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b)
c)
d)
A Straight
alignment
would
be
shortest
which
shortest path.
the roads
alignment should be
with
minimum
problems.
Also
the
embankments also it
foundation
of
geometric features.
Economical:- The road alignment could be considered economical
only if the total cost including initial cos5, maintenance cost and
vehicle
operation cost is lowest. All these factors should
be given due
consideration before working out the
economics of each
alignment.
The alignment should be such that it would offer maximum
utility by serving maximum population and products.
Factors controlling alignment
For alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the
2 terminal stations. This is not always possible due to various
practical difficulties such as intermediate obstructions and
topography. A shortest route may have very steep gradients and
hence not easy for vehicle operation. Similarly, there may be
construction and maintenance problems along a route, which may
otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the
shortest route in order to cater for intermediate places of
importance or obligatory points.
A road which is economical in the initial construction cost,
need not necessarily be the most economical in maintenance or in
vehicle operation cost. It may also happen that the shortest and
4
easiest route for vehicle operation may work out to be the costliest
of the different alternatives from construction viewpoint. Thus it
may be seen that an alignment can seldom fulfil all requirements
simultaneously; hence a judicial choice is made considering all
factors.
The various factors that control the highway alignment in
general may be listed as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Obligatory points.
Traffic
Geometric design
Economics
Other considerations.
1)
2)
Map study.
Reconnaissance.
Preliminary surveys
Final location and detailed surveys.
1. Map study:
If the topography map of the area is available, it is possible to
suggest the likely routes to the road. In India, topographic maps
are available from the Survey of India with 15 or 30m
countdown intervals. The main features like rivers, hill, valleys,
etc., are also so shown on these maps. By careful study of maps,
it is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes
so that further details of these may be studied later at the site.
2. Reconnaissance: The second stage of surveys for highway
location is the reconnaissance to examine the general character
of the area for deciding the most general character of the area
for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
A field survey party may inspect a fairly road stretch of
land along the proposed alternative routes of map in the field.
Only very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer,
barometer etc., All relevant details not available in the maps are
collected and noted down. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land,
ridge, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along
the route which are not available in the map. Approximate
values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of
alternate alignments.
Preliminary survey:
6
Objectives.
Minimum geometric design standards as per IRC.
Field work details.
Geometric deficiency and re-design details.
Laboratory work and graphs.
Pavement design details.
Mix design details.
Estimation of quantities of materials
Drawing
Recommendations.
8
Highway Project:
New Highway Project:
The new highway project work may be divided into the following
stages;
1.
2.
3.
Route selection.
Collection of materials.
Construction stages including quality control
3. Preliminary survey
survey
and
other requirements of alignments.
4. Location of final
alignments
driving pegs
chosen
5. Detailed survey
and
cross-sections, computations of earth
work, quantities and other
construction
materials and details of geometric
design.
6. Materials survey
their
7. Design
cut
slopes, foundation of
embankments
and bridges, pavement layers.
8. Earth Work
9.Pavement Constructions :
construction
Preparation
of
sub-grade
Re-alignment project
Necessity of re-alignment:
1. Improvements of horizontal alignment design elements, such as
radius, super elevation, transition curves, clearance on the inner
side of the curve of shifting the curve to provide adequate sight
distance elimination of reverse curves and undesirable zig-zag
etc.,
2. Improvements of vertical alignments like steep gradients,
changes in summit curves to increase sight distance. Correction
of undesirable undulations like humps and dip etc.,
3. Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to
flooding, submergence or water logging during monsoons.
4. Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges, and culverts and
changes in water-way at locations slightly away from the
existing site.
5. Construction of over bridges or under bridges
6. Construction of a bypass.
7. Defence requirements.
10
11
Riding Quality
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor (Possible resurfing)
Very
Poor
(resurfing
required)
Good (acceptable)
Fair (acceptable)
Poor (not acceptable)
Range of Camber
Heavy to Light
Cement Concrete and high 1 in 50(2.0%)
type bituminous surface
60(1.7%)
Thin bituminous surface
1 in 40(2.5%)
50(2.0%)
Water bound macadam
1 in 33(3.0%)
40(2.5%)
Earth
1 in 25(4.0%)
33(3.0%)
1.
2.
3.
4.
to
in
to
in
to
in
to
in
Class of road
Single lane
Two lanes, without raised kerbs
Two Lanes with, raised kerbs
Intermediate Carriageway
Multi-lane pavements
For the project: Two lanes with raised kerbs of 7.5m carriageway is
selected.
Kerbs:
Kerbs indicates the boundary between the pavements and
shoulder; or some times islands or foot path or kerb parking space.
1. Low or mountable type kerbs which remain in through traffic
lanes, yet allow the driver to enter the shoulder area.
14
Roadway width, m
Plain Rolling
Mountains and
terrain
steep terrain
Road Classification
National and State Highway
a) Single lane
b) Two lane
Major district roads
a) Single lane
b) Two lane
Other district roads
a) Single
b) Two lanes
15
12.0
12.0
6.25
8.80
9.0
9.0
4.75
-----
7.5
9.0
4.75
-----
4.
4.00
Right of Way:
Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment.
The land width is governed by following factors:
1. Width of formation depending on the category of highway and
width of roadway and road margins
2. Height of embankment, side slopes, drainage system, sight
distances.
Recommended land width of different roads:
Sl.
No
Road
Classificatio
n
1.
2.
3.
4.
Built areas
Range
Normal
Range
National and
30state
45
30
30-60
60
highways
Major district
2525
20
15-25
roads
30
Other
District
15
15-5
15
15-20
roads
Village
1212
10
12-15
Roads
18
For major district road 25-30m land width may be
Mountains and
steep terrain
Open
Built
areas
areas
Normal
Normal
24
20
18
15
15
12
acquired.
Sight distances:
Safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, among
other factor on road length at which an obstruction, of any, becomes
visible to the driver in the direction of travel. Sight distance
available from point is the actual distance along the road surface.
Stopping sight distance:
16
20
25
30
40
50
60
65
80
100
20
25
30
45
60
80
90
120
180
Safe overtaking
sight distance
(metres)
65
235
300
340
470
640
Design speed:
The design speed in the main factor on which geometrics
design elements depend. The sight distances, radius of horizontal
curve, super elevation, extra widening of pavement length of
summit and valley curves are all dependent on design speed.
Horizontal Curves:
A horizontal highway curve is a curve is a plan to provide
change in direction to the central line of a road. When a vehicle
traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
P=WV2
gR
P=Centrifugal force
W=Weight of vehicle,Kg
R=Radius of circular curve,m
V=Speed of vehicle, m/sec
G=acceleration due to gravity=9.8m/sec
Centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve
has 2 effects:
1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels and
2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards.
Super elevation:
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
reduce tendency of vehicle to overturn or skid.
Outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge.
If the speed of vehicle is represented as
V Kmph
e +f= V2
127R
18
14.4 x15.8
=
3.28
= 8.32 sec
OSD = 331.47m
AS per IRC 65kmph OSD is 340m
1.
2.
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
3.
CAMPACTION TEST
4.
5.
20
The soil finer than 2mm size is oven dried at 105 o to 110oc
and required quantity taken by riffling is weighed. This
sample is spread in a tray or bucket and covered with
water.
Sl
No
1
2
3
Sieve
Openin
g
Particle
size(m
m)
4.75
2.36
1.18
Mass
of soil
retaine
d
%retianed
= mass of
soil
mass of
soil
Cummalati
ve %
retained
%
finer
5.2
9.8
19.7
1.04
1.96
3.94
1.04
3.0
6.94
98.96
97.00
93.06
21
4
5
6
7
8
600
300
150
75
pan
29.7
82.7
112.2
64.9
175.8
5.94
16.54
22.44
12.98
35.16
12.88
29.88
51.86
64.84
100
87.12
70.58
48.14
35.16
0
Procedure :
1) By means of the grooving tool gauge and adjustment plate,
adjust cup of the liquid limit apparatus to fall exactly 1cm on
the point of contact on the base.
2) Take about 150gm of an air dried soil samples passing
425micron. Sieve and mix thoroughly with distilled water to
give a stiff and uniform paste/ leave the soil for a suitable
maturing time which may extend upto 24 hrs for heavy clays.
3) Place a portion of the paste in the cup, level off with a spatula
the top surface symmetrically to give a maximum depth of 1
cm cut a uniform, straight groove by drawing
firmly a
grooving tool through the soil paste along the diameter
through the centre of the hinge.
22
Observation:
Test No
No.
of
flows
Container
No
Mass con
+
wet
soul(gm)
Mass
of
cont + dry
soil(gm)
Mass
of
empty
container
moisture
content(%
)
Liquid
limit(grap
h)
10
21
23
05
07
16.4
12.6
15.2
14.9
11.9
14.4
9.1
8.6
10.1
25.86
21.21
18.6
17.5%
23
24
Compaction Test
Object:- To determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density.
Apparatus:- Cylindrical mould, rammer, mould accessories, IS sieves.
Procedure:1) Take a representive sample weighing approximately 20kg of
thoroughly mixed dried material passing 4.75mm Is sieve.
2) Clean the mould and fix it to the base take the empty weight
of the mould . the inside of mould is greased.
3) At least attach the collar to the inside of the mould is greased.
4) Mix the soil thoroughly take about 2.5kg of soil and compact
it, in the mould in 3 layers and each layer he being compacted
by 25 blows.
5) Remove the collar and cut the excess soil with the help of
straight edge clean the mould from outside and weigh it to
nearest gram.
6) Repeat step 4 and 5 for about 5 or 6 time using a fresh part of
soil specimen and after adding a higher water content than
the proceeding specimen.
Observation
Diameter of mould = 10cm = d
Height of mould = 12.6cm = h
Volume of mould = 989.6cm = v
Type of test = Heavy compaction.
Weight of rammer = 4.89kg
No. of layers = 3
No. of blows/layer =56
25
Tabular column
Determinati
on on
Mass mould
+ comp soil
(gm)
Mass comp
soil (gm)
Empty
mould
Bulk density
g/cc
Container
No
Empty
weight of
container
(gm)
Container
+ wet soil
(gm)
Container
+ dry soil
(gm)
% water
content
1+w
6611
6709
6835
6909
1936
2334
2160
2234
1972
2386
2386
2386
2386
2836
2.18
2.25
1..99
1.95
2.05
6647
13
15
486
04
208
12
8.8
16.22
16
19
24.4
14
17.98
14.6
18.3
22.6
13.1
4.25
7.44
11..1
13.1
15.42
1.87
1.9
1.96
1.99
1.73
8.0
kn/m3
Result:- 1) Maximum dry density of soil = 2.02 kn/m3
2) OMC = 11.8%
26
layers
10)
Remove the extension collar and trim off the excess soil
by a straight edge.
11)
Remove the base plate, spacer disc and the filter paper
12)
13)
Soaking of specimen
1. Put a filter paper on the top of the soil and place the
adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of the filter
paper.
2. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to the
weight of the base material and pavement expected in actual
construction. Each 2.5kg weight is equivalent to 7cm of
construction. A minimum 2 weight should be put.
3. Immerse the mould assembly and weights etc., in a tank of
water allowing free access of water to the top and bottom of
specimen.
4. Mount tripod of the specimen measuring device on the edge
of the mould and not down the initial reading of dial gauge.
5. Keep the let-up undisturbed for 96 hours maintain constant
water level.
6. Take the final reading at the end of period remove the tripod
and take out mould allow to drain.
7. Remove the weights, perforated plate and top filter paper and
weigh.
Penetration test.
1) Place the surcharge weights back on the top of the soaked soil
specimen, place the assembly on the penetration test
machine.
2) Seat the penetration piston at the centre of the specimen with
the smallest possible load the full contact is established
between the surface of the specimen and the piston.
28
3) Set the dial gauge and proving ring readings zero . apply load
on penetration piston at 1.25mm/min. noted down the load at
designated penetration.
4) At end detachet it form the penetration test.
sand
Caliberation :1
2
3
4
5
7025
5150
1162.38
4850
7025-51504850=1575
1575= 1.35g/cm3
1162.38
sand
Result:-
(g/cm )
31
3397
1738
1696 gms
7025
1749
1323
1323 =980
1.35
1696 = 1.7
980
32
The flexible pavements consists of a relatively tin wearing surface built over a base
course and sub-base course and they rest on compacted sub grade . The flexible
pavements are able to resist only very small tensile stresses.
Rigid pavements are made up of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have
base course between the pavement and the sub-grade. A rigid pavement can take
appreciable tensile stresses and is capable of bridging small weakness and depression
in the sub-grade.
Semi flexible pavement. Is made of dry clean concrete or soil cement and possess
qualities of intermediate between flexible and rigid pavements. A semi-flexible
pavement possess appreciable flexural strength but its modulus of elasticity is
considerably lower than that of concrete.
= 650vehicles/day
Adopt : Adopt curve E in the graph. As its vehicle density ranges form 450-1500
vehicles/day
Depth of construction in (mm) = 260
There for Adopt = 265 mm = 270 mm
Carpet
20MM
75MM
WBM
GRADE 1
75MM
GRADE 2
GSB
34
100MM
35