SKELETAL SYSTEM!

Functions:!
1. Support the body!
2. protects internal organs!
3. allows body movements!
4. stores minerals and fats!
5. site of blood cell and platelet production!

Bone Matrix !
1. organic - collagen (ropelike protein, flexible), Proteoglycans (polysaccharides attached to
proteins)!
2. inorganic - Calcium, phosphate (minerals)!

hydroxyapatite - calcium phosphate crystals!

4 categories of bones (shape)!

1. Long bones - longer than they are wide (upper and lower limbs)!
2. Short bones - as broad as they are long (wrist and ankle bones)!
3. Flat bones - relatively thin, flattened shape (skull bones, ribs, scapulae and sternum)!
4. Irregular bones - shapes that do not fit into other categories (vertebrae and facial bones)!

Structure/histology of a long bone!

1. Periosteum - sheet of irregular dense fibrous ct, covers the shaft and part of the head of the
long bones!
2. Articular Cartilage - smooth cap of hyaline cartilage where the bone articulates with another
bone!
3. Diaphysis - the whole central shaft of long bone!
4. Epiphysis - heads of a long bone!
5. Medullary Cavity - space within the diaphysis!
6. Endosteum - lines medullary cavity!
7. Red Marrow - soft tissue inside spongy bone which produces blood cells!
8. Yellow Marrow - soft tissue consists mostly of adipose tissue!
9. Osteoblasts - formation of bone!
10. osteocytes - bone cells, removes calcified cartilage matrix!
11. osteoclasts - bone eating cells!
12. lamellae - thin sheets of extracellular matrix!

13. lacunae - spaces where osteocytes are located!

14. canaliculi - tiny canals!
15. haversian canal - central canal!
16. haversian system - osteocytes + central canal + lamellae!
17. trabeculae - interconnecting rods or plates of bone which resemble the beams or scaffolding of

a building, no blood vessels and no central canals!

Types of Bone!
1. Compact bone - solid matrix!
2. Spongy/cancellous bone - lacy network of bone with many small, marrow-filled spaces, located

mainly in epiphysis!

Bone ossification - formation of bones by osteoblasts!

1. intramembranous ossification - occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone in ct
membranes (skull)!
2. endochondral ossification - process where the bones at the base of the skull and most of the

remaing system develops!

ossification centers - area where the process ossification begins!

chondrocytes - cartilage cells!
primary ossification center - center part of the diaphysis where bone first begins to appear!
bone growth - occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other ct!
appositional growth - process in which the bone increases in width or diameter!
bone remodeling - removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts, responsible for changes in bone shape, adjustment of bone to stress, bone repair, and
calcium regulation in the body fluids, bone growth also!
bone - major storage site for calcium in the body!
callus - takes 3 to 4 weeks to form, network of fibers and islets of cartilage bet two bone fragments!

Bone fractures !
classification/types!
1. Open/compound - if the bone protrudes through the skin!
2. Closed/simple - if not!
3. Complete - if the fracture totally separates the two bone fragments!
4. Incomplete - if it doesnt!
5. Comminuted - in which the bone breaks into more than two fragments!

6. Impacted - one of the fragments of one part of the bone is driven into the spongy bone of
another fragment!
7. linear - direction of the fracture is parallel to the long axis!
8. transverse - right anges to the long axis!
9. oblique/spiral - angle other than a right angle to the long axis!

calcium homeostasis - maintained by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin!

PTH - secreted from pt glands when blood Ca levels are too low (increases blood Ca levels)!
Calcitonin - when blood Ca levels are too high (decreases blood Ca levels)!
hematoma - any rupture in blood vessels and bone fracture!
granulation tissue - formation of new blood vessels!

Features:!
1. body/shaft - main portion!
2. head - enlarged end!
3. neck - area bet head and body!
4. condyle - smooth rounded articular surface!
5. facet - small flattened articular surface!
6. crest - prominent ridge!
7. process - prominent projection!
8. tubercle/tuberosity - knob/enlargement!
9. trochanter - large tuberosity only found on proximal femur!
10. epicondyle - enlargement near or above condyle!
11. foramen - hole!
12. canal/meatus - tunnel!
13. fissure - cleft!
14. sinus - cavity!
15. fossa - depression!

Division of Skeleton 206 bones!

1. Axial - 80 bones!
2. Appendicular - 126 bones!

foramen magnum/vertebral foramen - largest foramen!

vertebral column - central axis of the skeleton!
intervertebral disks - fibrocartilage in bet vertebraes!
cervical vertebrae - have small bodies!

atlas - c1, no body!

axis - c2!
thoracic vertebrae - possess long thin spinous processes that are directed inferiorly!
lumbrar vertebrae - large thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes!
sacral promontory - a landmark that can be felt during a vaginal examination, reference point to det
if the pelvic openings are large enough to allow normal delivery of a baby!
12 pairs of ribs = 24 ribs 14 true 6 false 4 floating!
xiphoid process - important landmark during cpr for its better to do cpr at the sternums body
because if its in xiphoid process it might cause and internal bleeding !
glenoid fossa/cavity - where the head of the humerus is connected to the scapula!
coracoid process - provides attachment of arm and chest muscles!
humerus - 3rd longest!
femur -longest!
tibia - 2nd longest!

Carpals - Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can Handle!

Tarsals - Tiger Cabs Need M I L C!

pelvic inlet - male (heart shaped) female (oval)!

pelvic outlet - female (broader and more shallow)!
subpubic angle in female - greater!

joint/articulation - place where two bones come together, usually considered movable!
synarthrosis - non movable joint!
amphiathrosis - slightly movable joint!
diarthrosis - freely movable joint!

Three major structures of bones!

1. fibrous joints - two bones united by fibrous tissue that exhibit a little or no movement!
a. sutures - bet bones of the skull (fontanels in newborn)!
b. syndesmoses - which the bones are separated by some distance and held together by
ligaments!
c. gomphoses - pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by ligaments (tooth and its socket)!

2. Cartilaginous joints - two bones unite by means of cartilage (slight movement) (epiphyseal plates
of growing long bones, cartilage bet ribs and sternum)!

3. Synovial Joints - freely movable joints that contain fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones (most of appendicular bones)!

synovial membrane - lines the joint cavity everywhere except articular cartilage!
synovial fluid - produced by synovial membrane which is a complex mixture of polysaccharides,
proteins, lipids and cells!
bursa - pocket extension of synovial membrane, located bet structures that rub together!
tendon sheath - extension of synovial membrane along some tendons associated with joints!

Types of synovial joints!

1. plane/gliding - two opposed flat surfaces that glide over each other (articular facets bet
vertebrae)!
2. saddle - two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to each other
(metacarpal and trapezium)!
3. hinge - movement in one plane only (elbow and knee joints)!
4. pivot - restrict movement to rotation around a single axis (atlas and axis, bet proximal ends of
ulna and radius)!
5. ball-and-socket - allows a wide range of movement in almost any direction (shoulder and hip
joints)!
6. ellipsoid/condyloid - elongated ball and socket joints, hinge motion but in two planes (occipital

!
!
!

condyles, atlas, bet metacarpal and phalanges)!

DISEASES/DISORDERS!
Gigantism - abnormally increased body size due to excessive growth at the epiphyseal plate!
Dwarfism - abnormally small body size due to improper growth at the epiphyseal plates!
Rickets - growth retardation due to nutritional deficiencies!
Osteogenesis Imperfecta - brittle bones that fracture easily due to insufficient or abnormal collagen!
Osteomyelitis - bone inflammation due to bacterial infection !
Osteomalacia - softening of adult bones due to calcium depletion; often caused by Vit D deficiency!
Osteoporosis - reduction in overall quantity of bone tissue!
Arthritis - joint inflammation!
Gout - increased production and accumulation of uric acid crystals in tissues!
Bursitis - inflammation of a bursa!
Bunion - deformations of first metatarsal; irritated by tight shoes!
kyphosis - hunchback condition!

lordosis - abnormal anterior curvature of the spine, mainly in the lumbar region resulting a
swayback condition!
scoliosis - lateral curvature of the spine!
sprain - ligaments around the joint are pulled or torn!
separation - bones remain apart after injury to a joint!
dislocation - end of bone is pulled out of the socket in a ball and socket, ellipsoid or pivot!
hyperextension - abnormal forced extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion!

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM!

Functions:!
1. produces body movement!
2. maintains posture!
3. causes reporation!
4. produces body heat!
5. performs movements involved in communication!
6. constricts organs and vessels!
7. pumps blood!

Major characteristics:!
1. Contractility - ability to shorten with force!
2. Excitability - capacity to respond to a stimulus!
3. Extensibility - ability to stretch!
4. Elasticity - after being stretched, it has the ability to recoil back to original length!

Skeletal Muscle Structure!

1. Epimysium - ct surrounding skeletal muscle!
2. Muscle fasciculi - numerous visible bundles of muscle!
3. Perimysium - loose ct surrounding fasciculi!
4. Muscle fibers/cells - several muscle cells which compose the fasciculus, single cylindrical fiber
with several nuclei at its periphery!
5. Endomysium - loose ct surrounding each muscle fiber!

Muscle Fiber Structure:!

a. sarcolemma - cell membrane of muscle fiber!

b. transverse or t tubules - tubelike invaginations which occur at regular intervals along the
muscle fiber!
c. sarcoplasmic reticulum - smooth er!
d. sarcoplasm - muscle fibers cytoplasm!
e. myofibrils - threadlike structures that extend from one end of the muscle fiber to another!
!

1. actin myofilaments - thin filaments!

a. actin - pearls twisted together!

b. troponin - binding sites for Ca!

c. tropomyosin - cover attachment sited for actin myofilament!

2. myosin myofilaments - thick filaments, resembles bundle of minute gold club heads

(myosin heads)!
!

3. sarcomere - basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle because it is the

smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of contracting!

!

a. Z disk - network of protein fibers forming an attachment site for actin

myofilaments!
!

b. I band - consists only of actin myofilaments, spans each z disk and ends at the

myosin myofilaments!
!

c. A band - where actin and myosin overlaps!

d. H zone - consists of only myosin myofilaments!

e. M line - dark-staining band where myosin myofilaments are anchored in the

center of a sarcomere!

I and A band - responsible for striations!

H zone, M line, I bands - shorten during contraction!

polarized - the inside of the cell is moe negatively charged than outside!
resting membrane potential - occurs when there is an uneven distribution of ions across the cell
membrane (K inside is higher than outside, Na outside is higher than K, cell membrane is more
permeable to K than Na)!
depolarization - inside more positive than outside!
repolarization - inside more negative than outside again, change back to resting membrane
potential!
neuromuscular junction - junction with a muscle fiber formed by a cluster of enlarged axon
terminals resting in indentions of the muscle fibers cell membrane!
synapse - cell-to-cell junction between a nerve cell and another or an effector cell!
presynaptic terminal - enlarged axon terminal!
synaptic cleft - space bet presynaptic terminal and muscle fiber membrane!

postsynaptic membrane - muscle fiber membrane!

synaptic vesicles - small vesicles in each presynaptic terminal!
AcetylCholine - functions as neurotransmitter, released by presynaptic nerve cell that stimulates a
postsynaptic cell!
acetylcholinesterase - enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine to acetic acid and choline!
choline - recycled after use!
acetic acid - waste !
sliding filament model - sliding of actin myofilaments past myosin myofilaments during contraction!
adenosine triphosphate - a high-energy molecule produced from the energy that is released during
metabolism of food!

CONDITIONS
rigor mortis - muscles become rigid after death due to absence of atp!
spastic paralysis - respiratoey muscles contract and cannot relax!
flaccid paralysis - muscle is incapable of contracting in response to nervous stimulation!
torticollis - wry neck, injury to one of sternocleidomastoid muscles (damage to a babys neck during
difficult birth)!
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - muscle weakness and usually identified in children around 3 yrs
old!
Bradypnea - abnormally slow breathing rate!
Tachypnea - rapid breathing!

curare - bind to the ach receptors on the muscle cell membrane and prevent ach from binding to
them!
muscle twitch - contraction of a muscle fiber in response to a stimulus!
lag/latent phase - time bet the app of a stimulus and the beginning of contraction!
contraction phase - muscle contracts!
relaxation phase - muscle relaxes!
summation - the force of contraction of individual muscle fibers is increased by rapidly stimulating
them!
tetanus - a sustained contraction that occurs when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no
relaxation occurs!
recruitment - the number of muscle fibers contracting is increased by increasing the number of
motor units stimulated, and the muscle contracts with more force!
aerobic respiration - requires O (glucose to ATP, CO, water)!
anaerobic respiration - does not require O (glucose to ATP, Lactic acid)!

creatine phosphate - excess ATP, stores energy which can be used rapidly to help maintain an
adequate amount of ATP in a contracting muscle fiber!
recovery oxygen consumption - amount of O needed in chemical reactions!
Muscular fatigue - muscle fibers use ATP faster = Ca stimulate actin and myosin is reduced!
physiological contracture - occurs when there is too little ATP to bind to myosin myofilaments
(incapable of muscle contraction)!
psychological contracture - muscle is still capable of contracting but the individual perceives that
continued muscle contraction is impossible!

Types of Muscle Contractions!

1. isometric contractions - the length of the muscle does not change but the amount of tension
increases during the contraction process!
2. isotonic contractions - length decreases !
a. concentric contractions - muscle tension increases as muscle shortens!
b. eccentric contractions - tension is maintained in a muscle, but the opposing resistance causes

the muscle to lengthen!

muscle tone - constant tension produced by body muscles over long periods of time!
slow-twitch fibers - contain type 1 myosin as the predominant or even exclusive type (contract
slowly and more resistant to fatigue)!
fast-twitch fibers - contain either type 2a or 2b myosin (contract quickly and fatigue quickly)!
myoglobin - stores O temporarily !
hypertrophy - enlargement of muscle fibers!
satellite cells - undifferentiated cells just below endomysium!
authorhythmicity - when smooth muscle results to a periodic spontaneous contraction!
intercalated disks - where cardiac muscle cells connects!

tendon - muscle to bone!

ligament - bone to bone!
aponeuroses - broad sheetlike tendons!
retinaculum - band of ct that holds down the tendons at each wrist and ankle!
agonist - muscle that accomplish a certain movement!
antagonist - opposing agonist!
synergists - members of a group of muscles working together to produce a movement!
prime mover - one muscle plays a major role !
fixators - muscles that holds one bone in place relative to the body whule a usually more distal
bone is moved!

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NERVOUS SYSTEM!

Functions:!
1. receiving sensory input!
2. integrating information!
3. controlling muscles and glands!
4. maintaining homeostasis!
5. establishing and maintaining mental activity!

Divisions:!
1. Central NS - brain and spinal cord!
2. Peripheral NS - all nervous tissue outside CNS!
!

a. sensory/afferent division - conducts action potentials from s receptors to CNS (sensory

neurons)!
!

b. motor/efferent division - conducts ap from CNS to effector organs (motor neurons)!

1. somatic NS - transmits ap from CNS to skeletal muscles!

2. autonomic NS - transmits ap from CNS to cardiac m, smooth m and glands!

Enteric NS - has both sensory and motor neurons contained wholly within the digestive tract!

CELLS!
1. Neurons - receive stimuli, conduct ap, and transmits signals to other neurons or effector organs!
2. Neuroglia - supporting cells for neurons!

gray matter - groups of neuron soma and dendrites where there is very little myelin (H shaped)!
white mater - bundles of parallel axons with myelin sheaths (myelinated axons)!
NaK pump - 3 Na out 2 K in!
Reflex - involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to periphery and transmitted to CNS!
Reflex arc - basic functional unit of NS (sensory r - s neuron - interneuron - m neuron - effector
organ)!
converging pathway - two or more neurons synapse with the same neuron!
diverging pathway - one neuron synapses with more than one other neuron!
dorsal root ganglion - swelling or knot in dorsal root!
stretch reflex - simplest reflex (knee-jerk/patellar reflex)!
withdrawal/flexor reflex - remove a limb from a painful stimulus!

cerebellar peduncles - connection of cerebellum to brainstem!

gyri - numerous folds!
sulci - spaces!
cerebellum - little brain!

Lobes of cerebral hemisphere!

1. frontal lobe - voluntary motor functions, motivations, aggression, mood, olfactory!
2. parietal lobe - most sensory functions!
3. occipital lobe - visual!
4. temporal lobe - olfactory and auditory, memory!

central sulcus of rolando - separates frontal and parietal lobes!

spinothalamic tracts - pain temp light touch pressure (posterior)!
corticospinal tracts - anterior!
left cerebral cortex - speech area!
left hemisphere - analytical!
right hemisphere - spatial perception/musical ability!

Meninges - surround and protect the brain and spinal cord!

1. dura mater - most superficial and thickest!
2. arachnoid mater - very thin!
3. pia mater - very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord!

epidural space - vertebral canal bet dura mater and vertebrae, injection site for epidural anesthesia!
subdural space - space bet dura and arachnoid!
subarachnoid space - space bet arachnoid and pia, filled with CSF and contains blood vessels!

lateral ventricle - relatively large cavity!

third ventricle - small midline cavity center of diencephalon!
fourth ventricle - base of the cerebellum and connected to third ventricle !
cerebral aqueduct - narrow canal which connects third ventricle and cerebellum!
choroid plexus - produces CSF!

parasymphatetic - rest and digest!

symphatetic - fight or flight!

CONDITIONS!

aphasia - absent/defective speech due to left cerebral cortex damage also stroke!
hydrocephalus - accumulation of CSF into ventricles due to blockage of the openings in fourth
ventricle!
stroke - bleeding in brain, death of brain tissue due to disruption of vascular supply!
encephalitis - inflammation of brain!
meningitis - inflammation of meninges!
parkinson disease - caused by lesion in basal nuclei!
alzheimer disease - mental deterioration or dementia!
epilepsy - seizures involving a sudden massive neuronal discharge!
anesthesia - loss of sensation!
neuritis - neve inflammation!
leprosy - bacterial disease that kills skin!

Cranial Nerves - Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet A H!

Functions: Some Scientists Make Money But My Brother Says Beautiful Bodies Make More!
Parasympathetic innervations: 3,7,9,10!

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM!

Chemical Messengers - allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body activities!
1. Autocrine - secretes and influences the same cell (prostaglandins)!
2. Paracrine - act locally on nearby cells (somatostatin, histamine)!
3. Neurotransmitter - produced by neurons that activate adjacent neuron (ach, epinephrine)!
4. endocrine - secreted directly into the blood stream (th, gh, insulin, estrogen)!

hormones - endocrine chemical messengers!

receptors - proteins in which hormone bind to!
receptor site - portion of receptor where hormone binds!

NE/E - fight or flight hormones!

erythropoietin - kidney hormone!
human chorionic gonadotropin - hormone in pregnant women!

CONDITIONS
hyperthyroidism - high t3 (triiodothyronine) t4 (thyroxine) !
hypothyroidism - low t3 t4!

graves disease - hyperthyroidism (excessive th)!

myxedema - hypothyroidism (lack of th)!
goiter - enlargement of thyroid gland!
exophthalmia - bulged eyes!
cretinism - infant hypothyroidism!
diabetes mellitus 1 - too little insulin!
type 2 dm - insufficient numbers of insulin receptors on target cells!
hyperglycemia - high blood glucose levels!
hypopituitarism - abnormal development of adenohypophysis (anterior pg)!
gigantism - too high gh in adults (bone length)!
acromegaly - facial features and hands enlargement!
dwarfism - too little gh in children!