ELEKTRONIKA DAYA

TUGAS.3
ELEKTRONIKA DAYA
NAMA :
NIM :
1. What is the turns ratio of a transformer?
Transformers are used in a wide array of electrical or electronic
applications,providing functions that range from isolation and stepping up
or stepping down voltage and current to noise rejection, signal
measurement, regulation and a host of functions particular to specific
applications. In order to test that a transformer will meet its design
specification, a number of functions should be tested and one of the most
commonly used tests is turns
ratio.This technical note will review briefly the basic theory of turns ratio
and then
introduce some additional issues that should be considered when testing
this critical transformer characteristic.
The turns ratio of a transformer is defined as the number of turns on
its
secondary divided by the number of turns on its primary.
The voltage ratio of an ideal transformer is directly related to the turns
ratio:

The current ratio of an ideal transformer is inversely related to the turns

ratio:

Where Vs = secondary voltage, Is = secondary current, Vp = primary

voltage, Ip = primary current, Ns = number of turns in the secondary
winding
and Np = number of turns in the primary winding.
2. What is a rectifier? What is the difference between a rectifier and
a converter?
Rectifier is An electrical circuit used to convert AC into DC current. A
rectifier is a diode that causes the current to flow in only one direction.
The output of the rectifier is essentially half-AC current, which is then
filtered into DC.
The different is A rectifier converts AC voltage into DC voltage. A
converter is something more general. It describes not only rectifiers, but
also devices that can turn DC into AC or perform DC-to-DC or AC-to-AC
conversion, or converter change one form of supply in to other.that is from
AC to DC, DC to AC(inverter), AC to AC(cylic converter) with change in
frequency.Rectifier convert AC into DC.that rectifier is a kind of converter.
But all the converters are not rectifiers.
3. What is a blocking condition of a diode?

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Any diode if connected to where the anode is tie to a negative

potential will block that voltage. Up to the limit of the breakdown potential
of the diode whereby avalanche current will destroy the diode unless
current limited
A blocking diode is a diode placed in an electrical circuit for the
purpose of preventing electrical current from flowing in a specific
direction. By function, all diodes block electrical current; however, blocking
diodes are used specifically to prevent a reverse flow of electrical power in
order to protect batteries, charging systems, or power generation systems.
Blocking diodes are used heavily in green-energy systems such as solar or
wind-powered electrical generators.
Diodes are common semiconductor devices, usually made of silicon,
that are used to control the flow of electricity in circuits. A diode has two
terminals: the positively charged anode and the negatively charged
cathode. When electrical power enters a diode through its anode, it is
conducted through the diode and passes out through the cathode and
then on to the rest of the circuit. When electrical power enters the cathode
of a diode, however, it is blocked and cannot pass through the device.
In a solar power generating system, DC electrical energy is
generated by the systems photovoltaic cells. This energy then passes to
another part of the system that either converts the DC power to AC or
uses the DC power to charge a battery or other power-storage device.
When sunlight is striking the solar cells, the power created by the cells
passes through the anode of a blocking diode and on to the other systems
without interference.
When night falls, solar cells no longer generate electrical power. The
difference in electrical charge between the solar cells and the battery or
conversion circuit causes them to try to rebalance the difference in
electrical charge by sending power to the solar cells, which can damage or
destroy them. When this happens, the power sent to the solar cells enters
the cathode of the blocking diode and is stopped before it can reach the
solar cells and harm them. Once the sun rises again, and the photovoltaic
cells are generating an electrical charge, the power generated can again
pass through the blocking diode uninhibited.
A blocking diode performs essentially the same function in a windpowered system as it does in a solar generator. The difference between
the wind system and a solar power system is that a wind system usually
creates AC power using a generator driven by blades or a turbine. In this
case, the reverse flow of power that occurs when the wind dies down can
actually drive the generator as though it were an electric motor. The
blocking diode prevents the reverse drive of the generator, which may not
only damage the generator but can also consume all the power stored in
the systems batteries.
4. What are the performance parameters of a rectifier?
Rectifiers have two parameters of interest - maximum forward
current - and maximum reverse voltage. A rectifier is generally chosen
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based on these two parameters. Other parameters include turn-on/turn-off

time, forward voltage drop, and capacitance. The importance of these and
other parameters depends on the circuit design requirements.
The performance of rectifiers are evaluated using the following
parameters:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The
The
The
The
The

average value of output (load) voltage given as Vdc

average value of output (load) current given by Idc
output dc power given by Pdc = VdcIdc
rms value of output voltage given as Vrms
rms value of output current given as Irms

6. The output ac power given by Pac = VrmsIrms

7. The efficiency or rectification ratio of a rectifier given by h =
8. The output voltage consists of two components an ac component and a dc
component. The effective or (rms) value of the ac component of output
voltage is given by

9. The form factor which is a measure of the shape of the output voltage is
given by

10.The ripple factor which is a measure of the ripple content is given by

By substituting the equation for the effective value of the qac component
of the output voltgae into the ripple factor equation, we can express the
ripple factor as

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11.The transformer utilization factor is defined as

where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current of the transformer
secondary respectively.

Figure 3.2 - Waveforms of Input Voltage & Current

Consider the waveforms in figure 3.2

vs is the sinusoidal input voltage
is is the instantaneous input current
is1 is the fundamental component of is
12.The displacement angle f is the angle between fundamental components
of input current and voltage
13.The displacement factor (DF) or Displacement Power Factor (DPF) is
defined as
14.The harmonic factor (HF) also known as total harmonic distortion (THD) is
a measure of the distortion of a waveform. The harmonic factor of the
input current is given as

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Where both currents are recorded as rms values

15.The crest factor is a comparison of the peak input current to its rms value.
It is given as

For a pure sinusoidal input current and voltage, power factor is defined as the
cosine of the load angle f, i.e.

where the voltages and currents are stated in rms values and

where

For a rectifier circuit, the input power factor is given by

Power factor in rectifier circuits is related to harmonic voltages and currents

given in the diagrams

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Where:

Hence,

An ideal rectifier should have h = 100%, Vac = 0, RF = 0, TUF = 1, HF = THD = 0,

and PF = PDF = 1.
5. What is the significance of the form factor of erectifier?
In electronics, the form factor of an alternating current waveform
(signal) is the ratio of the RMS (Root Mean Square) value to the average
value (mathematical mean of absolute values of all points on the
waveform). It identifies the ratio of the direct current of equal power
relative to the given alternating current. The former can also be defined as
the direct current that will produce equivalent heat.
Usage:
Digital AC measuring instruments are often built with specific
waveforms in mind. For example, many digital AC multimeters are
specifically scaled to display the RMS value of a sine wave. Since the RMS
calculation can be difficult to achieve digitally, the absolute average is
calculated instead and the result multiplied by the form factor of a
sinusoid. This method will give less accurate readings for waveforms other
than a sinewave.
Spesific form factor:

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represents the amplitude of the function, and any other

coefficients applied in the vertical dimension. For example,

can be

analyzed as
. As both RMS and ARV are directly
proportional to it, it has no effect on the form factor, and can be replaced with a
normalized 1 for calculating that value.

is the duty cycle, the ratio of the "pulse" time (when the function's
value is not zero) to the full wave period . Most basic wave functions only
achieve 0 for infinitely short instants, and can thus be considered as having
. However, any of the non-pulsing functions

below can be appended with

to allow pulsing. This is illustrated with the half-rectified sine wave, which can be
considered a pulsed full-rectified sine wave with

, and has

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6. What is the significance of the ripple factor of a rectifier?

The objective of this work is to investigate the ripple factor of halfwave rectifier circuits. The ripple factor is one of the important
characteristics necessary when designing a power electronic converter.
The ripple factor measures how much deviation the converter output
parameter has, such as the output current, from its nominal designed
value. In this paper the ripple factor of the output current of half-wave
rectifiers is investigated. More specifically, the ripple factor of output
current from more practical half-wave rectifiers that include inductive load
with or without a freewheeling diode are analyzed and then compared to
that of the basic half-wave rectifier consisting only of a resistive load.
Derivation of the equations for the ripple factor for the three half-wave
rectifier circuits is first presented. From these results, plots are generated
using Pspice that will allow us to conveniently compare the ripple factor
performance of each of the rectifiers.
7. What is the efficiency of rectification?
Utility power enters the premises as alternating current, but equipment
like computers and other devices used in industrial settings require direct
current to operate. The process of converting from AC to DC is called
rectification.
Types of Rectifier Circuits
A rectifier is the device used to do this conversion.
Rectifiers are of two types: half-wave rectifiers and full-wave
rectifiers. Full-wave rectifiers are further classified as center tap full-wave
rectifiers and bridge rectifiers.

Half-wave Rectifier
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The basic half-wave rectifier circuit and the input and output waveforms are
shown in the diagram. A half-wave rectifier conducts only during the positive half
cycle. It allows only one half of an AC waveform to pass through the load, R L,
hence, the name half-wave rectifier. During the positive half cycle, the diode is
forward biased and will act as a short circuit, allowing the waveform to pass
through the load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reversed biased
and will act as an open circuit.
Efficiency of the Half-wave Rectifier
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC power to the applied input AC
power.
Rectifier efficiency, = DC output power/input AC power
Idc= Im /
The DC output power is given by: P dc= I2dc x RL = (Im / )2 x RL
The AC input power is given by: Pac= I2rms(rf + RL) , where rf is diode resistance.
For a half-wave rectified wave: Irms= Im / 2
Therefore, Pac=(Im/2)2 x (rf+RL)
Thus rectifier efficiency, = DC output power/AC input power
= [(Im/)2xRL] / [(Im/2)2x(rf+RL)]
= 0.406 RL/ (rf + RL)
= 0.406 / (1+rf/RL)
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL
Therefore, maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%. This means only 40.6% of the
input AC power is converted into DC power.

Full-Wave Rectifier

Center Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

A center tap full-wave rectifier circuit with two diodes and a transformer is shown
in the diagram. The center tap is taken as the ground or zero voltage reference
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point. Unlike the half-wave rectifier, both the positive as well as the negative half
cycles of the input are used with the help of two diodes and a center tapped
transformer. During the positive half cycle of the AC input, terminal A will be
positive and terminal B will be negative. Therefore, diode D 1 will be forward
biased and diode D2 will be reversed biased. The current will flow along AD 1CEFG.
The positive half cycle will appear across R L as shown in second waveform.During
the negative half cycle, the terminal B becomes positive and terminal A becomes
negative. Diode D1 will be reversed biased and diode D 2 will be forward biased.
The current will flow along BD2CEFG.
Idc= 2 Im / = 2 Vm / RL
Irms= Im / 2 = 0.707 Im
Rectifier Efficiency, = Pdc / Pac
= I2dcRL/ I2rms (rf + RL)
= 0.812 / [1+ (rf / RL)]
= 81.2% if the diode resistance rf is negligible as compare to RL.
The efficiency of the center tap full-wave rectifier is twice the value of the halfwave rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier

The bridge rectifier is the most commonly used circuit for DC power supplies. It
consists of four diodes D1 through D4, as shown in the diagram, connected to
form a bridge. During the positive input half cycle, terminal A will be positive and
terminal B will be negative. Diodes D1 and D3 will become forward biased and
D2 and D4 will be reversed biased. The current will flow along ACFGEDB
producing a drop across load resistance RL. During the negative input half cycle,
the terminal B will be positive and terminal A will be negative. Diodes D2 and D4
will become forward biased and diodes D1 and D3 will become reversed biased.
The current will flow along BDFGECA. Current flows through load resistance R L in
the same direction FG during both AC input half cycles.
Bridge rectifier efficiency, = Pdc / Pac
= 81.2% (calculated using the same formulas used for the center tap full-wave
rectifier)

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This means that a full-wave bridge rectifier is also twice as efficient as a halfwave rectifier.
8. What is a significance of the transformer utilization factor?
with a very good transformer you may get 95% efficiency this is mostly
due to eddy current losses in the core or magnetization losses so with 100va
transformer you lose 5 va if you need 10va to charge your cell fone battery
with the 100va transformer 10va goes to the phone and 5 to keep the
transformer warm you wish to make a call while the phone is charging you
need 5 plus the 10 to charge the battery a 20va transformer you only lose 1
to heat the wall wart if you are out most of the day and want to charge it in
1/2 hour you need the 100va seems like extraordinary expense on the chance
you forget to put it on the charger before you go to bed.

9. What is the displacement factor?

Displacement factor is equal to the power factor for linear loads
with sinusoidal voltages and currents.
pf = cos (angle1 - angle2)
10.
What is the input power factor?
The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the
ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the
circuit, and is a dimensionless number between -1 and 1. Real power is the
capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent
power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy
stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that
distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent
power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs
when the device which is normally the load generates power which then flows
back towards the device which is normally considered the generator. [ In an
electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current
than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred.
The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system,
and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger
equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher
cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power
factor.=Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be
corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads,
such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases,
active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the
distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power
factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system,
or built into power-consuming equipment.

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