AB+BC+CD.

The time taken is given by

BC
V2

CD
V1

from the figure, AB

h 1d
Cosi 1

Reciprocal time

Reverse
travel time
tR

V2r

V2f
V1

V1

where hd is the depth in down dip

direction

Forward
travel
time Td

Time (t)

AB
V1

Time (t)

t AD

Position (x)

Similarly, CD = h1u/Cos i1
and BC=BC=AN-(AB+CN) and

A
h1d

D
i1

B'

C'

AB = MB= h1d tan i1

CN = CE=h1u tan i1 ;
AN= X Cos i1

h1U V1
B
C
V2

Fig. 15 Two layer earth model with dipping boundary

h1d
V1 Cos i1

h1u
V1 Cos i1

X Cos h1d tan i1 h1u tan i1

V2
L2

... (20)
11

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

2h 1d Cos i1
Sin (i1 )
V1
V1
This being time of arrival in down-dip, we denote t by td
X

Therefore

td

Sin (i1
V1

2h 1d Cos i1
V1

. (21)

By putting x=0,
td

2h 1d Cos i1
V1

(22)

T1d

2h 1d Cos i1
V1

(23)

which means

Now suppose that we reverse the positions of source and receiver. To obtain an expression for up-dip
travel time tu, we now substitute using h1d = h1u X Sin in equation 22 which gives similarly in the up dip
direction,
x

Sin (i1 )
V1
By putting X=0, we find up-dip intercept time
tu

T1u

2h 1u Cos i1
V1

2h 1u Cos i1
V1

... (24)

. (25)

5.2.2 Multi Layer Case:

The procedure for data analysis for single dipping layer can be extended to a structure with multiple
dipping refractors (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982).
The general form of the equation for the travel time tn of a ray critically refracted in the nth dipping
refractor is given by

tn

X Sin 1

n 1 h1 (Cos i Cos i )
Vi
11

V1
where h1 is the vertical thickness of the ith layer beneath the shot

... (26)

Vi is the velocity of the ray in the ith layer

i is the angle with respect to the vertical made by the down going ray in the ith layer

L2

12

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

i is the angle with respect to the vertical made by the upcoming ray in the ith layer
and
X is the offset distance between source and detector.
6.0 CALCULATION OF VELOCITY, THICKNESS AND DIP
By firing shots at both ends of the survey, velocity V1 of the upper layer is calculated from the slope
of the direct wave line. To find true velocity V2 of the dipping refractor, let us take trigonometric inversion
of equations 27 and 28 which will yield
i1+ = arc Sin V1/Vd and
i1- = arc Sin V1/Vu

By adding

i1

V
1
(Sin 1 1
2
Vd

i1

Sin

Sin

(27)

V1
)
Vu

(28)

V1
and for small angles, Sin =
V2

Substituting in equation (30), we get

Sin

V2

V1
V2

V
1
(Sin 1 1
2
Vd

Sin

V1
)
Vu

Vd Vu
)
Vd Vu

From equations (29), we obtain the dip of the refractor

V
1
(Sin 1 1
2
Vd

Sin

V1
)
Vu

(29)

Now by rearranging equations 23 and 25

h1d

V1T1d
2Cosi1

(30)

and

h1u

V1T1u
2Cosi1

(31)

Finally we observe in Fig 15 that h1d and h1u are distances to the nearest points on the refractor beneath A
and B respectively. The vertical depths to the refractor are

Z1d
L2

h1d
Cos
13

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

Z1u

h1u
Cos

7.0 FACTORS AFFECTING SEISMIC VELOCITY

The output of seismic refraction data interpretation is a depth wise "velocity model" of the ground.
For this model to be geologically meaningful and useful in engineering applications it is necessary to relate
the velocities to lithology, rock type and physical properties of the material.

From the seismic view point, the rock mass comprises rock substance or the intact material
consisting of the mesh of grains and pore spaces, separated by planes of weakness or structural
discontinuities i.e. faults, joints, bedding planes and foliation. The character and distribution of the
structural discontinuities, porosity, saturation, cementation and degree of weathering control the seismic
velocities of the earthen materials. A distinction between rock substance and rock mass should be made
when comparing

velocity of rock samples with that of rock mass determined in situ. Rock sample

measurements provide information on rock substances and small scale discontinuities while in situ
measurements are affected by larger volume of rock mass.
The

factors affecting velocity

of

propagating compressional waves in rocks are: rock type,

density, porosity, fluid content, stress, anisotropy and temperature.

Seismic velocities in shallow earth materials are highly variable. Therefore, a correlation between
the rock type and velocity that is applicable to all geological situations is not viable. However, site specific
correlation between seismic velocity and rock type can be established. This correlation is then used to
infer the relative quality of rock at that site i.e. higher the velocity, better the rock and vice versa.

Within the depth range of engineering seismology, compressional wave velocities fall in the range of
300 m/sec 7000 m/sec. Table of velocity values (after Keary and Brooks, 1984) is given below.
In general, we may say that velocity values are greater for
a) Basic than acidic igneous rocks.
b) Igneous than sedimentary rocks.
c) Water saturated than dry unconsolidated sediments.
d) Consolidated than unconsolidated sediments.
e) Carbonates than sandstones.
f) Sandstones than shales.
L2

14

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

g) Older than younger rocks.

h) Solid rocks than rocks having joints, fractures or cracks.

Table 1 Range of compressional (P-) wave velocities for various earth materials, fluids and metals
( After Keary and Brooks, 1984)

GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

P-WAVE VELOCITY (m/sec)

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS
Dry sand

200 --- 1000

Water saturated sand, gravels and clays

1500 --- 2000

Partially consolidated sediments,

2000 --- 2500

highly weathered/fractured metamorphic

and igneous rocks; weathered and/or jointed
sandstones, shales
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sandstones

2000 --- 4500

Limestones

2000 --- 6000

Dolomites

2500 --- 6500

IGNEOUS & METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Granite

4500 --- 6000

Gabbro

6000 --- 7000

Ultramafic rocks

7000 --- 8000

PORE FLUIDS
Air

330

Water

1400 --- 1550

Ice

3400

Petroleum

1300 --- 1400

MATERIALS

L2

Steel

6000

Iron

5800

Concrete

3500

15

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

Low velocities (less than 1000 m/sec) can be interpreted as dry unconsolidated materials. Materials
having velocity greater than 3500 m/sec can be interpreted as rock. However, in the intermediate range
of velocities from 1000 m/sec
Compressional (P-) Wave velocity (km/sec)

to 3500 m/sec, the subsurface

materials

are qualitatively
0

described as highly to slightly

weathered rock.

Shale
Sandstone

The ranges of in situ

velocities of various rocks as

Dolomite

evaluated by C.W.P.R.S. for

Limestone

projects

in different parts of
Basalt

India, are given in Fig 16.

Dolorite

7.1 Velocity and Lithology

Phyllite
Quartzite

Lithology
velocity

but

the

affects
range

of

velocities for various rock types

overlap

so

much

that

the

Granite gneiss
Metagreywake
Fig 16 Ranges In-Situ P-wave Velocities of Indian Rocks
(After Geophysics Division, CWPRS, Technical Reports)

velocity does not provide a

sound

basis

for

predicting lithology

from

velocity values.
7.2 Velocity and Density
The principal factors which determine
the P-wave velocity of the earth material are the
density and the mean atomic weight - velocity
being a linear function of density for materials
having a common atomic weight. The results of
Nafe and Drake (1957) depicting correlation
between density and P-wave velocity are given in

Fig. 17 Relationship between

velocity and density

Fig 17.

L2

16

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

7.3 Velocity and porosity

For dry rocks, P-wave velocity decreases
rapidly with increasing porosity.

This

is

because the P-wave velocity in the air is

much less than

the velocity in rock matrix.

Typical relationship obtained between P-wave

velocity and effective porosity is shown in Fig
18. Over a wide range of Porosity values, this
relation, for dry rocks, can be expressed as

QE

b e

a Vp

. (32)

Fig. 18 Variation of P-wave Velocity with

porosity in dry and Saturated rocks of
grain matrix velocity Vn

Where QE is the effective porosity, Vp

is the compressional wave velocity
and a and b are constants.

The shallow minimum in the velocity curve at very high porosities corresponds to a
grain contacts are minimal and compaction increases the density more
modulus, E. Then from the wave propagation equation V

stage when

rapidly than the Young's elastic

E , it is seen that increase in density

leads to reduction in velocity.

7.4 Velocity and fluid Content
In rocks of medium to high porosity, the compressional wave velocity will also depend on the nature
of the fluid (air, gas, water or petroleum) filling the pore-space. Over the commonly occurring porosity range
of 20-40 percent, the velocity-porosity relationship is approximated by time-average equation i.e.

1
Vb

Vf

(1 )
Vm

... (33)

in which Vf and Vm are velocities of the fluid pore filler and of the matrix of granular material.
In situations where the equation holds, the in situ velocity V b of rock mass would be equal to
velocity Vm of solid material at zero porosity and velocity of fluid Vf at 100 percent porosity. For
rocks containing clay minerals the velocity decreases with saturation, because it leads to swelling.

L2

17

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

7.5 Velocity and Anisotropy

The layered structure of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, fracturing, jointing, vertical
compression due to gravity and micro-orientation of grains are the causes of anisotropy. In layered
rocks, elastic properties determined along the layers are usually different from those determined
perpendicular to layering.

Velocity

parallel

to

bedding V|| is always

greater

than

the velocity

perpendicular to layers V (e.g. sandstones). Anisotropy of layered rocks is characterised by the coefficient
of anisotropy (Kan) which is given by

K an

VParallel
VPerpendicular

. (34)

The coefficient generally varies between 1.0 and 1.4.

The depth of subsurface layers calculated using seismic refraction technique in

situations

exhibiting anisotropy, will be over estimated. This is because the seismic refraction methods measure
horizontal velocities which are greater than those in the perpendicular direction.
7.6 Velocity And Rippability
Rippability is an important parameter in engineering applications because it decides the cost of
project. The ability to rip earth materials depends on P-wave velocity alongwith site specific geological
factors like in situ rock strength, texture, degree of jointing and fractures. Igneous rocks are difficult to rip
unless they are highly fractured or jointed. Metamorphic rocks too are strong having varying ripping
characteristics.
Minty and Kearns (1983) have suggested a method for deciding the rippability
subsurface formations which

is

of

various

a development of the Weaver rating system and is termed as

Geological factors rating. It takes into account the following geological factors:
1. Weathering
2. Rock strength
3. Groundwater condition
4. Joint spacing, separation and their orientation with respect to the ripping direction
5. Rock continuity and surface roughness
Each of these factors is given a rating and the sum of all such ratings is calculated for the
formation at a given site (Table-2). Then the factor "Seismic velocity X Geological factors rating"
L2

18

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

will determine the weight of the ripping machine required to rip the material. For instance, a factor of
60,000 for a site would require a 60 tonne tractor to rip the material (Fig 19).

Fig. 19 Rippability determination chart

It may be said that P-wave velocity along with geological factors like joint spacing,
orientation, nature and continuity and rock strength will give a better estimation of rippability.
Although in situ P-wave velocity is a useful index of rippability, there are notable instances in which
difficulties arise. These include thin strong layers which

are not detected by

refraction

technique.

L2

19

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

TABLE 2
Geological Factors Rating Chart (After Minty and Kearns, 1983)
Rock substance factors
Residual

Extremely

Highly

Moderately

Soil

weathered

weathered

weathered

-7

Weathering

-12

-10

Extremely

Rock

Very weak

Weak

Silicified

10

12

Strong

Very Strong

-10
Wet

-7

conditions

Moist

Extremely
Strong

-12

Ground water

Fresh

Medium strong

weak

Strength

Slightly weathered

12

10

Completely dry
1

Condition of discontinuity

Rock defect factors

Continuity

Non continuous

Surface

Polished-

Roughness

Smooth

Rough

Very Rough
with small steps

Separation

Wide

Narrow

(Average

> 20 mm

2 20 mm

width of

Close to tight

Cemented

0-2 mm

opening)
Very

Average
of

narrow

Discontinuities

< 6 mm

spacing

Continuous

Narrow

Mod. Narrow

Mod. Wide

Wide

Very wide

Ext. Wide

60-200 mm

200-600 mm

600mm-2m

>2 m

20

25

20-60 mm
6-20 mm
10

0
Discontinuity
orientation

15

Dip
0-20

Strike perpendicular to ripping direction

0

With dip
0

Un

Dip 20-45

-favourable

Favourable

13

L2

Strike parallel to ripping

direction

Against dip

Dip 45-90

Dip 20-45

30

Dip 45-90

Dip 20-

Dip 45-900

Un-

Fair

450

Very

favourable

favourable

favourable

Fair

unfavourable

13

10

15

Very

20

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

11.0 REFERENCES
Al-Sadi Hamid .N., 1980, Seismic exploration technique and processing, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel.,
Boston, Stuttgart.
Carroll R.D, 1969, The determination of acoustic parameters of volcanic rocks from compressional
velocity measurements, Int. Jl. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol.6, p 557-579.
Dobrin M.B., 1976, Introduction to geophysical prospecting; Mc Graw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Griffiths, D.H. and King, R.F., 1986, Applied Geophysics for Geologists & Engineers, Permagon
Press, p 26-31 .
Johnson, S.H., 1976, Interpretation of split-spread refraction data in terms of Plane dipping layers,
Geophysics, p 41.
Keary P. and

Brooks

M.,

1984,

An

Introduction

to

geophysical exploration; Blackwell

Scientific Publications, Oxford..

Lankston, R.W., 1990, High-resolution refraction seismic data acquisition and interpretation. Geophysical
and Environmental Geophysics, Vol. I: Review and tutorial, SEG, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Minty, E.J and Kearns, G.K., 1983, Rock Mass Workability, in collected case studies in Engineering
Geology, Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Geological Society of

Australia, pp 59-81.

Mukerjee, S and Mitra, V.K., 2003, Assessing shear wave velocity in fine sand from SPT- N Value, IGC, 1820 Dec, Roorkee, 21-24

L2

21