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Price Three Shillings,B1JAN87_} i Oy The object of this manual is to assist the British officer in acquiring that moderate knowledge of field fortification and of military sketching and reconnaisance which will enable him to superintend and direct the operations of a working party of soldiers or others employed in the tracing and construction of field works, or of siege and other trenches ; to defend and artifi- cially strengthen any village, house, or other post that he may have to occupy ; and to make an intelligible sketch of the ground on which he may be posted on picquet ; or to sketch and report upon a road, a river, or a position. Such elementary knowledge is almost a necessity in these days of improved fire-arms, and cannot fail to be of value to all officers. 7 Part I, (Field Fortification) has been mainly extracted from the “ Instructions in Military Engineering ” compiled at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham, 1870, and ordered by His Royal Highness the Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief to be followed at all Military Educational Establishments.CONTENTS. Parr I.—Fretp Fortirication. Section. 1. Practical geometry = - - - - - 2. Object of fortification—cover, shelter trenches, obstacles 3. Profiles of works - - - - - 4. Command - - - - - - 5. Trace of simple works _ 7 7 7 6. Embrasures, caponiers, reverse galleries, revet - ‘7. Applications of the means described - - - 8. Bridge-heads, military posts, loop-holes, defence of house, &. - - - . = e 9. Throwing up earthworks —- = : : 10. Attack and defence of posts - : : - 11. Escalading — - - - : : : 12, Materials used in the construction of works, viz. :— Timber, brushwood, fascines, gabions, sap rollers, hurdles, &. - - : - - 7 13. Parallels and approaches =~ : : : 14, Hasty demolitions, use of powder - tee 15. Passage of rivers, flying bridges, rafts, knotting and splicing, &c. - - : : : Part I.—Muurary Skercuine. 16, Military plans - 7 7 : 7 17. Contours - - - - SI . 18, The protractor - - : ; 7 19. Hill shading - 7 : : : : 20. Seale of shade 2 - : : 7 21. Outdoor sketching, with protractor - : 7 22, Process of sketching - - : 7 Part I1.—Mrataxy RECONNAISSANCE. 28. Preliminary observations - - - i 24, Topographical reconnaissances - - : 26384, a2 7m 87 93 184 136iv CONTENTS. Section. 25. Reconnaissance of a road - - 26. = » five - - 27, » » wood = - - 28, - » position - : 29. » of an encamping ground 380. » of a district - - 31. Reconnoitring the enemy —- - 82. 7 a fortified post - - 33. ” a village - - Part IV.—MisceLianeous. 84, Measurement without instrument - 35. 86. Camp details - 7 7 7 Destruction of railroads - Page 140 148 147 148 152 155 161 164 165 168 169 174LIST OF PLATES. Plates. : J, Shelter trenches - - - : 2. Gun pit : 7 7 7 3. Obstacks - = 7 7 4. Military pits—barvicades — - 7 5. Fougasse’ - - 7 7 6. Defensible hedges - 7 7 . } Defensible walls : 7 tai } Profile of field work 7 : 11. Flank defence - - - s 12. Traces of field works - - - 13. Embrasures - - - - 14. Field works - - - - 15. Details of field works - - - 16. Stockades - - - - 17. Profiles of field works - - - 18, Bridge heads - - : : 19. Plan of field redoubt - - 7 20. Sections of field redoubt - - 21. Caponiers of field redoubt —- - 22. Machicouli galleries and loop holes = - 23. Defence of ahouse - - - 24, Tracing - - - - 25. Setting up profiles, &c. - - 26, Escalading - - - - 27. Cutting tools - - - : 28. Fascines, gabions, &e. - = 7 29. Carrying gabions, &c. - £ : 30. Intrenching tools - - = 31. Profiles of parallels - - : 32, ‘Parallels and slopes - - : 33. Rifle pits = - - - - 34. Demolitions - : - - 35, Knots - : - - 36. Tackles ” - - - 26834. J To face page « a 8vi LIST OF PLATES. Plates. To face page 37. Lashings of spare. - - - - - 99 38, Spar bridges - - - - - - 100 39. Boat bridge - - - 7 : - 104 40, Timber raft - : - - - - 108 41, Trestles _ - - - - 7 - 110 42. Trestles - - : : : - 1d 44} Military plans PSE Eee Ee age 45. Seale of shade - - : 7 7 - 126 46, Measurement - - oe - : - 168 ae }Ficlakitehons = - 10MANUAL oF FIELD FORTIFICATION, MILITARY SKETCHING, AND RECONNAISSANCE. PART I. FIELD FORTIFICATION. + Section 1--PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. (From Captain Philips’, R.E., Treatise on Fortification.) 1, A knowledge of the elements of geometrical drawing is desirable in the study of Fortification, both for the purpose of comprehending the various drawings by which works and buildings are represented on paper, and also for the purpose of tracing, or marking out on the ground, the necessary details of defensive works, 2. The following drawing instruments will be sufficient :— A pair of compasses having a.moveable leg to admit of a pen or pencil leg being substituted for it, so as to allow of circles being drawn in ink or pencil. ‘A small compass with a pen leg, for drawing smaller circles than can be described conveniently by means of the large compasses. These are called bow sweeps ; they should not be used for circles which require the legs to be opened to a greater angle than about 30°. A pen leg and a pencil leg to insert in the place of the moveable leg of the large compass. "A drawing pen. An ivory protractor, to set off angles, and having on it various useful scales. ‘A box of marquois scales. PROBLEMS IN PLANE GEOMETRY. 8B. The following are some of the problems of most general application. in Geometrical Drawing; and also for ing on the ground the outlines and necessary details of works of defence, a2Growerny.] 2 “ [part 1. For the compasses may be substituted a cord fixed at one end when describing arcs on the ground, and a measuring tape or line when setting off distances. A, Pronrem I—To bisect a given straight line. Fig. 1. Let AB (Fig. 0 be the given straight line: with A and B as centres, and with any convenient radius, AC (greater than 4 AB), describe circles intersecting in the points C and D; join these points by a line intersecting tle given line in E, AB will be bisected in E. NB.—CD is perpendicular to AB.* To apply this construction practically, double a rope £0 as to be able to take hold of its centre, and while its ends are held to the points A and B, the points C and D can be fixed by moving the rope until both its halves become tight. The point E can then be obtained. When the given line is too long for the above construction, set off from each of its ends A and B, equal distances as marked by the figures 1-2-3 (Fig. 2) ; # convenient length to biscct, as 3-3 will thus be obtained, the middle point of which C will evidently bisect AB. Fig. 2. cs 2 1 B A ' 2 3 a ll When the given line AB is of known length, it may be bisected by measuring from either of its ends one-half of its length to obtain its point of bisection C. 5. Prosrem Il.—To bisect a given angle. Let DAC (Fig. 8) be the given angle; make AC equal to Fig. 3. AD ; then from D and C as centres, and with equal radii, describe arcs inter- ___ secting in E; the line AE s= being then drawn, bisects ** the angle as required. ‘ Oxs.—The triangle DEC 7>—~ must be isosceles, but need not be equilateral. To bisect an angle traced on the ground by pickets, or other marks, as DAC, fix a mark at any point C in the line AC, as far * In the figures, the given lines are “thin and continuous;” the lines of construction, i.e. those used to obtain the results, “dhin dotted,” and the reeulting lines “thick and continuous.” A given point is shown by a circle described about it as acentre; and, generally, those lines which are only required for proof are omitted.SECTION 1.] 3 [Grownrny. from A as possible, and another at D in the line AD, making the distance AD equal to CA; double a cord so as to find its centre, and stretching it from C to D, mark the point equidistant from C and D, then the line bisecting the angle will pass through this point. It may here be observed that any straight line traced in this way by pickets, &c., may be prolonged by placing other pickets so that they may appear to coincide with them ; and that the point of intersection of two lines may be found by observing the coincidence with pickets placed in both lines. 6, Prostem IIl.— Through a given point, to draw a line perpendicular to a given line-—(Evci L., 12.) (1.). When the point P is in the given straight line AB, and not near either end of it, as in Fig. 4, set off equal distances PC, PD, in AB; from C and D as centres, with any equal radii,’ describe ares intersecting in E; jom PE, which is the perpendicular required. Fig. 4. (2.) When the point P is no in the given line AB, as in Fig. 5. —From P as a centre, with any convenient radius, describe an arc, cutting AB in C and D ; from C and D as centres, and with an) equal radii, describe ares intersecting in E on the side of Al opposite to P ; join PE : it is the perpendicular required. These constructions may be employed on the ground, the point E being formed as in Fig. 3 by doubling a cord, (3.) When the point P is in the line AB, but very near to one end, as in Fig. 6.—Take any point C, with radius CP describe a semicircle EPD ; draw the diameter ED; join EP: it is the perpendicular required. Fig. 6. Second construction (Fig. 7).—Take any scale of equal parts; then with P as centre, and radius equal to three such parts, describe an are cutting AB in C ; with P as centre, and radius equal to fourGzourar.J 4 [part 1. parts, and with C as centre, and radius equal to five parts, describe ares intersecting in D ; join PD: it is the perpendicular required. For 32+ 42=5?, te, the square on CD equals the sum of the squares on PC and PD, and therefore (Euclid I. 48), CPD isa right angle. This construction may be used on the ground, also the one above, (4.) When the point P is nearly opposite to the end of AB (Fig. 8)—Draw PC at a convenient angle to AB ; bisect it in D. From D as a centre, with radius PD, describe an arc cutting AB in E, Draw PE. It is perpendicular to AB. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Second construction—Take any two points, C and D (Fig. 9), at a convenient distance apart, and with radii CP and DP describe ares intersecting in E. Join PE: it is perpendicular to AB. 7, Prostem IV.— Through a given point to draw a straight line parallel to a given straight line. Let AB (Fig. 10) be the given straight line, and P the given Fig. 10. Pett From P let : ? @ perpendicular PC to AB, and from any convenient point : | Din AB draw a ! perpendicular DE, i making its length oS equal to PC: join PE to obtain the required line. N.B.—This is the only construction here given, as it is the most convenient one for practical operations. E 8. Prosrem V.—To construct an angle equal to a given angle. Let BAC (Fig. 11) be the given angle, and P the point in the Fig. 11. given line PD, at ip which it is re- 7 S quired to con- : struct an angle 5 equal to BAC. < With centre A, and any radius, AC, cut the linesSECTION 1.] 5 [Gzomerny. in B and C; with centre P and radius AB, and-with centre D and radius DE, equal to BO, describe arcs intersecting in E. Join PE. DPE is the angle required, To set off angles on the ground—This is most rapidly effected by means of a theodolite or sextant, but if they are not available, it may be done thus, with a cord only: A right angle may be traced as shown in Prob. IIL. (6.) An angle of 60° is obtained by tracing an equilateral triangle, and a line passing through any one angular point of this figure and the centre of the opposite side will give an angle of 30°. The angles of 90° and 30° being also bisected (see Prob. II.), angles of 45° and 15° are obtained ; and each of the above angles being added to any of the others, or subtracted from them, by laying them out on the ground with equal radii and adjacent to each other, give a few others ; thus we get angles of 75°, 105°, 120°, 135°, and 150°. 9. Prosiem VI—T7o divide a given straight line into any number of equal parts. (1.), When the number (7) into which the line is to be divided is a prime number not greater than 7. Open the dividers to what appears to be the nth part of the line, step this distance slong the line from one end, and if it be found either to exceed or fall short of the nth part, correct the opening, and repeat the trial till the exact nth part is obtained, Ops.—This is the only way of dividing a line that should be used in drawing, and with a little attention it will be found that two or three trials are generally sufficient ; but the process may be shortened by attending to the following rule :— If n can be resolved into two factors (p and g), one of which, py is any power of 2, as 4, 8, &c., the line should be first bisected (which can always be done by two trials) ; each part should again be disected, and so on till the line is divided into p parts; each of these may again be divided into g parts, the gth part of one being obtained by trial as above, (2.) When the number (x) is a prime number greater than 7, as AB (Fig. 12). Fig. 12. _--¢ Draw AC, maki aa Fi | i" anangle of about 3 withAB,and through B draw BD parallel to AC. On AC and BD set off n—1 equal parts, each nearly equal to 3th of "AB; join 21,C with IB, n2,C with 2B &c.,to divide AB into n equal parts,Groxetrr.] 6 [rart 1. 10, Prosrem VIL—Upon a given line to make a square. Let AB (Fig. 13) be the linc. At A and B erect the perpen- diculars AC, BD, each equal to AB ; join CD, and the square is complete. Fig. 18. c 2 x 8 11, Prosrem VIII.—ZJn a given triangle to insert a circle. Let ABC (Fig. 14) be the given triangle. Bisect any two of the angles by the lines AO, BO. From the point of intersection O let fall upon either of the sides the perpendicular OD, with which radius and O as a centre describe a circle. Fig. 14. c rs v 12, Prosrem IX.—To draw a tangent to a given cirele at a given point of contact. Fig. 15. Draw a radius AH (Fig. 15) to the given point of contact A. At A draw a line CB per- pendicular to AH. CB will be the tangent required. PAT ee.SECTION 1.] 7 [Geomerny. 18. Prosrem X.—To draw a tangent toa circle from a given point without the circumference. Draw a line from the given point A (Fig. 16) to the centre of the circle C. Bisect the line AC in B. From B with radius BA describe a semicircle cutting the given cirele in D. Draw the line AD and produce it. AD is the required tangent. Fig. 16. 14, Prosrem XI.— Yo describe a circle touching three given lines, of which the middle one is not parallel to either of the others. Let AB, AC, CD (Fig. 17) be the three lines. Bisect the angles at A and C by the lines AO, CO, and from the point O drop a per- ndicular to either of the three lines, with that radius describe From O acircle. Fig. 17. GEOMETRICAL SCALES. 15. Maps, geometrical drawings, and models being generally constructed of smaller dimensions than the objects they are intended to represent, it is necessary to state with each the scale on which it is formed, by expressing the length represented in the drawing or model by some dimension in common use,Scarzs.] 8 [part 1. ‘Thus, with English geographical maps it is usual to state that the scale is ——miles to an inch ; or, where the scale is very large, as that adopted for the survey of Ireland, —— inches to” amile ; or with surveys of small extent, the scale is described by stating the number of chains to an inch ; for military plans it is more usual to state the number of yards to an inch; and the scales of architectural drawings, or of models of buildings or machines, are generally given by stating the number of feet represented by an inch, Another method, much used on the Continent, is to state the fraction which any linear dimension in the drawing or model may be of the real dimension represented by it. Thus the scale of the Irish survey, which is 6 inches to a mile, would be described as rhyo the distance 6 inches, by which » mile is represented, being that fraction of a mile, In France, where » decimal system of measures has been established, this mode of expressing the scale of a drawing conveys at once to the mind an idea of the relation between the smaller units of measure which would be used in constructing it, and the larger units represented by them. The scale of yz}qp above mentioned, would be recognised as very nearly one decimetre to a kilometre, a proportion which would be exactly expressed by yqheq, which would most probably have been selected in France for @ survey requiring the delineation of the same details. This mode of expressing a scale, with our system of measures, requires generally some little mental cal- culation, before we can infer from it the number of some well-known units of length which are represented by another well-known and smaller unit in the drawing. But as it is much used in modern French military works, it is necessary to be familiar with it. 16, To make a scale in a given proportion, we must be able to refer to a correct standard of length, and a draughtsman may be supposed to have access to such a standard, minutely and accurately divided by an instrument maker. In English measures the most useful unit for reference is, perhaps the foot, and the most convenient subdivision for it, inches and decimals of an inch, Almost every case of drawing instruments contains a scale on which a certain number of inches is given, with one of those inches so divided that 0°01 of an inch can be measured from it, On the scales of many instrument makers the half and quarter of the inch are given thus divided, and admit, consequently, of differences of 0°005, 0-0025, respectively being noted. Supposing that it is required to make a scale of one foot to an inch. Let ab (Fig. 18), be six inches in length taken from the scale, draw a line a x, making a small angle with it, and taking ina pair of compasses the distance a d, equal nearly, by judgment, to one sixth of a6, set it off six times along a x, and let c be the end of the sixth division, join ¢ 4, and through the other divisions draw lines parallel to cb; these lines will divide adSECTION 1.] 9 [Scazzs. similarly to a c, and consequently, into six equal parts, of which each will be one inch (Euclid VI., 10). Fig. 18. The directions to make the angle at a small, and to take the distance a d about one-sixth of a 6, are given with a view to accuracy in construction. ‘The smaller the angle the less distance the dividing lines will be drawn ; and the more nearly the angles which these lines make with a5 approach to right angles the better will the points of intersection be defined. The subdivisions obtained being inches, one, as a f, may be divided into tenths, by a similar process. The subdivision of any scales thus divided is generally called the supplemental scale, and the numbers marked against the divisions are generally counted backwards from (a) zero on the right of this supplemental scale ; this arrangement rendering any operation of addition or subtraction unnecessary in taking off dimensions. 17. The following scales may be constructed in the same manner for practice. . Suppose a scale of 6 inches to a mile to be required, and that the most convenient length for it will be about 6 inches. If exactly 6 inches long it would represent 5,280 feet, but as it would be almost impossible to divide the whole into single feet, and very inconvenient to have a scale in which the principal divisions were neither units nor decimal multiples of a unit, or in which the supplemental scale was not of the same length as one of the principal divisions, it will be necessary to make the scale to represent either 5,000 or 6000. Assuming, however, that the scale must not be less than 6 inches in length, it must then give the means of taking off at once any distance not exceeding 6,000 feet. Its length, therefore, will be $999 x 6=6°81 inches, which length taken from the ivory scale will give the whole length of the scale required, and this being divided into 6 parts, and the first of those into 10 part will complete the scale, as in (Fig. 19). In explanation of the above process it should be observed that it is generally more accurate to set off the whole length of a scale than it would be to obtain the length of one of the principal divisions by » computation similar to the above, and to set that off the requisite number of times, for the probable error of trans- ferring a distance, except in compasses of which the legs are without joints, is independent of the distance set off, or is nearlyCover, Cover.] 10 [part 1. as constant for each operation, and in setting off several times the length of one principal division any error in obtaining that length from the original scale will be multiplied as many times as it is set off, and effect to that extent the whole length of the scale, and all distances taken from it in proportion to their length. All scales should be at least 6 inches in length, with the principal divisions units or decimals multiples of a unit. Construct the following scales :— (a) One foot to an inch. (by 10 feet ,, e.) 100 4, ” d.) 100 yards, Section 2—OBJECT OF FORTIFICATION—COVER —SHELTER TRENCHES—OBSTACLES, Object of Fortification. 18. Fortification is generally defined as the art of strengthening a position to be occupied hy troops. Every one can understand the advantage which one body of men contending with another must derive from their advances and changes of position being concealed; from being more or less secured from the arms of their opponents, while the latter remain fully exposed ; and from possessing greater facilities for the use of their arms, and greater freedom of movement than their enemies. It is the offer of some advantage of this kind that makes an officer determine to receive an attack in one place rather than in another, and it is to obtain such advantages Ly works at points which do not present them but which must be held, that fortification is tesorted to. Wherever resorted to the same principles govern the design ; but the character of the works with respect to permanency, and the amount of labour bestowed upon them, must vary from the hasty constructions which may improve parts of a field of battle, to the strong works designed and executed with careful deliberation, to secure the places of which the possession is necessary to the independence of a state. The following pages only describe works suited to field operations. Cover for concealment or protection. 19. The first object is concealment of disposition and movement, and every officer can perceive at once the limits within which any covering line affords concealment. The slope of o hill furthest fromSECTION 2.] il [Penernarton. the enemy will generally conceal any description of troops in any formation ; a belt of thick wood, the walls and houses of a village street, where continuous, may couceal cavalry and artillery os well as infantry ; but ordinary fences and such cover as may be hastily obtained artificially will ‘generally only conceal infantry, and that often only in a sitting or lying position, ‘The use of" balloons in war renders concealment in a tolerably level country very difficult. From an altitude of 400 yards the reverse slopes of all the ground within 3 miles, of which the inclinations are under 4°, or about 1 in 14, may be discovered, and the breadth concealed by waves of ground of small elevation would be inconsiderable. Woods and the long reverse slopes of rather steep ground could alone be depended on for concealment from balloon observations. 20. Protection against shot must be obtained by the thickness of Thickness of the covering material employed. The thickness necessary depends Parapet. on that material and on the arms to be resisted, 21, The following tables extracted from the latest edition of the printed course of Instruction at the School of Military Engineer- ing at Chatham, give the facts at present relied upon for regu- lating the thickness of parapets to be used for protection against artillery and small arms. 7 Penetration, guns. ‘Nature of Gun. Remarks, Z eh BLL, rifle In. cases in which 3) em : e works might ge | Pe ‘exposed to artil- fa\ wre ery fire for some $8 i nd time, it would be = | 10tnch 8 advisable to. make 25 | Winch the parapets the 2 | cspr ” full thickness given El gen > in the last column ; ee ooo” in works of @ more 2pm temporary ‘nature ison » » the smaller thick- eee. 7 ” ness would suffice ep. ow 22, “The following are the results of penetration obtained by Penetration of the Committee on Small Arms in 1869, with the best arm tried, small arms. viz., the Henry B.L. rifle, calibre 0°45 inch, Boxer cartridge :— « (No. 1 gauge, 0°312 inch. proof at 100 yards, nearly ‘Wrought- penetrated at 50 yards. te No. 3 gauge, 0°261 inch, proof at 350 yards, nearly ates. penetrated at 300 yards. eee No, 11 gauge, 0- 125 inch, two plates placed 14 inches apart, penetrated at 500 yards. ‘No. 5 gauge, 0°217 inch, proof at 10 yards. No. 7 gauge, 0-187, inch, proof at 50 yards, but not 5 at 2. le Steel "| No. 9 gauge, 0°158 inch, proof at 200 yards, but not Plates. at 100 yards,Shelter trenches, Suetter Trexcurs.] 12 [parr 1. Steel No. 11 gauge, 0° 125 inch, proof at 300 yards, but not plates. at 200 yards, One plank, 3-inch green oak, penetrated at 50 yards. Two ” » proof » 50 5 Four planks, dry fir x» penetrated ,, 100 ,, Brushwood gabion filled with stiff clay, proof at 50 yards, but occasionally penetrated at 25 yards. Jones’ iron band gabions, filled with stiff clay, proof at 10 yards. Sap-roller, proof at 50 yards, occasionally penetrated at 25 yards, Sand-bag, filled with sand, about 12 inches thick, occasionally penetrated at 10 yards. Parapet of stiff earth, 3 feet thick, proof; bullets penetrated 21 inches. Mantlet of four thicknesses of 8-inch rope, proof at 400 yards, but occasionally penetrated at 350 yards, Mantlet of four thicknesses, flat 14-inch rope, proof at 10 yards.” 23, The thickness necessary for parapets of different substances to afford security against their penetration by shot of different weights and forms, has not been fully determined by direct, experiments since the introduction of rifled ordnance. But so far as our present knowledge justifies any definite conclusion, the parapets suitable against musketry or the close fire of smooth- bore field guns, may be considered suitable against the modern weapons firing shot of the same weight; and a new but properly made parapet of earth, or partly of earth and partly of brushwood, as fascines, &c., of which the thickness is equal to 60 times the diameter of the shot it is intended to resist, may be considered sufficient. This makes the thickness of a parapet of earth to resist the English rifle bullet about 30 inches, and to resist the 12-pr, Armstrong about 15 feet. Four-fifths of these thitknesses in dry pine timber, one-third in solid oak, and one-fifth in brick- work would be sufficient. These proportions form an empirical rule, easily remembered. Shelter Trenches, 24, When the site on which it is desirable to find protecting cover for the troops does not offer any slopes, banks, fences, &c. suitable for the purpose, it can generally be obtained by digging trenches, the earth from which will form a parapet. Such hastily formed works are known as shelter trenches, and the following instructions respecting them are extracted from the Chatham course, “Tt is essential that there should be ready means of getting in and out of these trenches both to the front and rear ; it is also desirable that they should not offer any great. impediment to a forward movement, and that troops should be able to march straight over them when necessary. At every 100 yards or so, to enable guns, cavalry, &c. to pass, slight ramps should be formed, or intervals left in the trenches, which may at these places be made to overlap, ‘The most rapid way for infantry to obtain cover, is by the ex- cavation of a trench 2 feet wide and 1} fect deep ; the earth is thrown to the front so.as to form a parapet about 14 feet high,Toface page 13. Fig.20. Plate I. SHELTER TRENCHES.&c. 5 b AS, Section on CD. Scale for Fig’ 20.21.22, 28,27 & 28,5 [to] Inch oon D8, 25, 26 10. Wancont Brooke Day RSon LahSECTION 2.] 13 [Smaurer Trexcuzs. the interior slope being built up as steep as possible with sods, clods, &e. (Fig. 20). Such # trench can be executed by men with their accoutrements on, distributed at from 4 to 6 feet intervals, in from 10 to 20 minutes. This is the smallest trench that is of any use, and will afford cover to two ranks, one kneeling in the trench, and one lying in rear of it. The above trench can be widened out to 4 feet, in from 10 to 20 minutes more, and will then afford cover for a double rank, kneeling (Fig. 21). This may be considered an effective trench for occupation for a limited time, but as the troops in it would be in a constrained position, it would be desirable, should still more time be available, to widen it out to a total breadth of 7 feet (Fig. 22), which would require about 20 minutes more. Fig. 23 shows the plan of a trench for a company of 80 files. The small trenches in rear, 2 feet wide and 1} feet deep, are for the officers and non-commissioned officers of the company. For temporary occupation of the ground on the field of battle it is probable that shelter trenches would be thrown up in a con- tinuous line, though the line need not be a straight one, that being determined by the features of the ground. . In all cases it is necessary that the parapet should not prevent. any portion of the ground in front being seen by the defenders. The height of the parapet given in the profiles is that over which men can fire kneeling ; the intermediate parts between the posi- tions the men would occupy, may be made higher to afford better cover. Boughs of trees stuck in on the top of the parapet, would further conceal the defenders without impeding their fire. Should there be no objection to placing impediments in the way of a forward movement, obstacles may be formed 100 yards or so in advance of the trench.” 25. “Men skirmishing should be able to make cover for them- selves, In most instances the men will only have to improve natural cover, but it may be necessary to dig small pits, which may be called shelter pits in contradistinction to the larger pits required at sieges, &c,, which are called rifle pits. Each shelter pit should be for one man only. A plan and section of a shelter pit, which can be made in about five minutes, are given in Figs. 27 and 28 ; the depth need not be uniform, but should be about 10 inches where the man’s body will be, and about 6 inches in the other parts, After a little practice each man will soon ascertain the exact form of pit that suits him.” 26. “Tt may occasionally be necessary to provide cover for the chargers of the mounted officers of # battalion posted in a shelter trench. This may be done, by excavating pits parallel to, and 20 paces (from cutting line to cutting line) in rear of the line taken up. Each pit should be about 5 feet long, 3 feet wide at the top, and 2 feet at the bottom with ramps at a slope of 4 at the ends, Such a pit can be executed by four men in half an hour, The turf should be used for the revetment of the parapet, which should be 8 feet high, and need not extend the whole length of the ramps, but only about 3 feet beyond the pit itself. ‘The four men will not all be able to work in the pit at the same time ; those who cannot will revet and also increase the parapet Shelter pits. Charger pits.Gun-pits. Limber pits. ‘Horse pits. Obstacles. Onsractrs.] 4 (part 1. from any place in front, where earth can be readily obtained. Horses can be easily accustomed to go into such pits (Figs, 24, 25, und 26).” 277, “ Artillery may often be covered from the enemies’ fire, by natural banks, crests of hills, &., but when such cover does not exist, the protection recommended by General Sir Charles Pasley (Figs, 29 and 30) may be adopted. It is not, however, so suitable for breech-loading as for muzzle-loading guns, for which it was intended. Figs. 31 and 32 show a gun-pit which can be executed in about one hour, by men accustomed to the work. As the is limited, the men must be carefully arranged, and should com- mence work where the pickaxes are shown. Should more time be available, the pit can be improved by lengthening the trenches for the gun detachments, and by thickening the parapet with earth from a ditch in front. As isolated gun-pits would form good marks for the enemy’s fire, it would be advisable to connect them by shelter trenches, in which however places should be left to enable the guns to pass readily to the front.” 28. “Should no natural cover whatever be available for the limber, cover for it and a pair of horses might be provided in a pit somewhat of the form of a charger pit. ‘The pit itself should be 12 feet long, 5} feet wide at bottom, and 7 feet at top ; it should be at least 3 feet deep, and have ramps at both ends of } or 4. Such a pit should be executed by eight men in about two hours, If necessary, cover could be provided for the other horses in a pit similar to the limber pits, but with a berm of 2 feet for the horses heads.” Obstacles. 29, When the position, or the particular portion of it which is being hastily strengthened, can be considered as defensive only, no rapid advance in force from it or over it being likely to be required, it will be much improved if an enemy advancing against it must encounter, while under a close fire from the covered defenders, some obstacle which will detain him under that fire. Boggy ground and deep water are the only natural obstacles that will detain an enemy without giving him some cover, but steep or broken ground may retard his advance considerably. Broken ground may in some places favour such advance by affording cover. Steep and smooth ground will retard without doing so. It is easily understood that the detention of the attacking troops, while completely exposed for 2 or 3 minutes within 20 or 30 yards of a well trained defensive force, having the present infantry arms and being protected by parapets, might cause the failure of any direct attack by daylight. The following extracts from the Chatham course relate to various obstacles, most of which, however, require either some time, or special supplies for their formation. An officer must exert his ingenuity to contrive obstacles, when required, from the means around him. 80, “That obstacle is most effective that requires the most time and labour to pass, more particularly if peculiar implements, such as ladders, axes, crowbars, &c., which may not be forthcoming, are %GUN PIT, &c. Lofce vage 4 Piste IL “Vincent Brooke, Day & Son.Lith.SECTION 2.| 15 [Onsractes, necessary. Obstacles that can be easily overcome tend to discourage the defenders. Natural obstacles, such as precipices, swamps, water too deep to be waded through, are the best ; steep places may often be made precipitous, deep cuts or holes may be dug in shallow ‘water, wet ditches or inundations may be formed. A line of burning material of any width is irapassable, but the smoke may be detri- mental to the defence. Fougasses are very useful for intimidating the enemy. Other obstacles usually employed are palisades, fraises, abatis, entanglement, chevaux-de-frise, planks studded with spikes, and trous-de-loup. A few of the most ordinary obstacles are described in the following paragraphs. It must always be borne in mind that obstacles should not afford cover to the enemy, should be under the close fire of the defenders, and be covered from -the enemy’s artillery fire, so that they may remain intact, Obstacles may advantageously be placed on the glacis at the sslients of works, which are their weakest points.” 31. “One of the best obstacles that can be made is an abatis Abatis. formed of stout limbs of trees, 12 or 15 feet long, laid as close together as possible, with the branches towards the enemy. The abatis should be at least 5 feet. high, with the butts buried in the ground, secured by stout stakes, or by logs of timber laid across several butts. The large branches should be pointed, and the small branches and leaves removed. They may be placed in the ditch of a work in an upright position against the counterscarp, or, as is more usual, in advance of the ditch (Fig. 38). The labour of dragging the trees required from a distance being very heavy, the construction of an abatis should not be attempted unless the trees grow near at hand. Hard and tough woods are the best, pine being the worst, as it is easily broken gnd burns readily when fresh cut, which is not the case with hard woods. ‘The timber should not be felled long before it is required, that it may not get too dry.” 32. “An entanglement is a kind of abatis, formed by cutting Entanglement. the trunks of trees, bushes, &c. half through, about 8 feet above the ground, bringing the upper parts down to the ground, and securing them there by pickets. Large trees thus treated form almost insurmountable obstacles. The ends of thick branches should be pointed, and all weak places strengthened by ordinary abatis, ‘When vines exist they should be left intact, woven together with their tops picketed to the ground.” 88. “ For wire entanglement, stout stakes are driven into the Wire ground about 7 feet apart, in three or more rows arranged entanglement. chequerwise, and their heads connected by strong wires crossing diagonally, twisted round the heads of the stakes, about 1 foot or 18 inches above the ground. This obstacle is rapidly prepared, little injured by artillery fire, and impassable by cavalry.” 84, “The bands of Jones’ iron gabions may be formed into a Jones’ gabion network as an obstacle against cavalry, and even against infantry trip for in night attacks, The bands are buttoned and placed in line °#¥lty, &. 3 or 4 feet apart; each band is connected with the next by stout wire or rope ‘passed through the bridging holes. Bands thus 26334. BCheveaux-de- frise. Palisades. Fraises, Ossractes.] 16 [part 1, connected should be laid in parallel rows, chequerwise, 3 or 4 feet apart, the rows being also connected by wire or rope, and secured at intervals to pickets driven into the ground.” 85. “ Chevaux-de-frise is made in lengths of 6 to 10 feet, the lengths being usually secured together by chains: Each length is composed of a barrel or stout beam from 6 to 12 inches in diameter or square, with spears, sword blades, pointed poles, &c., driven through the beam at right angles to each other, and 6 inches apart. ‘The spears should be so strong that a man cannot break them. One end of a chevaux-de-frise may sometimes be made to pivot, the other end being supported by a wheel which facilitates its movement; this end can be secured to a stout post with a chain (Fig. 34). 7 ; Chevaux.de-frise are now articles of store, hollow iron tubes 6 feet long taking the place of the wooden beam; the 12 spears, 6 feet long, are packed inside the Jarret. Each length weighs 86 Ibs. As chevaux-de-frise can be easily removed, they cannot be considered # good obstacle against infantry.” 85. “Palisades are s stout description of paling, vertical or nearly so, made of large branches of trees, logs of timber, or young trees split or sawn into two or more pieces, according to their size, pointed at the top, and secured to two horizontal bars or ribands. ‘The posts, about 10 feet long, are often made triangular in section, each side being 7 or 8 inches, and are placed upright about 4 inches apart, their lower ends being spiked to a riband planted in a narrow trench from 3 to 4 feet deep. The trench is then filled in with earth, well rammed, and an upper riband nailed on the inside of the posts about 1 foot below their tops. An expedi- tious mode of constructing palisade is to prepare and plant it in panels of four or five posts euch (Fig. 35). The points of a palisade inclined to the front at a slope of about ?, need not be more than 6 feet above the ground. Palisades may be used for the defence of ditches, and for closing the gorges of field works. When planted near the foot of the counterscarp, the ditch in rear of them should be deepened, and made Y shaped. This section of ditch prevents an enemy from forming up in it, and so entering the works in mass,” 317. “ Fraises ave palisades placed horizontally or nearly so, in the slope of the escarp or counterscarp. If in the former, they should be inclined downwards slightly, to allow shells to roll over into the ditch, and should have their points not less than 7 feet above the bottom of the ditch, that they may not assist an enemy in climbing up (Fig. 36) ; if in the latter they may be inclined upwards to increase the drop into the ditch (Fig. 37). ‘The posts should be about 11 feet long, so that 5 fect may project beyond the scarp ; the ridges should be uppermost, to increase the diffi- culty of standing on them; they ehould be nailed to two ribands ‘both buried, the one nearest the scarp below, and the other above the posts. : Fraises should be of such strength as to prevent an enemy breaking them by his weight, and may be advantageously placed 2or 8 feet below the crest of the glacis, so as to. be protectedOBSTACLES. Plate Il. Chevare-de- trise. a Crest CLs. Seale tor figs. Ea ot eet ce T0tb to Tinh Google ‘aDigitized by GoogleTo luce page 17 Plate IV. MILITARY PITS, BARRICADES &c. ‘Aneent Binoke Day Son LithBECTION 2.] 17 [Onsractzs. from the enomy’s fire. To increase the difficulty of leaping into the ditch, its section may be made V/ shaped, and pointed stakes or vertical abatis placed under the ends of the fraises (Fig. 37).” 38. “The small branches cut from abatis may be rendered useful by being made: into stakes. After being driven into the ground until 1 or 2 feet only project, the upper ends should be sharply pointed. They would seriously incommode the advance of the enemy if placed on the ground in front of the counterscarp, in the bottoms of ditches, or on the berm.” 39. “ Crow's feet are formed of four stout spikes 24 or 3 inches long, welded together at their heads, in such a manner that in whatever position they may be, there will always be one point uppermost (Fig. 88). ‘They arevery useful as impediments against cavalry, and may also be placed in fords, &c.” 40. “On the glacis harrows may be buried with the spikes exposed, or broken wheels and large rough stones may be strewed. about to break the order of the assailants. Broken bottles and glass may be scattered about, put at the bottom of ditches, or on the tops of walls.” Al, “ Military pits (French, trous-de-loup) are excavations in the shape of an inverted cone or square pyramid, with » pointed stake at the bottom. They are usually placed beyond the counter- scarp, and principally opposite the salient angles, A number of rows forms a good obstacle, particularly against cavalry. They are of two descriptions, viz., deep and shallow; the former should be so deep that when a man has fallen in, he may not be able to use it as a rifle pit, and the latter so shallow as not to afford cover to skirmishers.” 42, “The deep pit is made 6 feet in diameter at the top, and 1 foot at the bottom, the depth varying from 6 to 10 feet, with a stake in it with its top flush with the ground. Those shown in Figs. 89 and 40 are of a convenient size, and are usually placed in three rows, the pits being 10 feet from centre to centre, and the excavated earth being heaped upon the space between them. One man should construct two per day in easy soil.” 48, “The shallow pits are shaped like inverted pyramids, 3 feet square, and not more than 2 ft. 6 in. deep. They are placed in rows touching one another, in a zig-zag arrangement, as shown in Fig. 41. Five rows are usually made, and the earth excavated is thrown to the front to form a glacis. ‘The row next the counter- searp is first formed, so that the earth excavated from any one pit. may not have to be thrown over those previously excavated. A pointed stake should be placed in each hole with its top flush with the ground line. One man should excavate ten pits per day in easy soil.” 4, “Barricades may be made of almost anything. Carts (osded with stones) sunk up to the axles, casks filled in like manner, trunks of trees well secured together, furniture, heaps of stone, rubbish, iron railings, bales of goods, &c., can all be made. available. A barricade can be made with timbers laid across one anottier, forming square or oblong cases, the interiors being filled B2 Pointed stakes. Crow's feet. Other obstacles. Military pits. Constraction of deep pits. Construction of shallow pits. Barricades. aInundations. Waste weir. Onsractxs.] 18 [part 1 with stones, A line of waggons drawn across a street, with the wheels on one side taken off, will be a sufficient impediment to cavalry. “ Banquettes should be formed, and the barricades flanked by loop-holes made in adjoining houses. A communication should be made from house to house, on each side of the street, to allow of firing on an advancing column. If several barricades are made in a street, the means of retreat through them must be preserved (Figs. 42 and 43).” 45. “Inundations form good obstacles, even if fordable, but in that case should have pits and trenches dug irregularly over their surface; crows feet, hurrows, &., may be scattered about, In making an inundation, the embankment on each side of the stream should be completed first. The soil of which the dam is composed should be impervious to water, or if it be not, a wall of puddle clay* should be constructed inside it. If there are to be two or more inundations, the materials for the dams should be taken from the lower side, so os to increase the depth of the next inundation, Great care should bo taken to properly ram the earth forming the dam. The chief difficulty is always encountered when constructing the part over the bed of the stream, which should be continued as rapidly as possible, as when once the stream is dammed up, the dam must keep pace with the rise of the water. Materials should be collected below the dam, and on each side of the stream, and as large a working party employed as can work together. A bank of earth is first made across the opening, between the two finished portions of the dam, to enable the foundations of the remainder to be put in. The thickness of the dam at top may be made equal to the depth of water retained ; the slope of the up stream side is usually made }, and of the lower side }. When exposed to artillery, the top should be made thick enough to resist the fire. Unless the surface of an earthen dam be protected, it will soon be washed away by any water flowing over it; a waste weir must therefore be made large enough to carry off all the water of the stream. A channel for a waste weir should be cut through the solid ground, clear of the dam, if possible, but if not, it must be formed in the damitself. It can be made of fascines, if planks and timber cannot be procured. The bank near a weir must be constructed with extra care, and should be well revetted ; this revetment should extend beyond the foot of the dam on the lower side, so as to protect it from the rush of water over the weir. A double lnyer of fascines, securely picketed, forms a good revetment. The surface of the weir should be two or three feet below the top of the dam, according to the liability to floods. Dams and waste weirs may be constructed of timbers roughly framed together, and covered with a layer of clay. Sluice gates are occasionally required to drain the inundations. * Clay is puddled by being well kneaded with a small quantity of water.tice page BS FOUGASSE. Seale forfigs, 4 49. 6M.tol inch. ‘Vincent Brooks, Day & Soa,Lith. London We Google | |SECTION 3.] 19 (Hepoxs. Extensive inundations are rarely applicable on service, but dams may often be required to gain a greater depth of water in a stream, or to stop up its natural courde, and to divert it into the ditches of field works. An inundation may sometimes be formed by damming up the arches of a bridge.” 46, “ Fougasses are a kind of mine, which, on being exploded, throw forward the superincumbent material, whether it be shells, stones, or bricks, scattering it over a large surface. They should be placed in front of salients and weak places, and should not be too near the counterscarp, for fear of injuring it. A. shell fougasse is simply a box buried in the ground, the lower part filled with powder, and the upper part with shells. For a stone fougasse, an excavation is made in the form of the frustrum of a cone or pyramid, a box of powder is placed ina recess at the bottom, and on the box a wooden platform three or four inches thick, on which the stones, &c. are piled. The axis should be inclined at about 40° with the horizon, and the top and bottom at an angle of ubout 12° with the axis. The fougasse shown in Figs. 44-45, fired at Chatham in 1867, with 80 lbs. of powder, threw five tons of bricks and stones over a surface about 160 yards long, by 60 yards on either side of the axis ; large pieces of stone were picked up at a distance of 230 yards. The L.L.R.* must be so arranged, by placing earth over the fougasse, that the powder acts in the direction of the axis, and not vertically, otherwise the top portion only of the mass may be projected to'a great height, falling on nearly the same ground.” Section 3.—PROFILES OF WORKS. 47, In some places the position may offer facilities for com- bining cover with an obstacle; but the detention of the enemy close to the parapet, where he must be partially protected by it will rarely, if ever, be so advantageous as his detention at the shortest distance at which he is fully exposed. The following extracts from the Chatham course describe several modes in which hedges and walls can be used as obstacles as well as cover :— A8. “Strong hedges form one of the best obstacles that can be found, and with comparatively little labour can be made to afford good cover for the defenders. Hedges that can be easily enfiladed by artillery fire, should not be selected for defence. Their effi- ciency may be increased in any of the following ways :— When the hedge is more than 6 feet high, weak parts should be strengthened by weaving in branches cut off above that height. A ditch of any section (say 3 feet deep, 8 fect wide at bottom, and 10 feet at top), should be excavated, 2 feet in front, the earth from it thrown over and laid against the hedge, forming a parapet with a banquette (Fig. 46). Men distributed at 4-feet intervals in tho ditch, should complete the work in about four hours; a rammer should be allowed to every two or three diggers to form the parapet. * Line of least resistance, Fougasses. Hedges.Walls. Haspors ano Waxis.] 20 [part 1. If time presses, the earth may be obtained from a trench of similar section, 12 feet in rear (Fig. 47), or partly from front and ly from rear. When the hedge is situated on a steep slope, the earth should be taken from a trench in rear (Fig. 48). If only half an hour be available, a trench 2 feet deep and 3 feet wide could be dug in rear, and the earth thrown up against the hedge, so as to form a breastwork, behind which cover can be obtained by stooping. For the sake of concealment the branches should not be cut (Fig. 49). When the hedge is under 6 feet in height, a small ditch should be dug in front, and the earth thrown over the hedge, a trench in rear being also made to provide the necessary cover (Fig. 50). If there be a ditch in rear of a hedge, a very small amount of labour may provide cover (Fig. 51). In warm climates there, are many plants of rapid growth which form powerful natural obstacles, such, for instance, as the aloe. ‘A good aloe or prickly pear hedge is one of the most impenetrable naturel obstacles that can be presented to an enemy.” 49. “A wall under 4 feet in height is hardly defensible, though it would afford protection to the men behind it. A wall 4 feet in height may be used without any preparation as a breastwork, but if possible, a ditch should be dug in front of it. Additional cover: may be obtained by placing stones on the top, leaving spaces between them to fire through, or logs of trees or pieces of timber may be used (Fig. 52). If time admits, a trench may be formed in rear. If a wall be more than 4} feet high, but too low to admit of loop-holes being cut in it, a banquette should be formed, and ex- cavations made in front and rear (Fig. 54). A wall 6 feet or more high may be treated similarly (Fig. 55). If the wall be high enough, the upper part may be broken down, and a banquette formed of it, fissures being made to fire through, 44 fect above the banquette, and at least 6 feet above the ground (Fig. 56); or loop-holes may be pierced in it 4} feet or more above the level of the ground, and a ditch dug in front, to prevent the enemy closing in and using them (Fig. 57). Or again, fissures may be formed in the top of the wall, and the upper parts blocked up with large stones, sand-bags, &. (Fig. 53). It should always be borne in mind, that it is better not to have the loop-holes less than 6 feet above the ground, as then bullets fired through them will pass over the troops in rear. With lofty walls, two tiers of musketry fire may be obtained by forming a banquette of woodwork, and piercing loop-holes on the level of the ground; the banquette may be supported on trestles, casks, &c., and to enable the defenders to use the lower loop-holes. a trench must be made in rear 3 or 4 feet deep, and 2 feet from the wall. In this case a ditch should not be dug in front of the wall, as it would enable the enemy to use the loop-holes (Fig. 58)- If the wall be lofty, the lower tier of loop-holes may be at the ordinary height, and arranged with a ditch in front (Fig. 59).DEFENSIBLE HEDGES. Plate Doh a... - fig 46 “Winsent Brooks,Day & Son Lithogi, GoogleFrve page w : DEFENSIBLE WALLS, Fig, 52 =e Scale 10K. to inch. “Vinoent Brooks Day & Sen lathDe wes», GoogleTo tace page 20 Plate VIL. DEFENSIBLE WALLS, &c. Fig 61. Vincent Brooks,Day RSonIithBEL wos hag mpegr met, Ioface page 21 ® TT ovser “a Padang jo wore jo vay g TT 8 aE amy go uorsundre 105 PIMoyyD % = RY 79M) -L Bat NA Jo uoRIeS Jo waly SY OWN dope sonsapry 30 puvunug “NW adops somadng ao peda jo aig 2 padving po adops tonopuy oa drosseyuna) 1m onenbung jo poasy 4a YNT I wWonog wt apenbung go adoyg “94 ee *nenbeeg = 948 meg WG “pdoeny” 3QI8V pour UD or Y OL 7S ag Buy “aTMIM0uUd A TaAlsSECTION 4.] 21 [Watus. A ditch in front of a wall should be sufficiently deep to prevent an enemy in it, using the loop-holes or firing over the wall. To obtain the greatest width, and to keep the enemy as far off as possible, the section of the ditch should be triangular. It should be made a little distance from the wall, and the earth laid on the berm to prevent the enemy standing on it. With a low wall, however, the ditch must be excavated close to it, and the earth spread abroad.” 50, “ When a loop-holed wall is of great length and straight, it should be flanked. This may be done by means of a ¢ambour or small stockade, in plan like a redan or lunette, the wall bein, broken through to obtain an entrance, which should be provided with a stout door or barrier, loop-holes being made to fire through into the interior, if forced. The salient angle should be 60°, when the flanking fire from the faces AB, BC, (Fig. 60), will be as direct as possible. The neighbouring loop-holes should be directed 80 as to fire on the salient; those at the salient should be 6 feet above the ground, to prevent bullets which may enter by them, wounding the men at the other loop-holes. Tambours are con- structed like stockades (par. 69), and should be treated as regards loop-holes, ditches, and trenches, as in the last paragraph. Tambours serve also to cover gates, openings being left between them and the wall, which can be closed by barriers, chevaux-de- frise, or loop-holed doors (Fig, 61).” 51, When circumstances render the defence of a point very important, and time will permit the construction of better works than the hasty entrenchments above described, the parapet is obtained from a ditch in front instead of from a trench in rear ; the defenders thus obtain a better command over the ground in front, while the height of the parapet and the depth of the ditch form an obstacle to an assailant. Figs. 62, 68, and 64 give various profiles of this kind, adapted for different soils and to resist field artillery. In deciding on a profile it is always necessary to ascertain that the excavation, making a moderate allowance for expansion of the earth, will be sufficient to form the parapet with its banguette (the step on which the defenders stand to fire). The ditch in such works is frequently carried to a point, as more embarrassing to assailants. Fig. 62 shows the names given to the different parts of a field profile. The inclinations of the slopes, the breadth of the Jerm, or interval left between the excavation and the parapet formed from it, must depend on the nature of the soil, or on the means available for maintaining the slopes by Fevetting them; the thickness of the parapet on the arms likely to be brought egainst it, and its height above the ground is usually from 6} to 8 feet. Szcrion 4.—COMMAND. 52, It has been said above that when the parapet is wholly raised, being obtained from a ditch in front instead of from trench in rear, the defenders obtain a better command over the country. Tambours. Parapets. Command.Flank defence. Comsaxn.] 22 [part 1. As thus used the word conveys its own meaning, and the ad- vantage of this command is easily understood. The view of a soldier in a trench is oxtremely limited; very slight inequalities of ground, comparatively low bushes and long grass, can hide his enemies from him ; and unless the work obtain some command over the country from its site, a parapet 8 fect in height gives but little advantage in this respect, for slight undulations of 3, or 4 feet, if their reverse slopes could not be seen from the work would afford cover against it, to infantry lying down. 58, In Figure 65 a work is shown of which the parapet is but little above the produced slope of the bank near the edge of which it is placed, and along the whole of that slope slight in- equalities, as at a, would offer cover, although part of it is much below the work ; but the plain at its foot is well seen, the work obtaining all the advantage of its height (m, ”) above it. Technically “ command” means difference of level, but it is not the height above the ground alone that determines the advantage of command. A work may have the advantage of command over ground which is above it, if that ground slope towards it, as in Fig. 64, in which the portion a, 4, is higher than the crest of the parapet of the work, and- the inequality at c, though nearly on a level with the crest, affords no cover. The advantage of command, so far as seeing is concerned, on which the effective use of the infantry arm depends, is determined by the interval which the slope, if produced, would pass below the work, as own by m, a, in Figs. 64 and 65. 54, Parts of the ground available to the enemy may command some part of the site on which a work is to be placed, and in that case for a certain space behind the parapet the ground should be cut with such slope to the rear as may counteract this. Fig. 63 shows an example of this, while in Fig. 64 the natural stope of the site annuls any advantage given to the enemy by height, and renders cutting unnecessary. Section 5—TRACE OF SIMPLE WORKS. 55, The disposition, in plan, of the lines of trenches or parapets is called the trace of a work. It is clear that hastily constructed. shelter trenches for infantry should be formed on the line in which the troops occupying them are, if attacked while in position, to await the attack until ordered tou move forward to repel it. But wherever it is intended to execute more important works their trace will have to be considered. Flank defence. 56, ‘There will almost always be found in a position some pro- jecting features, more or less marked, from whence the ground in front, over which an assailant must advance, is better seen than2] 4 gj Sle FIELD PROFILES AND COMMAND Fig. 63 Scale 20 to an Inch Fig. 64 Seale 20 fe to an Inch Fig. 65 Scale 40 ft to an Inch “Viroan Bross Dey Sm EhDigitized by GoogleDe ese, Googley : i A \e Ue \\\ ) ‘+ WORT ‘e803 Jo oyyounT & S/9 |s | ea) se) eo) ut | os] & &| sleale}- 7 ei = Woup ‘o#i0p 8 -|- |- |] s|eo}as}- | -| - -Jf-p- 89) %) = you pus Gop squEy J0790 & %l9 | 9 | Ir} t/ os) 6 | se) #/ ee Mt] 6/9) 9st] tl. . yous, 8 -|-]- de ded ]-d- |e] - 96 | s| 9) t] st] 1] aorsono we s Wi- [s jos) s) es) st] s.) s| o Mot} | #8) 9) 9s) s | Aorsouny, 8 -|- [9 Jos] a/ oe} or/ mje! s wr} wf) sist] tl]. 3 -|- }-|-J-|-}-]-]-}- | s| o|tu|eslr say |S & Wl- |9 |e silat} ee] sc) 9 gor] f) He] 9) esls wiuw uw www FTE ETENT FEE! a SVElelPIF el aya iEUE aleielele ls ie “lEVEIE g Peg #13) gle Peeps srevintcaaen FUP ; PLE PLP “ya04y Jo vomIOT fasosacr yo eqreg, peso Sax 50 exes, “exo SiC Jo HHI, PAE PML “veHtea puoveg “verre sonObstacles in front. Earth ceaponiers. Frevp Revovst.] E 40 [part 1 1. “It would be advisable to cover the front, and especially the shoulders, with obstacles such as abatis, military pits, wire en- tanglements, &., placed from 50 to 100 yards in’ advance ; they may be protected from artillery fire by means of an advanced glacis, or ha-ha of the section shown in Fig. 114; this ha-ha can be executed by infantry at 4-feet intervals in six hours.” 92. “If there be timber, earth caponiers can be made for flank- ing the ditches. Figs. 115 to 122 show four kinds which can be constructed in 18 hours, Figs. 115 to 117 show a central caponier, which fires in both directions, its own roof is also swept by a few rifles. Fig. 118 shows o shoulder caponier to sweep the two ditches ; the plan of a shoulder caponier, to flank one ditch only, is shown in Fig. 107. The above descriptions are sunk consider- ably below the glacis, and are therefore well covered from artillery In Figs. 119 to 121 is shown a caponier but little sunk into the ground ; it is there arranged so that with the parapet above, # double tier of fire is given along the ditch of the gorge; in such a situation it is not likely to be exposed to artillery fire. ‘At points where caponiers are to be placed, the excavation of the ditches must be done by sappers instead of infantry. There is sufficient time to fell trees, demolish houses, &c. for the roofs, as the timber is not required till the third relief, except in the gorge caponier, where it is advisable to get the timber placed, if possible, at the end of the first relief. ‘The following table gives the detail for each kind of caponier :— | Ada inlien | Deduct a | A Earth, | Deduct lien. | Deduct in liew ere Infantry — | infantry | Infantry | — Caponiers. | Diggers. Diggers. N.B. Exclusive of | _ z men to prepare /~ | é timber. A | .|3 Els | aie Bla ] Double, ¢body -|2 central. 3/2 Double, <|4 sine. Ego = /£) 4) 2) 3/3 Single, fbody -|2/ 4/6 =|3 shoulder. Cpassage + | = | = | = 3) Single (body and | | | | gorge. (passage = |= | -| = =|-|-]-|- 98, “Magazines may be constructed in two reliefs; in the first the passage is made, and a space dug out to a depth of 2 fect, and covered with splinter proofs, under which the body of the magazine is mined out in the second relief. Fig. 123, is a section of a magazine, They are best placed in the flanks near the shoulders, in the face in front of a traverse, or out of the passage to a caponier, as shown in Fig. 107.”atve ways, Plate KAL | CAPONIERS oF FIELD REDOUBT. =O CO aga sera at Nice Double centiul Caponier. | Seale of Fige.5116.1IZ8.119. 20 (2 lo Linch ROIS . See y 1D: gs ‘VinoentBrodks Daya Son Lith. GoogleDigtes by GoogleSECTION 8,] 41 (Miurrary Posrs. Military Posts. 94, “ A village may be held as an independent military post to gotecti, be defended to the last, or as an advanced post, or part of a general Slsttion tnd line in front of an army. In the former case it should be entirely posts for enclosed, while in the latter it would generally be left open in rear, defence, and only be strengthened in front. The first point to determine would be whether the whole, or what portion of the village should be defended, and to select some substantial buildings as keep or citadel. The buildings selected should have flank defence, support each other, and be proportioned to the numbers of the defenders; the greater and more exposed the open space around them the better ; the keep should more- over be central and command all around it. Wooden houses and those with thatched roofs should be avoided on account of the danger of fire, though if time admitted the roofs might be removed. Houses built of brick, if liable to be exposed to artillery fire, are better than those of stone, as they do not splinter; they are also more easily loop-holed. Buildings with flat roofs are good. The entrances into the portions of the village selected for defence should be barricaded or obstructed by means of felled trees, abatis, &c., though s few small and concealed places of egress should be left. The line taken up should then be strengthened by turning hedges, walls, &c, into breastworks by making palisades, stockades, abatis, or any other obstacles. In selecting the line of defence especial attention should be paid to that most important point “ flank defence. In advance of the line taken up the houses should be demolished or burnt, the ditches parallel to it should be filled up, and every- thing levelled which would give cover to the enemy ; objects which would be obstacles to the enemy, and not afford him cover, should be left, such as wet ditches, palings, leafless hedges, &e. Ditches, &e. perpendicalar to the post should be left, as they would interfere with the enemy’s flank movements and embarrass him, Trees which if felled would obstruct the attack, or if left standing impede the defence, should be cut down. Within the line of works all fences, &c. that are perpendicular to the front, and interfere with a free communication to right or left, should be removed, while those that are parallel should be preserved, as affording protection to retreat, and a further means of defence if the outer line be forced. It is very important to have asecond or even a third line of defence prepared, if possible, so that the troops if driven from one line by a superior force may find others in their rear all ready for occupation and defence. Easy communications should be established between the several lines and ~ the keep, and barricades should be arranged for closing them expeditiously. Detached buildings may be connected by trenches covered over with planks and earth. Artillery should be placed in the most commanding and inacces- sible situations, and where their fire will defend those parts most favourable to the advance of the enemy.” 95, ‘In preparing a building for defence, the first point would be Defence of to strongly barricade all the windows and doors on the basement and buildings.Windows. Machicoulis gallery. Muurany Posts.) 42 [Part 1. ground floor, and to cut ditches outside the doors and lower windows. One opening would probably have to be left for a communication ; it should be on the side most protected, and most difficult for the enemy to approach, and should be made as secure as possible, which can be best managed by double doors or other mode of making the interior, within the outer door, defensible, Communications should be made between the different rooms. Doors may be barricaded by boxes or casks filled with cinders or earth, placed against them to a height of 6 feet, loopholes being made in the upper portions. Short lengths of timber piled to the same height, with the ends secured in the side walls of passage, or propped up with upright pieces on the inside, will effect the same object. Doors or window shutters may be rendered bullet proof by nailing on several additional thicknesses of planks, or fixing iron plates, and yet open as usual, If not made bullet proof the defenders may fire ¢hrough a door when efforts are being made to force it. Fortified buildings have seldom been taken with- out forcing the entrance; too much pains, therefore, cannot be. bestowed on making it secure. - The upper windows need not be barricaded, but mast be partially closed and made bullet proof if possible to a height of 6 ‘bet from the floor ; this can be done by means of sand-bags or short lengths of timber, or with carpets, blankets,.or mattresses rolled up. A curtain hung across a window would be some protection, as it would screen from view the defenders who might fire beneath it, kneeling on the floor. The glass should be knocked out of all the windows before the attack commences. * Loopholes should be made in the walls on each floor, and if possible at every salient angle ; they may be arranged in one or two tiers, as previously described. Loopholes can generally be made with great facility under the eaves of the roof, If a building has no porches, wings, balconies, or projecting portions from which flank defence can be obtained, tambours should be constructed; as many loopholes and as many tiers of them as possible should be made in all flanks, ‘A balcony may be converted into a Machicoulis gallery, by making the front and sides bullet proof, and forming openings in the floor through which to fire downwards ; such a balcony forms an excellent flank defence. If no balcony exist a machicoulis gallery may be formed by breaking two (or more) holes through the wall on a level with the floor, and passing a stout baulk through each hole; these timbers may be lashed down to the joists by passing ropes through holes made in the planks for the purpose, or they may be secured to a transverse beam placed above them, and against the wall inside the room ; brackets may be fixed ontside to support the baulks. The gallery is made 10 or 12 feet long and 2 feet wide in the clear, and a bullet-proof parapet 3} or 4 feet high is made round it. Spaces are left between the flooring boards to enable the defenders to fire downwards, so as to defend the entrance ; the most suitable weapons for this purpose are pistols, Shells, hand grenades, stones, &c. can by this means be thrown: on an enemy attempting to force the door (Fig. 124). If a windowTe face pace 2. Plate XXII “Vincent Brock Day &Sen.Lish aTe face page #3 oe NCE OF A THOUS DEFE Vincent Brooks Day & Son Lath. OC gle CSECTION 8.] 43 (Mixrrany Poss, serves as a communication to the gallery, it should be cut down to the level of the floor. Ifa regular gallery cannot be formed holes may be cut in the wall at a convenient height for s man to fire downwards, when leaning over, and a screen of wood or other material may be secured outside for a protection (Fig. 125). If this be not possible holes may at least be made in the roof, through which grenades may be thrown over on to the enemy. If artillery fire can be brought against the building the walls may be partially protected by throwing up earth parapets round them, An exposed doorway may be protected from artillery fire by a blindage or a row of timbers touching each other, and with their upper ends leaning against the wall; outside the timbers a thick bank of earth or sand-bags should be raised. ‘The beams and joists should be shored up, so that if the enemy breaches the walls their partial fall need not necessarily be followed by that of the floors. Behind the barricaded doors interior re- trenchments of wood, furniture, &c. should be made. Means of barricading any breach in the lower part of the house should be provided. ‘The staircases should be cut away, and ladders sub- stituted, or arrangements should be made for barricading them. Openings should be cut in the floor through which the defenders could fire down, so that if the lower part of the house were carried the upper might still be defended. ‘When the door can be approached undiscovered, and an attack is apprehended, it will be useful to fire blindly, occasionally through the night, from any flanks bearing on it, on the chance of keeping the enemy off. Posts for defence, not having a very free communication with reserve forces, should have an ample supply of provisions, which should be kept in the upper part of the house, where also a secure place for ammunition should be selected. In every room there should be plenty of water, not only for drinking, but also for extinguishing fire, against which every precaution should be taken, Figs. 126, 127 show a house prepared for defence.” Loopholes. 96. “In making loopholes the object should be to expose as small an aperture as possible to the enemy consistent with the pro- vision of sufficient space for the using of fire-arms, such as the allow- ance necessary for lateral range, elevation, and depression. The width at the neck or narrowest part of the loophole for a single man, should not exceed 3 inches. The muzzle of the musket ought to project a little beyond the neck, which should be as near the external surface of the wall as possible. For the long rifle the neck may be as much as 3 feet from the interior of the wall, and for the short rifle 2.9 in.; the interior opening is generally a few inches less in width than the distance of the neck from the interior of the wall, and its height depends on the amount of elevation or depression required. The splay from the neck out- wards must correspond with that between the neck and the interior, Loopholes.Loopholes in earthworks. Muurany Posts] 44 [part 1. it should however be made in steps, so that a bullet striking it may not glance in, Fig. 128 shows a wall 3 feet thick loopholed for a long rifle when depression only is required. A loophole in a wall 3 ft. 9 in. thick for a short rifle, when depression only is required, is shown in Fig. 129, and when both elevation and depression are required, in Fig. 130. The sill of the neck of a loophole should be 4 ft. 3 in. above the banquette, or less if much depression is required. Loopholes should be at least 6 feet above the ditch or ground outside, or on a level with it, in order that the enemy may not be able to use them. Where but little elevation or depression is required, as when loopholes are on a level with the ground, they are sometimes made horizontal and wide enough for two men, the neck being made 3 inches high and 2 feet wide. The distance of loopholes apart depends on the amount of fire required, their construction, and the amount of wall that must necessarily be left untouched between them, Men could on an emergency fire directly to their front through loopholes only 18 inches apart. It is desirable that daylight should not be seen through loopholes, as then the enemy cannot tell when they are occupied. Crowbars, hand-borers, hammers, and pickaxes are required for piercing loopholes in walls.” 917. “ Loopholes should also be formed on the parapets of works as they conduce greatly to the safety of the marksmen, who being more protected can take better aim. ‘They can be made with four sand-bags well filled and beaten, two placed splaying inwards about 10 inches apart at the mouth, with an_ opening of 3 inches to the front for the muzzle of a rifle. Two more sand-bags are laid on the tops of these supported, if necessary, by pieces of ‘wood. ‘A good loophole may be made on the same principle, with two pieces of board placed on edge, and covered with sand-bags of planks and earth. .A hollow frustrum of a pyramid made of boards, small ends outwards, forms a convenient loophole; the boards should be buried in the parapet. Loopholes can be made between two logs of timber spiked together and laid along the top of the parapet. ‘The safety of men using the loopholes would be much increased if iron plates with small holes for the muzzles of the rifles were placed in front. Loopholes should be arranged so that the men may fire con- veniently through them. The height of the sill should be from 4} to 4} feet for a man standing, or from 24 to 23 feet for a man kneeling. The muzzle of the rifle should project a little beyond the neck or narrowest part.” Section 9—THROWING UP EARTHWORKS. 98, The following instructions for tracing and constructing field works in earth are extracted from the Sapper’s Manual, pre- pared by Captain Frankland, R.E., for the use of engineer volunteer corps :—Digtes by Google‘Le face page 4 TRACING. PlateXXIV] Visca Bros Day 6. Son atSECTION 9.] 45 [Tractxe. Tracing. 99. “ When a work has been planned, the first step towards the execution of it is to trace it on the ground. This is usually done with a line and pickets. The article of store known as a tracing tape is a strong white tape cut in lengths of 50 yards, sometimes marked at intervals by pieces of the same not less than 6 inches long sewn across it, and a short piece of line added to each end for the purpose of making it fast to pickets. The object of its being Materials. white is that it may be seen at night. It very much facilitates the . work to have good pickets, and these should be peeled if required for night work. Mallets are also necessary to drive them in,” 100, “ Three persons are usually required for tracing : the end of the tape being made fast to a picket, one of them takes the ball in his hand and leads in the necessary direction ; another marks off the distances with a rod; and the third drives in the piequets where required. A picket is placed at every angle, and the tape simply passed round it. In tracing a long line, the ball is left at the starting point, and the tape allowed to run out through a man’s hand. Allowance must be made in the distances measured, when the ground slopes very much ; or the rod in measuring may be held horizontal, and a stone dropped from the raised end to mark the proper distance on the ground, (Fig. 131.)” 101. “The lines traced are generally those showing the crest, or the interior base line of the parapet, and the lines of excavation for ditches or trenches; the width of the berms are marked afterwards, or judged by the workmen and corrected by the superintendents. Hence, in defensive field works, the lines traced are the crest of the parapet and the edges of the escarp and counterscarp. In elevated batteries, the interior base line and the exterior berm line or edge of escarp. In half sunken batteries, the interior base line, the exterior and the interior berm lines. In sunken batteries, the interior base line, the exterior and the interior berm lines ; and the embrasures marked out with pickets. In trenches the interior berm line only, that is, the front of the trench. The tape should never be cut ; and by good arrangement the necessary lines, and those alone, may generally be carried round continuously.” 102. “ ‘To trace an are of a circle, first find the centre and there drive in a picket ; then fastening one end of the tape to it at the dis- tance of the radius, take two half- hitches with it round another picket; and with this mark on the ground the are: into this mark drive a sufficient number of pickets, and continue the tracing round them.’ 1038. “Right angles and other angles may be set off by the eye with sufficient accuracy for most purposes ; and the best way of doing it is to lay a rod on the ground with its end touching the line, and, standing over it, to judge the angle. When great accuracy is necessary, right angle may be laid out by forming « triangle with the tape having sides in the pro- portion of 3, 4, and 5. In tracing ® battery the line of fire should first be marked, and the interior base line traced at right angles to it. When the tracing of a work is complete, the lines’may be 26334, D> Mode of proceeding. Lines traced. Circles. Angles.‘Working parties. Serrine up Prorices.] 46 [PaRT 1 marked with a spit-lock, and the tape removed; unless it be at night, when a spit-lock would be invisible.” Setting up Profiles. 104. “When a work is traced two profiles should be set up on each line, to show the workmen the form of the parapet, and to guide them in the excavation of their task. (Fig. 132.) On long faces three or more profiles should be set up, These profiles when made with straight slips of deal or other wood show with grear accuracy the form of the parapet, &. To set up a profile, first drive two square-headed pickets A.B, marking the width of the parapet; then nail firmly to A an upright slip A C, equal in length to the height of the parapet ; and at B set up a piece of indefinite length : nail a slip C D at C, and with a level give it the proper slope of the parapet; saw off the over lengths of BD and CD, and place D E at an angle of 45°, or the natural slope of the ground. ‘The banquette is similarly treated as shown in the figure. (Fig. 183.) If profiles are set up showing the several angles formed by the parapet, they will be of great assistance to the workmen, When slips of deal'’cannot be readily procured, drive in rough stakes to mark the several heights of the profiles, and stretch a piece of line from one to another to show the slopes. No line should ever be stretched from one profile to another ; it is more likely to mislead than to assist, When a profile is complete, its outer edge represents the section of the intended work, and in the execution i is worked into the parapet. The exception to this rule is when a profile is used in the construction of a revetment, in which case its inner edge is the guiding line, and its supports must be clear of the work. Care in profiling often saves labour in the end.” Worxine Parties. 105. “ Division into reliefs.—As few men can. do more than, 8 hours of actual labour without being exhausted, it is necessary, when a work is to be carried on without intermission day and night, to divide the men into three reliefs, each working 8 hours out of the 24, If they be stimulated by task-work, 4, 5, or 6 hours at the utmost of actual exertion will be quite sufficient, and another relief may be employed if the extra men can be obtained. If the work be likely to continue long, and labour be abundant, it is recommended always to employ four 8-hour reliefs, in order to vary the hours of labour, and to avoid overworking the men. The hours of relief for the superintending sappers should not be the same as those of the other men, as the new reliefs are then more expeditiously set to work.” 7 106. “ Amount of tasks. —1. The average amount of work that may be expected from unskilled working parties, when tasked, is the excavation of 2 cubic yards of soil per man per hour when it isBe face pages SETTING UP PlateXXv. PROFILES Vipsont Brcoks,Day & Son LithDigtes by GoogleSEOTION 9.} 47 [Worxive Parties, easy, that is, requiring little or no picking, and 1 cubic yard per’ man per hour when it is stiff, that is, requiring the constant use of the pick-axe. A good workman should do half as much again, and the worst workman should not do less than two-thirds of it.’ When the men-are not tasked, a fair amount of work to be expected of them per diem is about this last proportion.” 107. “Although a sapper should always be ready to execute Duty of any work required of him, his proper province in the field is only sappers. to perform skilled labour, and to superintend labourers obtained from the infantry of the army or from the civil population. To my do this, an efficient sapper should be physically capable of doing : a.good day’s work himself, and skilled in the use of the pick and shovel, so as to be able to instruct those placed under him.” 108. “Distribution of workmen.—1. Defensive field-works Distribution of being usually constructed at leisure, it is not usual to arrange the Workmen. men on-any particular system, but by such.as appears desirable at the time, When however time is an object, as in siege batteries, the arrangement of workmen in such a manner that they may not incommode each other, and that the work may proceed with regularity, is a very essential matter.” ; - 109, “ The whole of the earth being generally obtained from the Estimate of ditch, the progress of the work must depend entirely upon: the men and time: rapidity with which it can be excavated. Very little is gained by employing two rows of excavators, unless the soil be very hard ; and 4} fect lineal being the smallest space in which each man works with advantage, we arrive at the greatest number of men which can be profitably employed on a work at the same time, and con- sequently the greatest speed with which it can: be executed. Eighteen feet being the space usually allotted to a gun, it becomes # convenient unit for estimating the strength of a working Tio, “ Working parties are told off as diggers, shovellers, and Distribution. rammers. The ‘diggers excavate the ditch, which as before explained can accommodate four in the space of 18 feet. These can give . employment to three shovellers, and the best proportion of ram- mers to these is two.. - The working -party, therefore, consists of nine men. to each portion of 18 feet, or half the number. of feet lineal in the parapet. If the parapet be less than 9 feet thick, the number of shovellers and rammers may be reduced by two; but if it be 24 feet or more, there must be an increase of three.” IIL, “ When the soil is ¢o. very hard that picking becomes the In stiff soil. most laborious part of the work, a second row of diggers may be employed to advantage in the ditch ; but as each row requires a width of 5 feet to work in, and a space. of 7 feet is necessary between the two rows, it is evident that this arrangement is inapplicable to works where the ditch is less than 17 feet wide, or where the sides of it have much slope.” 7 112, “Men can work to greater advantage, and therefore labour In defensive is economised, if they be placed 6 feet apart instead of 4 feet works, &c. D2 aMode of working. Skill required. Length of throw. Forming slopes. Wonxme Panrizs.] 48 [part 1. 6 inches, In defensive works, which are never constructed under fire, this is generally done. In most trench-work the men are placed at this distance, and only a row of diggers is employed. In works with a trench in rear, as half-sunken and sunken batteries, diggers are arranged there in the same way as in the ditch.” Execution oF THE Work. 118. “ Duty of diggers.—The diggers each carry a pickaxe and shovel, and are drawn up immediately in front or outside of the escarp line, but facing inwards, that is, towards the parapet. “They commence the excavation of the ditch at or near this line, loosening the earth with their pickaxes, and throwing it inwards as far as they can without over exertion. As the whole of the earth for a field-work is moved by the shovel alone, much labour will be saved by a man who is skilled in its use, and can throw a good shovelful of earth a long distance in a compact mass, He should also be able to work left-handed as well as right, in order to throw it to his right. At the commencement of the work the diggers may throw the earth more than half way across the base of the parapet ; for om level ground an able-bodied man inured to labour will throw 20 feet with ease, and may even throw 15 feet to his own front, when standing in a trench 4 feet lower than the general level of the ground before him. But as the ditch becomes wider and deeper, the distance to which the diggers can throw the earth diminishes, until at last it becomes impossible for them to throw it even up to the berm without over exertion; three additional labourers may then be advantageously employed in the ditch, and in ditches of a triangular section a scaffolding may readily be formed by merely placing planks across it at any required height, cut to the proper length. (Fig. 136.) In sunken and half-sunken batteries care must be taken to make them throw the earth towards the centre of each merlon, to avoid unnecessary moving of earth to form the embrasures, To insure this, their position may be marked by pickets. 114, “ Excavation of ditches—Unless a work is being con- structed under fire, where it would be an object for the diggers to get themselves under cover as soon as possible, the ditch is excavated in layers of 3 feet in depth, steps being left at the counterscarp with a rise of 18 inches each, to facilitate the ingress and egress of the workmen, and of such # width that their re-entering angles may coincide with the surface of the slope. (Fig. 187.) This system facilitates the measuring of tasks ; and the large steps left at the escarp are of great use in getting up the earth from the ‘bottom of the ditch, (Fig. 136.) ‘When the ditch is excavated to the required depth, the steps are cut down with a pickaxe ; the slopes are then dressed with a shovel, if neatness of appearance be desired, When there is time to finish a work accurately, short profiles should be put up along the edges of the escarp and counterscarp,SECTION 9.] 49 [Worxuxe Panries, coinciding with each other. By the aid of these profiles, grooves about the width of a shovel may be scarped down below each, having the correct inclination ; these will be portions of the proper slope. The slope itself may then be correctly formed by scarping away the remainder so that a straight edge will lie evenly between the former. In this way avery correct slope is cut with very little labour. (Fig. 187.) Care should be taken to preserve the good earth free from stones for the slopes of the parapet, as many casualties may occur from shot striking a stony surface. 115. “ Duty of shovellers.—The shovellers are drawn up ins line along the space to be occupied by the parapet ; and their duty is to throw the earth furnished by the diggers, from the front of the parapet, or from the berm, more to the rear, so as to complete the banquette and interior of the parapet, and, generally, to distribute the earth so as to give the required form to the work. When Sascines or sand-bags are used for the- revetment, they should back each successive course with earth, as soon as it is laid by the builders. When a course of gabions is placed, they should fill them at once, and then back them with earth ; in all cases, how- ever, allowing time for its being rammed properly. Each of these men carries a shovel, In all field works that are not made in the immediate presence of an enemy, and when time does not press, the banquette should be formed first, and the exterior slope last. Figs, 134~137. It will be found useful, as the earth rises nearly to the profiles, to put in short pickets, driving them down until their heads are in the plane of the profiles. L1G, “ Duty of rammers.—These men are extended ina line in the rear of the shovellers, and they have to ram the earth thrown by the latter. The ramming of those parts which are nearest to the different revetments, and, generally speaking, the ramming of the earth towards the interior slope of the parapet and the cheeks of the embrasures, should be the most attended to, In a gabion revetment the rammers must ram the earth in the gabions whilst being filled, taking care not to do it so violently as to strain them ; and, according to the rule before mentioned, they must also ram the earth with which the gabions are backed with great care. They should not allow the loose earth in those parts to accumulate anywhere to agreater height than about 6 inches without ramming it well. - The men told off for this duty should always carry some spare shovels besides their rammers, as they may occasionally be required for other purposes. Although a parapet of loose earth is less injured by shot than @ Ramming. rammed one, yet ramming is essential toward the inside for the stability of the revetment, and in defensive field works throughout the parapet, otherwise they might be seriously injured by a con- tinuance of bad weather. : 117. “The shovellers and rammers not being required at first in Other duties. their proper capacities, should, in the case of a battery without a banquette, act as builders, laying the foundation course of fascines, and placing the gabions as hereafter described, and in that of an(Arrack.] 50 [parr 1. ordinary parapet, assisting in setting up the profiles, &c. This rule applies also to the placing of the other courses of fascines and ‘abions, which should always be done by the rammers snd shovel- ders, without taking off the diggers, as the latter cannot at this stage be interrupted without materially delaying the work, 118, “There is no necessity to insist upon the diggers, shovellers, and rammers confining themselves exclusively to these occupations ; on the contrary, they may be moved from one to another,-if any party should appear to get on faster than the other ; the rammers in particular have so much easier work than the diggers that they should occasionally change places with them.” ‘Sxction 10—ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF POSTS. 119. The first object in every attack, whether of a fortress or a field work, must be to learn as far as possible its means of defence. Of permanent works much may always be previously ascertained, but the existence of field works may not be suspected until they are encountered. The first operation, therefore, when the advanced patties of a column discover the enemy in an entrenched position, or.occupying a fortified post, is to reconnoitre it, and to try to make out in what its strength may consist, where it is most easily assailable,.and the nature of the obstacles to an assault, The ground is almost certain to afford cover by which the reconnoitring officers and skirmishers, may approach within tolerably easy rifle shot of the works in various places, and it is also nearly certain to afford natural cover by slight undulations of the surface, or by woods, by which guns ‘can at different points be brought within 1,000 or 1,200 yards. A very little labour will give the guns brought into position in such ‘places the protection of a parapet before, by opening fire, their positions are made known to the enemy. If from any of these positions some long lines of the works can be enfiladed, guns in those positions will be valuable; and if the parapets of the works are thin, a few loaded shells directed into the parapets covering the outer ends of these long lines, will open them to the direct fire of the enfilading guns. If not, the charges and elevations may’be so regulated as to enfilade the faces effectively by just throwing the shot over the with a descending direction of 6° or 7°. When the positions available for the guns do not enable any of the lines of the works to be taken in reverse, or to be either completely or very. nearly enfiladed, and the parapets are too good to be quickly destructible by shells, « pitching fire of shells into the work, just’ clearing the parapets, should be resorted to. As soon as the firing has com- menced and the guns of the work begin to reply to it, the riflemen who have approached under such natural cover as they could find, aust endeavour to keep down the artillery fire of the work. 120, In the attack of an isolated work the capture of the garri- son is generally of small importance in comparison with their early expulsion from the work. It may, therefore, often be prudent to avoid surrounding it, and to leave a retreat open to its garrison during this stage of the attack. While the fire is proceeding individual officers must endeavour to ascertain the nature of theSECTION 10.] 51 [Arrack. obstacles to an assault. Some information may be obtained from people of the country, but it can rarely be relied upon. An officer making such an examination must approach as closely as possible without being seen, and by careful observation from different points with a good glass, he may learn much with respect to the nature of the obstacles. If thie capture be delayed until nightfall he may be ‘able perhaps to reach the edge of the countersearp unperceived, ‘and to ascertain completely the character of the works. And if no greater obstacle than a deep ditch present itself, the work might be assaulted just before daybreak (to permit the near approach of the assailants unperceived) with the aid of ladders. If an abatis sur- round:the work, or if the escarp be palisaded or fraised, a portion of the defences should be selected as most favourable for assault, and vigorously cannonaded, the fire being directed against the escarp and the obstacles, such as abatis or stockades, in front of the work. When a sufficient opening has been effected to admit of rapid assault the attacking column should be sent forward, with parties carrying bags of hay or wool, or other light stuff, to facili- tate the passage of any obstacle against the counterscarp, as well as saws, axes, and crowbars to remove obstacles. Ladders and powder bags with fuze attached should also’ be sent forward to be available if required. ; 121. If it has been discovered that part of the defences consists of a line of stockade protected by its position from artillery fire, a party might be directed against that part of the work with’ bags of powder, or gun-cotton to breach it, while the attack on the part which lias been eannonaded is also proceeding. If the ditches are flanked by caponieres, a pitching fire of shot and shells should be directed on those which bear on the part of the ditch intended to ‘be crossed. 122. If any long face of the work has been so completely opened as to be exposed to the enfilade fire of guns with full charges, the attack may proceed against that face with tolerable assurance that it will be possible to surmount the passive obstacles to the assault while the defence is checked by the enfilading guns; but ‘unless the active defence of the part assailed is very much sub- dued, the assault should not be attempted (if the work be well defended) until the obstacles to the attack have been rendered inefficient. L ’ 7 128. If the work have a keep, a pitching fire of shot and shells should be vigorously maintained against the part of the keep imme- diately in rear of the faces attacked, with a view to .breach it. If effectually breached it will probably be carried at once on the success of the assailants against the outer work ; but if not, the operation against’ it may be difficult, requiring good judgment in the officer, and good discipline in the troops. ‘The men should not pass over the parapet of the work (those that have so passed in the impetuosity of the assault being quickly withdrawn) but dispose themselves along the exterior slope all round it, so as to command the -interior and prevent the return of the defenders to their parapets, while the assailants remain covered against the fire of the Keep. Some little labour may be employed to render the command and cover more complete ; anda place may be prepared to enableSiege trenches. First parallel, Arrack.] 52 + [part I. one or more guns to be safely brought into action ; or the thickness of the parapet may be reduced by cutting from the outside or into the exterior slope, until it is insufficient to protect the keep from the direct fire of artillery. After this fire has been opened the capture or surrender of the keep will speedily follow. But it may be found even with a field work, as must almost invariably be the case with a permanent work, that neither the fire of any part of it, nor the obstacles to an assault can be sufficiently subdued from a distance, and that if its capture is necessary it must be advanced against under cover. Such cover is obtained by “siege trenches.” 7 124. If it be requisite for the capture of a work to place men and guns so near to it that they must be covered and could not be promptly supported if attacked by the garrison, the number of, men thrown forward must be sufficient to repel such an attack, and the trenches for the cover of the troops intended to protect the guns and works are called “parallels.” They are made at night, and so traced as to take advantage of any rising ground, but generally at nearly the same distance everywhere from the work, and are sufficiently extensive to comprise in their front all the ground to be worked over. Batteries, or positions for guns, can be chosen either in front, in rear of, or within these parallels. In the two former cases, the'batteries are connected with the parallels by other trenches, so traced as to be secure from enfilade from the works, In like manner, trenches similarly traced to avoid enfilade and called “approaches,” can be carried forward until the places are reached from which the obstacles to an assault can be dealt with, either by powder-bags, by mining, or by bringing up guns against them. As yet such elaborate attacks can very rarely have been necessary against field-works, but the tly increased power of weapons, the greater use, in conse- quence, of field defences, and the increased consideration and skill likely to be devoted to them in future wars, make it desirable for every officer to know the principles above mentioned, on which the present method of deliberate attack depends. The application of those principles to the attack of permanent works has led to a variety of forms of “siege trenches” suited to the circumstances under which they are executed, and they are here described, although it is not probable that any but the simplest forms would be required against field-works, 125, A “first parallel” is opened, and nearly completed during the night, as near the place as circumstances permit, usually about 600 yards from its most advanced points; and covered communi- cations to it from the rear, or from the depéts of stores, 8c. likely to be wanted, are formed at the same time, and in it a force sufficient to repel any sorties is maintained. Batteries against the works bearing on the ground to be occupied by the proposed works of the attack were usually established in front of this parallel, but as the precision of the present artillery and its effect at long ranges are much greater than with the smooth-bore ns formerly in use, many of the first batteries will no doubt in future be established on the most convenient points between the first parallel and a distance of 1,000 or 1,200 yards from the place,SECTION 10.] 53 [Arrack. in which position they will be secure from sorties and from the musketry of the works. ‘Trenches of approach, so directed as to be secure from enfilade, are then proceeded with until about half- way between the first parallel and the place it becomes necessary for the due support of the further advance to form a “second Second parallel.” As the musketry fire at 300 yards would be formidable parallel. . to the working party, the construction of the parallel and of the trenches in advance of it, is so arranged as to provide protection against musketry very rapidly ; being executed quickly by “flying sap” when the fire is slack, and slowly by “single sap” or “double sap” when well sustained. The first of these modes of procedure is described further on, as executed at the School of Military Engineering. The single and double sap being in- variably executed by sappers, do not come within the province of the infantry officer, and are therefore omitted. As the trenches of approach advance, new batteries for guns and mortars are formed, as well as new parallels or half parallels for their support, until the artillery fire of the place having been silenced, and its musketry fire greatly subdued, the trenches are advanced to the crest of the glacis, or the edge of the ditch, when by mining and batteries, or by mines alone, the obstacles of the counterscarp and escarp are removed. 126. The foregoing paragraphs have shown the advantages The defence. which, under ordinary circumstances, attend an attack. The attacking force have the choice of all the ground about a work, and can select the most advantageous positions for guns beyond any very effective action of the musketry of the garrison, and can generally advance their own skirmishers, under natural cover, to within easy rifle range of the guns opposed to them. They possess the power of enfilading their enemy, and whatever dispositions may have been made to diminish the action of enfilade, they can certainly be overcome in time by well directed fire. The patient endurance of a good soldier, while doing his best to prolong the defence, is the part of the garrison of an isolated field-work, except when it possesses some extraordinary advantages from its site. Of a fortified position, that is a prepared field of battle, it is not necessary here to speak; the army holding it may at any moment be ordered to advance or retire. But an isolated field-work is prepared in order to maintain an important point for a limited time, and the duty of its garrison is to hold it until relieved, or until prolonged defence becomes impossible. | 127. The chief duty of defence in such works must consist in checking, as far as possible, the operations of the assailant, repairing, as far as possible, the injuries done by his fire, replying to it where this can be effectively done, but not wasting ammuni- tion; when the assaulting columns advance, the musketry fire will be most valuable, and for that period careful reservation must be made, Repairing the parapets and traverses, restoring obstacles or creating new ones in preparation against the assault, guarding against surprise, being prepared against night attacks, and looking out to fire upon or capture reconnoiterers venturing close to the work, form the chief duties of defence ; and maintaining the zealous and determined spirit of his men, the first duty of the officer.Information required. Height of walls, &. ‘Time for an assault, Attack.) 54 [PaRT-1. If the work have a keep, the garrison should be trained, before the assault is expected, to retire to it in an orderly manner, on the order of their commanding officer. A portion of the troops should be in the keep, at its loopholes and at its upper parapet, if there ‘be one, as soon as’ the assaulting columns have reached the first obstacles to their advance ; and when no obstacles can detain them longer than the time necessary to mount their ladders or the portions breached, the remainder should be regularly withdrawn, that a brisk fire’‘may be opened (but by order) from the keep when a sufficient number of the assailants have passed into the work to make it worth while to fire upon them, The following extracts from the Chatham course relate to the dispositions for the gssault and escalade of works, to the trenches and batteries used in attacks, and the materials used: in their construction. Assaulting Columns. 128. “ Previous to an assault, whether by escalade, or otherwise, the Royal Engineer officers must obtain as much ‘information as possible, relative to the obstacles to be surmounted, viz., the number of the ditches to be crossed, the heights of the counter- searps and escarps, the positions of any abatis, palisades, barriers, &c. Part of the information, such as the depth of the ditches, and the practicability of the breaches, should be obtained by personal observation, The whole of the Royal Engineer officers employed at an assault, should be thoroughly acquainted with the general arrangements, such as the number and positions of the several columns, the obstacles likely to be met. with, &c., and should also know the plan of the works, so as to be able to inform the commanding officers which way to go.” 129. “ For an escalade, there must be a division of ladders for each of the walls to be ascended or descended. At least 3 feet of the head of each ladder must be above the wall against which it is placed, to assist the men in getting on and off, and, although the butts of the ladders should not touch the wall, yet the inclination of the ladders ought not to be more than 4, or there will be danger of their being broken by the weight of the men. Vauban considered an escarp of 38 feet to be unassailable by escalade. It:is scareely practicable for an escalade to succeed, when the is above 25 or 28 feet high, except by surprise, in fact any escalade to be successful, must be to some extent a surprise. As secresy and surprise, are therefore of such very great importance, all necessary signals, &c. should be arranged before- hand, so that words of command need not be given until the escalade is discovered. Portable pridges, sacks stuffed with wool, &c., may sometimes be advantageously used for crossing small ditches.” 180. “The best hour at which to assault, depends on whether the intention be to destroy the work attacked, and then abandon it, or to hold the place after it is taken. If the former be the design, & good hour for assault would probably be about midnight, which would allow of the work being destroyed and the retreat made good before daylight. But if it be intended to hold the place, theSECTION 10.] 55 [Arrack. assault might probably be most advantageously given about an hour and a half before daybreak, in order that if unsuccessful, the assailants might retire in the dark; and if successful, might be able ‘to establish themselves before daylight. It may, however, in some cases be advisable to assault by daylight; there. cannot then be any fear of a column losing its way, and the assailants’ guns can then render more efficient aid.” 181, “It is advisable to make several attacks, some of which False attacks. may be false, in order to distract the enemy’s attention, and make him divide'his forces. False attacks must be of such strength as to command respect, and to act, if required, as though they were real attacks. It is worthy of remark, that in several instances, the false attacks have succeeded while the real attacks have failed. All the attacks should be made at nearly, if not quite, the same moment, and each attacking party should be clearly instructed in which: direction to move, in case they gain a footing on the ramparts, so as to ensure concentration and mutual support.” 132, “The points selected for assault should be, if possible, un- Parts to be flanked parts of the work, and each column of assault should have assaulted. 8s great a front as possible with reference to the work to be attacked; the front would seldom exceed two companies.” i 183, “Every column of assault should consist of — Formation of 1. A covering party. anaalng 2. A party of engineers, or pioneers with tools. ee 8, A ladder party (if ladders be required). 4, A storming party consisting of— The advance. The main body or supports. A party of artillerymen. ‘The reserve. 7 5. A working party. It is of the utmost importance that parties for an assault should be detailed by companies, regiments, brigades, and divisions, and not be composed of detachments of different corps.” 184, “The covering party advances first, in extended order at Covering intervals of four paces ; an interval should be left in the centre for the Party. ladder partiés and-assoulting column to pass through. It advances to the crest of the glacis, or the edge of the counterscarp, where the men kneel or lie down, taking advantage of cover, which is frequently to be found in the craters formed by shells, The covering party will on no account fire without orders, so that if possible the head of the column may be able to surprise the garrison. As soon as the defenders show themselves on the parapet, in order to oppose the assault, the covering party will open a very brisk fire on them, and keep it up, until the advance of their own column renders it dangerous to the latter. In many : cases an assault may be assisted by the fire of field guns placed on the flanks so as to sweep the parapet, or to disorganize the enemy’s supports as they are being brought up. The covering party remains on the glacis the whole time, in order to cover the retreat should the assault be unsuccessful.” 185. “If there be any obstructions, such as abatis on the glacis, or Engineer party. palisades along the covered way, to be removed before the counter-Ladder party. Artrack.] 56 [part I. searp is reached, the party of engineers will precede the ladder, and storming parties ; such obstructions, however, might probably be previously disposed of by artillery fire from a distance, but if there be not any obstacles in front of the counterscarp, the engineer party will move in rear of the first division of ladders. If there be any obstructions in the ditch, the engineer party will descend by the first ladders that are placed, but otherwise they will remain on the covered way or glacis, until the advance of the storming party has passed through them, and then follow them ; if no ladders are required their position is in rear of the advance of the storming ty. Pethe strength of the engineer party* with tools may be from 20 to 60 men, under one or two officers; the party should be armed and carry their rifles slung, as for escalading. ‘The description of tools, &c. to be carried by them, varies according to the nature of the obstacles to be overcome ; but if that cannot be ascertained, the following might be taken :— ‘Tools for 20 Men. | No.- | Men to carry. Bars, crow, 4-ft. - 7 - = 1 1 Bars, Pinching - - - - 7 2 2 Saws,hand - | - 7 7 7 wow — w Ropes 1} in., 25 feet long with hook atend - ‘Axes, felling - s - = 7 4 4 Axspick - - - - -| 4 7 Shovels, field service - - - - 4 4 Hammers, pin,withelaw = - 9 - = 1 1 Bags of powder, 40 Ibs. each, or gun-cotton - 2 Gimlets, spike - EEE EEE el a } 2 This party is simply to ent down hedges, form steps (if neces- sary) on the exterior slope, blow down barriers, and generally to remove obstructions. It should be distinctly explained to men carrying tools, or ladders, that they are required to show their gallantry and steadi- ness, not in the use of their arms, but in the very important services to be rendered by the implements they carry.” 186. “ The ladder party must consist of one, two, or more divi- sions, according to the number of walls to be descended or ascended. By means of the ladders a continuous road must be formed from the exterior to the interior of the work. Each division of the ladder party must be accompanied by an officer of the Royal * If there be not sufficient R.E. to furnish this party, pioneers or artificers from other corps should be obtained.SECTION 10.] 57 [Arrace. Engineers, and, if possible, the ladders should be carried by Sappers, as the carrying and placing is an art only acquired by practice. If there be not enough Royal “Engineers for this duty, the ladders should be carried by a special party who must be pre- viously exercised in the escalading practice ; each ladder should in any case have at least one sapper with it. Great care must be taken during the advance to keep the ladders in line, and to preserve the intervals decided on between them.*” 187. “The senior subaltern of Royal Engineers conducts the advance of the storming party, which should follow about 30 paces in rear of the last division of ladders, cross the ditch, and ascemd the escarp, as quickly as possible, carrying their arms at the short trail; they fix their bayonets on reaching the berm, and when formed up at the word (or signal) Forward, move over the rampart. “The good old custom of employing grenadiers, that is, chosen men, for occasions of difficulty,” can no longer be adopted, but still distinguished regiments can be selected for the advance. If there be not any berm, each man finds his way over the parapet as quickly as possible, fixing his bayonet as he advances up the exterior slope. In this case, or when the exterior slope is very steep, the eapper with each ladder, might with advantage be supplied with a sap fork, to enable him to secure a good footing on the parapet, and to assist the other men up; it would be advisable, howevef, in such cases, if possible, to previously shell the exterior slope so as to enable the men to obtain a footing on it more readily. If there bea hedge on the berm, some of the sappers must ascend the ladders first, and cut openings in it, to the right of each ladder.” 188, “The supports, or main body of the storming party, The advance. Main body or follow ‘about 30 paces in rear of the advance (or of the party of supports. engineers, if they do not precede the advance) in column, with the greatest front possible at subdivision distancet; they are accompanied by one or more Royal Engineer officers, to afford professional advice to the officers in command. A storming party should always advance with as much celerity as possible, consistent with the inen being fresh, when they close with the enemy. The great object of a storming party, should be to close with the enemy as rapidly, and in as compact order as possible : it therefore should not fire, but rely chiefly on the bayonet. No one must be allowed to fall out to take to the rear wounded officers or men ; the wounded must find their own way back or wait for the stretcher party, which should follow in rear of the working party. An entrance being effected, the assailants move right and left, to clear the parapet of defenders, and endeavour to open the gates, &c., according to previous arrangement or to the circumstances of the case. Any adjacent houses should be seized, and strongly occupied.” * Sometimes the ladders are carried by the advance of the storming party, but it is most desirable that they should be carried by a special party, as a ladder party often geta disorganised, and it is of the utmost importance that the advance of the storming party should keep their formation. + Or at company distance, if the column be formed in grand divisions,Artillery party. Working party. Strength of column, Arrack.] 58 [parr 1. 189. “A party of artillery should be told off to follow: the.znain body, for the purpose of turning against. the enemy, any guns-that may be found, or of spiking them, in case of a repulse; the party might consist of one or two officers and 20 or-80 men ; each inan should be provided with a hammer and a dozen spikes.” 140. “The reserve, under the superior officer who has charge of the whole operation, should follow the storming party at a distance of about 100 paces. The officer in command, being guided-by circumstances, should dispose his. men in positions to protest the working parties. if a lodgment is being made, or otherwise. to secure the ground gained by the storming party, so that in case of a reverse, after entering the place, the whole operation may not be « failure.” i 141. “A working party of Royal Engineers, or of infantry, under the directions of Royal Engineer officers and sappers, should follow the storming party, for the purpose of forming a lodgment.if the place is to be held, or destroying it, if it is to be abandoned.” 142. “The relative strengths of the different portions-of an: assaulting column, eannot be fixed by an undeviating rale, as. the circumstances vary so much in each case, but the following general obsérvations may be.found of use:— The chief point is to employ.a sufficient number of men, “the “ miserable, doubting, unmilitary policy of small storming parties; “ on the plea that if we fail we can't lose many:men, causes more “ mischief, loss, and disgrace, than any other proceeding in war.” (The military opinions of Field-Marshal. Sir J. Burgoyne, Bart., &.C.B., Royal Engineers.) ; t ‘The covering party. should be sufficient (after allowing a Hberal margin for casualties during the advance), to extend and oceupy every available spot, from which a fire can be kept up on the works of the place. which bear on the assaulting column. In the ladder party, there should be a proportion of spare men to replace casualties, the number should be from 25 to 75 per cent., according to the distance to be gone over. ‘The advance of the storming party might consist of from 60 to 180 men, closely followed by the main body, consisting'of the rest of the brigade or even division, the strength to be determined with reference to that of the garrison. The reserve should consist of another brigade or division. -It is also necessary to hsive guards of the trenches to prevent sorties on the flanks, and it may be further advisable to place @ proportion of field guns in the trenches, onthe flanks of the attack, to.support it. The necessity for these, as also their position and tiumbers, would depend on the nature of the works of attack, and the position of + the siege batteries. Preparation would be necessary for these gans, Table of assaulting column, but it is considered that in some instances they might be placed in rear of the trenches, so as to fire over them, and be run into them when no longer required.” 148, “ The folowing table shows the strength of columus-of assault, &c. in certain instances ; these cases have not been selected owing to their being the best examples, but simply because the known details respecting them are more ample than in most other cases i—59 ATTACK. smoTION 10.] — |= ra {fi way [oer)=| —|-|-|5| — [eh ee |sos| oo | 00g" = |=|= = | ‘ ‘uoyey SUA YONETUT m0 aeons {| we foe) BTU Sos] oory | ovo] o9.| ost | os |soe| wo] — 8 \ “ogiist, cay wo! sdoosy oyy pur ‘dn || | | | dag ‘jodoysuqag (Suoan, your AIOSOL 0 mnysso00ns SEAL OPETCOSO ; ° serena ape om ace | oa] —| owe [oe owe |u| |e |x| | =] oe |e -pormg araesse guy, -strumjoo youadys ou oxas osouy,| — | —]om'EE] —4q. 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DUS POUL o af oz oe s —jo et jsed| at] 0 T 4d wou), ‘otepwat [now 00g DUE Si2Owo GL Jo UST OF SSO] WHT yngssaaong “He Sum Uospred oy} {uOT OOF'LIMOGE Jo SOL v YI ‘papovvans | — | —] HW | — = oos's| =| ort | — | 98 | 29 |Jo mow \F | dog pees ws = -006 svai uosyzavs oun-fpoposoong| ope} sz] — oa} sieao | oor |—| — }—|}—|—] 009 f= _|'moon= vee "I 2 e Hep ELE ERAGE aE B 5 - 18 HU A (EL a |SITE & |e) smarseons “SxavVRGY * ¥ aroaag — Z % aie se c a Ree a0 Apogt urge |"°UMPY i 2 E : HON “Bung Sums “Apia 1OPPUT ,GoogleDeseription of ladders. Escalading exercise. Telling off. Escarapinc.] 60 [Part . Secrion 11—ESCALADING. 144, “The ladders used for escalading may be entire or formed of lengths joined together ; in many instances they would probably be roughly made from trees cut by the troops themselves ; they are carried by parties of men varying in number, according to the length and weight of the ladders, four men being sufficient for an 18-feet ladder weighing about 100 Ibs. six men for a 24-feet ladder weighing about 133 Ibs., and two men for every additional 6 feet ; each ladder party must, however, include spare men to replace casualties as they occur. Scaling ladders in lengths of 6 feet (Fig. 138), and 12 feet are articles of store, and as the former are generally used at Chatham inst an escarp 20 feet high, the exercise is drawn up for ladders of 24 feet long formed of four of those lengths, but with slight modifications it will apply to any other Indders, particularly that part of the drill which treats of the actual escalade. The whole of the ladders are of similar construction, they taper from butt to tip, the tip of one fits inside the butt of another, and is kept there by means of iron straps, of which there is one fixed near each end of the side pieces; the 12-feet ladders have 13 rounds, and the 6-feet 6 rounds, one near the butt and one near the tip, being in each case flat rounds ; two lashings of 1-inch rope, 6 feet long clear of the eye, are spliced to the flat round near the tip 5 by means of these lashings the lengths are secured together, and prevented from slipping out of the iron straps (Fig. 141). A. 36-fect ladder is the longest that can be turned over, if formed of the 6-feet lengths, and 48 feet if formed of the 12-feet lengths. : For an escalade by night the tips and the joints of the ladders should be mufiled to prevent noise.” i Exercise for a Leading Division escalading a Work with Escarp and Counterscarp. 146, “The companies detailed to carry the ladders parade, in drill order, with the slings of their rifles loosened, the officers with their sword knots round their wrists ; if with any company there be not sufficient subalterns and sergeants, to allow one for each ladder to be carried by the company, corporals must be fallen out to make up the deficiency. NUMBER By FOURS The whole are numbered from the right in (ives, sixes, &c.) sections of 4, 5, 6, &c. file, according to the FROM THE RIGHT. number of men required for each ladder. ON THE MOVE, The sections are then wheeled up into BY SECTIONS, column, right in front and halted when square. RIGHT WHEEL, QUICK MARCH, > PR HALT—DRESS, The captains are then ordered to post a commander to each section ; the subalterns should be posted to the flank sections, and ’ the non-commissioned officers to the intermediate sections of their companies ; it is always advisable to have officers and non-com-ESCALADING. Plate XXVI. Fig. 138.—Plan of 6-ft. Ladder. Fig. 140. Grapnel. Scale Figs. 138-9, 24 ft. 1 in. » » 40-1, 1241» 26334, =Digtes by GoogleSECTION 11.] 61 [Escatapie. missioned officers with their own companies, and on no occasior is this so important as with ladder parties. If there be only one aubaltern with the rear company, he should be posted to the rear section. The captains superintend the whole of the ladders of their companies, they remain in rear of their companies, but when the ladders are placed they lead down them. COMMANDERS size Each commander sizes his section from YOUR SECTIONS right to left, so that the ladders may rest as FROM RIGHT TO equally as possible on the men’s shoulders, ‘LEFT. and falls in on the pivot flank. TELL OFF THE At this order the commanders act as laid DIVISION. down in the field exercise, and the division is told off from the front as No. 1, No. 2, &e. NUMBER youR sEc- The commanders will number off their TIONS FROM RIGHT sections. ‘TO LEFT. Nos. 1 spare MEN. The instructor will then tell the men off. Nos. 2 TIP MEN. For drill purposes at Chatham (where four Nos. 3 CENTRE MEN. lengths of 6-feet ladders requiring six men Nos. 4, BUTT MEN. to carry them are used) the sections will Nos. 2 TO 4 LappER usually consist of four files, when Nos. 1 will MEN. be told off as spare men, Nos. 2 as tip men, SPARE MEN, Nos. 3 as centre men, and Nos, 4 as butt men. SHOULDER ARMs. The instructor will then prove them. ‘TIP MEN, SHOULDER _ If there be six files in a section and only ARMS. four required to carry a ladder, the telling off CENTRE MEN, will be Nos. 1 and 2 spare men, Nos. 3 tip SHOULDER ARMS, men, Nos. 4 and 5 centre men, Nos. 6 butt BUTT MEN, men. SHOULDER ARMS, SPARE MEN, ORDER ARMS. LADDER MEN, ORDER ARMS. FRONT RANK, STAND AT EASE. REAR RANK, STAND AT EASE, ATTENTION. EYES FRONT. The commanders of sections resume their PILE ARMS. places on the pivot flanks of their sections. STAND CLEAR. STAND AT EASE. MOVE OFF BY suc- At this order the ladder men of each sec- CESSIVE SECTIONS tion are marched off in succession, by their FROM THE FRONT commanders to the park, and there shoulder a (Ean on Front pile of four (or more if required) lengths of AND REAR) AND ladders, and carry them out butt foremost, the BRING LADDERS front rank on the right and the rear rank on FROM THE PARK. the left, and ground them in prolongation, to No.—Ladder Men. the left of their piles of arms, with the tips Attention. four paces from them. Quick March, gc. E2Escatanrxo.] ‘Halt, Shoulder Ladders. Quick March, §c. Ground Ladders. ‘Stand at Ease. Joining ATTENTION. 62 {PART I. In shouldering ladders, the men face in- wards, stoop down, and with both hands raise the ladders as high as their shoulders, and then face the butt, put the ladders on their inward shoulder, holding them there with their inward hands, and letting fall their outward hands to their sides. Jn grounding ladders, the men raise their outward hands, support the weight of the ladders in both hands, turn inwards, and lower the ladders gently on to the ground, the tip men being the last to quit hold of them. ‘The men then come to attention facing the pivot flank, the commander falls in on the right of the butt men of front ranks, and stands his men at ease.” Joining Ladders by Numbers. * 146, “ The commanders advance the number ladders by COMMANDERS 7 (9} of paces specified, which should be seven if the numbers. or 12) paces To number of lengths to be joined be four, and THE FRONT. QUICK 24 paces more for every additional length. MARCH. RIGHT ‘The commanders face about at the word, and ABOUT TURN. COVER then close to their right until they cover the YOUR LADDERS. LEFT DRESS. Steady. BY NUMBERS JOIN LADDERS. Two, THREE, FOUR. centre of their piles of ladders; they then dress by their left. At the word Ladders, the butt men stoop down, seize with both hands the upper length of the pile, carry it out at the double, and place its butt at the feet of their commanders ; they then move smartly to the tip end, and raise it six inches from’ the ground (holding it by the second round), and assist to fit the next length; when that is completed they come to attention opposite the joints, facing inwards. The nearest file of spare men move up to the pile of ladders. When the butt men have taken away from the pile the upper length, the centre men stoop down, seize the next length, double out with it, and fit it on to the first length ; this done, they move to the tip of the length, and act as detailed for the butt men. The remaining files of the ladder men act in the same manner. The nearest file of spare men at the word Four will lift up the last length, and fit it on, lay the ladder down on the ground, and then return to their places at the piles of arms.SECTION 11.] 63 [Escarapma, CASTOFF LASHINGS. At the word Lashings, each man stoops down, and casts off the lashing in front of him; he then comes to attention with the point ot the lashing in his right hand. PREPARE TO LasH. At the word Prepare to lash, face towards the tip of the ladder, kneel on the side of the ladder with the inward knee, inner foot close to the ladder; bring the splice of the eye of the lashing to the upper edge of the flat round, press the eye close to the side of the ladder, and wait with the point of the lashing in the right hand. LASE, ‘At the word Lash, pass the lashing twice over and under the two flat rounds, no part of the lashing being allowed to lie across another, haul taut, and make fast with two (or more) half hitches, round the whole lashing close to the lower flat round ; then come to attention, facing the tip of the ladder. While the lashing is going on, the com- manders move about to see that they are properly made, and when they have satisfied themselves that the joints are home, the eyes properly placed, the lashings taut, and the half hitches secure, resume their positions at the butt ends of the ladders facing from them and in succession report All correct to their captains or the instructor, after which they face about. FILEONYOURARMS; The commanders move off with their ladder QUICK MARCH. men, STANDTO—UNPILE The men file on their ladders, front rank ARMS. LEFT FACE. on the right, and rear rank on the left, and FOR ESCAEADING, take post, the butt men at the butt, the tip TAKE POST ON YOUR men at the tip, and the centre men distributed LADDERS. at equal distances between them, the spare QUICK MARCH. men covering in rear of the ladders at inter- vals of one pace.” BY NUMBERS FOR 147, “On the word Prepare to sling, the Escalading by ESCALADING ON whole will come to the shoulder, with the rifle numbers. THE OUTWARD _ in the inward hand.* SHOULDER, PRE- PARE TO SLING. SLING ARMS. At the word Arms, with the outward hand seizo the sling in line with the shoulder, raise the rifle a few inches as in the first motion of the present (or of the shoulder from the ad- vance with the long rifle). The commander always slings the same way as the front rank. * In the whole of this escalading drill, the words Advance arms must be used in place of Shoulder arms, if the troops are armed with the long rifle.EscaLspino.|} Two. SHOULDER LADDERS. MOVE O¥F IN 8UC- 64 [parT I. Raise the rifle, and first pass the head, and then the inward arm between the sling and the rifle; place the sling over the outward shoulder, and let the riffe lie diagonally across the back, the muzzle pointing upwards and outwards ; let go the sling and drop the hand to the side. The ladder men face inwards, and take up the ladders in the same way as when the ladders were in pile. The men of the front rank step forward half a pace, and the men of the rear rank step back half a pace, to pre- vent the butts of their rifles coming in contact. The sections, with their ladders, move off CESSION, FROM THE as ordered ; the spare men following in rear of RIGHT (LEFT OR their own ladders. The two leading ladders CENTRES) BY TWOS will receive the word from the instructor, the OF LADDERS. other ladders from their own commanders. NOS.—QUICK MARCH. FORM LINE ON THE When the leading ladders reach the place LEADING LADDERS, GROUND LADDERS. BY NUMBERS— ORDER ARMS. Two. STAND AT EASE. ATTENTION. BY NUMBERS, FOR ESCALADING, ON THE OUTWARD SHOULDER PRE- PARE TO SLING. SLING ARMS. TWO. SHOULDER LADDERS. THE DIVISION from which the escalade is to advance, they halt, and the ladders in rear move up into line, intervals of not less than six feet* clear being allowed between the ladders. The ladders are grounded in the same way as when they were in piles. At the word Arms, seize the sling near the top swivel with the outward hand, and pass the other hand through between the sling and rifle, seize the rifle by the small of the butt, thumb to the front, elbow close to the body. At the word Two, raise the rifle over the head and bring it to the order. The instructor will now explain all the operations of the escalade, and will then put the squad through the escalading drill by numbers ; he will insist on perfect silence and the utmost regularity and steadiness. ‘The men act as previously described. The division advances at a very steady * This distance to be such, that the space occupied by the Iadders ii equal to that occupied by the front of the storming party, less one sectic sboutSECTION 11].] 65 [Bscaranmma. ‘WILL ADVANCE BY pace, without noise; the commanders on the THE CENTRE. inner flanks of sections, keeping the dressing QUICK MARCH. and distance very correctly ; the spare men Keep close up, ready to take the place of any men who become casualties. If any obstacle such as a low wall, railing, &c. has to be passed, the butt men on arriving at it will place the butts of their ladders on the top and pass the obstacle rapidly ; the other men will push the ladders forward until they in their turn arrive at the obstacle, which they too will pass as soon as possible; the men first over, will seize the ladders, and the others will regain their places quickly ; the ladder must always be supported in several places along its length, or it is liable to receive injury. When all the men belonging to each ladder have passed, they will shoulder it, and move forward. Obstacles must be passed as expeditiously as possible, so that there shall not be any check in the advance of the column, As soon as the ladders reach the edge of the counterscarp, the instructor gives the word HALT, Halt, when the commanders regain their places on the right of the butt men. LOWER THE On the word Ladders, the butt men lower LADDERS. the butt on to the ground, retire to the tip of the ladder, face each other and grasp the top round with the hand nearest to it, back of the hand up. The centre men lower the ladder from their shoulders, but support it with their hands, and push it forward about 4 feet over the edge of the counterscarp. The tip men retain the ladder on their shoulders. Two. The ladder is pushed forward about 6 feet, the first file of centre men fall back to the rear of the butt men, face each other, and with their hands nearest the ladder seize the hands of the butt men, with » grip, commonly called a butcher’s hook (Fig. 142). THREE. The ladder is again pushed forward about 6 feet, and the next files in succession fall back to the rear, face inwards, and with the hands nearest the ladders, grip the hands of the men previously formed up. (FOUR. FIVE.) ‘These words are required if there be five or six lengths, but not for only four. LOWER. The ladder is allowed to descend into the ditch without noise by the butt men, steadied by the other numbers. The commanders are responsible that the butts of the ladders are not more than 18 inches from the foot of the counterscarp, and that they do not incline to the right or left. The section then cover in file, the com-Escatap1xo.] FORM IN THE DITCH, MOVE ACROSS THE DITCH. TURN OVER, 66 [part 1. mander being on the right, the spare men closing up. ‘The commanders lay hold of the right side of the ladder with their left hands, and resting on their left feet swing the right foot round on to the ladder and descend, holding by the side of the ladder.* ‘The men follow their com- manders as quickly as possible, getting on to the ladders and descending in the same manner. In advancing the front rank man of a file always precedes his rear rank man. On getting to the bottom of the ditch the men form up on their ladders in the proper order, the spare men having their back against the counterscarp wall, and the others as close to them as possible. The butt men face inwards, lay hold of the second round of the ladders, raise it 6 inches, move the butt very slowly and steadily across the ditch, place it against the foot of the escarp, and stand on the butt facing inwards. The centre men move out 2 or 3 yards and re- ceive in their hands the centre of the ladder as it descends, and afterwards support it in the bend of their arms, The tip men stand fast to receive the tip of the ladder, which they place on their shoulders. The spare men assist. If the ditch be very broad the ladders must be shouldered, carried across, and the butts lowered against the foot of the escarp. The centre and tip men turn the ladder up smartly, the butt men keeping the butt firmly on the und ; all must e care that the Jadder lightly ogainst the escarp; the butt men must be carefal not to-get squeezed be- tween the ladders and the escarp. The butt men, when the ladder is turned over pull the butt out 18 inches from the wall. The com- manders see that the ladders do not lean over either way; the men then form up clear of the ladder, and if they are not to enter the work first, get as close into the escarp as possible, the butt men and others, if necessary, assisting to keep the ladders in their places; this is especially necessary when the defenders en- deavour to overturn the ladders ; the passage will then be clear for the storming party. If * If men hold on by the rounds, they are liable to get their fingers trodden on, which might cause them to let go and fall off the ladder, bringing other men down with them. The fingers must not be put too far round the sides, for fear of being pinched between the ladder and the wall.SECTION 11.] 67 [Escatapino. the latter party is to storm the works the men order their arms. FORM ON THE BERM On the word Berm, the commanders, followed (ox WITHIN THE by their men in the same order as in descending, WORKS). ascend the ladders one step at a time, holding by the sides, When at the top they take hold of the right side of the ladder with the left hand, step off with the right foot first, and fix swords (or bayonets). ‘The men front form as they get on the berm, the commanders dropping to the rear, and when the division is formed, vorwaRp. at the word* Forward they mount the ex- terior slope with their arms at the trail, the rear rank about three paces in rear of the front rank ; on getting on to the superior slope they charge into the work. When there is no berm each man finds his own way on to the superior slope as soon ss possible, fixing swords as he advances ; as soon as there are enough men up they charge into the work; the commander in this case enters the work with his leading file.” 148. “To bring the party back, in order to repeat the exercise, the following are the words of command :— UNFIX SWORDS. BY SECTIONS ON THE LEFT, BACK- WARDS WHEEL. QUICK MARCH. HALT. RIGHT TURN. The men come back in the inverse order to FORM IN THE DITCH. that in which they advanced.t quick marcy. The men get on to the ladders and descend as before described ; on reaching the bottom of the ditch they form up clear of their ladders, the butt men having their backs against the escarp, and the others as close to them as possible ; the commander on the left. BY NUMBERS. The men should be reminded that their arms FOR ESCALADING. have to be slung on the contrary shoulder to ON THE OUTWARD that when advancing. SHOULDER PRE- PARE TO SLING ; . BLING ARM3. TWO. MOVE ACROSS THE The ladders are moved across the ditch in DITCH. the same manner as before, the only difference being in the positions of the men, the spare men moving the butt across the ditch, and the centre men receiving the tip. * With recruits the swords to be unfixed before the word Forward is given. + The men should be cautioned to go down the exterior slope very slowly, for fear of falling over into the ditch. Bringing the ladders back.Disconnecting ladders. EscaLApiNG.] 68 [part TURN OVER, The ladders are turned over in the same manner as before, the only difference being that the spare men keep the butts firmly on the ground, while the other men turn the ladders smartly over. FORM ON THE — The men ascend the ladders, spare men first, GLACIS (OR — commanders last ; they get off the ladder as COVERED WAY, é&c.) before directed, and fall in at the head of the ladder in file, facing from the work. “FORM CHAIN, The men face inwards and grip hands as in lowering the ladders ; the butt men pass the hand nearest the ladder round the side, and seize hold of the round in line with the shoulder, and the whole stretch out to the full extent of their arms, as in lowering the ladders. DRAWTHELADDERS The men move at a steady pace, increasing UP. to a double, draw up the ladders, and drag them along the ground until the butts are about 20 yards from the edge of the ditch ; the commanders will move at the butts of the ladders. HALT, DRESS. The men are halted, the ladders dressed, by GROUND LappERS. the left, and then grounded ; the men remain in their places facing from the work, and the commanders regain their places. By NUMBERS; The ladders having been grounded, the arms ORDER ARMs. TWO. are ordered, and the rear files close up.” FRONT. LEFT DRESS. PILE ARMS, 149, “The arms are piled in prolongation STAND CLEAR. of the pile of ladders. FOR UNLASHING, The men are marched on the ladders, and TAKE POST ON THE halt at their posts, the butt, centre, and tip LADDERS. men at the several joints, facing inwards; a quick Marcy. file of spare men at the round nearest to the pile of arms; the commander, a pace from the end of the ladder nearest to the arms. UNLASH. At the word Unlash, each .man stoops down, and casts off the lashing in front ‘of him ; he then comes to attention with the point of the lashing in the right hand, PREPARE TOSECURE At this word, face towards the butt of the LASHINGS. ladder, kneel on the side of the ladder with the inward knee, inner foot, close to the ladder ; bring the splice of the eye of the lashing to the lower edge of the fiat round, and wait with the point of the lashing in the right band, SECURE LasHINGs, At the word Secure lashings, go through the same motions as at the word Lash in joining ladders; then come to attention facing inwards, .SECTION 11.] 69 [Escatapine, DISCONNECT. At the word Disconnect, the whole ‘stoop down, and each file takes hold of a length of the ladder, shakes them asunder, and piles them in succession one on top of the other over the length nearest to the pile of arms. The men as they complete, cover in file facing towards their arms. FILE ON YOUR ARMS. QUICK MARCH. STAND TO, UNPILE ARMS. ~- The men unpile their arms, COUNTERMARCH The men will then be put through the prac- BY RANKS, RIGHT tice again by numbers, the position of the men AND LEFT TURN. being changed. QUICK MARCH. No. Section. Halt, Front, Dress. RIGHT ABOUT FACE, TELL OFF THE The ladder parties will then be told off; DIVISION. the men of each section will be numbered from NUMBER YouR sEC- right to left ; the men will be told off as spare TIONS FROM RIGHT men, tip men, &c., proved, and the ladders TO LEFT, &. joined as before.” ESCALADING 150. “When the men have been sufficiently Escalading, IN QUICK TIME, practised by numbers, they will be put through quick time, LEFT Face. the exercise in quick time by the following TAKE POST ON THE words of command. LADDERS. QUICK MARCH. SLING ARMS. SHOULDER LADDERS. THE DIVISION WILL ADVANCE BY THE CENTRE. QUICK MARCB. LOWER THE At this word, the butt will be lowered and LappERs. pushed over the counterscarp, and the men will in succession form chain. ORM IN THE DITCH. MOVE ACROSS THE DITCH. TURN OVER. FORM ON THE BERM, &c. The exercise will be repeated by signal from the instructor ; the squad will next be practised in two divisions, the ladders of the first division being moved across the ditch, those of the second division being left standing against the counterscarp. The men will also be practised once in drawing the ladders up the escarp, and ing them over the parapet into the work, as might have to be done if there were # second ditch to cross; in this cage theEscalading with grapnels, Esoataprna.] 70 [part 1. men should be cautioned to keep their arms slung ; the words of command will be— FORM ON THE BERM. ON THE MOVE, The sections wheel to the left, in doing SECTIONS LEFr which, some of them have to get on to the WHEEL. exterior slope. QUICK MARCH. HALT. . LEFT TURN. The men face the ladders, the butt men being nearest to them, and the other men being in their rear. FORM CHAIN, The men form chain as before directed, with the exception of the rear file of spare men, who move to the top of the escarp wall. DRAW THE LAD- The file of spare men lift the ladders up, DeRs uP. _ round by round, the other men move steadily up the exterior slope, drawing the ladders with them. When the ladders get clear of the parapet, the men resume their regular posi- tions, facing towards the butts and putting the ladders on to their shoulders. BY SUCCESSIVE No. 1 wheels as short round as possible, a LADDERS FROM THE half circle to its left; the remaining ladders RIGHT, NO. 1. ON do the same in succession by word from their YOUR CENTRE, commanders, and the whole division is then LEFT WHEEL. ready for the escalade of a second ditch. As the ladders are not to be lowered into the ditch from the escarp, this practice must be performed at the close of the drill. As before remarked, although a column of assault should have as great a front as possible, it would seldom have one of more than two companies; a convenient number of ladders for such a column would be 16 in each division, or two for each section, one for the front rank and one for the rear rank. As each grand division neared the ditch, it would receive the word Left turn, Heads of sections Right wheel, when the front and rear rank men of each section file on their own ladders down which they go with their arms at the short trail; the grand division being at company distance, would allow of continuous stream of men passing into the work, without any crowding on the edge of the ditch previous to getting on to the ladders.” 151, “Grapnels (Fig. 140) may be used for escalading, when it is required to effect an entry with » small body of men. The grapnel has five prongs, weighs 3lbs. 2 ozs, and has a length of 60 feet of 2-inch rope spliced to it. The grapnel is thrown by rapidly whirling it round with the right hand, the coil of rope being held in the other hand, A few jerks should be given to the rope to ascertain that the grapnel has caught, before any one ascends the rope. The men go up hand over hand with their legs perpendicular to the wall, until they get near the top, when by getting their elbows on the cordon, they scramble up without raising the rope off the edge of the wall, which might cause the grapnel to draw. The men first up should secure the grapnels by standing on them, or makingr dyizessy Google <CUTTING TOOLS, &c. Plate XXVII. Wie- ------- 2 ---- i Fig. 143. Hand Spike, 12 Ibs, Te Sew; ragnnenddBPAPDEEL ATTAINED 17 Ibs. 12 oz. aan Fig. 145. Cross-cut Saw, 7 Ibs. ADZE, CARPENTER’S, HEAD 64" aeF, HANDLE Ive, > ‘ig. 152.—Bill Hook, 1 Ib, 12 oz, Fig. 158.—10-in, Field Grindstone, 20 Ib, 4 oz,SECTION 12] 71 (Marerzats. them fast, and assist the other men up. When several men have ascended, the others can walk up the wall, by holding on the rope which is pulled up by thoee on the berm.” Section 12—MATERIALS USED IN THE CON- STRUCTION OF WORKS. Timber. 152, “Timber is an article of first necessity to the military Timber, uses engineer, being used in the construction of huts, temporary to which bomb-proofs, splinter-proofs, powder magazines, gun and mortar #PPlied. platforms, mining frames, stockades, palisades, chevaux-de-frise, abatis, barriers ; also for building bridges and for numberless other engineering purposes in connection with an army in the field.” 158. “When possible it is procured by purchase, or by the Timber, how destruction of buildings, of size and form adapted, or capable of being Procured. easily adapted, for the purposes for which it is required ; but fre- quently it has to be obtained by felling trees, which for facility of transport should be squared and cut, where felled, into timber of appropriate dimensions.” 154, “Timber is usually felled with the axe, but the cross-cut Felling and saw may be used, provided that measures aro taken, by wedging or Preparing otherwise, to prevent the weight of the tree from jamming and “™ber- breaking the teeth of the saw ; the tree should be first nicked on the side on which it is required to fall, a rope being used if necessary, to pull it over. An experienced axe-man can square timber, and cut it into various rough shapes fitted for most of the above purposes, without any other tool than the axe ; but when. the timber has to be pre- pared by the artificers attached to the, army, it becomes ni to provide them with the tools that they have been accustomed to use. Figs. 143 to 153 show the service patterns of the tools in use.” 155, “In Central America it is considered a day’s work for two Rate of felling experienced men to fell a tree of hard wood 5 feet in diameter, or timber. for one man to fell a tree 3 ft, 6 in. in diameter, or two or more smaller trees. Soft wood trees 2 feet in diameter can be felled by four inexperienced men in from 15 to 30 minutes, and trees 1 foot in diameter, in about half that time; they can be cross-cut into three lengths in from 20 to 30 minutes more, Care should be taken to select for cutting timber, soldiers who have been accustomed to the use of cutting tools, otherwise the number of tools destroyed will be great, and the work done will be small.” 156, “The following are the tools likely to be required by @ Tools for ty of 100 men, in felling and removing timber :— felling timber. Axes, felling, 64 Ibs. - 60 | Cant-hooks, iron - - 10 Hooks, bill : - 12 | Saws, hand, 26 inch - 12 Handspikes, common 6 feet 16 | Stones, grind - - 4 Chains, 1} inch 6 fathoms, Tapes, measuring, 50 feet- 2 with hooks atends - 4 | *Gyn, triangle, and tackle 1 * For heavy timber only.‘Tools for pre- paring timber. Brushwood, ‘uses to which applied. Number of men for cutting brushwood. Produce of an acre of brushwood. ‘Men, tools, &c. for cutting and carting brush- wood. Mareruts. | 72 [part 1. 157. “The following are the tools likely to be required by & party of 100 men in preparing timber :— ‘Axes, broad, carpenters” - 40 | Chisels, socket, 2 inch - 16 ‘Adzes, carpenters? 16 | Mallets, carpenters’ - 8 s eroas-cut, 5 feet - 8 | Squares, iron, 24 inches - 8 AWS 1 pit, 7 feet- - 8 | Tapes, measuring, 50 feet- 4 Saws hand, 26 inch - 24 | Axes, pick \ for saw pit { 8 Files, f ss-cut, 7 inch - 20 | Shovels - 8 saw’ 4 Pit, 5 inch - 20 | Line, chalk - - 8 ‘W hand, 5inch - 40 | Wedges, iron,6inch + 12 Sets, f cross-cut - - 4 | Rules, carpenters’, 2 feet - 8 >< pit - - 4 | Rods, measuring, 6 feet - 8 50W [hand = - - 8 grind, 10 inch - 4 Hammers, sledge, 9} Ibs. - 4 | Stones ¢ rub, 12inch - 2 Grease, Ibs. - - 50 rag or whet - 2 Brushwood, Sc. 158. ‘Brushwood is used for making gabions, fascines, sap- rollers, hurdles, for wattling, &c., and is best cut when the leaf is off. Willow, alder, ash, Spanish chesnut of from five to seven years’ growth, and hazel of almost any age, are most fitted for use. Brushwood is usually cut with a bill-hook, which should be used back handed, the cuts being always made upwards if possible ; each man binds up what he cuts in bundles weighing from 40 to 56 Ibs. each. The rods should not exceed 13 or 2 inches in diameter.” 159. “Men for cutting brushwood are told off in parties of 25. Each party can cut half an acre in from five to nine hours ; or each man cut an area of 24 yards by 4 yards, or 96 square yards. It will be found convenient, therefore, to form each party up in single rank, with intervals of four yards between the men ; and to ive them as a task to clear a space 24 yards to their front. arties may be set to work in parallel lines, provided an interval of 24 yards be left between them.” ; 160. “ According to Colonel Sir Joshua Jebb, R.E., one acre should produce, under favourable circumstances, 1,000 bundles of brushwood, each weighing 40 Ibs,, convertible into 250 fascines, 18 fect long, and 1,500 pickets, or into 1,000 gabions. The estimate greatly exceeds the results obtained at Chatham, where the average produce of an acre in five years is as follows:-— 105 gabions, weighing 30 to 40 Ibs. each. 40 fascines, 18 feet, weighing 140 Ibs. each. 800 pickets from 1 ft. 6 in. to 4 feet in length.” 161. “The following table gives an estimate of the men and tools required for cutting and carting an acre of brushwood :— N.C.08.1 stunt 2 ) Rods, measuring, 6 feet - 2 Mend privates *Y 150 | Tape, measuring, 50 fect - sappers “ - - > 2 | Wagons, 4-horse (one load Axes, felling, 6} bs. - 5 | only) ~ : - 14 Grindstone - - 1 | Ropes, 14 inch, fathoms - 98 Gloves, hedgers’, pairs - 50 | N.C.Os. -] infantry, f 1 Hooks, bill - - 50 | Privates -f for loading | 15 Rag, rub, or whetstones -26384.FASCINES, GABIONS, &ec. Plate XXVIII. Fig. 154.—Fascine Trestle. Fig. 155. Fig. 156. Fig. 158.—Fascine Choker. Coe Withe. Fig. 157. Scale for Figs. 154 to 159, 5 ft. to 1 in, » » 160 to 164,2SECTION 12.] 73 (Marertans, Fascines. : 162. “Fascines are a superior kind of fagot, which, being built Description of in courses with a moderate slope, and secured by pickets or other fascines. means to an earthen parapet, form a good revetment, The average weight of a fascine when the wood has been cut some weeks, is 140 Ibs. The ordinary fascine is 18 feet long, and 9 inches in diameter, and can be cut into lengths as required.” 163. “ Fascines are made in a cradle composed of five pairs of Construction trestles, each consisting of two stakes about 64 feet long and 3 inches fascines. in diameter, driven obliquely into the ground, touching each other and crossing at right angles. The upper angle of the cross should be about 2 feet 6 inches from the ground (Fig. 154). The two end trestles are first placed 16 feet apart (Fig. 159), and a line strained between their upper angles. The remaining three are then inserted at intervals of 4 feet, great care being taken that all the trestles touch the line similarly, otherwise the fascines will be irregular in form. When the trestles are fixed straight rods of brushwood from 1 té 2 inches in diameter are laid over them, pro- jecting about 1 foot beyond the extreme trestles, The leaves must be stripped off, as also any small branches which grow out of the stems with clumsy bendings. The stouter rods must be laid on the outside with the thick ends alternately in different directions, and the smaller stuff near the centre, until the cradle is nearly full, when the diameter of the fascine is proved with the fascine-choker, and more ‘stuff added to those parts which require it. Any very crooked rods should be cut half through, so as to make them liv evenly.” 164. “ Fascines are bound with withes, or with spun yarn, or Preparation of wire. The best rods for withesare hazel ; they should be 5 feet long, withes. and between three-eighths and three-fourths of an inch in diameter, neatly trimmed, leaving one-eighth of an inch of each branch on the rod. In making a withe the thick end of the rod is placed under the left foot, and the rod twisted with the hands from the top downwards, taking care to avoid kinks. When the rod is well twisted at the small end, and moderately so downwards, a loop about 9 inches long is made at the small end, by taking o half hitch with the end of the rod round the standing part (Fig. 155); the loop - is then given a couple of twists in the contrary direction, so as to plait the double part of the rod and form a secure loop (Fig. 156); the other end is then pointed, and the withe is com- plete. As the strength of the fyscine depends upon the withes, they must be properly selected and well twisted, particularly at the eyes.” 165. “The fascine-choher consists of two wooden levers of Choking 2 inches by 1} inches stuff, 4 feet long, with the edges rounded, faseines. having a chain 4 feet long secured by iron sockets at a distance of | ft, Gin, from the ends (Fig. 158). ‘Two small rings are fixed on the chain 28} inches from each other, and equidistant from the centre, as a gauge for the circumference of a fascine. Two men standing on each side, choke the fascine, by placing the centre of the chain under the brushwood on the trestle, the short ends of the levers being upwards, handing the levers to each other over the fascine F2Binding fascines. ‘Men, time, tools, &c. for making fascines. Pickete. Gabions. Constraction of wicker gabions. Marmnuts.] 74 [parr I. with the short ends down, and then bearing down on the long ends of the levers till the gauge rings meet.” 166, “Binding is done by two men, who stand one on each side of the fascine, and bind it close tothe choker. The first withe is put on at one end about 3 inches beyond the trestle, and is passed under the brushwood and the ends brought up ; the point is then passed through the eye and hauled taut by one man, who twists the withe as he does so, and then hands it to the other man, who completes the fastening by twisting it round itself (Fig. 157). ‘The remain- ing 11 withes are now put on at intervals of about 18 inches, and the ends of the fascine sawn off about 9 inches outside the extreme withes, making it 18 feet long over all. When yarn is used it is passed twice round the fascine, hauled taut, and fastened off with a reef knot. Wire is sometimes used for binding, it is passed twice round and the ends twisted well together, and then pushed under some convenient rod of the fascine. No. 14 gauge wire is best. ‘The advantage of using 12 withes is, that the fascine can be cut up, without interfering with them, into 9 feet, or 6 feet lengths, thus having a withe 9 inches from each end; more withes must be used when the brushwood is very small.” 167. “A squad of five men will, after a little practice, make a fascine in an hour ; two select the wood and choke, two place the wood on the trestles and bind, while the fifth prepares the withes. Four men are sufficient if the fascine be bound with wire or yarn.” Pickets, 168. “Pickets ‘are made up in bundles containing 25, tied together with a withe or piece of spun yarn, The heads of all pickets should be finished with blunt triangular points, and the other ends with sharp points. Faseine pickets are from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. in length, and 1} to 12 inches in diameter. A bundle weighs about 80 Ibs. and can be made by one man in one hour. Tracing pickets are 18 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. They should ‘be barked or whitened, if used for night tracing ; their weight is about 7 Ibs. per bundle.” Gabions. 169. “ Gabions are cylinders open at both ends, which being filled with earth are musket proof, and form a good revetment for field works. They maybe made of almost any material, capable of being bent or woven into a cylindrical form, and are generally 2 feet in exterior diameter, and 2 ft, 9 in. high in the web, but averaging 3 feet in height when used as a revetment, in consequence of the projecting ends of the upright rods or pickets. In wicker gabions the interlacing of brushwood is called the web, which is con- structed by a process called waling.” 170, “ A circle of 10} inches radius is traced on the ground with a piece of string, or lath with two holes in it, and two short pickets, one of which is driven into the ground as a centre, and the other ‘moved round to mark the circumference. The circumference isSECIION 12.] 15 . (Marenrars. then divided into as many equal parts as there are pickets, the number being usually 10, but if the brushwood be very small, 12, or even 14 may be used. The pickets should be 3 ft. 6 in, long, and from five-eighths to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, straight and free from branches; they are driven into the ground touching the cireum- ference at the points marked, with the thick and thin ends alter- nately downwards. ‘The rods for the web must be entirely stripped of the leaves and twigs, no part of any one single rod being used double. The waling is commenced by placing three rods, none of which should be more than three-fourths of an inch in diameter, as in Fig. 160, with their butts or thick ends inside three adjacent pickets. The first rod is taken up and passed over the other two, onteide the two adjacent pickets, and inside the third picket. The second rod is taken up and passed outside two pickets and inside one, then the third rod in the same way, and then the first again, and so on. (Fig. 161). Particular attention must be paid to the uniformity and closeness of the web; it should be pressed down with the foot or a mallet as required, “The diameter is to be frequently gauged, and the proper distance between the pickets maintained through- out. In working in a fresh rod, in place of one that is coming to an end, the two must be laid together for a few inches and worked asa single rod. The process is continued till the waling is about 2 ft, 6 in. high, when two rods called pairing rods are put on at each end, to strengthen the gabion ; they should be well twisted and their ends driven down on either side of one gabion picket, and then (Fig. 162) passed alternately over and under each other, and inside and outside the pickets, twisting each pairing rod well with the hand during the operation; the ends of the rods are then driven down the web, on either side of the picket next beyond that at which the pairing was commenced. ‘The gabion is then pulled out of the ground, turned over, and the other two iring rods put on, commencing with the second picket to the right or left of that at which the pairing at the other end was a 171, “To prevent the pairing rods from slipping off they are sewn down to the web with four withes at each end of the gabion ; each withe is about 6 feet long, and is prepared as previously described. The first withe is placed at that part of the gabion where the ends of the pairing rods cross ; its thick end, for a length of about ‘a foot, is forced from the outside through the web about 7 inches from the top, and then bent and laid in its final position, vertically downwards inside the web ; the thin end is then passed over the top of the pairing rods, down inside the gabion, out through the web near where the thick end entered it, but a rod or two higher up, and hauled taut. It is next passed inwards through the web about 7 inches lower down, hauled taut, then round the thick end, out through the web 2 or 3 rods above where it entered, and hauled taut. It is again passed inwards through the web about 7 inches lower down, and finally fastened off with two half hitches round the thick end, above the point where the last stitch Waling. Pairing rods. Sewing of . wicker gabions.Men, time; tools, &e., wicker gabions. Wicker gabion by one man. Sebastopol hoop iron gabion. Jones’ iron band gabion. Marerurs.] 76 [part 1. wns taken round that end. All withes are put on in o similar manher, the other three being placed so as to divide the circum- ference into four equal parts. 7 The gabion is then turned over, and the other end sewn with four withes placed intermediately to those previously put on. The small twigs are trimmed off and the ends of the pickets cut to blunt triangular points, leaving the pickets 3 feet long, and lastly, a carrying picket is driven across the inside of the gabion, about the centre of its height, and 9 inches from one side (Fig. 163).” 172, “Three men can make a wicker gabion in about two hours, one man preparing the rods and withes, one man waling, and the third man holding the pickets. ‘The weight of a gabion varies from 36 to 56 lbs., according to the size and dryness of the brushwood from which it is made.” 178. “One man can make a gabion by the following method :— The rods, pickets, &. being prepared, each man provides himself” with sufficient to make a gabion, and drives in the pickets, as already described. He then twists two strong pairing rods round the pickets at a height of 1 ft. 3 in. from the ground, and proceeds to wale above them in the usual manner, until he has reached a height of 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground. The top is then paired as usual, and the sewing of the upper half completed. The gabion is then lifted out of the ground and turned over (the central pairing rods being removed if thought advisable), and the other end completed in the same manner. The central pairing rods hold the pickets at the proper distance apart, and thus do away with the necessity for having a man to hold them ; and as the waling rods have to be passed over a height of picket of 1 ft. 9 in, instead of 3 feet, the gabion may be com- pleted in 14 hours instead of two hours as in the ordinary method. Two of the iron gabion bands invented by Quarter-master Jones, R.E., may be used instead of the central pairing rods.” 174, “The Sebastopol hoop iron gabion was formed of 1} inch hoop iron, No. 21 gauge (such as is generally used for hay bands), by @ process called randing on an odd number of pickets, usually 18. The end of the band being fastened round one of the pickets, previously: driven into the ground on the circumference of a circle of 114 inches radius, tho band is passed inside the next picket, outside the second, and so on. i The gabion weighs about 80 Ibs., and requires about 200 feet run of hoop iron, and can be made by three men in one hour.” , 175, “Jones’ iron band gabion is formed of 10 bands of galvanized sheet iron, No. 20 gauge, 3} inches wide, fixed on 12 wooden pickets, 3 ft., by 14 in., by } or } in. thick, or on brush- wood pickets about an inch in diameter ; each band isa single strip of sheet iron 6 ft. 5 in. long, the extremities being connected by two buttons at one end, fitting into two slots at the other. The gabion is made by laying the first band buttoned on the outside, on the ground edgewise, and in the form of a circle, driving the pickets round it at equal distances alternately on the outside and inside of the band and touching it ; the second band is placed on the top of the pickets (taking care that the picketsDigtes by Google ;CARRYING GABIONS, &c. Plate XXIX. GoogleSECTION 12, 77 (Marerus. that were outside of the first band are inside of the second, and vice versi), and pressed down about half-way ; the third band is then placed on the top of the pickets, the second pressed down on the first, and the third follows on the second. The object of keep- ing the second band half-way while the third one is being placed on the top, is to preserve the pickets in their places, but after the third one is pushed home there is no necessity for continuing this process. Each succeeding band is placed in the same manner, and the tenth band completes the gabion, (Figs. 167 to 170.) ‘Two men are required to construct a gabion; in commencing one man drives the pickets, the other buttons the ends of the bands together; after which they assist each other in placing the bands on the pickets. The time required is about five minutes, and the weight of the finished gabion 30 Ibs. They require one mallet. ‘To carry this gabion, a picket with ite ends slightly flattened, is passed between the two centre bands close to one side of the gabion, thus forming » good handle.” 176. “Tyler’s sheet iron gabion is 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet Sheet iron high, weighs 26 Ibs., and can be made by two men in 10 minutes. It gabion is composed of a single sheet of galvanized iron, the same length as the circumference of the gabion (6 ft. 2 in.), joined at the edges by three pieces of wire.” 177. “Gabions of galvanized iron wire net, have been proposed by Captain P.G. L. Smith, R.E. They hold earth well and are durable, but so light that they are very liable to be knocked over as they are being filled. In the revetment of a parapet they stand ll. The wire is issued in lengths of 6 ft. 3 in., and has to be joined at six places on the edges with wire.” 178, “Of all the various kinds of gabions here mentioned, the most useful for battery purposes is the wicker gabion, as it is found to stand well in the cheeks of embrasures, and is free from the danger of splintering, which is the great fault of all iron gabions. In all positions not exposed to direct fire, Jones’ gabions are very useful, as they-stand well, are quickly made, and last much longer than wicker gabions, and if bent or knocked out of shape can be repaired easily.” Sap-Rolters. 179, “Sap-rollers are stuffed cylinders of brushwood, used to cover the heads of saps: they are usually made 7 feet long, the diameter of the outer cylinder being 4 feet, and of the inner one 2 ft. Gin. The web of each cylinder should be waled on squared pickets, if procurable, 7 ft. 6 in. long and about 14 in. by } in. 20 being required for the outer and 14 for the inner cylinder. A finished 7 feet sap-roller weighs when new 14 cwt. The cylinders are waled in the same manner as gabions, the pickets being driven into the ground in circles respectively of 3 ft. 9 in. and 2 ft, 3 in. in diameter. The rods should be about one inch in diameter, carefully trimmed, and in working them in, very great care should be observed to keep the web perpendicular and circular. A hoop of the same diameter as the cylinders is used, which is lashed to the pickets, at first half-way up, but as the web increases in height, it is pushed up to the tope (Capt. Tyler, E.). Wire net gabion. Remarks on various gabions. Sap-rollers. Construction of cylinders of sap-rollers.Stuffing the sop-roller. Men, time, &e., sap-rollers. Mareewts.] 78 [parr 1. If a hoop be not procurable, two pairing rods, or spun-yarn, must be used to keep the pickets temporarily in their proper positions, and pushed up as the work advances. The web of the cylinders being completed, all the projecting parts inside and out are care- fully cut off, and their ends are sewn with wire, if procurable, otherwise with withes in the same way as gabions. A length of 5 feet of wire is laid with its centre over the end of the web, between two pickets. One end is then passed through the web seven inches from the end, from the inside to the outside, and the other end in the opposite direction, but not between the same rods; another double stitch 7 inches long is taken, and then a third single stitch 7 inches long with the outside end only, so that both ends are now inside, where they are fastened off by being twisted together. The outer cylinder should be sewn in eight places at each end, and the inner one in six places, making a total of 140 feet of wire per sap-roller.” 180. “The four men who work at the inner cylinder will, on its completion, make 20 fascines 7 ft. 6 in. long, and from 5 in. to 6 in. in diameter, of 1} to 2 inch rods, bound with spun-yarn, or wire, for the stuffing; they should be completed in three hours. The cylinders should then be raised on end, one inside the other, and the fascines dropped between them, as close together as possible, by two men standing on planks supported on barrels, logs of wood, &c. round the sap-roller. When all the fascines are got in, they should be wedged up with large pickets from 1 in. to 2 in. in diameter, to keep them securely in their places. e sap-roller is then laid on the ground, and the stuffing com- pleted by driving in rods from both ends, until the space between the cylinders is quite full, when the ends should be cut square with @ cross-cut saw. Care chould be taken to keep the cylin- ders concentric, and to drive the rods the whole length of the sap-roller. Four men stuff, the remainder prepare rods.” 181. “Five men can make the outer cylinder in nine hours ; three men waling, and two preparing brushwood. Tho inner cylinder occupies four men for six hours, three of whom wale, and the fourth prepares brushwood. Of the three men waling in each case, two work outside, and.ome inside. the cylinders ; the stuffing should be completed in five hours, the total time of making a " sap-roller being 14 hours.” Hurdles. Construction of hurdles. Hurdles, 182. “ Wicker-work hurdles are useful for military purposes, @ good size being 6 feet long, and 2 ft. 9 in. high. An even number of pickets, usually 10, similar to gabion pickets, are used, and rods of about one inch diameter for the web.” 183. “A curved piece of timber is roughly squared on one side, and 10 holes, eight inches from centre to centre, are bored in it for the pickets, which are then inserted. If the wood cannot be procured, circle with:a radius of 8. feet must be struck on the id, an arc of 6 feet measured off, and the ciroumfererce so cut off divided into 9 equal parts, and a picket driven at each division ; the extreme pickets must be stouter and longer, as they ere afterwards required for supporting the hurdle,SECTION 12.] 19 [Mareprazs, Two men work at the web, one holding tho pickets, the other randing with a single rod, commencing at the bottom, and from the centre. The thick end of the rod is placed between two Plog the pickets, the other end being taken alternately in and out between the other pickets, until it reaches the outside picket, round which it is twisted, turned, and woven back to the centre, being consequently on the reverse side of the pickets to what it was before. In working in a new rod, it should always be laid alongside the rod it is to replace, for four or five pickets. At the centre of the hurdle a course is pared with two rods, as in gabion making; pairing rods are also put on at the top and bottom. Fig. 164 shows a hurdle completed.” 184, “Three men will make a hurdle 6 feet Jong it in n oh hours. Two of them make the web, the third prepares the rods, A hurdle weighs about 56 Ibs, and requires about 1 or 14 bundles of brushwood. Hurdles are made on a curve that they may afterwards be flat, as those which are built in a straight line frequently become crooked. Continuous hurdles may be used for revetting long lines of parapet. In such cases the hurdles should be made in the position they are to occupy, the pickets being driven into the ground as close to the parapet as possible, sufficient space being merely left to allow of the randing of the web. The pickets should be tied back to strong stakes buried in the parapet. 185. “The following table gives a complete detail of men, tools, &c. required in making fascines, gabions, sap-rollers, &.:— Bundles of Pickets. g Eg Men and Tools for each squad. a Materials, Time, and Weight of one ; ‘Atti Fasci Brushwood, bundles of, weighing 40 Ibs. | poker fuscine : jopping block = for the bands, Gauges for the height, Hooks, bill - ‘Hoops, 4 ft, and 2 ft. 6 in. “ alameter Knives, gabion —~ - Lashings for trestles Line, piece of (length 20 fet) ‘Mallets, wood vf Pickets, sawn, déal, 19” Rods, measuring 6 fect - Saws {cross-cut Stakes for trestle pairs of [eel tT & | Gabions, Wicker. Em mcscorcrs Fl Le joni p pee poy sine {mbt 2: 7 | Wire, Nowl4 gauges > feck Non-commissioned ‘oficers ntantey § | Privat Jintantey {| ‘Time (for expert men) "~~ = hours Weight 2 Tbs, Ia | | sete HonSreHelenlitewlelate & Bice BeneE Led ne | 1 1 ti i 8 | j When satin hear eabion oni. JP aueineto be heat gation ing made red hot, and allowed to cool slowly. Mea, time &e., hurdles. List of tools, &e. for making fasciner, gabions, &e.Amount of work to be ex- pected from + noldiers, Relief. First parallels and approaches. PAaRALLELs.] 80 [part 1. Sxcrion 13.—PARALLELS AND APPROACHES. 186. “ From the opinions of Field Marshal Sir John Burgoyne, General Sir C. Pasley, and writers in the Aide Mémoire, it appears that the excavation and throwing out of one cubic yard of earth per hour is not too much to expect from an unskilled labourer, such work being continued for a period of eight hours. In all siege works some time will necessarily be lost in extending the men, waiting for the word to commence, é&c., to say nothing of the interruption caused by the enemy’s fire and sorties ; the estimate of eight cubic yards per man in eight hours therefore requires considerable reduction, and not much more than half of that quantity is expected from each man under the most favourable circumstances. The siege night of 24 hours (reckoning from dusk to dusk) is usually divided into periods of 6 or 8 hours each, called reliefs. In calculating the number of men required for a certain piece of work, soldiers of the line may be considered equal to a task of’ from 100 to 150* cubic feet of earth in a relief, throwing the earth a horizontal distance of 12 feet, and lifting it out of a trench from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 feet deep. When earth has to be removed a greater horizontal distance than about 12 feet, shovellers should be provided, in the proportion of from three to four shovellers to every six diggers. Whenever time and circum- stances permit, it will be found best to work by the task, thus doing away with great amount of supervision, Working parties should, if possible, be detailed by companies, battalions, brigades, and divisions. The officers and non-commissioned officers of the working parties, are responsible for the amount of work done, the duty of the engineers and sappers, being to see that the labour is properly applied.” Tracing. 187, “ Ata siege, before working parties can be extended for the operation of breaking ground, or the opening of the trenches, it is necessary to mark the first parallel and its approaches on the ground in such a manner that they oan be seen at night. The operation of marking out works, is called tracing, and the lines are marked by means of white tracing tapes. Each tape is 50 yards long, and may advantageously be marked at intervals of 6 feet, with short pieces of tape sewn on it; it is wound upon a white picket, and has loops of line at its ends. A parallel would probably be traced by parties working right and left, from one or more points fixed in it during the day; each set of approaches zig-zags or boyauz, wonld also probably be traced by a different party. The tracing should be completed before night comes on, and as it is desirable to keep the enemy as long as possible in ignorance of the front on which the attack is to be made, as also to provide for the safety of the party employed in tracing, it should not be commenced until twilight.” * The first of these numbers (100 cubie feet) is what should be expected from untrained soldiers; if practised they could probably do 150 cubic feet.Plate XXX. INTRENCHING TOOLS, &e. Fig. 175. Fig. 176. Shovel, Field Service, Spade, 5 Ib, 2 oz. 5 Ib. 12 oz. Fig. 178. Sap Fork, long, 8 lb. 8 oz. Fig. 179. Sap Fork, short, 6 Ib. Fig. 180. Rammer, 10 Ib.» Google <SECTION 13.] 81 [Paparets. 188, “Each tracing party consists of one engineer offieer and one non-commissioned officer, the number of sappers being deter- mined by the length to be traced by the pasty, ‘one sapper being required for every 50 yards or fraction thereof. ‘The party parade at the required hour in single rank, each sapper being provided with a tracing tape, and the non-commis- sioned officer with a lantern, a mallet, and a picket. The officer followed by his non-commissioned officer and men in file, proceeds as from A to B (Fig. 171), the point in the parallel from which he is to commence tracing. At B No. 1 sapper halts and gives the end of his tape to the officer, who marches along the line of the parallel followed by the remainder of the men. The sapper drops the ball and lets the tape run out through his hands, checks it when the ball is nearly finished, and when it comes to an end pushes the picket into the ground between his heels, ‘The officer places No. 2 sapper at the end of No. 1’s tape, takes the end of his tape, and the tracing is continued as before ; No. 2’s picket secures No. 1’s tape also. In tracing approaches, the zig-zags DE, EF, FG (Fig. 172) are first traced ; at points H and K, 15 feet from E and F, the tapes are cut, and the cut por- tions extended in prolongation of FE and GF. These returns are made a few feet further in the same direction, to conceal the approaches and cover them from enfilade fire. When the tracing is completed, the sappers face the point from which the working parties are to arrive, and act as markers, and are ready to extend the working parties as they come up, lying down in the mean- time. The officer returns to meet the working parties, and to + conduct them to their proper positions.” 189. “The tracing of the second parallel is exactly similar to that of the first but instead of cutting the tapes at the angles of the approaches, seven or eight gabions, after they have been placed by the working parties along the tracing lines, are moved in con- tinuation of the advanced portion of the approach, as in Fig. 178, where the gabions first placed along LO are removed and placed along LP, in prolongation of ML.” 190. ‘The tools for the working parties are laid out for them at the depdt, in rows four feet apart, to permit of men being marched and formed up between them ; the pick is placed to the left of the shovel and rather in front, as in Fig. 181. When a party is marched on its tools, the men form up in rear of each pair, and at the word Take up Tools, each man advances the right foot a short pace, stoops down and takes up the pick in his left hand, the shovel in his right, iron to the front, and carries them at the trail, point of the pick downwards and blade of the shovel edge- wise. A rammer is carried over the left shoulder at the slope, head of the rammér to the rear. Bundles of pickets are carried under one arm, tracing tapes—when tools are carried—are hooked to the belt-hook of the jacket.” 191, “Gabions are either carried down to the trenches by the working parties themselves, or by a special carrying party, which may consist of the guard of the trenches. If the gabions be light, and the distance not great, each man can carry a couple, holding ‘Tracing the first parallel andapproaches. ‘Tracing second parallel and approaches. Laying out and carrying tools. Carrying gabions.Formation of working parties. Extending the working parties. First parallel, dificult soil. Panaers.] 82 [parr 1, them by means of the carrying pickets, well up under each arm, with a shovel in the right gabion and a pick in the left (Fig. 165). The blade of the shovel must be secured between two of the gabion pickets, and the point of the pick pushed under the pairing rods to prevent it slipping. When using iron gabions, the tools should be secured with spun-yarn. If the gabions be heavy, each man should carry only one, on his left shoulder, with a pick-axe inside it, and a shovel in his right hand (Fig. 166).” Extending the Working Parties on the Line af a Parallel. 192, “Working parties parade an hour-and-a-half before sunset at the depét ; for parallels they are formed in columns of 25 men, single rank. A sapper is placed on the reverse flank of each party of 25, with a six-foot rod. The columns are then marched on their tools, and each man takes up a pick-axe and shovel. Previously to being marched off the men should be shown how to extend, and should be warned to preserve the utmost silence and regularity. The parties are then conducted by the Engineers to the traced parallel, moving, where not exposed to fire, in column. On arrival, they are extended (Fig. 174), the words of command for a column to be extended to the left, being :—By successive divi- sions—Right Turn, Left Wheel, and when they conte to the point of the parallel from which they are to be extended—Left Wheel, Bight Form in extended order. For a column extending to the right, the words of command are—Left Turn, Right Wheel, Right Wheel, Left Form in extended order. The sapper, as the men form up, measures off portions of 6 feet along the tape, and each man with his left hand drives his pick into the ground on the left of his own task. The shovel is then placed on the ground, as in Fig. 182. If the working party be armed, each man places his arms on the ground three paces to the rear. It is not advisable to extend more than 400 men from one point. About 100 men can be extended in five minutes; the men when extended lie down until the whole of the extension is completed, and the order is passed to commence work. There will be two sappers to every party of 25 infantry, viz. one who traced and one who brought up the working party; their duty is to explain the extent of the tasks, show the men how to handle their tools, and see that the work is properly executed. Each man of the first relief, after completing his task, scrapes his tools and places them together in rear of the trench, the sappers seeing that they are correct. One sapper of each party yvemains with the tools, the other goes for the second relief. The second and third reliefs are extended in rear of the trench already executed, in the same manner as the first relief. ‘The sappers are relieved at some time, intermediate to the reliefs of the working parties, 80 as to avoid confusion.” Execution of Parallels, 193. “When the first parallel is made in difficult soil the first relief of men have to dig a trench 6 ft. long measured on the26324,Plate XXXI. PROFILES OF PARALLELS. Fig. 181. Fig. 182, Second Parallel. Extending. First Parallel. a Fig. 183. Profile of First Parallel, Fig. 184. Profile of Second Parallel. 1B. Parallel in Difficult Soil. Three Reliefs. Fig. 187. Parallel in Easy Soil. Two Reliefs. Scale for Profiles, 12 ft. to 1 in.SECTION 13.] 83 PPawarues. tracing line, 4 ft. 6 in, broad, 5'ft. deep in front, and 8 ft. 8 in in rear, throwing the earth 3 ft. clear of the tracing line which is removed and wound up by the sappers as soon as all the men have marked their tasks (Fig. 186). They should commence by digging a hole 2 or 3 feet in diameter at the left of their task to the fall ‘depth, so as to obtain cover speedily, and then proceed to lengthen it to obtain a through communication, after which they will widen ‘the trench to its proper dimensions, Fair cover should be ob- tained under an hour. In order to encourage the men to exertion ‘each division should be allowed to return to camp on the comple- tion of its task. ‘The second relief have to widen the trench executed by the first relief 4 feet, making it 3 ft. 5 in. deep at the rear, and to cut away 18 inches of the berm* left by the first relief to a depth of 18 inches, for the front step of the parallel, The third relief widen the trench 5 ft. at the top, and 1 ft. 6 in. at the bottom, making the extreme depth 8 ft. 6 in, ‘Their task is considerably less than that of the other reliefs, as they have to throw the earth much further, make the necessary drains, and also to leave the trench in a finished condition. In easy soil the parallel can be executed in two reliefs. The first relief make a trench 6 ft. 6 in. wide, 3 ft. deep in front and 8 ft. 4 in, in rear, while the second relief widen that of the first relief 7 feet at the top and 8 ft. 6 in. at the bottom, besides forming the front step. Figs. 188, 186, and 187 show the dimensions of the work to be done by each relief both in difficult and easy soil.” 194. “Approaches are formed in the same way as the parallel, but when very oblique to the enemy’s fire -it becomes n to deepen them so as to obtain more cover; and, being more used as thoroughfares they are frequently made a little wider. When made in dificult soil of the profile shown in Fig. 185, the first relief excavate a trench 4 feet wide, 3 ft. 6 in. deep in front, and 3 ft. 8 in, in rear, throwing their earth 3 feet to the ftont, and afterwards cutting away 2 feet of the berm at the top to make the front slope; the second relief widen the excavation 5 feet, while the third relief widen the whole 6 feet at the top and 2 feet at the bottom, to a depth of 4 feet in rear. In easy soil the first relief excavate a trench 6 feet wide in rear of the tracing line, throwing their earth 3 fect to the front, and afterwards cutting away 2 feet of the berm at the top ; the second relief finish the excavation according to the profile.” 195. “'The second parallel is executed by flying sap as described hereafter. The profile is given in Fig. 184, and is the same as that of the first parallel, with the exception that it is revetted with gabions; the tasks done by each relief are the same as in the first parallel, except the first, in which the men work at 4 feet intervals.” * The berm is the space at the foot of a parapet, left clear of earth, so that the weight of earth may not break in the edge of the excavation. @2 Easy soil. Approaches, aidtentt soil. Easy soil. Profile of second parallel.unfavourable Trenches - against a on a hill. ~ ‘Trenches on marshy ground. ‘Trenches on rocky ground. Steps over perils Pamatxs.] 84 [parr 1. 1096. “In the previous description of trenches, it has been assumed that the fortress attacked is situated on an extensive plain, over which it has but a moderate command, and that the soil is neither marshy nor rocky. Modifications in the profile must be made, when the conditions are unfavourable.” 197. “ When the fortress is situated on a very commanding eminence, it is evident that the trenches if on level ground must be made deeper, and have higher parapets than those shown in the previous figures. Any ground rising towards the fortress, should, if otherwise suitable, be chosen for the position of trenches, and more especially of approaches ; and on the contrary, ground falling towards the fortress should, if possible, be avoided, so that the height, of the parapet may not require to be increased Fig. 188). ( 198. “Supposing water to be found near the surface, it will be necessary to make the trench shallower, and its parapet higher, and perhaps to cut a ditch in rear or front for drainage, and for the supply of the ne earth (Fig. 189).” 199. “If rock be found near the surface, the trench must, as in the last case, be made shallower and wider, and the parapet higher. In some places (as occurred at Sebastopol) it may be impracticable to dig down at all, and the parapet must be formed of earth brought up in eand-bags from the nearest point.” 200. “As it is desirable that the guard of the trenches should have the means of Es an unbroken front to repel sorties, portions of the parallel should be provided with steps about 18 inches high, revetted with a couple of fascines, one above the other. Fig. 190 represents this arrangement in a parallel mode by common trench work, and Fig. 191 in one constructed by flying or single sap. In the latter case, as the top of the gabions must form the second step above the ground line, the three lowest steps will each have to be formed 18 inches further to the rear than in the former case, the earth for these steps being obtained by widening the reverse of the trench so as to preserve its full width. In this case the second relief should not form the step as usual, but leave a berm 8 feet wide.” 201. “The following table gives the tasks for each relief in parallels and approaches, in easy and difficult soil :— FIRST PARALLEL AND APPROACHES BY COMMON TRENCH WORK. | an Depth. : Reliefs of Eight Hours, slong | wiath, |---| Sopot i Front.| Rear. | tt, in,| ftin. | ftin | fein Reais [EE] OPE SELLE) gy Disicult soit 7 7 Third reliet «| 6 of| Pottom2 @ His g | 3 6 | cat ; Fintraict =| 6 0 | 66 o]s4| is Basy soil Second reliet -| 6 of] ees & j}s 4] 36 | ase Including cutting away 18 inches by 18 inches of the$-feet berm left by the first reliof,Plate XXXIL PARALLELS ON SLOPES, &c. Fig. 189, ‘Trench on Wet Soil. Fig. 190, Scale for Figs. 189 to 191, 10 ft to 1 in.» Google <SECTION 13.] 85 [Paraiuzzs. SECOND PARALLEL AND APPROACHES BY FLYING BAP, Length| Depth. : Reliefs of Hight Hours, [ae Width, | eae | Front,| Rear ft. in. ft. in. First relief =| 40 46 so 8s Es, Difficult soit) Second relier = -| 6 0 40 ]3s/36 ° Third wit =| 6 of] Pottoms 8 lis 5 | s 6 | coy First reliet «| 4 0 ge |sojss| om Easy soll {second reliet -| 6 of poltoms & fis 4 | a6 | ase * Including cutting away 18 inches by 18 inches of the 8-feet-berm left by the 1st relief, OBLIQUE APPROACH BY COMMON TRENCH WORK. Firstrelit = | of | Pattoma 9 Jas ss | 107% Ditton raat -| eo 50 su | ust Third reliet «| 6 of | Pottom 3 9 yen 40 | ot son fTittrelioe §— =| of oes $ |}se| so | s0 7 Second reliet -| 6 of| Pottomé $ |}s 9 | 40 | ame 202. “ The following table gives the detail of men, tools, &¢. for Men, tools, &e. tracing and executing 1,000 yards of parallels and approaches :— for {racing and 7 executing parallels and For 1,000 ‘Yards of Parallel ‘or Appreachs. | | ;—The extra Hoeaed diene fre toreplace break ages, and are Hea’by the. 0.0. of the working parties. N.C. Officers, RE, ‘Tapes, Tracins ing Pickets, Reliefs. | i | For tracing- if 2 Soli | 1 1 | 1 1 For throwing up ‘By common french 7 2,3) 2 worl 20 | 500 | 520} 520 20) —}—|/— | — i 2| 2 | 80) 30 | 750 | 730 790, 30) —|—| = |1,500 20 | 500 | 520 520) 20) — -|- a Where obstructions occur in the line of a lel, such as water- courses or roads, a few more sappers and infantry will be required. As a general rule the surface of a road should not be disturbed without special authority, but # parapet formed across it.” Saps, Flying and Single. 203, “There are four kinds of sap in general use :— ‘ifferent kinds Flying Sap.—For obtaining cover quickly in forming parallels, Srasps approaches, or lodgments, when common trench work cannot be carried on.Flying sap. Rifle-pits. Panam.) 86 [parr x. Single Sap.—For pushing on parallels, &c. under heavy musketry fire. Double Sap.—A combination of two or ‘more single saps, for pushing on approaches avhen single sap cannot be employed owing to cross Half Double ‘Sap—For forming lodgments on the crest of the glacis, which have to be protected both from direct fire, and the reverse fire of the collateral works of the place attacked.” 204, “Flying sap is executed by infantry; each man carries two gabions, previously laid out at the depot. 7 - ‘The mode of extension is the same as for the first parallel, and each man, as he forms up in rear of the tracing tape, closes his gabions together in front of him, and assisted by the sapper places them in front of the tape, taking care that they touch each other, and that no space is left between them and the gabions already placed. He then takes out his tools and the carrying pickets, places his tools in rear of the gabions (Fig. 181), and lies down. As soon as the gabions are placed, the tracing tape is removed 3 feet from the base of the gabions, to mark the front of the tasks. When all the party are extended, and the engineer officer has satisfied himself that all the gabions are properly placed and touching each other, he gives the word Commence Work, which is passed on quietly by officers and non-commissioned officers in charge of parties, and then every man excavates in rear of his own two gabions, and 3 feet from them. He makes a hole at the left of his task, large enough to stand in, to the full depth of 3 feet, so as to obtain cover as soon as possible, and then enlarges the trench ; he drops the earth into the gabions, When each gabion is about half full, the heads are pushed outwards, the sapper taking care that they have a slope of about ¢; they are then filled. When the gabions are filled the earth excavated is thrown just over them so as to cover them, and, as soon as this is done, the remaining carth is thrown as far to the front as possible, go as to make a, good base for the rest of the parapet, and to prevent the second and third reliefs having to throw the earth excavated by them too far or too high. The second and third reliefs are only two-thirds of the first, consequently every third man of the first relief will return his tools to the engineer park. The carrying pickets and the tracing tapes should be collected by the non-commissioned officers, and returned with the other tools to the park. The tools left are placed by the sappers in rear of each man’s portion. ‘The work to be executed by each relief is the same as in the first parallel, except for the first relief, in which the men work at 4 feet intervals ‘instead of 6 feet. The table, pp. 85, 86, shows the task of each relief, and Figs. 186, 187, the sections,” Rifle Pits. 205. “ Rifle-pits may be either detached or connected. Their position in active operations, is in advance of the works previously executed, that the fire from them may keep down that of the enemy,Plate XXXIII. RIFLE PITS. Fig. 192. ‘Fig. 193. Plan. Section on A B. Fig. 195. Fig. 194. Section on C D. SY Fig. 196.SECTION 14.] 87 [Rice Pree.: and thus allow of the subsequent works being constructed with: as small a loss as possible. They should be arranged, if possible, so that they may be afterwards converted into parallels. Sap- heads should be covered by detached rifle-pits 80 or 40 yards in advance.” 7 206. “ Detached rifle-pits are made each to contain one man, Detached and are in the shape of an inverted frustrum of a cone with a seat Tifie-pits. in rear, The diameter of the top and bottom respectively is 4 ft. 6 in., and 2 ft. 6 in., while the depth is 4 feet ; theamount of ex- cavation (including the sest in rear) being 39 cubic ft., a man should complete one in an hour, requiring» pick-axe, a shovel, and four sand-bags (Figs. 194 and 195).” 207. «The dimensions of the connected rifle-pits are as follows: Connected —5 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 ft. 3 in, deep; a seat 1 ft. 6 in. rifle-pits. wide, and deep, is cut in rear. The pits are placed about 30 feet from each other, and are connected by means of a trench 2 feet wide, and 8 ft. 3 in. deep. (Figs. 192 and 193.) One man is told off to make the pit, and three to the communi- cation. The amount of earth each man excavates is 65 cubic feet. The first thing each man should do is to sink down to the full depth in the left of his work, so as to obtain cover, and then complete his task to the required dimensions. The rifle-pit and communications should be finished in two hours. Each man requires one pick-axe and one shovel. Loopholes should be formed in the parapets of rifle-pits, parallels, &c., as described in section 97.” Section 14—HASTY DEMOLITIONS, USE OF POWDER, &c. 208. In the foregoing pages allusion has been made to the use of mines and powder-bags for the removal of obstacles in an attack. Mines, previously prepared, are also important accessories to defence ; and so far as such mines, or bags of powder or gun- cotton can be employed in the attack and defence of field-works, or villages, or in street fighting, their use should be known by every officer. . In every assault where unforeseen obstacles may be encoun- tered, or where after carrying the entrenched line, enclosures about buildings may have to be removed, or defended streets have to be overcome, bags containing charges of powder suited to the walls or obstacles likely to be met with and having about 6 feet of Bickford’s fuze (or some similar fuze) attached to each, should follow the assaulting column, and be available as quickly ss they can be required. In contending with an enemy in a” town, success will generally depend on the judicious use of small charges of powder, and of artillery ; as the object should be to work through the houses, breaching them in succession, and to avoid exposing the troops in the streets. In retreats, the destruction of a bridge is frequently a necessary precaution, andHasty demolition of masonry bric ‘with powder. Schaw’s rule. Gun-cotton. Demorrrions.] 88 (parr 1 although such cases are ugually foreseen and provided for before a retreat is ordered, yet it may prove useful to ahy officer to know the means that have been successful when such destruction is suddenly required. : The following facts and instructions on this subject are therefore extracted from the Chatham course. It must be observed that the letters L.L.R. are used to denote the “line of least resistance ” or the distance, in feet, between the centre of the charge and the nearest point of the surface of the mass, wall, or stockade to be broken through, as c a in Fig. 197. 209. “ When in the case of the demolition of bridges, time will not admit ofan attack on the haunches or piers, operations must be confined to those portions where there is the least covering over the arch, viz., the vicinity of the key-stone. A charge of 500 lbs. powder placed in a trench 18 inches deep, over the key-stones of a semicircular arch of 26 feet span, 44 fect thick, has broken it in, Over the key-stone itself, as at a in Fig. 198, is no doubt the place where the arch could be reached with tho least amount of excavation, but in most cases it would be quite practicable to dig two trenches across at the points 4 and c by the employment of two working parties simultaneously, and by firing charges in the latter positions a greater breach would probably be effected ; for example, if a breach de, were formed by a single line of charges across the bridge at a, a breach f g, would probably result from the effect of two lines at 6 andc. The charge of powder to be employed may be calculated from the rules given at the end of this subject. Captain Schaw, R.E., deduced from the experiments made in the demolitions at Corfu, the following rule :— C=3LLR.2xB Where C = total charge of powder in Ibs. required to be placed either ina single mass, or in a line of charges across the arch ; L.L.R. = the line of least resistance in feet, measured through the arch; and B = the breadth of the bridge in feet. In all demolitions of this nature, it is of importance that the charges should be fired simultaneously. From experiments recently carried on at Chatham, it seems likely that compressed gun-cotton fired with a detonating fuze, may be very useful for hasty demolitions. The effect produced is extremely violent, though local. Tamping is not of so much importance when gun-cotton is fired with this fuze, which is a considerable advantage for hasty demolitions. In consequence of its apparent action, it would seem advisable, in arranging the position of the charges, to distribute them more across the breadth of the bridge, and not to allow too great a line of least resistance.* * At Chatham, 30th June 1869, 91 Ibs. of gunpowder failed to break through a brick arch 6 feet span, 24 feet thick. “A charge of 63 Ibs. of gun- cotton, however, broke through a’brick arch of 10 feet span, 3 ft. 9 io. thick. In both cases the charges were placed on the crown without any tamping. Both arches were semicircular.Fo facopoge88 PlateXXXIV| DEMOLITIONS. ~ TTL , Se “Vancent Brocks Day& Sou, LithDigtes by GoogleBECTION 14.] 89 [Dewourrtoxs, The comparative charge of compressed gun-cotton may be taken at from two-fifths to one-half that of powder, weight for weight, to produce an equivalent effect in masonry or brickwork. Another mode of hasty demolition seems feasible, especially Charge under when the arch is a very thin one, viz., to suspend the charge arch. below the crown of the arch, in @ trough in such & manner as to extend completely across the bridge. By this arrangement the arch would be attacked at its weakest point, and in a favourable direction, and there would be no interruption to traffic. In auch an operation the same quantity of powder or gun-cotton should be used, as would be required for the hasty demolition of an arch when the charge is placed above it, In all demolitions of bridges, powder must be used freely in excess of the calculated charges. Though this may produce a large expenditure as regards the single operation to be performed, it will be small as compared with the general consumption neces- sorily incurred during a campaign; and further, the difference between partial failure and complete success, would often be productive of serious results. At Duenas in 1812, on the retreat from Burgos, the rear guard of the army was closely pressed by the enemy, the bridge was of solid masonry from the arch to the roadway. The miners had only time to strip off some of the pavement, lodge two barrels of powder in the hole, and cover them as hastily as possible with the small quantity of materials at hand; when -fired the effect was to break down the entire breadth of the arch, making a gap of 15 feet. In the lines of Torres Vedras a bridge was destroyed in a similar manner, by merely placing the powder on the crown of the arch, without any loading whatever. This latter is the most precarious and dangerous method of using powder, and ought never to be resorted to except in a case of absolute necessity.” 210. “Wood is extensively used in America in the construction Wooden of bridges, and during the late war the Confederates had a corps bridges. regularly equipped for destroying bridges by burning. The men were mounted, and carried with them small kegs of kerosine oil, which was poured over the woodwork, and the latter then set on fire. This mode of operation was attended with considerable success, but it was not of course so instantaneous in its effects as a demolition by gunpowder or other explosives. ‘The simplest way to destroy a wooden bridge, when the demo- lition is to be instantaneous, is to bore auger holes about 2 inches in diameter in the timber at right angles to each other, and having placed in each a tin cylinder (Fig. 199), the ends of which are connected with a strong bolt and nut, containing a charge, to fire them simultaneously. Some experiments have been tried with these at Chatham, and the results seem to show that if the bridge be not thereby actually brought down, it may be so thoroughly shaken as to be too dangerous to be used. It is probable that if the operation were combined with a subsequent ignition of the bridge, the demolition would be very complete. Compressed gun-cotton fired with detonating fuzes in similarDemoxrrioxs.] 90 [parr 1. holes (without cylinders) completely destroys timbers. Wooden bridges may also be attacked with success in a similar manner to stockades.” Hasty 211, “Sir John Burgoyne states, in his momorandum on Fort fentition Conception, that four equal masses of gunpowder of 16 barrels of powder each, placed in casemates under the faces and flanks of a bastion- ines shaped ravelin, effected the entire demolition of that work, with and casemates. the exception of a very small portion of the salient angle. ‘A single charge of 3,840 Ibs. (nearly 43 barrels) placed in the upper floor of a casemate, under the salient of a quadrilateral advanced work, cut it completely in two, destroying the advanced faces and leaving the retired ones. ‘Two charges, consisting each of 2,800 Ibs., or 31 barrels, placed in two small casemates under the front face of another more advanced square work, also destroyed one-half of that work. When bomb-proof powder magazines of one arch are to be blown up in haste, one or more masses of gunpowder should be placed in the middle of the floor, and fired, after previously blocking up the doors and windows with timbers, bricks, stones, or earth, if time permit. If a magazine be oblong (the most usual form), the whole area covered by it should be divided into regular squares, or rectangles approaching that form, and a charge placed in the centre of each on the floor of the magazine, and all fired simultaneously. When an isolated bomb-proof is entirely buried underground, the same quantities of powder as for a magazine will produce demolition, acting, however, with more violence upwards than on the side walls ; but bomb-proof casemates, elevated above the surface of the ground, and open in rear, require more powder to effect demolition than powder magazines enclosed on all sides.” Demolition of 212, “The galleries of countermines may be demolished by the galleries of masses of gunpowder, a small portion at each end of the part that countermines. ig to be destroyed, having been previously tamped or blocked up. It appears that single barrels of gunpowder placed at central intervals of 10 feet, will demolish galleries not exceeding 15 feet in total depth, and convert them into trenches. This arrange- ment would be simpler than that of Belidor, who used masses of three or more French barrels at greater intervals. Probably single barrels placed 20 feet apart would suffice to destroy such galleries, without producing any great effect at the surface. On the 8rd Nov. 1869, at Portsmouth, a charge of 60 lbs. of compressed gun-cotton was suspended under the haunch of the arch of a counterscarp gallery, encircling the salient of a bastion. ‘The gallery was 249 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 7} feet to soffit of arch ; there were 19 loopholes in the gallery, 3 feet long, 5 inches high, which were not tamped. The cotton was placed between the third and fourth loopholes, and fired by a detonating fuze. The whole gallery was destroyed, about 80 feet at one end, and 40 feet at the other end being left an open trench. The bare of the openwork iron gates at the two ends of the gallery were bent, twisted, and hurled about 25 yards.”SECTION 14.] 91 [(Demoxrti0Ns, 213, “In blowing down: a stockade or barrier, the powder is Blowing down placed in a tarred sand-bag or two, or a leather bag made for the purpose. A sitgle untarred sand-bag should on no account be used, as any fire dropping on it from the fuse is liable to cause explosion. Against a gate or barrier, the best place for the charge is opposite the lock, bolts, or hinges, where it should be secured either by a prop, or suspended from a nail or gimlet. The effect of the ex- plosion will be much increased, if the bag containing the powder be surrounded with five filled sand-bags, as in Fig. 200, Pl. XXXIV. ‘The powder-bag being laid on the ground with the fuze outwards, a sand-bag is placed on the top, one at each side, and two in front, so as to allow the fuze to project between them. A charge of 40 Ibs. covered with sand-bags, or 60 Ibs. uncovered, will make a breach 6 feet wide through a stockade formed of timbers 10 inches thick. The following conclusions have been arrived at from a series of experiments, as given in the article Pétard,* in the Aide Mémoire to the Military Sciences :— Ist. That any single line of stockade, when the timbers do not exceed 14 inches in thickness may be breached by a charge of 100 lbs. of powder, uncovered, placed on the ground, and in contact with the timbers. 2nd. That a double stockade may be breached by 200 Ibs. of powder, untamped, lodged against the outer row of timbers, when the interval between the rows does not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. 8rd. That when the distance between the rows of the stockade timbers exceeds 3 ft. 6 in., the breaches must be produced by two distinct explosions. 4th. That a 14-inch wall, however well built, can be breached by charges of 60 Ibs. of powder, weighted with sand-bags, the charges being not more than 5 or 6 feet apart. The placing of powder bags is a critical operation, and it is therefore desirable as a security against failure from casualties, to attempt to place them at several points of the enclosure attacked. When a town gate has to be breached, it would be unsafe to depend on a smaller charge than 200 lbs. of powder covered with sand-bags, as in all probability the gates would be strengthened by cross-bars and struts.” 214, “Stockades can be easily breached by means of compressed gun-cotton, merely Jaid on the ground in front of, and touching the timbers, and fired by detonating fuzes. It has been found that 7 Ibs. of this gun-cotton will cut cledn through a 14-inch deal log, but from the limited number of experiments made at present, no absolute rules can be laid down. Gun-cotton employed in this manner will apparently do the same amount of work as three times its weight of gunpowder, the former being dis- * A pétard was a kind of brass mortar shaped like a bell, the mouth of which was fastened to a bed of elm. The pétard having been charged with 1 Ibs. of powder, was carried by four men, and suspended against and secured to the gate to be blown open. It weighed about 3 cwt,, and was inconvenient as well as dangerous. stockades, barriers, &c. Breaching stockades with gun-cotton,Dexourrrons.] 92 [part 1. tributed along the line to be breached, while the latter is placed in one mass.” 7 Chargen for QB, '* The following table gives the charges of gunpowder to sty be smployed for the hasty demolition of bridges, bomb-proofe demolition, 7 i eo stockades, &c. Guapewier, re | hatges Taterval Bi am o in MARES. in Ibe, Demolition, we 2 LALBAXB, | Arch of bri Inatrench over the | This is the total charge. | Pee Sere | Rept or au Tr | oe t der the erowa of | trenches “were made the arch. across the arch, and each Sharh toned wt "with the SLLB Arch of bridge -| In a trench over" Thin is the amount for ‘the crown of the eens harge, the oF suspend- ‘ab two ed under it. Rao idtervala, 2} toSL.1.B4| Wall =~ threwatl at || | Thess moles aro preca- }wo-lined inter- rious. If time its, . the arch or wall should be cut into, and the covered with stone or rubbinh, The would be Breater, if two trenches Were cut, and each treated similarly. 2I.L.Rs | Powder magazine, | Along thecentrelinie | The charge is that for each ‘or bomb) roof ‘of each square,| square, and may be undergrounc with side of twice placed in one or more LL.B. masses, if preferred. All the openings should be | tees eae eee ALAL.BA | Square omb-proof In the centro of the} (saenrs ‘casemates, ‘building. ‘one-third toone-halfmay | Ske the ° cifference ber ween, complete d emolion, oF between mioderate and violent demolition. 2L.L.BAY | Bomb-proof case- | In the centre of || If arangeof casemates, at- mates of two each square. tack that at theend, and squares. thon every alternate ‘eagemate, L.L,B%* | Bomb-proof case-| In the centre of All the opent should be Voie) | Pinatas" or threo | ""ench square. | a epithe ean squares. mates ber open to the 5 yar amore powder must barrel | Galleries or coun. | In the contre of the ls “tans of the glory (@olbs) termines, gallery at 10-fect | “should bo tam mntervals. charges: woul otal convert the allery foot total depth, below fhe surface, iuto an open roneh. 40 to 100 Ibs, | Barvier-gate or | Against the centre | The charges should be stockac of the gate or stockade, or on the ground at the foot. nearest external surface of the building. Iced tn sang: aep, oF leethor, powder age, ‘he effect is much in- creased if five sand-t pissed rend the change’ placed round the : 40 bs; of powder thus tamped will have about the sameeffect as 60 Ibs. untamped. * These L. L, R. are measured from the centre of the powder on the floor to theSECTION 15.] 93 [Beers Secrion 15.—PASSAGE OF RIVERS, FLYING BRIDGES, RAFTS, &c. 216. The passage of large streams when unbridged can only be accomplished in war by operations and means demanding the attention and direction of the General of the Army. But a regiment or smaller body marching with the officers belonging to it, unaccompanied by engineers or staff, may find its progress stopped by a small but unfordable stream which cannot be passed within any admissible deviation from its route. If boats of sufficient size to ferry the troops and baggage across are not pro- curable, such small boats as can be obtained may be used to form a floating bridge, or, if their number be insufficient for a bridge, to form a raft ; or other materials may be put together to form floating supports for the platform of a bridge or of a raft; or trestles resting on the bottom may be constructed to carry a bridge ; or in some cases the stream may be spanned by two corresponding frameworks of spars, which would support a bridge between them.* Such constructions require materials and tools, and workmen who can handle them. Materials for a small bridge or a raft may generally be obtained from adjacent buildings, and among the soldiers a few carpenters may be found; but only small streams can be expected to be crossed by troops who are marching with- out proper means for that purpose. The following paragraphs contain the practical instructions from the Chatham course which appear suited to this subject -— 217. “ Military bridges differ from ordinary bridges in being Comparison of less durable, and in some cases portable. Whether they are made military and floating or otherwise, time is generally a principal object, and civil bridges. every means should therefore be taken, by a proper distribution of material and men, to construct them as quickly as possible. Floating bridges may be made of pontoons, boats, casks, rafts of timber, or anything which will give buoyancy sufficient to support the bridge, and the weights which will be brought on it. Restorations of broken arches or bridges over chasms may be made of spars, ropes, planks, &c. in a great variety of ways. ‘The limits of these notes do not admit of a description of all, for which see the works of Sir Howard Douglas on European, and Haupt on American military bridges.” 218. “The following are the weights than can be brought on Greatest loads 1 bridge by the passage of troops of various kinds, guns, dic.:— _ that ean be lst. Infantry in marching order, average 200 Ibs. per man, and brought to bear when in file, or in fours, at proper intervals, cause a load of daa 222 Ibs., or about 2 cwt. per lineal foot of roadway. 2nd. Infantry in marching order, in file, when crowded by a check, cause a load of 280 Ibs., or 2} cwt. per lineal foot of roadway. * The carts which accompany a force may be readily floated across a river by unloading them, and simply fastening an empty barrel in each The loads can be taken over in boats or on rafts too small to carry the carts. ‘This was constantly done in New Zealand. 26334. HPassing troops over 8 . Buwoes.] 94 [part 1. 3rd. Infantry in marching order, in fours, when crowded by a check, cause a load of 560 Ibs., or 5 ewt. per lineal foot of roadway. 4th. Infantry in marching order, when crowded in a dis- organized mass, may cause a load of 100 Ibs. per square foot of standing room. Sth. Unarmed men average 160 Ibs. per man, and when crowded in a disorganized mass, may cause a load of 138 Ibs. per square foot of standing room. 6th. Cavalry in marching order, in file, each man and horse together weighing about 1,400 Ibs. and occupying 12 feet lineal of bridge, cause a load of 116 Ibs., or about 1 cwt. per lineal foot of roadway. ; 7th. Cavalry in marching order, in file, when crowded by a check, cause a load of 189 lbs. per lineal foot of roadway. 8th. Cavalry in marching order, in half sections, cause a load of 233 Ibs., or about 2 cwt. per lineal foot of roadway. 9th. Cavalry in marching order, in half sections, when crowded by a check, cause a load of about 378 lbs. per lineal foot of road- way. 10th, Elephants cannot be made to crowd together. When loaded with baggage an elephant occupies a space of about 99 square feet (11 feet by 9 feet). Their average weight (in- cluding their load of 13 ewt.) may be taken as 72 ewt., of which vfs is borne on the hind legs, which are 6} feet from the fore legs. In calculation it must be assumed that a weight of 44 cwt. may be brought on to one foot of an elephant. 11th, Elephants unloaded occupy a space of about 55 square feet 11 feet by 5 feet). The weight of an elephant harnessed into the shafts of a gun, may be taken as 66 cwt.; his hind legs are 5} feet, and those of the leader 22} feet from the axle of the limber. 12th. Camels when loaded with baggage occupy a space of about 70 square feet (10 feet by 7 fect). Their average weight (including their load of 43 ewt.) may be taken as 15 ewt., of which one-third is borne on the hind legs, which are about 4} feet from their fore legs. In calculation it must be assumed that a weight of 10 ewt. may be brought on to one foot of a camel. 13th. Pack bullocks, such as are used in India, when loaded with baggage occupy a space of about 13} square feet (5 feet by 2} feet). ‘Their average weight (including their load of 1} wt.) may be taken as 5} cwt., of which one-third is borne on the hind legs, which are about 34 feet from the fore legs. In calculation it must be assumed that a weight of 34 cwt. may be brought on to one foot of a pack bullock. 14th. Cattle for commissariat purposes may also be assumed to weigh about 4 wt. each, and when crowded occupy a space of about 9 square feet of standing room.” 219, “When troops are crossing a bridge the following rules should be observed :— 7 1st. Cavalry should, as a rule, cross in “ file,” a steady horse leading. If there is any hurry they may be passed over in “half sections,” two abreast.SECTION 15.] 95 [Bamors. 2nd. The leaders of gun and wagon teams should, as a rule, be unhooked, and drag ropes used to assist the wheel horses, as well as to prevent their running back. Whenever horses are to be taken over a temporary bridge with wooden flooring, half an inch, to an inch of sand or earth should be seattered.over it; the addi- tional weight of sand* should be taken into consideration in the ealculations. Any horse will then cross quietly. 8rd. Infantry should not be allowed to keep step, but may be moved across at the double. 4th. Cattle, being liable to take fright, should be driven over only in small numbers at once, the bridge being given up to them entirely for the time of their passage.” 220, “The following are a few general principles to be borne General in mind when constructing military bridges :— principles. Ist, A roadway 8 feet wide in the clear, will admit of the passage of infantry four deep, and of all descriptions of military wagons, in one direction. In very light bridges, such as suspen- sion bridges, the width of the roadway may have occasionally to be reduced to the minimum necessary for the wheels of the carriages that have to pass over it, guides being fixed for the wheels. It must be borne in mind, that parts of wagons extend ‘beyond the wheel track. The width of a double roadway should not be less than 16 feet. 2nd. The width between the hand-rails, should not be less than 9 feet for an ordinary bridge ; this width should not be less than 10 feet if camels, or than 19 feet if elephants have to pass over it. 8rd. The headway for ordinary military bridges should not be less than 9 feet for military wagons or for cavalry; but it should be increased to 11 feet for camels, and to 15 feet for elephants, 4th. Ramps at the ends of a bridge if intended for artillery should not have a slope greater than 3. 5th. In preparing boats to act as pontoons, the baulks or road bearers should not be allowed to bring the weight on to the gunnels of the boats, as the latter would be thereby racked and injured. A saddle should be used with a bearing on the keel of the boat, 6th. Casks bear grounding on mud better than boats, few of which will stand the weight of a moveable load when grounded. ‘7th. With timber rafts, the ends of the timbers particularly, and if possible the whole of them, should be tarred or painted to keep them from getting waterlogged. 8th. With open boats, ordinary loads, as infantry in fours crowded, or field guns, should not immerse the vessel deeper than within 1 foot of the gunnel, and extraordinary loads, such as siege guns or infantry in marching order crowded together in a disorganized mass, should not immerse it deeper than within 6 inches of the lowest part of the gunnel. With closed vessels nine-tenths of the actual buoyancy may be considered available, : A cabic foot of earth or sand welghs about 1 cwt. a2Ropes. Knorrixe.} 96 [parr 1. 9th. The waterway between the supports should never be less, and should, if possible, be more, than the width of those supports. 10th. The supports of a floating bridge should be at least twice as long as the width of the roadway, unless the buoyancy is mueh in excess of that required.” Knotting and Splicing.” 221. “Before men are employed at bridging, they should be thoroughly instructed in the various knots and splices used. The size of rope is denoted by its circumference in inches, and its length is always given in fathoms. Rope is cither white or tarred, containing three or more strands, and up to the size of five-inch rope, is made up in coils. The hemp is first spun into yarns or threads, cach of which is supposed to be capable of withstanding a strain of 100 Ibs. Several yarns spun together form strands. Three or four strands laid up together form hawser-laid rope, while three three-stranded ropes laid up together, “form cable-laid ‘rope, Yarns are spun right-handed, and the ‘Thumb or overhand knot. Figure of 8 knot. Reef knot. strands spun from them laid up right-banded or left-handed, according as the rope is intended to be left-handed or right- handed. Threads twisted up moderately taut, and seldom exceed- ing nine in number, form spun-yarn. en a rope is passed through a block, it is said to be rove; if one end is made fast, that end is called the standing part, the other end the running end, and the end of the rope to-which the power is applied, the fall. The general rule for coiling down rope is, for right-handed rope, with the sun, as from @ to & (Fig. 201) ; and left-handed rope, against the sun. Jn the plates, the points of the running ends, are shown whipped, and the direction in which the power is applied, is denoted by an arrow. In uncoiling a new coil of rope, pass the end which is at the core through the core to the opposite side, and draw it out, when the turns will run out without kinking.” 222. “Grasping the end of the rope with the right hand, and the standing part in the left, pass the end of the rope over the standing part, up through the bight thus formed ; haul taut, and the knot is complete. ‘This is the simplest kind of knot, and is used to prevent ropes running through blocks when rove, &c. (Fig. 202)” 223, “Holding the rope as in the last paragraph, pass the end of the rope under, round, and over the standing part, then upwards through the bight thus formed. The knot is used for much the same purpose as the last (Fig. 203).” 224, “Holding one end in each hand, ends to the front, lay the ends of the two ropes to be joined across one another, the left-hand rope over the right, and take it once completely round that held * A few only of the knots described in the Chatham book are inserted here.Dlare gece PlateXXXv,| KNOTS &c Granny. Fig 203 Fig tt Fig 205 iaohate Tacha Relding Foss Be =f Whappurg at end astape Fig 22 Clove Hutoh ‘Weont, Brod Day kbar tahDigtes by GoogleSECTION 15.] 97 [Kxorrina. in the right hand. Turn the original left-hand end back in the direction of, and alongside its standing part, and take the original right-hand end over the double, up through the loop, and haul taut. The standing and running parts of each rope must pass through the loop of the other part in the same direction, i.e., from above downwards, or vice versa (Fig. 204) ; if they pass in the opposite direction as in Fig. 203, the knot is what is termed a granny, and cannot be undone when tightened up, with the same ease that a recf knot can. A reef knot can be upset, and the ends pulled out, by taking one end of tho rope and its standing part, and pulling them in opposite directions.” 225. “ With the end of the rope in the right hand, and the stand-.Two half ing part in the left, pass the end of the rope round its standing hitches. part, and up through the bight, thus forming one half hitch ; two of these alongside of one another complete the knot. In Fig. 206 this knot is represented on the standing part of a rope passed round, and made fast to a spar, but it should never be used for hoisting a spar. The end may be lashed down to the standing part by a piece of spun-yard, which adds to its security and prevents the end from slipping.” 226, “This knot is the same as the last, with the exception Round turn that a complete turn is taken round the spar or other object to and two half which the rope is to be fastened, and the half hitches taken sfter- hitches. wards round the standing part (Fig. 207) ; this knot is sometimes called a rolling bend.” 2217, “ Two complete turns are taken round the spar or other Fisherman's object to which the rope is to be fastened, and the end passed over bend. the standing part, through the two turns next the spar, over its own part, thus forming one half hitch, and the second half hitch taken round the standing part alone. It is used in pontooning to fasten the cables to the rings of the anchors (Fig. 208).” 228. “When it is desired to secure a rope to the end of a Clove hitch. spar, this knot can be made first, and the loop so formed passed over the end of the spar. To make this knot, make two loops with the running end of the rope (Fig. 209), place the last made loop over the other one (Big. 210), and slip the double loop so formed over the end of the spar, &c. (Fig. 211). ‘When a rope has to be secured to spar, over the end of which the knot cannot be slipped, pass the end over and round the spar, and bring it up to the left of the standing part, and again down and round the spar, to the right of the first turn, and bring the end up between the spar, the last turn, and the standing part (Fig. 211). When used’ in lashing spars, the end should be twisted round the standing part, as in the figure. As this knot is one of the most useful, and most frequently required, men shoulé be practised in making it in various positions,” 229. “ Rope ends are whipped with tarred twine called whip- To whip the ping, to prevent their strands coming unlaid. Lay the end of the end of rope, whipping along the rope, with its point towards the end, and takeBlocks. Tackles. ‘To form a pair of sheers. ‘Brocks anp Tack es. ] 98 [part L a turn round it and the rope, as at a, Fig. 212. Continue the turns to within three turns of where the whipping is to cease, and there make a long loop on the whipping towards the end of the rope, the end upwards as ate; continue the whipping for three turns more to 6 over the end c, pull them tight by means of the end c, and cut off the end close to the whipping.” 230. “For the purpose of changing the directions of ropes, gaining power, &c., blocks are used. They are usually made of wood, and are called single, double, or treble, according to the num- ber of sheaves contained, which being made of metal or hard wood, revolve with but slight friction on a central pin. The block is surrounded by a strop either of rope or iron, by means of which it can be lashed or made fast as required. The sizes of blocks are designated by their lengths, usually expressed in inches.” 231, “Pl. 36 shows the various combinations of blocks most commonly used for forming tackles, with falls rove ready for use, where W is the weight to be moved, and P the power applied. Fig. 213. A single block, which’ gives no increase of power, but merely a change of direction, It is often called a whip, and for this purpose a snatch block (that is, a block with a moveable strop to admit » rope, without the necessity of passing its end through the block), is often used. Fig. 214. A single moveable block, where W = 2 P. Fig. 215. A gun tackle, consisting of a fixed double and » moveable single block, where W = 3 B. Fig. 216. A gun tackle with a fixed single and a moveable double block, where W = 4 P. Fig. 217. A luff tackle with two double blocks, the standing end being attached to the fixed block, where W = 4 P. Fig. 218. A gyn tackle with a fixed treble and a moveable double block, where W = 5 P. Fig. 219. A gun tackle of large blocks, fitted with thimbles instead of hooks. The standing end of the rope is never fixed to the block with the greater number of sheaves. The weight any system of two blocks will lift, is found by multiplying the power, by the number of ropes at the moveable block, including the standing end, if fixed toit. The strops of blocks must be strong enough to withstand the greatest strain, which is equal to the power multiplied by the greatest number of ropes at either block.” Spar Bridging. 232. “Before making spar bridges, men should be thoroughly instructed in the following methods of lashing spars together :— The two spars for the sheers, of equal length, are laid alongside each other with their butts together on the ground, the parts below where the lashing is to be, resting on a piece of skidding or a short spar. A clove hitch is then made round one spar, and the lashing taken loosely eight or nine times round the two spars, above it, without riding. A couple of frapping turns are-Difce page Plate XXXVU TACKLES. “VinoenaiBrocks Dey Son-Leh,Digtes by GoogleLASHINGS or SPARS. GoogleSECTION 15.] 99 [Sra Baers, then taken between the spars, round the lashing, and finished off with a clove hitch above the round turns on the other spar. It will then appear as in Fig. 220. The butts of the spars are then opened out, and a sling passed over the fork of the spars, to which the block is hooked or lashed. Fore and back guys are then made fast with clove hitches to the tips of the spars, 80 arranged as to draw their heads together when the strain comes on them: foot ropes are secured to the butts of the spars: and to pickets, and the sheers are ready for raising. If the tackle be heavy, it need not be hooked on at first, but a whip must be secured near the top of one of the spars, by which it can be raised afterwards, In securing the rope of the whip to the block, for this purpose, it should be bent on to the eye in the strop of the block, and not to the hook. The block can then be raised to its proper height, and a man can hook it into the two parts of the sling, which he would find very difficult if the whip were made fast to the hook iteelf.” 238. “To form a gyn or tripod trestle, the distance from the butts at which the centre of the lashing is to be, is marked on each spar, Two of the spars are then laid parallel to each other, rather farther apart than their own diameter, with their tips resting on a piece of skidding, and the third spar is laid between them with its butt in the opposite direction, so that the marks on the three spars may be in aline, .A clove hitch is then made on one spar, and the lashing taken over and under the three spars loosely, eight or nine times, the lashing will then appear as in Fig. 222. A-couple of frapping turns are then taken between each pair of spars in succession, round the lashing, and finished off with a clove hitch in one of the spars; the lashing will then appear as in Fig. 225, A sling is then passed over the lashing, and the gyn is ready for raising.” 234. “'The mode of lashing a transom to an upright is shown in Figs. 223 and 224 ; in the description the transom is supposed to be in front of the upright. A clove hitch is made round the upright below the position of the transom, the lashing brought under the transom, up in front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in front of the transom, and back behind the upright below the clove hitch, and so on, following round, keeping outside of, and not riding over the turns already made. Six turns or more will be required. ‘A couple of frapping’ turns are then taken between the spars round the lashing, binding the whole firmly together, and the lashing is finished off with a clove hitch, either round one of the spars, or any part of the lashing, through which the rope can be passed. The lashing must be well beaten with a handspike or pick handle to tighten it up.” 2835. “Spar bridges may be constructed across a chasm, a broken arch, &c. The first operation is to measure the chasm, and make a section of it full size on‘the ground with pickets and tracing tapes. The width of the opening and the depth of the sides to the abutments, decide the form to be given to the bridge. To lash three spars together to form a gyn or trij trestle. upright spar. General obser- vations on spar bridges.‘Single lever bridge. Spaz Barwoers.] 100 (Part 1. Whatever number of points of supports for the baulks can be obtained, their distance from each other should be nearly the same ; the total width of the chasm on the section is then divided into as many parts as there will be intervals between the supports, and a picket driven in the line at each point to mark the position of a transom, the thickness of which is represented by a maul, or piece of spar. The position of the other spars can then be marked by lines or by the spars themselves, and the distance from their butts at which the transom will be lashed can be measured, and marked on the spars to be used in making the bridge. In lashing frames, the butts of the spars should be farther apart than their tips to give greater stability. The splay may be about one in twenty. ‘A single spar in being raised should always have three guy ropes lashed to its head, as also a block with a tackle rove, for hoisting the transoms, or men to lash them. The following de- scriptions of bridges are based on the supposition that spars long enough to span the different openings cannot be procured.” 236, “The single lever bridge is not suitable for greater spans than about 30 feet ; it is composed of two frames locking into each other, as shown in Fig. 227 ; these frames should not meet each other at a greater angle than 120°. The bridge can be erected by a party of two or three non-commissioned officers and 20 men, half on each side of the stream or chasm, but the number of men may be advantageously increased to 32. The first operation is to take a section across the stream where the contre of the bridge will be ; if the banks be irregular it may be necessary to take two sections where the butts are to come. These sections must then be set out on the ground full size, on the side of the stream where the officer in charge is. The spars for the standards must then be laid on the section, as previously described, and the positions of the ledgers and transoms marked ‘on them; the centres of the ledgers and transoms, and the points at which they are to be lashed on to the standards should also be marked. The standards for the two frames are got into position on each bank, opposite the site for the bridge their butts being placed towards the stream, for one frame 10 ft. 6in. apart at the ledger, and 9 ft. 6 in, at the position of the transom, in the clear ; for the other frame 1} feet farther apart throughout, so that one frame may fall inside the othér when placed across the stream, The ledgers are lashed on above, and the transoms beneath the standards at the places marked; the diagonals are then lashed to the standards (two butts and one tip above them) and to cach other, as shown in Fig. 226. Two men work at each lashing, and great care must be taken that the spars are kept in their relative positions all the time, checking the measurements of the diagonals of the frame before the diagonal braces are lashed. In the meantime the footings for the butts of the frames can be prepared, and pickets driven for the foot and guy ropes; the pickets for the former should be about two paces from the bank2b face page 1 PlateXXXVIll SPAR BRIDGES Sugle Truss Seale, 10 ft. tol inch. “Vincent Brooks. Day & Son. athSECTION 15.] 101 [Sean Baers. and about four paces on each side of the central line ; those for the guy ropes about 20 paces from the bank and about 10 paces on each side of the central line. The foot ropes can also be secured by timber hitches to the butts of the frames, the fore and back guys to the tips, and the fore guys passed across to the opposite side by m eans of spun-yarn, &c. ‘The guys of the narrow frame should inside the guys and the standards of the wide frame. When all is ready the frames are got into position, either one after the other, or both at the same time, if there be sufficient men. One man is told off to each foot rope, and one to each back guy to slack off as required, two turns being taken with each of these ropes round their respective pickets, The other numbers raise the frame and launch it forward, being assisted by the men manning the fore guys on the other side of the stream, until the frame is balanced on the edge of the bank; the butts must then be gradually lowered into the footings prepared for them, by slack- ing off the foot ropes, the head of the frame hauled over till’ beyond the perpendicular, and lowered nearly into its ultimate position by slacking off the back guys, the men on the fore guys assisting to guide it. It can be kept in this position by making fast the guys . to their pickets, until the other frame has been treated in a similar manner. The two frames are then gradually lowered by means of the back guys, and guided by the fore guys until the standards of the narrow one, rest on the transom of the other between its standards ; the wide frame is then lowered until the two frames lock into each other, their standards resting on each other’s transoms, ‘The operations thus far described should not occupy more than 45 minutes, provided proper stores are available and in position on either side of the stream. The roadway should be laid as described in par. 245, and should not require more than 20 minutes, so that the whole bridge should be completed in a little over an hour. If the bridge has to be made over a broken arch, &c., where the footings for the frames are to be in masonry, one hour or more should be allowed in addition for forming them.” 237. “The following is an estimate of materials and tools for Materials, &e. a single lever bridge of 30 feet span :— for a single 4 spars of 25 feet vi in. at tip), for standards of frames. _lever bridge, 2, 16 ,, (9 in. throughout), for main transoms. 2 3, 16 5 (7 in. throughout), for ledgers. 4 > 90 3 (4 in. at tip), for diagonal braces. 2 » is (immaterial, for shore transoms. 10 5, 22 3, (Gin. at tip), for baulks or road-bearers. >. (slight), for racking down baulks, 40 planks, 9 feet’(1 foot wide), for roadway. 8 guys, 83-inch rope, 20 fathoms each, for fore and back guys. 4 foot ropes, 3-inch rope, 6 to 9 fathoms each. 4 lashings, a inch rope, 8 fathoms each, for main transoms. 7 7 ni for ledgers. 6 ” 1 » 3 a for diagonal braces. 1 5 1) oy 8 i for road-bearers. rs SDouble lever bridge. Materials, &e. for a double lever bridge. Sear Brivces.] 102 [parr 1 16 rack sticks and lashings (8 feet of 2-inch rope). Ball of spun yarn - 1 | Tapes, tracing - - 2 Park pickets, 5 fect - 8 | Tapes,measuring,50feet 2 Mauls - - 2 | Bundle of pickets - 1 ‘Axes, pick - - 4|*Crowbars = - - 4 Shovels, field service - 4 | *Striking hammers - 4 Rods, measuring, 6 feet 2 | *Brick chisels, or jumpers 4 238. “The double lever bridge is suitable for spans of 40 feet, and consists of two frames, locking into a connecting frame of two or more longitudinal pieces, with cross transoms, as shown in Fig. 228; the opening is thus divided into three spaces, and the span of the road-bearers is about 14 feet. The bridge can be constructed by a party of two or three non-commissioned officers and from 24 to 48 men. The section being taken and set out on the ground, the span is divided into three equal intervals, and pickets driven in at the points A and B; mauls are placed above the line at these points to represent the road transoms, and the standards are laid in posi- tion over them, and the longitudinal piece of the connecting frame is then placed touching the road transoms, the positions of which are marked on it. The positions of the main transoms are ascer- tained by mauls placed in the acute angles between the longitudinal piece and thestandards. ‘These positions and those for the ledgers are then marked on the standards. The above construction allows about 9 inches for camber. The side frames are lashed in the same manner as the wide frame of the single lever bridge, and are then launched and lowered down to a little above their final position, and held there by means of the guys. Two road-bearers are then got out from each bank to the main transoms, and two men go out to each of those transoms. The two longitudinal pieces are then got into position (by a pair of sheers, if necessary, or by a block aud tackle lashed to the head of a standard,) inside the standards, and the road trausoms are then placed and lashed to the longitudinal pieces at the points marked. The side frames are then lowered till they jam, and the framework is complete. The operations thus far described should not occupy more than about 2} hours, and the roadway could be laid and the bridge completed in three hours. Extra time should be allowed if the footings have to be cut in masonry or brickwork.” 239. “The following is an estimate of materials and tools for a double lever bridge of 40 feet span :— 4 spars of 25 feet (7 in. at tip) for standards. 2° 4, 22 ,, (7 im. at tip) for longitudinal pieces of connecting frame. “4 16 y (9 in, throughout) for transoms. 2 » 16. ,, (7 in. throughout) for ledgers. 4 } 20 3 (4in. at tip) for diagonal braces. 2 , 12 4, (immaterial) for shore transoms. 15 3, 20 5 (6 in, at tip) for road-bearers. 6 4 20 ,, (slight) for racking down baulks. * Only required when the footings have to be made in rock or magonry.SECTION 15,] 103 [Srax Burozs- 50 planks 9 feet (1 foot wide) for roadway. 8 guys, 3-in. rope, 20 fathoms each, for fore and back guys. 4 foot ropes, 3-in. rope, 6 to 9 fathoms each. 8 lashings, 2-in. rope, 8 fathoms each, for transoms, 5 4 yy» Hs » oo» ledgers. 10 |} 6 5 dingonal braces. 20 5 1 x 8 4 4 _ road-bearers, 20 rack sticks and lashings (8 feet of 2-in. rope). Ball spun yarn - 1{° Tapes, tracing - - 2 Park pickets, 5 feet - 8| Tapes, measuring, 50 feet 2 Mauls : - 2| Bundle of pickets -1 ‘Axes, pick - - 4] *Crowbars : -4 Shovels, field service- 4 | *Striking hammers - 4 Rods, measuring, 6 feet 2 | *Brick chisels or jumpers 4 240. “Tho single truss bridge can be used for spans up to 50 Single truss feet; it consists of two frames locking into each other in the same bridge. manner as in the single: lever bridge, and provides three points of support, viz., one on each frame, and a third suspended by ropes from the heads of the frames (Fig. 229). The bridge re- quires a party of two or three non-commissioned officers and from 30 to 48 men. The section being taken and set out, the span is divided by pickets into four parts, equal if possible, and mauls are held above the line at the points A and C, and the standards laid in position under them; these are then marked for the ledgers, main and upper transoms. ‘The upper transom must not be less than 9 feet above the level of the roadway. The two frames are then lashed ; in the narrow one the standards must be 9 ft. 6 in. apart (in the clear) at the roadway, and 10 ft. 6 ins. at the ledger, and in the other frame 14 feet farther apart throughout. Two single 5-inch blocks with falls rove and secured, should be lashed to the tips of the standards of the wide frame. The frames are then launched and got into position as in the single lever bridge, or by means of a pair of sheers, if necessary. A couple of road-bearers are now got out to the main transoms, two men climb to the summit to assist in getting into position the fork transom D, which is raised by means of the blocks attached to the tips of the standards ; one end is raised first, and slewed into its fork beyond its final position, and hauled back again when the other end has been got opposite its fork. The suspended transom B is then, by means of the blocks, got into a position alittle above that it will finally occupy, and supported by ropes arranged as slings, as described in the next paragraph. ‘The operation of getting the frames into position will require about 2} hours, and the roadway can be laid and bridge com- leted in 3 hours, Extra time should be allowed if the footings Have to be cut in masonry or brickwork.” 241, “A 3-inch rope (one of the guy ropes) is sent up to the top Spanish on each side, passed over the fork transom, down underneath the Windlass. * Only required when footings have to be made in rock or masonry.for a single truss bridge. Lever truss Spar Brinczs.] 104 {parr 3. suspended one, up again round the top one, and so on until there are six parts or more supporting the lower one, and the ends then secured together. Care must be taken that the suspended transom dears equally on each bight of ropo, and also that the ropes do not ride over one another. When the road-bearers are laid, the thick end of a handspike is inserted in the space between the ropes passing up, and those passing downwards, and by turning the handle round the rope several times, with the thick end as_a centre, the ropes may be twisted and tightened up to the desired extent, until the transom is raised sufficiently. The handle of the handspike must be secured to one of the standards of the frames, or to a road-bearer, by a lashing, and great caro must be taken that it be not let go in the operation of twisting.” 242, “The following is an estimate of materials and tools for a single truss bridge of 50 feet span :— ; spars of 35 feet (6 in. tip), for standards of frames. » 16 ,, (9 in. throughout) for main transoms. » 16 ,, (7 in. throughout) for other transoms, '4 in. tip) for diagonal braces. immaterial) for shore transoms. 10 » 80 ,, (6 in, tip) for road-bearers. » (slight) for racking down baulks. 60 planks, 9 feet (1 foot) for roadway. 8 guys, 3-in. rope, 20 fathoms each, for fore and back guys. 4 foot ropes, 3-in. rope, 6 to 9 fathoms. 8 lashings, 2-in. rope, 8 fathoms, for transoms. Ran @ » oe 4 » 1 ” » ledgers. wo y Wy : » y diagonal braces. 10 1 ” road-bearers, 26 rack "sticks and Tashings é feet of 2-in. rope). Handspike, 6 feet - 2 Shovels, field service - 4 Ball spun yarn - Rods, measuring, 6 feet 2 Park pickets, 5 feet - 8 | ‘Tapes, tracing - 2 Mauls - 7 2 Tapes, measuring, 50 feet 2 Blocks, single, 5 in. - 2 | Bundlesof pickets - 1 Falls, 2-in. rope, 15 *Crowbars - - 4 fathoms - - 2 | *Striking hammers - 4 Axes, pick - - 4 | *Brick chisels, orjumpers 4 248. “This bridge is suitable for spans up to about 50 feet, and is a combination of the single lever and truss (Fig. 230) ; it requires a party of two or three non-commissioned officers and from 82 to 48 men, and can be put up in about five hours. ‘A section is taken and laid out as before, and the points for the main transoms C, D, found, and also for the transoms B and E, which should divide about equally the spaces AC and DH. The intersection of the standards at F, G, and L, should also be marked ; the intersection L should be at least 9 feet above the intended position of the rondway. The lever part of the bridge would be made as previously described, but with larger * Only required when footings have to be made in rock or masonry.SPAR BRIDGE To face pagel BOAT BRIDGE &c. , Section ov AB. Vaset Boch ga SalehDe eso, GoogleMeee a SECTION 15.] 105 ~ + (Sran Barons, standards, and a temporary roadway formed for the convenience of the men employed in lashing. The upper standards must then be got separately into position, their butts resting close against . the outsides of the frame standards, and just above the ledgers. ‘A-single block should be fastened to the tip of one of the upper standards ; each standard will be got out by means of three guys attached to its tip, and a foot rope to its butt. When all four are in position the standards must be lashed together at F and G, and a man must then climb up and lash their forks together at L. The fork transom L must then be got into place, one end will be lifted into its fork by men on the rondway, and the other by means of the block ‘and fall. The main transoms B and E must next be lashed in their positions, the ends of the road- bearers temporarily placed, being raised for the purpose.” ‘The bridge may be further strengthened by means of @ transom placed at M, under the junction of the two frames, and suspended to the fork transom L ; it can be got in position by means of a rope ed from one side to the other under the frames. 244, “In all spar bridges where the butts of the spars require Remarks on - footings made for them, these should be so formed that the spars construction of may be lowered vertically into them; also their bottoms should be spar bridges. in a plane perpendicular to the direction which the spars are to take. If the footings are in mud, planks or spars should be spiked or lashed to the butts to prevent them sinking. Great attention should be paid to the various lashings, and also to the positions of the transoms, and distances apart of the side spare, as on them depends the strength and stiffness of the bridge.” 245. “The framework and transoms being completed as de- Forming the scribed in the preceding paragraphs, the longitudinal bearers for 1oaiway. the roadway have next to be got into position, For aroadway 8 feet wide, five baulks are a convenient number of use, placed parallel to one another at equal central intervals. These may consist of ordinary spars about 6 inches in diameter at the tip, which aro launched forward from each side by men standing astride each spar, facing in the direction of the bridge, and gradually pushing and lifting it forward, assisted by men on the opposite side, hauling on a breast line made fast to the tip. Eight men are sufficient for a 80-feet spar, The road-bearers may often be made use of to strengthen the bridge: in Fig. 229, if the rond-bearers were long enough to extend from A to C, and were lashed to those transoms, the bridge would be stronger. The tips of the spars should meet and overlap at the transoms, and where the ends of each pair of spars cross the centre transoms, they must be lashed together in two places, so as to prevent them pushing the roadway upwards, which they would otherwise do, on account of the camber at the centre. The roadway should rise towards the centre, as the frames are certain to yield somewhat, and sink when heavy traffie is brought on them. At each transom, the road-bearers should be all tips or all butts, in order that the planks may have an even bearing, and there may be no sudden drop in the bridge. The abutment for temporary bridges is formed by laying s horizontal baulk or shore transom, at right angles to the length ofBridges of Doate. Froatina Brrwces.] 106 [Parr 1. the bridge, and at a distance from the bank varying from 2 to 6 feet, according to its nature; this shore transom is buried to half its depth and firmly securely in its place by six or cight pickets driven into the ground. It should be 7 or 8 inches in depth, and 2 feet longer than the bridge is broad (Fig. 231). The road-bearers rest on this transom, and to prevent the earth from being forced by the wheels between them, a plank on edge should be placed against their flush ends (Fig. 233). When planks are used for the roadway, they are cut to the required length beforehand (every fourth being notched to allow room for the racking down) ; two are carried by two men under their right arms, who advance by the right side of the bridge; when at the end of the finished part, they wheel to their left, bringing the planks across the bridge, and hand them to two men, who stand on the outer spars facing the shore, and lay them down as in pontoon drill. The men who have brought up the planks pass off the bridge by the left, so as to avoid meeting the men coming up. If chesses be used, two men carry one in their right hands, The racking down baulks are then brought up, and the whole racked down. In removing the planks or chesses the men advance as before, by the right side of the bridge, lift the planks as they are turned up by the men on the road-bearers, and leave the bridge by the left side, carrying the planks under the right arm. By following these methods the men do not get into each other's way, and there is a continuous supply of material brought on, or removed from, the bridge. ‘The operation of laying the rosdway may be carried on simul- taneously from each side, if stores for that purpose be previously in position, The roadway for a spar bridge 50 feet long can be laid by 16 men in half an hour, including passing across the road- bearers and lashing down their tips. If the roadway has to be made of spars, the inequalities must be filled up with brushwood, clay, &c. A ramp or slope of earth should be made at the end of all bridges, where the roadway is above the level of the ground, to allow of the easy passage of carts, &c. on to the bridges; it should be covered with stones or planks if the traffic is likely to be heavy. A hand-rail of rope on each side should be made, by driving pickets at each end of the bridge and making a clove hitch with the rope round the standards or other spars, about 3 feet above the level of the roadway.” Floating Bridges. 246. “ The varieties of boats, barges, &c. that may be used for forming bridges of this description being very numerous, it is impossible to lay down universal rules, estimates of men, time, &c., but merely to mention a few facts, to which great importance attaches in their construction. If the baulks connecting each boat be laid from gunnel to gunnel, rigidly connected and keyed together, in rivers where the boats may be exposed to any swell, there would be a great tendency to break theso rigid baulks; if, on the other hand, they be dis-SECTION 15.] 107 ({Froatixc Bawezs. connected, but still laid from gunnel to gunnel of adjoining boats, a’small vessel would dip and roll, and probably ship water, under the pressure of any unevenly distributed load. To obviate this a saddle, AB (Fig. 231), should be fixed longitudinally in the centre of each boat, the upper side of it being raised @ little above the gunnels, and its length depending on the width of roadway required. In large boats, with strong sides, this saddle may be fastened on beams laid across the gunnels, but in boats of slight build it should be supported on the kelson as shown in section, Fig. 231. The baulks should be laid from saddle to saddle, and secured by pins as in pontoon bridges of by lashings; the depth of the baulks should not exceed twice their breadth, and this latter should not be less than 3 inches, in order to obviate the fendency to turn over, and also to have sufficient strength to resist any lateral strain. ‘As the boats near each shore are more particularly affected by weights moving on and off the bridge (on account of the slopes leading to the banks, due to a rise ayd fall of the level of the water), the strongest and largest should be selected for the ends of the bridge. The vessels should be moored head and stern, and fastened together by pieces of timber lashed across the ends of the boats, to preserve the proper distances, and save the baulks from unnecessary strain, The baulks may also be laid on a sort of midship deck, their ends abutting against a middle piece of timber, thus preventing two boats from coming nearer to each other (Fig. 232). ‘When barges or large lighters of a capacity of 20 tons and upwards, are available, and the timber for baulks is short, gunnel- pieces of wood, with cleats to receive the baulks, may be laid on each gunnel, and the baulks laid across from the outside gunnel of one boat to the nearest gunnel of the next, short pieces as for decks, being laid across from gunnel to gunnel of each boat. ‘Two sappers, or men who understand rowing, anchoring, &e., should be placed on board each boat to attend to the,placing of the baulks, roadway, &c. The getting into position of the boats, and laying the roadway, will much resemble the manner of forming ‘a pontoon bridge from rafts. The boats in a tidal river should be moored alternately stem and stern up stream.” : 247. “Two carpenters would fit a boat with a trestle complete Men and time ‘in about 4 hours, supposing the timber to be ready to hand, of the for fitting a necessary scantling, requiring merely to be cut to the proper bo length, and fitted to the boat. They would require— 20 spikes, 6-inch, and 36 clasp nails, 4-inch. ‘Tho men to have a trench set of carpenters’ tools.”* * A carpenter's trench set consists of the following tools: Adee, carpenter's, 3 Ibs. = 1) tenale faces: zt Angers { sin, - - -1| Line, with chalk 21 Gimlet, fin. - = -1] Rel- - = = 21 Gouge, picking, f-in. handled 1 | Rule, 2 feet, four-fold -1 Hammer, pin, with claw - 1 Saw, hand, 26-inch - - 1 Hatchet, hand - - -1{| Toolbag - - - <1Bridges of rafts of timber. Rarrs.] 108 [part 1. 248. “Raft bridges of timber should not be used in rivers where the velocity of the current exceeds six feet per second, or four miles per hour, as beyond this velocity, the water will be so much impeded thut it will be hardly possible to secure the rafts so firmly, as to resist the shocks of floating bodies borne down by the current, The hest woods to be used are those that are lightest, such as the various descriptions of firs, pines, hazel, poplar, juniper, larch, and willow, avoiding such heavy woods as oak, logwood, teak, &c. The size of the trees muy vary from 26 to 45 feet in length, and from 30 to 72 inches in girth, Rafts formed of trees of a less size than the above, would require too large a number to ensure reasonable buoyancy ; while if of less length they would not pos- sess sufficient stability. If of greater size they could not be readily removed from where they are felled. If the bridge is to remain for some time in the water, the ends of the logs may be tarred to check the absorption of water; but even with this precaution a loss of buoyancy amounting to about one-sixth and sometimes more, will occur, after the rafts have been in the water for some time. They are most conveniently put together in the water, on account of the facility of moving the logs ; but in cases where this may be impossible, ways should be laid at a slope of x on which the rafts may be put together and launched. ‘By any of the following rules the contents of unsquared timber may be calculated, and from the Table at end of this subject, the weight the raft is capable of supporting, can be found ; the trunk or log of timber being considered as the frustram of a pyramid or cone, Ist. Add together the areas of the two ends and their mean proportional, and multiply the sum by one-third of the length. 2nd. Take a mean of their girths at the ends in feet and de- cimals, multiply its square by -07956 (the area of a circle whose circumference is 1), and multiply the product by the length. 8rd. Multiply the square of one-fifth of the mean girth, by twice the length of the trunk. The trees being felled, and prepared for the construction of the rafts, are brought together (as many as have been found necessary for each raft by calculation), with their large and small ends alternately pointing in opposite directions, so-as to equalize the width of the raft throughout, The upper end of the raft (or both ends in a tidal river) may advantageously be made convex, so as to offer less resistance to the water. The trees are then secured together by baulks, }, spiked, trenailed, or lashed to each log (Fig. 234), and saddles, c, parallel to the trees are laid on them to support the road-bearers. If the logs forming each raft be long, they may require further to be secured together by cross pieces, d, at the ends, and diagonals, e. The rafts are kept at proper intervals by means of the road-bearers or by transoms at their ends, and cables passing from bank to bank. Each raft is secured by anchors and cables similarly to a pontoon raft. The flooring of the roadway may consist of planks or of any other available material, such as fascines, hurdles, &c. ABe face page 108 Plate XL. TIMBER RAFT. VincentBrode: Day&San, Lith.Digitized by GoogleSECTION 15.] 109 (Fuy1so Baroess. raft 40 feet long, and consisting of eight trees, may be put together in the water by 12 men in two hours. When additional buoyancy is required it may be secured by having two or more tiers of logs; at right angles to one another, fastoned by stakes passing through holes bored in the outer logs of the upper tier, and secured in corresponding holes in the ends of the lower logs, by means of fox wedges. It may sometimes be convenient to lay the logs in the two tiers, in the same direction, resting on, and secured to cross pieces.” 249, “A flying bridge is one, in which the action of the current is made to move the vessel acrozs the atream, by acting obliquely against itsside, the vessel being secured by along cable to a buoy, or to an anchorage on the banks, The side of the boat should be kept at an angle of about 55° with the current. The length of the'cable should be about 1} times the breadth of the river, and if the cable be long, it must be supported on intermediate buoys, or better still, on masts placed in the bows of boats, so as to prevent the cable dragging in the water. The flying bridge may be a raft or boat. Long narrow boats are most suitable. In very rapid current, the cable may be anchored to the opposite bank, thus obviating the necessity of the boat moving up stream in its passage across. In this case, a second cable must be provided for the return journey, anchored on the near bank of the river, and four landing places will be required. If the river be too wide for a simple flying bridge, the passage may be effected hy meats of one cable to a boat or buoy moored in the centre, and by a second cable from the boat to the opposite bank. The end of the cable not in use, should be left on the boat or buoy from which the second cable has been taken. Another mode is to strain a cable across the river, and to fasten the boat to a block running on this cable, the side of the boat being kept at an angle of 55° with the current, which may be done by means of a rope fastened to a second block running on theeable. Flying bridges used in the face of an enemy should have musketry proof parapets formed on their exposed sides.” 250. “In bridging operations on a large scale, it is often necessary to improvise temporary anchors to moor the rafts, boats, &. ‘An anchor may be made, as in Fig. 236, of two picks lashed together in two places, and two other pick-heads fitted over their ends, which are prevented from slipping off by two slight lashings. It is difficult to select picks that will fit firmly together for this anchor. Another anchor consists of one pick, the handle of which is rounded just below the head, and another pick-head driven on the handle at right angles to the first, and wedged there by driving in two spike nails. The holding power of this anchor is much increased by lashing two 24-lbs. shot in sand-bags to the head (Fig. 237). Any of the above anchors could be made by a couple of men in 15 minutes, 26934, ; I Flying bridges . ‘Temporat anchors.‘Taestie Bamezs.] 110 [part 1. The following table gives a useful comparison of the forces required to drag the above anchors in a soft bottom :— 30-Ibs. pontoon anchor - - - 75 lbs. Anchor of four picks - - - 70, ” two.» c - 56 y picks, weighted - - 100 , Another “anchor (tig. 288) that has been much used. om rocky bottoms, consists of a cross formed of two pieces of wood 5 inches by 3 inches, and 3 feet long, halved into each other, with the ends pointed. ‘Into each arm, 8 inches from the point, ‘a stake 6 feet long and 2 inches in diameter is wedged. In the framework thus formed, heavy stones or shot are placed, suffi- ciently large not to slip out of the frame, and the four stakes secured together at the top by two lashings. ‘A pair of wheels, lashed with their felloes together, and the space between the spokes filled with stones, makes a good holding anchor ; or a stone witha ring for the cable is convenient. The cable should not be lashed round the stone, as the edges are likely to fray the rope and cut it through in time. A barrow loaded with stones, wooden cases, gabions, or nets filled with stones, may also be resorted to.” Trestle Bridges, $c. Trestle bridges. 25], “Trestles are very useful in establishing communications twol trestles. sed, across shallow rivers having eound and hard beds, and which are not subject to sudden floods, They can be readily constructed with any kind of timber, and are easily placed in shallow water, but are not suitable for deep muddy rivers. The length of the legs of the trestles of course depends on the depth of the water. The inclination of the legs of a four-legged trestle should be such that the breadth of the base on which the trestle stands, should not be less than half the height; the legs should also incline out- wards from top to bottom at a slope of ¢. Trestles for heavy bridges may be given additional support by means of two piles, driven after the trestle is in position, om either side of the transom, and bolted to it. Before proceeding with the construction of a trestle bridge, section of the river must be taken, and soundings where each leg of each trestle is to stand, so that they may be made as nearly as possible of the correct length.” 252. “A two-legged trestle (Fig. 239) may be used in streams 6 feet deep, and running with a velocity of 5 feet per second’; or in deeper streams if the velocity of the current be less. They are suitable for any kind of hard bottom. , The following materials are required :— 2 transoms, from 10 to 14 feet long, and 53 to 7 in. diameter. * 2 Jegs 4 4 feet longer than the trestle is high ; scantling 44 to 2 diagonals 34 to 44 inches in diameter. 2 stakes about 2 feet long and 3 in. thick, to support transoms,TRESTLES. Tro Legged Trestle Scale Steet tolinch for figs 241 b& 242 weetogres, Google» Google <PlateXLIL TRESTLES.+ SECTION 15.] 111 [Taestiz Barossa. 6 lashings of 1}-inch rope, 5 fathoms long. 38 » lo. » oo» 6 spikes, 6 inch or 7 inch, 2 iron dogs.- Timber of the proper seantling being obtained and cut, the ieces are Jaid on the ground and lashed as shown in the figure. ‘our men should make this trestle in one hour.” 258. “A four-legged trestle of the form shown in Fig. 240 Bridge of can be used in still water where a greater length of leg than four leased 12 fect is not required, or in running streams where’ the water is “tes not more than 3 feet deep, or the velocity greater than 3 feet per second. It can oily be used on an even bottom. “The following materials are required :— 1 transom, from 10 feet to 14 fect long; scantling 7 to 8 inches. 4 legs, scantling 3} to 4 inches. 4 diagonals, scantling from 8 to 33 inches. 2 ledgers, » » 2k to ” 6 lashings, 1}-inch rope, 5 fathoms long. 10.» ” 2 spike nails, 8-inch. 4 iron dogs. Timber of the requisite size being obtained, each end triangle is formed separately on the ground. ‘They are then raised, and held up at the proper distance apart, and the diagonals lashed on, and lastly, the transom is placed in the forks, Six’men should make this trestle in a little over one hour. Another four-legged trestle shown in Figs. 241 and 242, put together with nails, is more useful for bridges intended to stand for some time, as rope lashings soon rot under water. The timber being provided of the proper scantling, two men (car- penters) should put the trestle together in six hours. Instead of the lashings they will require 2 hammers, 2. hand- saws, and 70 rose-headed nails (4-inch) per trestle.” 254, “Tripod trestles of the form shown in: Fig. 243 are Bridge of particularly useful for military bridges ; they miay-be used in ‘ipod trestles, water up to 6 feet deep, with a velocity of 5 feet per second and in streams’ with muddy’ beds. Their great advantage is, that the level of the roadway can be re-adjusted if'the water rises or one tripod sinks into the mud more than the other. These trestles can be made with wood of smaller scantling and shorter lengths than those previously described. The legs of each tripod should be so adjusted, that their point of crossing may be exactly over the centre of gravity of the triangle which forms the base of the tripods. The transoms may be supported on the tops, if necessary, In ‘soft mud, feet may be put to the legs of the tripods, or pieces of board be placed under the ledgers. “The following materials are required :— 1 transom, 14 feet long, from 7 to 8 inches in diameter. 6 legs, from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. 4 cross-bearers, 4 to 6 feet long and 3 to 34 in. diameter. 12 ” ”+ Getting trestles into position. ‘Trestie Brees.) 112 [part 1 4 stakes, about 2 fect long, 2 inches in diameter. 6 ledgers, 6 feet long, from 1: inches diameter. 42 lashings, 14-inch rope, 5 ho oms long. 6 » » oo» In streams with rocky or irene bede, simple tripod trestles without ledgers may be used.” 255. “The first trestle is placed at the intended distance from the bank and perpendicular to the line of the bridge. In most cases this will be on the foreshore where men can get down to place its feet. If it has to be placed in deep water, it may be done in the same way as described for the succeeding trestle. The road- bearers and planks are then laid, and the roadway completed to the first trestle. The shore ends of the baulks must rest on a transom laid on the bank as described in par. 245. The roadway will be constructed in separate lengths from one trestle to the next, a bay of 12 feet being formed in five minutes. If the river be too deep to admit of the second trestle being placed by hand, arid boats or rafts are not available, two or more baulks AB (Fig. 244) are laid on the head of the first trestle, with their ends resting on the bed of the river, at the place where the second trestle is to stand. It will be necessary to weight the ends of the baulks by means of shot, or sand-bags filled with stones, lashed to their ends to prevent them floating. The trestle is now carried on to the bridge feet foremost, and the bights of two ropes passed round the lower legs, below the ledgers, and the trestle is lowered down the inclined ways to its proper position. The head is then shoved outwards by two boat-hooks, &c., two men to each, until it is upright. If it is found to rock or not to be level in its new position, it must be hauled out, and the length of its legs adjusted to correspond better with the depth of the river. Such a trestle can be carried out, and fixed in position, by two men in a quarter of an hour. Another mode consists in’ supporting the trestle on a pair of beams, resting on a roller (Fig. 245), by means of which it is pushed forward and lowered into its place. ‘A trestle may be conveniently placed from boats or small rafts, being slung between two, and lowered when brought over the required position. If the current be strong, a cable should be stretched across the river, on either side of the bridge in the plane of its floor, and the trestles (as soon as in position) lashed to these cables. In a strong current it becomes difficult to retain the trestles in their proper position, before the weight of the roadway is put on them. To obviate this, they should be loaded at the bottom when lowered down the ways, as this not only immediately establishes them, but afterwards gives great stability to the bridge. Hurdles lashed underneath the ledgers form a tray into which shingle, mud, &c. can be thrown to weight the trestles.”MILITARY PLAN. PlateXLil. BEACON HILL, ALDERSHOT. Seale ‘0860 loface page U3 ZX vy oe tee The “detail “or “oceupation”» Google <ALDERSHOT. 1 70560 BEACON HILL, Seale Th face page 113 MILITARY PLAN. Plate XLIV. *Yucent Brooks Day & Son, The complete sketchSECTION 16.] 113 (Micrmazy Sxztcarxc. PART II. MILITARY SKETCHING. Szction 16—MILITARY PLANS. 256. Every officer should be able to read (that is, to under- Plans, stand) a military plan when set before him, and also to make a military sketch of a road or river, and to represent on paper the features of any portion of ground that he may have to occupy with ‘troops. ‘A plan is the representation on paper, on a reduced scale (by means of conventional signs and processes), of any portion of the earth’s surface. ‘The simplest form of a plan is that of mere outline, showing the divisions of the ground, the “occupation” or “ detail,” as it is termed, such as rivers, roads, hedges, woods, marshes, and buildings, as in Plate XLII. The complete form shows, in addition to the “detail,” the features of the ground, or its undulations, as in Plate KLIV. Every military sketch or plan should have a scale and a north point marked on it. * ‘The sketch of a military position should. always be accompanied by one or more sections, and will be much improved by a landscape view of the most important portion of it. 267. In making a plan or sketch, the object of the officer must Determining be to render it as complete, both as to details and features, and as position of accurate, as the time and means at his disposal permit, ‘The prin- Pots ciples on which accuracy depends will be best understood by con- sidering: those which guide a surveyor in making » survey. A surveyor has to determine the relative positions of all the points to be shown in the intended map, or plan, with such accuracy that no error shall result from his methods of procedure which will be per- ceptible on the scale to which his work is to be drawn or “ plotted.” The easiest mode of fixing the relative positions of a number of By straight points is to measure lines through and among them, noting the lines. distance from the starting point of each measured line at which it meets any point to be represented, or at which it passes so near to any such point that its position can be determined without sensible error by measuring the distance between the point and the measured line ; that distance being the length of the perpendicular from the point to the line. Such perpendicular is called “ an offset.” Thus, in Fig. 246, the measured line A B, would give the positions of the angles of three buildings, the fence 2 or, and the junctions of other fences at no and 7, by the several offsets marked f, and the intersections s.By triangles. Miurrazy Sxeromye.] 114 [par um. Fig. 246. iy ” I 258. If all the required points can be obtained by the measure- ment of three lines forming a triangle, the three measured lines can be plotted in their proper relative positions, and therefore the points also that were determined by the measurement of each line. Or lines can be measured to obtain other points within that triangle, by beginning and ending such lines at known points in the pre- viously measured lines. Or another triangle can be measured, having one side in common with that first completed. The lines should be so chosen as to obtain the positions of all the points required to be shown on the map with the smallest amount of measurement,-and so as to-secure accuracy in plotting, All mechanical operations are liable to errors ; some large, due to ac- cidental mistakes, momentary carelessness, or forgetfulness ; others comparatively small, due to imperfections in the means employed.’ Errors of the first kind are prevented from affecting “a chain” or “ measured” survey by measuring more lines than would be neces- sary, if certainly free from error, to lay down the work ; and errors of the second kind, by so choosing the lines to be measured that the small and unavoidable errors will not be exaggerated in construct- ing the plot. Thus, in Fig. 246, if A BC D embraced the area to be surveyed, and all the points required to be shown could be fixed by measuring the four sides and the diagonal DB, no sur- veyor would be satisfied with those five lines only; for very large errors might pass undiscovered, as a figure could be constructed with erroneous measurements, closely resembling to the eye the true figure. . Now, the measurement of the diagonal AC asSECTION 16.] 115 [Tatancutatiow. “a check line,” or of Ak and Cm as two “ check lines,” would prevent an important error from passing tindetected- when- the construction of the plan was attempted. Again, with reference to’ small unavoidable errors, if the measurement of D C be supposed in excess of the truth, the effect of that error on the position of g; or the distance of g from the true point C, will be greater than the error in the measurement ; but a similar error in the measure- ment of AD ot AB would not produce an exaggerated error in the position of the point determined by them. The more nearly the angle contained by the two distances used approaches to a right angle, the less the effect of a small error in their. measurement ; the more this angle differs from right angle, or the more oblique the intersection of the arcs described with the distances containing it, the greater the effect of an error. 259. If the area to be surveyed be small, a few carefully measured lines may be sufficient to complete the survey, but, as already mentioned, all such measurements are liable to error. The most careful measurement that can be made with the common surveying chain must be considered liable to an error of sal;gth of the distance measured, and an ordinary measurement with it across fields, &e., to an error of s}gth. Now, whether such an error in the field work will be perceptible in the plan, must depend on the extent of the measurement, and on the scale of the plan. If the latter be six inches to a mile, one inch representing 880 feet, an error of 10 feet would be perceptible, and such an error might attend the ordinary measurement of a distance of 5,000 feet; if the scale were 20 inches to a mile, an inch representing 264 feet, a perceptible error might attend a measurement of a quarter of a mile. A survey intended to be plotted on the smaller of these two scales could not be properly completed by measurements alone if its area amounted to a square mile; nor on the larger scale, if the area exceeded yth of a square mile, or about 40 acres. 260. For more extensive surveys points within such distances By triangula~ of each other that ordinary measurements can be depended upon tion. for completing the work within them, are fixed by angular measurements and calculation, or by a “ triangulation ” dependent on a very carefully measured base line. Suppose an area of a few square miles in extent to be nearly comprised within the pentagon shown in Fig. 247 of which the several'points A, B, C, D, E, O, are either conspicuous existing objects or marks erected for the purpose of the Survey ; the intervals between the adjacent points being ‘suited to the seale of the intended map or plan, as from # of a mile, to a mile and a half for a survey to be plotted on a scale of six inches to a mile. Suppose the line A O to pass generally over a smooth and level surface well adapted for accurate measurement; and that the points required to be seen from A and O respectively can be seen from them, then this line. being carefally measured three or four times to prevent any large error, and to diminish the small unavoidable errors by obtaining a mean of several care- ful measurements, and all sloping portions of the measurement,‘TRiaNguLation.] 116 [part having been reduced to the horizontal distance which should represent them in a plan,* becomes “the base” from which the other distances in the figure can be determined. The angles between the different points that can be seen from each point are observed,f and those angles and the measured base are data from which the distances required for the construction of an accurate diagram of the points can be obtained. Thus the distances OE and AE in the triangle O A E, and the distances OB and AB in the triangle O AB, are obtained at once from the measured base. ‘Two values of the distance BE can then be obtained from the triangles BOE and BAE; and then two values of BC, one from the triangle B CE, the other from the triangle B OC, &c. Fig. 247. A Tolay those points down on paper with accuracy, the long lines CE,CB, and BE, should be first used, CE being the first, because the angle B is the angle of that triangle which is nearest to a * The student is supposed to understand that in every plan, the distances shown are horizontal distances. + Angles are observed by means of instruments, namely, theodolite, pocket sextant, or prismatic compass. ‘These instruments and the mode of using them are not described, as their use is best acquired practically. ~SECTION 16.] 117 [Traversina. right angle, and for the reasons-above given errors in the distances will have least effect in fixing B. After the first three points have been fixed, each point should be determined by at least three good distances, "Thus, in the example, O would be the next point xed by B O, CO, and E O, and then A and D. 261. Within the points thus fixed the detail survey can be carried on either by the measurement of straight lines, as already described (the detail within each triangle being taken up sepa- rately, and the enclosing lines of the triangle being first measured to enable the positions of other measured Jines to be fixed) or by “traverses” Additional points also within the triangulation may be very accurately fixed by protracted angles, when three or more observations of each point from fixed points, or of several fixed points from each have been obtained, and the lines fixing them are on the plan only 4 or 5 inches in length, beyond which a line protracted by an angle cannot be relied upon. 262. “Traverses ” are not as trustworthy as straight line Traverses. measurements for the detail; but they are very useful in reconnaissances and field sketches, and must be understood by officers who wish to acquire skill in field sketching. In a carefully conducted survey every traverse should begin from a fixed point and end on another fixed point, and the whole extent of the traverse should not much exceed the distance to which that between the trigonometrical points is limited. Thus, the first traverse should be between two trigonometrical points ; the next, either between two other such points, or between a point in the first traverse and a trigonometrical point. With this understanding the method of procedure is as follows :— In Figure 248, A represents the starting point, and the line A Z, the zero line to which all the angular measurements are referred, called “the meridian” of the traverse; this may be the line between A and one of the most conspicuous of the trigonometrical points ; but when a compass is used for the angular measurements, as must generally be the case in field sketching, it corresponds with the magnetic meridian. The surveyor, considering that by measuring the line A 6, he will obtain some of the required details, observes the. angle Z A b, by which he will be enabled to protract the line upon his plan, and measures along A 5, noting and fixing the required points of detail by offsets, as long as it is expedient to follow that direction. When it becomes advantageous to change the direction of the measurement, he takes the bearing if using a compass of the next line he wishes to follow, as 4, ¢, or if not using © compass, by making his instrument for angular measurement read on the line 6 A, what it previously read when at A,on Ab. The zero line of the instrument is then parallel to its former position, and the angle a 5 c, or its supplement c 6 2, is the measure of the angle made by b c, with A Z. This operation is repeated as often as it becomes desirable to change the direction of the measurement until the traverse is closed on‘Travensma.] 118 [parr 1m. 4 trigonometrical or other point socurately determined. As the traverse is proceeded with, points ‘within. suitable distances for determination by-protracted angles may be fixed: by observing thom fromseveral pointe, as in Fig. 248, There is fized by angles from A, 4, and c.. ‘The protraction of the traverse. will ‘also be facilitated, errors in it detected, and their effects sometimes rendered animportant if one or two of the trigonometrical points be observed. whenever they may be visible from the stations in the traverse. Fig. 248.SECTION 17.] 119 . [Cowrovrs. The above work can either bé. laid down on the sketch sheet at the time, or the several observations may be noted in a,“ field book,” and afterwards “plotted” on to the sketch sheet. The field book has two parallel lines ruled down the centre of each Page at an interval of about an inch. . In the space between the parallel lines, commencing at the bottom of the page, is entered the bearing of the direction of the first méasurement forward ; then one after another the distances from the starting point to each object on or near the line of direction, the position of which it is wished to record. The distances from the line of direction to these objects (the “ offsets”) are marked on the right or left margin, of the field book according to their position, and any angles. taken to distant objects are similarly noted in the margins. When the direction of the measurement is changed, a new station is marked in the book thus— © 1, © 2, and s0 on; the bearing of the forward direction is then recorded, as well as the various measarements and angles as before. Szction 17.—CONTOURS. 263, A survey is not complete unless the form of the ground is Contours. shown as well as its “occupation,” and this in accurate surveys is now described with great precision by the use of lines of equal level at regular vertical intervals. ‘These lines are called “ contours,” and may be considered as representing the successive shore lines, if the ground were successively submerged to the level of each of them. In every contoured drawing it is possible to trace any contour round one or more hills until it returns to the point from which it started ; it can however lose itself for a time, either in the margin, or in rocks, artificial cuttings, etc., etc. It is impossible that two or more contours can all run into the same contour, except when the ground is vertical. The contour lines used as the basis of the work should be indicated by colored, or when that may be impracticable, by chain dotted lines, and they should be marked by numbers, represénting their relative altitudes above a datum assumed according to the character of the surrounding country, at 100, 500, or 1,000 feet below the lowest point of the ground sketched. ‘The reason for this is that no minus contours can thus occur, otherwise. plus and minus might have to be represented, according as the position of the observer is above or below the datum. The vertical intervals between the contours should be notified in the margin of the plan, and also the distance of the assumed datum below the lowest point of the ground represented. Half contours (that is, contours at half intervals) will often be found useful for the tops of hills, or for sudden changes in irregular ground, or when the slopes are 2°, 3°, or sometimes even 5°. ‘They should be shown in dotted lines, both in pencil or ink, to distinguish them from the whole contours.Conrours.] . 120 [part 11. 264, On the ground these contours can be correctly and most easily obtained by adding them with the use of a level, to tracings taken from the plotted plan, and carried into the field. In some cases, however, where large spaces occur without details of occupa- tion, it may be necessary to mark the contours on the ground with pickets, and to fix the positions of the pickets by traverse or other measurements. When from want of time, or from any other enuse the contour lines cannot be measured with instruments, they must be sketched by the eye after careful estimation. 265. As in field sketching only a part of the ground can generally be passed over, and that part only once, the several operations required must be carried on together, therefore the paced measurements (whether following long straight lines, or made by traverses fixed by compass bearings) must be made simul- taneously with observations to fix by numerous intersections such points as may serve the purpose of trigonometrical points, and with such notice of the direction of the contours, and of the nature of the slopes as may enable the ground to be fairly represented by some scale of shade. The sketcher, like the surveyor, must choose those lines for measurement by walking or riding over them, which will give him most of the information he requires, and for the purpose of fixing points and obtaining a wider view of the “occupation” of the country, he should prefer the elevated ground, or should take advantage of elevated points as often as possible. Much of the details of occupation he can obtain with tolerable accuracy by observing their appearance from different points, and frequently judging their distance; but he can only sketch the direction of the contours and the nature of the slopes correctly in those parts that he passes over, and he should distinguish in his sketches the ground thus known, from that sketched in by his judgment from its appearance at a distance. 266. As paced measurements are liable to considerable error, and the reading of the compass is subject to uncertainty from unsteadiness due to wind and other causes, and is sometimes affected by the proximity of iron, the accumulated errors would soon become perceptible in a sketch on a very small scale; but in military sketches it is generally more important to show the existence of much of the detail of the occupation of the ground which could not be shown at all on a small scale, than to have accuracy in the long distances, and therefore such sketches are always made on a scale quite inconsistent with their limits of accuracy. When a sketcher is quite eelf-dependent his work must be considered good if the distances taken from it do not differ by more than zyth of their length from the truth. But much can generally be done to assist the sketcher in the field. Maps exist of all the civilized countries in which war can be carried on, and distances between certain points can be taken from those maps, and the points be marked on the sketch sheets. In those countries of which national maps on a scale of about an inch to # mile, like our ordnance maps, have been published,SECTION 18.] 121 {Paornacror. the churches, main roads, and streams could be marked upon the sketch sheets, and the details required of the occupation and form of the ground could then be added on the larger scale with much accuracy. In countries of which no good maps exist, it would be desirable to omploy one offiter at least in fixing points for the assistance of sketchers. Section 18.--THE PROTRACTOR. 267, The instruments usually carried by a field-sketcher are Protractor. a prismatic compass, an ivory scale, having a scale of equal parts on one edge, and angular divisions to enable it to be used as a protractor on the other three edges, and some kind of pocket level.* But after some practice an officer with a correct eye will rarely find it necessary to use either the compass or the level, and good sketches of such extent as a square mile in an open country, can be made by an expert sketcher using only a scale of equal parts and a walking stick. ‘The prismatic compass is the most simple and portable instru- ment that an officer can use in the field, both for taking the bearings of objects, and thus fixing their position, and for finding his own position on the ground. ‘The bearing of an object taken from two or more known points fixes its position, while the position of the surveyor can be ascer- tained by what is called “interpolation,” that is by observing the - bearing of any two or more points, and laying down the back bearing from those points, the point of intersection gives the position of the observer. If, therefore, a sketcher is furnished with a number of points whose position is laid down on his sketch sheet, he can at any moment find his own position on the ground, by which the labour of “ filling in” the details of a sketch is greatly facilitated. The ivory scales used as protractors are marked in different ways to suit the methods adopted by different sketchers. Some are marked across with lines from 4th to a quarter of an inch apart to enable the zero line of the scale to be brought into position by one of the lines being made to agree with one of a number of east and west lines drawn on the sketch sheet. Others are marked to suit those who draw a number of lines parallel to the magnetic meridian on their sketch sheets, and who use the protractor by bringing its edges into contact with the point on the sketch sheet, through which the bearing is to pass, at the same time that the centre of the protracting scale and the graduation marking the bearing to be set off agree with one of the parallels to the meridian, Each officer should adopt the method which appears to him the easiest, adhere to it, and become expert in using it. The-only point, perhaps, of importance is that his compass and protracting scale should be similarly marked, and as a preference is generally given to compass cards which are marked continuously to 360° it is, perhaps, the more desirable arrangement for both. * See Article 268, Aldershot Protractor.Aldershot Protractor. -Aupersior Prorractor.] 122 . [parr 268, A protractor has lately been devised at Aldershot of which the following is a description :-— Description of the Aldershot Protractor. é One side is bevelled to allow of its being used as a protractor ; the exterior edge reads from 0 degrees to 180 degrees east, the interior from 180 degrees to 360 degrees west. The scale shown on the bevelled edge i8 one of six inches to a mile, giving tens and hundreds of yards ; the centre scale is one of inches. ‘A small hole is pierced in the 850 yards division (the centre) to receive the thread with plumb bob attached, when the protractor is to be used as a clinometer. Parallel lines are drawn across the face for plotting angles. ‘The reverse side of the protractor is fiat, and covered with varnish to allow of its being washed when soiled. In the column on the left is the “scale of shade ” allotted to each of the slopes named, with the approximate gradient attached, On the right is the column of horizontal equivalents, two for each angle except the last (two degrees), for which there is no room, the: upper ones being shaded in, according to the “scale of ‘Two horizontal equivalents are given for each angle to facilitate the insertion of contours when the slope for such distance continues uniform. The centre column gives the length in yards (either upon the ground or paper) for each horizontal equivalent to which it is attached upon a scale of 12 inches to a mile. This scale has been chosen as a suitable one for all elementary instruction in hill sketching, as it allows of the contours being 12°5 feet apart, thus, if the slope be six degrees, a measurement of 40 yards will give the distance between each contour. The small size of the horizontal equivalents in the steeper slopes renders necessary the left column which gives the amount of shade. In practice the contours: would first be numbered along any watershed or watercourse line, then the horizontal equivalent applied and the number of bachures required ticked off along the line. The protractor is then reversed, and laid in front of the draughtsman, so that his eye may rest upon the “scale of shade,” thus enabling him to judge of the thickness of the hachures requited for the slope of the ground upon which he is working. In using the protractor as clinometer, it is important that the plumb bob should swing upon the smooth, and not upon the bevelled side. The string: should hang about six inches long, and be so secured on the bevelled side as to admit of removal if not required for immediate use. In levelling or taking a vertical angle, place the thumb of the right hand on the line for 35 degrees on the bevelled edge, with the first joint of the forefinger upon the 35 degrees of the “scale of shade,” then look along the upper or “6-inch scale” edge ofSECTION 19.] 123 (Hacuunzs. the protractor in the required direction. The left hand first steadies the plumb bob, and then pinches with the forefinger and thumb the line against the protractor, so that it may be turned down and read off. The distance from 90 degrees will give the slope required. In taking a horizontal angle two observers are required. Place the bevelled side uppermost, the first joint of the forefinger of the right hand upon the line for 160 degrees, the thumb under- neath covering the “120 yards.” Then line the bevelled or “6-inch stale” edge upon the left-hand object, The second observer takes the plumb bob,- and directs it upon the right-hand object, the string passing as before along the under or smooth side of the protractor. As soon as the line is obtained, lower the protractor and read the angle, ‘The Aldershot protractor is used for plotting angles on paper in the same way as the ordinary ivory protractor, and is suituble to both the methods described. Section 19.—HILL SHADING, 269. For engineering purposes carefully contoured surveys are Hachures, sufficient, but a military sketch requires the addition of hill shading to assist the eye in reading the plan. This shading is effected in various ways in different countries, In Russia the effect is produced by thickening the contour lines at the steep portions of the ground. In Spain the contour lines are drawn of a uniform fineness, but approach very near to each other (almost touching) in steep ground. In Prussia vertical “hachures” (French for strokes) are introduced between the contours ; while in England horizontal “ hachures” are used. These hachures are drawn upon the plan between and over the contours, and according to fixed rules as regards direction, and according to a “scale of shade ” as regards their thickness and distance apart. 2°70. Some practice is requisite to accustom the hand and eye to the drawing of these lines, and the following practical instructions in this and other processes of military drawing are from the pen: of Captain Hutchinson, R.A., an officer of much experience in teaching this subject. : The pressure of the pen or pencil upon the paper must be a constant one, thus making the lines of uniform thickness. The hachures are drawn in sets of various lengths, thus &, « 5, a % It is important to remember that the axis of each set shows the direction the water would take on its way down to the watercourse. and the dotted line a 6, cutting each hachyre in succession at right angles, is called the axis. Ne a"Framework of watershed, watercourse, and guiding lines. ~ Feature.” ‘Watershed. Watercourse. Guiding lines. Hacuvars.] 12 [earT 11. "The second hachure is always placed under the first, not over, in order that the draughtsman may plainly see his previous line. ‘The sets may be of any size or shape, so long as they are not always of the same length or breadth thus, B= Any uniformity must be avoided. To join one set on to another, produce the lines of the first set towards the body, not joining every one, nor yet leaving each hachure separated by equal open spaces, The first case would show a black line down the hill, the second a white one. The contours will invariably give the shape and direction to the hachures. Keep the hand as much as possible in the same direction, turning the paper round to suit the form of the ground. ‘Asa general rule, never begin or end a set of hachures upon any contour, and the axis of each set must always be at right angles to the contour it passes over. The dark hachures represent two or more finer ones joined together, so that lines will have to be interpolated in working from a steep to a more gradual slope ; and, in the opposite case, omitted. 271, Before the hachures can be applied to the contours, some further framework is necessary to guide the draughtsman in his course, and form, as it were, an additional basis to his work. This framework is built up of “watershed,” “watercourse,” and « guiding” lines ; its correctness cannot be too strongly enforced, for if any line be out of place, the hachures will follow the error, and the actual slope of ground be distorted or lost. Select a “feature,” or portion of ground, to commence upon, this will usually lie on the right-hand side of the paper, to avoid the joining of the hachures as much as possible. Determine the main watershed line of the feature. This would be an irregular line running over the top, and down the main slopes, of one or more hills, making an angle of 90° with each contour as it passes over it, The water will descend from this line to the right and left, down to the watercourses. Ascertain the main watercourse lines, ‘These will either be streams or rivers, or else small ravines down which the water would find its way towards a larger river or sea, They must cut every contour they meet at right angles. The main watershed and watercourse lines might be followed by others of lesser importance, and yet these would be by no means sufficient for our purpose. So, from the point of intersec- tion of the contours with watershed and watercourse lines, and from intermediate points, as the judgment may suggest, draw lines in a direction at right angles to each contour in succession ; these are called “Guiding Lines,” and will hecome in every case the axis of the sets of hachures which pass over them.SECTION 19.] 125 [Hacuores. They will generally be a little curved, and must be inserted at every audden change of ground, but will not be required so long as the contours continue nearly parallel. 272, As an example of the foregoing rules, assume that the following figure is the selected feature, containing four contours, the lowest ten feet above the level of the sea. THE SEA Draw AB. The main watershed line through the centre of the curve of each contour and at right angles to them, beginning at A and running down to the sea at B. Main watercourse lines D E and F G in a similar manner. Guiding lines, A H, S W, OP, taking care that the angles at A, S, and O, are 90°, and each contour cut at right angles on their way to the sea, Likewise A J, S T, and O RB upon the other side 26334, xSaddle. Scaue-or Suave.) 126 [part mu. of AB. A Tis not continued till it meets the watercourse above E, as in applying the scale of shade the portion below the lowest contour, might be made use of as a whole contour of 10 feet, which it would not be, Insert other guiding lines C K, L M, making right angles with the contours as before. Commence hachuring at F, and complete the Fig. FC K ; then AKCGH,HASW, WSOP,POB. This will finish up to the main watershed line A B, then turn the paper round and be- ginning about Z, work down hill until the Fig. R O B is completed, then pass on to TS O R, and so on. The space between any two guiding lines is to be fully covered with hachures before proceeding to the next. Tho saddle between any two hills is to have a similar framework ap- plied to it, thus in the adjoining fig. draw AB the watershed line, and CHand DH guiding, lines, then _, if the above rules are followed the four lines enclosing the saddle will become axes of sets of hachures leaving the centre at K unoccupied. Section 20.—SCALE OF SHADE. 273, The Scale of Shade by Colonel Scott, R.E., is used as a guide in determining the thickness and distance apart of each hachure for different angles or slopes, and by its help such uniformity is attained, that when two or more draughtsmen are employed in sketching different portions of a tract of country, on . their return, the shading of the hills, as well as the details, will dovetail together, and thus form a complete map. The increased range of projectiles and therefore the greater extent of country to be occupied and sketched, necessitates of course, a greater number of military draughtsmen being employed simultaneously, who will be enabled to work together upon some uniform system. This result can only be arrived at by the use of a fixed scale of shade. It is engraved, for convenience, on the back of a protractor, and is graduated for 35°, 25°, 20°, 15°, 10°, 7°, 5°, 3°, 2°; above 35 the lines must increase in thickness according to the draughtsman’s skill, their number being constant. The scale of shade is available for drawing upon any scale ; although it is not advisable to make use of it for scales below 3 inches to mile. The vertical height at which the contours must be shown, varies with the scale of the drawing, thus— at 8 inches to a mile, contours will be 50 feet apart. 6 ” ” 25 ob 12 » ., 124» In every case half contours can be used if required.‘To face page 126 Plate XLV. SCALE OF SHADE Shades hor Seale A G2 toamile. rb th erly sty aan qbuy AY PIOUS PADS, it 35° Bom 35¢% 45th lines may increase in thickness accring ‘othe doataghomars si) thr nuanber bein constant Wincow Pros Daya Son athDigtized by GoogleSECTION 20.] 127 [Scans oF Suapz, 274, The following memorandum on the use of the scale of shade has been issued by the Council of Military Education :— Memorandum on Topography for the Military Colleges. Tux following Scale of Shade and Instructions for representing ground in Military Plan Drawing have been approved of by His Royal Highness the Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, and have been introduced at the Staff College, the Royal Military College, and the Royal Military Academy. Scare (Piate XLV.) TasLE sHOWING THE NuMBER oF SrRoKEs PER INCH, AND THE Tmicknyss or THE STROKES EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUC- TIoN OF THE Scate or SHADE. ; 1se 28 rhs» 10° 24 rh» 18 ahs » 3 14 sto» 2 10 abo» From 85° to 45° the lines may increase in thickness according to the draughtsman’s skill. Instructions. 1. The shading produced by pen or pencil strokes, drawn in accordance with the above scale, is to be based on contours traced at equal vertical intervals of 25 feet, or a convenient multiple thereof. All slopes exceeding 45° are to be shown as broken ground, The interval between 45° and 35° (the latter being the highest grade provided for in Colonel Scott’s scale) is to be filled with hachures of increased thickness. 2. The pen or pencil strokes are to be drawn on the horizontal system. : "5. The shading so produced is to be proportioned to the slopes without reference to their altitudes above the sea ; beet = ofApplication. Tnterpolating. “Models. Scare or Smaps] 128 [pager i the effects, which would be caused by side illumination, are to be employed. 4. The contour lines used as the basis of the work are to be indicated by coloured, or, when that may be impracticable, by dotted lines, and they are to be marked by numbers representing their relative altitudes above a datum assumed, according to the character of the surrounding country, at 100, 500, or 1,000 feet below the lowest point of the ground sketched. 5, The vertical intervals between the contours are to be notified in the margin of the plan, and also the distance of the assumed datum below the lowest point of the ground represented. 6. All the more important features are to be marked with bold figures in coloured ink, representing their order of position in Ititude ; the highest being marked 1. 7. When, owing to some peculiarity in the formation of the ground, the direction of the fall is not clearly apparent, arrow- headed lines are to be introduced pointing down the slope. 8. A scale of miles is to be drawn on every plan. This scale is to be subdivided into portions representing some convenient multiple of the English Yard. : 2175. To apply the scale of shade to a drawing the framework of which is already completed,— Lay the edge of the protractor along the first guiding, watershed, or watercourse, line, and make use of the angle whose horizontal equivalent approximates nearest to the breadth of the contour on the paper; then dot off with a pencil, the number of hachures within that contour, and so on, till the feature is completed by ticking off the whole of its framework, The scale of shade is laid in front of the draughtsman from which to copy the thickness of the hachures for the different angles. It will be noticed that only two very dark hachures are used to represent 35°, while 2° has no less than 11, and they the finest that can be drawn. It will therefore be necessary either to inter- polate or reduce at a change of slope, but no joining visible to the eye should result from this process. 276, As soon as the student has acquired a free use of his pen and is familiar with the scale of shade, a small model of actual ground will be placed before him to copy. Commence with the one-inch pencil squares, then the contours in pencil, after which the watershed, watercourse, and guiding lines ; tick them off according to the scale of shade, and then begin to hachure. The eye must be kept constantly upon the model as the tops and bottoms of the hills, and the various changes from one slope to another, are not likely in many cases to fit exactly upon a contour. 277, The “horizontal equivalent ” or table of cotangents giving the horizontal distances in yards in which the required vSECTION 21.] 129 [(Saercmxe wirs Prorractor, interval will occur at every gradient up to 35°, and to which the seale of shade will afterwards be applied, may be explained by the following figure :— From A lay off accurately the degrees used in the scale of shade. Then draw P Q parallel A B at a distance of 25 feet from it, scale 6” to a mile, drop perpendiculars from the points of inter- section 3, ¢, d, &e. to b,c’, d’, thn AB, Ac, A de &e., &e. will be the horizontal equivalents for their respective angles. For any other scale the distance of P Q only has to be altered, the horizontal equivalent remain uniform. The following simple rule results :-— 6 x 25=150 divided by the number of inches to the mile in the scale will give you the vertical distance A P the distance of the contours te Thus at 12” to a mile 189=12°5 » 6" 4, 188-96, and so on, 278. Sometimes the slopes of hills. are represented ty shades Brush of Indian ink laid on with a brush, which although not so accurate Drawings. as the system of hachuring, yet, when time is precious, is very effective. qe is not recommended to be used for scales above 3 inches to amile, The darker slopes should first be colored, washing gradually down to the lighter ones, care being taken that no cut shade ensues. Sgcrion 21.—OUT-DOOR SKETCHING WITH THE PROTRACTOR. 279, It is advisable to give the student the opportunity of practically ascertaining the value of the rules he has already Tearnt, before explaining to him the use of the several surveying instruments. He will determine for himself when upon the ground, the watershed, watercourse, and guiding lines, by running sectionsSxercare wira Prorractor.]. 130 [part nm. slong them, and also contour with the protractor and plumb-bob only, 280. To use the protractor as « clinometer for taking angles of elevation or depression, stand, say on the bench mark A, and let AB be the direction of the watercourse line down the hill, take a point B at the bottom, either a fixed object, or in line with some known point, join AB on the plan, and then taking B at A about the same level as the eye, direct the protractor’s edge upon it, then, if the slope AB be pretty regular all the way down, the angle of elevation or depression will HscONTS. at once give the distance the contours should be apart. For instance, if it be found to be 10° and B to rest upon No.1 contour, then six more points must be ticked off between A standing upon No. 8 contour and B, theirdistance apart being taken from the scale of horizontal equivalents, or measured off according to the yards given for the slope in the centre of the Aldershot protractor. Should the ground be a little steeper in one place, close up slightly the contour points which represent it. If it is found impossible to fix B first, let the observer retire backwards from A till the edge of his protractor coincides with the general slope of the ground, and having ascertained the angle, measure the distances belonging to it from A downwards. 281, Should A B not present a uniform slope, but be broken say, into three parts, then AC. might be paced from A, and the contours inserted from the 7 column of yards as above. The slope CD'then taken, and if too steep to pace, the estimated number of contours could be inserted, their distance apart, being measured from the scale of horizontal equivalents. The work might be left off at C, and recommenced at B, carried on to D, the level of which would decide the number of contours to be inserted down ‘|CONTE E 282, Again, a knoll may stand in the way of the regularity of the sloping hill AD, the angle will be observed of the slope A B, . the distance paced, and then on arriving at B the saddle: which intervenes not being deep enough for another contour, may beSECTION 22.] 131 [Process or SxetounG. to C, which has been found by levelling from B, and advantage taken at the same time to fix the same level at E, and the slope E D taken as before. Section 22.—PROCESS OF MILITARY SKETCHING. 283. The process of military sketching divides itself into two parts dependent upon the couniry to be sketched, namely,— 1st. Countries which have already government maps. 2nd. Uncivilized and unexplored regions. The 1st case will entail the filling in on a larger scale of the features of the ground, details, &c. &c.; the principal objects, as roads, rivers, houses, &c. &c. being copied from the official map. In fact, the process in this case is to turn a small scale civil map into a larger scaled military sketch, The 2nd case will necessitate either a preliminary triangulation ofthe country or the:epnning of meridian lines, either at mile or half-milé.distanges from each other, or else merely the traversing of the passes and watercourses, with a hurried sketch of the adjacent ground on either side. 284. It may be'advisable to give a short account of the method which would be employed in sketching with the compass: and Aldershot protractor any given position; for instance, the ground lying to tho front of Cwsar’s camp and Hungry Hil, near Aldershot. : 7 The sketcher would first place himself on the summit of the highest hill, say Cesar’s camp, from which he could have a good view of the position allotte to him ; then, perhaps, pass on to Hungry Hill, the neighbouriig height, and might even walk along the ridge or watershed dt their feet for some distance, so as to rasp, as it were, with the mind’s eye, the main features of his round, By. this time he; will have selected any conveniently situated plain or level-where.he could place a base line of not less than 300 yards, and from the extréme points of which he would be able to see mést of the ‘prominent objects which he has already selected as points in his.triangulation. Having then paced ‘his base line two or three times arid taken the mean of these. measurements, he plots it down on his paper in such ® position that the-whole or greater part of his.ground will die conveniently either. upon the sheet before him or upon. the production of the end of the paper now doubled underneath. He will take a round of angles from each end of his base to all the selected points, perhaps fixing many of them from a third observation he may have taken, say, as he halted near the centre of his base lina in pacing. Itshould always be remembered that the sketcher should not run over his ground a second time, butProcess or SxstcHINo.] 132 [part m1, work along his lines, taking bearings and measurements as much together as possible. If his base line be at the top of a hill he might number it 10 or 20, or 40 or 50, according to the number of contours he is likely to have below them, if he has no fixed point given him of a known height above the level of the sea. Having fixed several points, lines could now be run along any prominent watershed, working with the protractor, as before described, to insert the contours, halting upon the contours to sketch in'as he goes along, and taking the bearing and plotting at the same time any watercourse or watershed line to the right or left, judging the contours and slopes down such sections unless important enough to pace down with the protractor, Much, of course, will have to be left to the skill of the draughtsman ; but this can only be allowed after a most accurate sketch has been contoured and hachured of some small position on a scale of at least 12" to a mile. 285. The following process might be adopted if meridian lines are to be employed by one or more operators in rapidly sketching a given tract of unknown ground :— First select a line which would run through the greatest length of the given ground, take its magnetic bearing, and at the starting point draw aline at right angles across the whole of the depth of the given ground, making a section along it and numbering the contours as they cross, either from a given data if pomible, if not, from any assumed height. Upon this linc mark off east and west from the starting point distances of, say— Tf the required scale is 3” to a mile, 1 mile. » » wy hy ” ” ers ” ” ” 12! ” ” until the whole of the starting line be occupied by different sketchers. Each one will at once draw two parallel lines up his pper, which will be the margin of his strip, and as he has the bearing given him, he can at once insert his east and west lines. There will be space on either side, which can be used in fixing any useful points on his neighbour's survey. He will then draw a centre line between his two parallel lines, along which he will run a section with the protractor; selecting upon the ground @ conspicuous object in his front upon which to direct his centre Tine by means of his given bearing, that is to say, he will look along his bearing, and select any object upon it which can guide him as he paces along the centre line, He will measure and sketch in the detail, as well as insert the contours, on each side of him, filling in his own strip, and as each operator has a numbered contour given to him to start upon as well as his bearing, at the close of the work the contours on the edge of each strip ought in @ measure to agree with its corresponding neighbour’s as well as the roads, rivers, and other detail.SECTION 22.] 133 [Comstren Sxxrce. The Pocket Aneroid. 286. This instrument, which is now sold provided with a graduated moveable arc to read feet, will be found to be of the atest assistance to the military sketcher ; it will give him levels which would take otherwise much time and trouble to arrive at, and with ordinary care an error of 12 feet in 100 ought not to be exceeded. Although compensated for temperature they are affected by any great change. The best plan is to place the compass (the glass towards the body) a quarter of an hour before it is required in the pocket, and always return it to the same-spot after consultation. If any sudden barometrical change may be supposed to have caused it to rise or fall to any extent, it can always be reset by working back to any known point already observed.Partnuxany.] 134 fear in. PART III. * MILITARY RECONNAISSANCE. Szorron 23. 2877. “Military reconnaissance,” or the examination of ground with a view to conducting military operations, is a subject of great importance in war. Although this duty properly belongs to the Quartermaster-General’s Department, cavalry officers are con- stantly employed in reconnoitring roads and in gaining intelligence of the pach and it is well that officers of infantry also should be able to make intelligent reports on, and sketches of, roads, . rivers, and military positions. Two kinds of | 288, Reconnaissances are of two kinds :— reconnaissance. Ist. Reconnoitring the enemy. 2nd. “Topographical” or “special reconnaissance of ground.” f An enemy may be reconnoitred either secretly, or openly by force. Secret recon- In the first case the reconnaissance is executed by an officer naissance of cither alone or accompanied by a small escort; he endeavours to theenemy. approach the enemy’s position as near as he can, and to ascertain his strength and his intentions. Openly recon- —_In the second case the reconnaissance is conducted by a general noitring the officer, who at the head of a considerable force marches openly os towards the enemy, drives in his outposts, and forces him to dis- cover his position and line of battle. Such reconnaissances are called “armed reconnaissances,” or “ reconnaissances in force.” They often lead to collisions, sometimes even to general actions. « Special 289. “Special reconnaissances of ground” are undertaken by reconnais- staff or other officers for the purpose of obtaining information for the general in command relative to the country in which he is Their object. operating, such information being absolutely necessary for the proper combination of his movements. No operation in war can be safely conducted unless the officer in command is acquainted (either personally or by means of informa~ tion supplied by others) with the country in which he is acting. All the operations of war depend, mainly, upon a knowledge of ground, and as the commander of an army in the field is obviously unable to examine the country minutely for himself, he employs others to do so for him.SECTION :23.] 135 [Preconwany, For example, a commander must often make his movements comformable, or even subordinate, to the nature of the ground and. to the obstacles it presents to the march of histroops. An intimate knowledge of the ground is therefore indispensable to him, and, if not already possessed, it must be acquired by means of a reconnaissance. Or he may wish to know in detail a portion of a river on the banks of which he intends to operate. He orders it to be reconnoitred. - Or he may have to attack an enemy’s position ; a previous knowledge of the strength of that position and the way in which it is ocenpied will obviously enable him to arrange his plan of attack with the best chance of success. A reconnaissance of the position is therefore ordered: Again, he may wish either to seize or to defend the passes over a range of mountains. He must ascertain the number, the nature, and the state of repair of the roads leading to those passes; the distances to them—whether the communication between the passes is easy or difficult, He must ascertain the extent of the range of mountains, their general character and steepness, and whether the defiles are easy or difficult of access. A good reconnaissance will clear up all that is doubtful or unknown upon these points, and will enable the general to make his arrangements without any fear of mistake so far as his knowledge of the ground is concerned, Or, an army may be about to march in a direction in which the nature of the country is not well known. The general in command orders a reconnaissance to be made of the several rosds by which his columns are to move. . Or, an army has to march through an extensive wood or forest. It is necessary to reconnoitre the wood before venturing into it. i In the same way railroads, canals, fortified posts, and districts of country must be reconnoitred and reported upon. 290. The importance of reconnaissances can hardly be over- Importance of estimated, for upon their accuracy the fate of a battle or even of a Teo campaign may depend. So fully aware are the French of this that with them the practice of reconnaissance is not confined to the military colleges and staff, but an opportunity of making recon- naissances, and thus bringing themselves to the notice of their military chiefs, is afforded, at the periodical inspections of regi- ments, to all officers of every branch of the service who choose to avail themselves of it. A French writer observes, “ officers of all arms should be taught « to appreciate position, a road, an obstacle, so as to enable them “ to perform in an efficient manner the duties of outposts, of “ flanking parties, and’ of detachments. A general assisted by “ officers who are in the habit of making reconnaissances may, «« when opposed to a general who is not so assisted, be likened, “ not inaptly, to s long-sighted man opposed to'a blind man,” ceeQualifications for recon- noitring: Ist, sketching. Military know- ledge also ne- cessary. 2. Judging + distances, TorogRarHicat, 136 [parr mm. RECONNAISSANCE. ] : The manner of executing these several “special reconnais- sances ” will be considered first. Section 24.—TOPOGRAPHICAL RECON- NAISSANCES. 291. Every topographical reconnaissance consists of two parts : 1, The sketch of the ground. 2. The’ written report. Both are essential to a clear understanding of the object reconnoitred. A sketch imparts a far better idea of the ground than can be conveyed by any written description, however clear and concise ; while on the other hand a written report may contain a mass of valuable information which could not, by any possibility, be put into 8 sketch. The one is, therefore, the complement of the other; and no reconnaissance can be complete which does not consist of both.* 292. Hence an officer who undertakes to make a reconnaissance should possess the following qualifications : First. He must be able to sketch ground ; for although he is not required to make a regular survey of the whole country that he is ordered to reconnoitre, he must be so far acquainted with military sketching as to be capable of making a plan of any posi- tion he may meet with, or of any particular portion of the district that he is reconnoitring. ‘A certain facility in sketching ground is, therefore, indis- pensable. But it must be observed that a knowledge of to graphy alone will not enable an officer to make a valuable reconnaissance. He should also possess some military knowledge and experience, to enable him to determine what ground is best suited for each arm, and to judge correctly of the obstacles or the facilities which a country offers to the movements of an army. Secondly. He should be able to judge distances correctly by the eye. This power is most useful to the reconnoitring officer, and may be acquired by comparing known distances with estimated nown distances, and then measuring the latter. But not only must he be able to judge distances by the eye and to pace them correctly, he must also be able to measure them by the paces of his horse, because there are occasions when a reconnaissance can * Nevertheless a reconnaissance may be very valuable, though it consist merely of a verbal report without any plan or sketch. Want of time, the presence of the enemy, or other circumstances, may prevent an officer from doing more than making » rapid examination of the object he is ordered to recomnoitre, He is not on that account to imagine that his observations may not be very important. The object of this treatise is to teach how “ reconnaissances” should be conducted when time and all other circumstances are favourable. In actual practice in the field we must often be satisfied with much lees.SECTION 24.] 137 Toroomarmicat only be made rapidly on horseback. As the paces of horses differ Paces of a it is of no use to lay down any particular measure for a horse’s horse. paces. Every officer should ascertain those of his own animal at the walk, trot, and the gallop. In like manner the length of pace of men differs, Some military Paces of a man. sketchers pace a yard,® others use a military pace of 30 inches, and others again their ordinary walking pace, which is inter- mediate between these two lengths. Every field sketcher should ascertain the pace that comes most naturally to him and should adhere to it; but he must always reduce his paces to yards in laying down his work on the sketch, or at any rate give a scale of ards. : Sometimes in a reconnaissance, particularly in that of a road, Distance distances are measured by the time taken to perform them, either measured on foot or on horseback. by time. Distances may even be measured by sound. If the flash or py sound. the smoke of a gun be seen, and a few seconds afterwards the report is heard, the number of seconds multiplied by 370 yards (the rate at which sound travels per second) will give the distance. ‘Thirdly. A knowledge of the language of the country to be 3. Languages. reconnoitred is most useful to the officer employed on this duty, because in every reconnaissance much of the information required must necessarily be obtained from the inhabitants. An officer who is not acquainted with the language of the country is, at the best, in the hands of an interpreter, if he is fortunate enough to find one ; but if he ‘can speak the Janguage, and is acquainted with the history of the country, and above all, if he shows respect for the customs and the religion of the inhabitants, they soon cease to regard him as a stranger, and may even become communicative. Care should be taken to learn the local pronunciation of towns and villages. The peasantry are generally dull, and unless these names are pronounced exactly us they pronounce them (very often quite unlike the way in which they are written) they will not understand what is meant. Fourthly. Some knowledge” of fortification is also necessary, 4. Fortification. both to enable an officer correctly to describe and sketch a fortress or field works which he may be ordered to reconnoitre, and to enable him to judge of the best site and trace for any works which he may recommend for the purpose of strengthening a position which he has been ordered to report npon. Fifthly. The habit of observing ground with reference to mili- 5. The cour- tary operations is most useful. This power of seizing at once the 4’ail.” capabilities of ground, and which is called the military “coup deeil,” is a natural gift. But it may be acquired to a certain extent by accustoming one’s-self in one’s daily walks and rides * Op rough or steep ground it is very difficult to pace a yard. It may be done on level ground kr short distances, but hardly for whole day.Sxercmne wiru Instruments.) 138 {parr 111. to examine the country with an eye of a soldier, observing the positions it affords, and considering the means of attacking or defending them, estimating thé number of troops. required for their occupation, noting the places best suited for camps, the nature and direction of the roads and the rivers, the swiftness of their current, the nature of their banks, the bridges and fords, and other details. In this way the eye becomes accustomed to.observe and to judge, Sketching 293, Such are some of the qualities absolutely necessary to + without in- enable an officer to become a good reconnoitrer; but it must be stroments, observed that it is not sufficient that he shall be able to sketch ground when he is provided with instruments and has plenty of leisure ; he must also be able to do so without instruments and in the most rapid manner, either on foot or on horseback ; for in ‘war, reconnaisances must often be made in presence of the enemy, sometimes even under his fire. In such cases there is no time for accurate measurements or deliberate drawing. Everything must be done rapidly ; the salient and important points must be seized —the unimportant disregarded. Rapidity in sketching is of the greatest importance in the field. An officer employed upon this service will constantly find himsélf working against time. A sketch of a position or a river, or a road, is generally required for a specific object, which object will have passed: away before the sketch is sent in if much time is spent upon it. “The reconnoitrer must therefore learn to distinguish between what is necessary for military purposes and what is unnecessary; and, discarding the latter, must confine himself to the former. At the same time asketch should be accurate, without being minute ; minuteness of detail is not required in a military sketch— but general accuracy is necessary ; and when time or other circumstances do not permit of this, the fact should be stated ; as nothing can be more fatal than to mislead a general by incorrect information. Conventional 294, The following rules and conventional signs should be signs. observed in the preparation of military sketches :— 1. Every sketch or plan should be clear, precise, and easy to read. 2. Every sketch should have a scale and a north point. 3, Hills should be sketched in the horizontal style. 4. Woods should be coloured with a flat shade of green, the boundaries should be clearly indicated, and the description of wood specified. 5, Gentlemen’s parks—also by a flat tint of green of a lighter colour ; with a few trees dotted about. . Cultivated ground should -be marked by the word “cultivation” written across it. ‘7. Buildings of stone or brick should be coloured red. 8. Buildings of wood should be coloured black. 9, Bridges—either red or black, according to their material. aBECTION 24.] 139 [Coxvenrionan Siexs. 10. Streams and all water—blue. The direction of the current to be indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of the flow. 11. Fords—to be dotted across the streams. 12, Roads—high roads and metalled roads—coloured brown, If fenced—indicated thus If not fenced—indicated thus ~ 13, Byeroads are left uncoloured. 14, Railroads—thus : EEK or thus fppttipetts 15, Troops—thus, Infantry, |; Cavalry, [==]; Artil- lery, .|..|- «|- British troops to be coloured red. 16, References of a local character will occur in’ compiling pl lans. They should be written thus— References. Titles of plans, thus— - - SURVEY. Names of districts, thus— - YATELY. Towns, thuu— - - - Farnham. Villages, houses, farms, &., thus Frimley. Letters and figures referring to the report which secompany thesketch- - - + ABO. LIv. 295, The report which accompanies the sketch should be written The Report, on paper with half margin, and with headings in the margin. It should be drawn up in accordance with the instructions issued for the execution of the reconnaissance, and these instructions should be appended to it. The language should be clear and concise, and all unnecessary or irrelevant matter should be avoided. Above all, the writing should be very legible and all names of places should be correctly given. In describing ground, particularly a position, it is better to make use of the terms north, south, &c. than of the terms right, left, which are apt to mislead a general, who often is at a loss to know whether the enemy’s “right ” or his own is intended. ‘This observation does not apply to a river, whose banks should always be described as “right” or “left,” supposing the officer to be looking down the stream; because in a river which winds much each bank may sometimes be to the north and sometimes to the south, ‘The notes from which the report is framed should be taken on the ground during the actual execution of the reconnaissance, and care should be had to distinguish between the information which has been derived from others and that which is the result of one’s own observation. 296. The application of the subject will now be considered under the following heads :— 1. The reconnaissance of a Road. 2. : 7 of a River. 3. » of a Wood. 4, ” of a Position. 5 4s of a Camping ground,Points to be noted. Roaps.] 140 [part ur. Sxction 25.—RECONNAISSANCE OF A ROAD. 297, When troops are about to move in a direction in which the country is not thoroughly known, it is necessary that the road by which the several columns are to march should be examined and reported on by staff or other officers, in order that the commander of each column may be furnished with a sketch of the road for each day’s march, and a report stating its general nature, the obstructions, difficulties, and delays he will meet with; the means of overcoming these difficulties; the rivers and canals he will have to cross ; the defiles and woods he will have to pass through ; the supplies, water, and accommodation he will meet with in the towns and villages ; the military positions and encamping grounds on the line of march ; together with any other information which it may be useful for him to possess. The officers charged with the duty of making these recon- naissances will, when it is possible, precede the troops by a day’s march ; but in war this is not always possible, either because the country is overrun by the enemy’s light troops, or because secrecy as to the direction of the line of march has to be observed. A reconnaissance of a road consists of a sketch of the road and the country immediately adjacent on either side, and is accom- panied by a written report containing information upon the several points herein-after mentioned. The sketch may be on a small scale, one or two inches to the mile, and should show the nature and features of the country in the usual manner, 298, The extent of country on each side to be embraced by the reconnaissance will generally be stated in the instructions ; but in every case all commanding ground within cannon shot should be included. The report should state the direction and the nature of the road; whether paved, macadamized, welled, or not metalled at all; its breadth, and whether uniform or not; any considerable variations of breadth should be noticed. The gradients must be stated, particularly when they are such as to make the road difficult for wheels; its state of repair ; the bad parts that will be met with, and what means are at hand for repairing them ; whether such bad or difficult parts can be avoided by making a detour; or whether the general direction of the road may be improved by adopting a new line ;* whether it is practicable for all arms; what rivers and canals it crosses, and whether they are crossed by bridges, ferries, or fords ; fall details as to the nature of the bridges, their length and breadth; the means of defending or opposing the passage over them; full details as to the nature of the fords and their direction across the stream, which should be marked by stakes ; the woods and defiles through which the road passes ; the nature of the woods ; whether they are passable for cavalry and artillery ; whether placed so as to favour ambuscades, and thus convert the road into a defile; the breadth of the defiles, and the variations in breadth ; in what * It should be particularly noted, also, whether the road may be departed from on either side and the troops be moved astow the country and parallel to ToaSECTION 25.] 141 [Roaps. formation the troops should pass through them; whether the heights on each side can be occupied, and whether tho defiles may be altogether avoided ; what marshes are met with, and how the road is carried over them; the towns and villages along and near the road ; with full details as to the supplies, water, accommo- dation, transport, &c., they can furnish. Military positions and encamping grounds shculd be noticed, and sketches of them upon a seale of four or six inches to the mile should be appended to the report. All points where the march of the column might be advantageously opposed by the enemy should be noticed, and finally every information which can be of use to the commander should be given. All distances should be given in hours as well as in miles, the Distances. latter not being sufficient for the calculation of the time required for the march, as it is evident that it may take as long a time to accomplish one mile of a bad road as two miles of a good road. Should there be any points in the roads where difficulties occur which would oblige the front of the column to be reduced, or which would in any other way delay the march, they should be particularly mentioned in the report, and an estimate should be given of the time required to pass such difficult points. 299, The accommodation of towns may be ascertained from the Accommoda- mayor or other local authorities ; that of villages may be computed tion for troops. by counting or estimating the number of houses, and ascertaining how many men they would hold on an average remembering that half the house must be left for the use of the inhabitants. When troops are only to be lodged for one night, a greater number may be put up than if they were to be quartered for a longer time. On the line of march it is not possible to be very particular as to the soldiers’ accommodation. The men can be lodged in outhonses and barns, while the horses are put up in ‘open sheds and in farmyards, where they will often be better off than in low, ill-ventilated village stables. The road report should therefore state whether the accom- modation is calculated for one or more nights. 800. Form of Road Report—The marginal sketch is to begin at the bottom of the paper, where also are to be placed the scale and north point. The towns, villages, positions, &c. are to be numbered, and the corresponding numbers in the table are to move upwards and range with those in the sketch. But in the columns headed “Supplies, Transport, and Water,” and “General Observations” the entries may be made in the usual manner from the top, with the proper numbers of reference to the sketch. The former of these columns will show the naiure of the supplies, the number of butchers and bakers shops, of mills and forges, of horses, carts, &c. that can be procured, and of wells, streams, &c, The latter will contain remarks on the nature of the country, the cultivation, the woods, canals, bridges, forts, defiles, military positions, and encamping grounds. 26334, L(Part m1. 142 Roap Rerorn.] *LaOamYY avoy 8 Jo KXOT Bp] F E| 4 | F “peoy om | sw0U 40-00 S00"), | - *eBaopmy | pus sop UF soouEISIC, * 81 04 ‘WIOI PEOY OY} Uo yodeySECTION 26.] 143 [Rrvers. Railroads. BOL, Railroads are likely to play an important part in future wars Points to be —in bringing repidly up to the front troops, ammunition, and all the noted in rail- “ materiel ” of which armies are composed. The chief points to be roads. noticed in the reconnaissance of a railroad are its direction, length, and gauge : ils construction as regards the country through which it passes, namely, its tunnels, cuts, and viaducts ; whether it con- sists of a double or a single line; the number, size, and situations of its stations ; the means it affords of transporting troops of all arms, the number of locomotives and their power ; the number of carriages, their class and accommodation; the number of trucks, horse boxes, and cattle carriages, and their adaptation to the trans- port of military stores and “ materiel ;” whether the railway belongs to the state or to a company ; the fares ; whether the platforms at the stations are adapted to the rapid loading and unloading of the troops, horses, and guns. The means of destroying the railway should also be stated. Section 26—RECONNAISSANCE OF A RIVER. 802. The examination of rivers is of the utmost importance in war, as they have great influence upon military operations, A reconnaissance of a river is generally ordered with the view of ascertaining how troops may be passed over it for the purpose of attacking the enemy or pursuing the march ; or with that of opposing the passage of the enemy. The report may be conveniently divided under the following heads, each of which should be treated in detail :— 1. The breadth of the river, the swiftness of the current, the periods when it becomes dry or overflows its banks, and the extent of country laid under water by its overflowing. The breadth of a river must evidently be known in order to enable the commander to throw bridges over it. The swiftness of the current must be known for the same reason.* It is also very necessary that he should know at what seasons he may expect the river to rise or to fall, and to what extent ; also at what seasons it becomes dry t or overflows its banks, and whether it overflows one or both banks, and to what extent. This knowledge is required to enable him to establish his bridges for the purpose of crossing the river, or to make his dispositions for defending the passage of the river against an enemy. Moreover an army may find itself seriously compromised if when retreating before an enemy it comes upon a swollen, impassable river, and finds all its bridges carried away. On the other hand it is equally important to know whether * For the method of ascertaining this see note at end of the section. + In hot climates rivers frequently become shallow at certain seasons, and sometimes dry up altogether ; as, for instance, the Great’ Fish River at the Cape of Good Hope. The reconnoitring officer should make inquiries upon this point, and embody the result of his information in the report. L2Forvs.] 144 [parr m1. the river ever becomes dry or fordable along its whole course, and thus ceases to be an obstacle to the enemy. This point should always be ascertained. The means of producing inundations by forming dams across a river should also be ascertained and described in the report. 7 2. The Fords. 808. Nearly all rivers are fordable at some points. It is very im- t to discover these fords, and to obtain an accurate knowledge of their direction across the stream, their depth, the nature of their bottom, and the rapidity of the current. There are many ways of ascertaining the fords of a river : 1, By questioning the natives who live on its banks, They generally are acquainted with .all the fords, though they will not always impart their knowledge to an enemy. 2, By walking along the bank and observing the traces of roads or paths leading into the river. The marks of wheels entering a river are a good indication of a ford, par- ticularly if these wheel marks re-appear on the opposite Houses or villages on opposite sides of the river fre- quently indicate a ford which connects them. It was thus that Sir A. Wellesley guessed the existence of a ford, the discovery of which led to the battle of Assaye. 3.. By dropping down the river ina boat with a sounding line or pole of the given depth of the ford sought for ; whenever this pole or line comes in contact with the bed of the river a ford may be looked for. 4, By certain known indications, such as a swifter or broken current in some parts of the river, particularly near bends and loops. 5. When the existence of fords is doubtful, trial should be made between two sinuosities in the slanting direction. Rivers are frequently found to be fordable in this manner when they cannot be carried perpendicularly. ‘No means of discovering the existence of fords should be neglected, and when discovered their direction and the nature of their bottom should be carefully examined. In mountainous countries the bottoms of fords are generally encumbered with large rolling stones. . Such fords are bad for cavalry and artillery. Fords with sandy bottoms are also bad, because after many horses or carriages have passed over them they become soft and impracticable for the rest of the column. For this reason infantry should pass over a ford first, then the cavalry and artillery. Fords witha hard gravel bottom are the best. The direction of a ford should be carefully marked out by setting up posts along it, particularly when its direction is slanting across the river. The breadth and depth and the rapidity of the stream must also be noted. The breadth of the ford will determine the front of the column in which troops can cross over ; the depth andSECTION 26.] 145 [Bripors. rapidity of the stream will determine for what description of troops the ford is passable. For cavalry a ford should not exceed 4 ft. 3 in. in depth, supposing the bottom to be firm. For infantry, under the same condition and with a moderate stream, it should not exceed 3 ft. 3 in. ; and for artillery, when the ammunition is on the limbers, 2 ft. 6 in. If the stream is very rapid its force may be broken by posting cavalry across the upper part of the ford, the infantry can then cross below them. ‘The period of the year at which a ford is examined should be stated in the report, and a post showing the height of the water at the time should be set up ; but a ford should be always re-examined. immediately before the troops have to pass through it, as its depth is likely to vary.* If the banks are steep and difficult of access they must be cut down and made practicable at each end of the ford. The report should also state what roads lead to the fords, and which of the banks commands the other, so as to protect or dispute the passage. ‘When the front of an army is protected by a river it may be necessary to destroy the fords for the sake of greater security. Fords may be destroyed by throwing in trees or harrows, or by cutting trenches across them. The local means of destroying them should therefore be mentioned in the report. 3. The Nature of the Banks. 304, State whether the banks are flat, or broken, or precipitous ; whether one bank commands the other (a point of the utmost importance in the passage of rivers); whether the ground on either side is marshy ; whether the banks are nearly even with the water or high above it. The means of attack or defence afforded by the nature of the country immediately bordering the river should also be mentioned. 4, The Bridges. 805, All the existing bridges over a river must be reported upon. Their material must be stated ; their length and breadth, the num- ber of arches ; whether they can easily be destroyed or repaired ; whether they can support the passage of artillery ; whether they are defended by bridge-heads, or villages, or houses, or by the nature of the banks. Note the roads leading to them on each side of the river, together with the measures which should be taken’ either to force or to resist a passage over them. State what ferries and flying bridges exist, and describe them ; the number of men who could be carried over in them at one trip, and the time occupied. * Fords have been known to become impassable in the course of even a night, and much inconvenience has been experienced in consequence. Officers who are charged with the duty of reporting upon rivers should therefore pay great attention to this matter.Boats, &c.] 146 [paRT UI. 5. The places for constructing Bridges. 806, In order to enable a general to make his arrangements for throwing temporary bridges over a river, its breadth must be ascertained, as well as all islands which might favour their establishment. The best place for constructing a bridge will generally be at a re-entering bend of the river, because it can then, by a judicious arrangement of the artillery, be better protected by a cross fire in front of it. The bank on the side from which the bridge is thrown should also command the other bank. The con- struction of the bridge will be rendered easier if there is an affluent near the spot, where the boats and other material may be collected unknown to the enemy. All these paints should therefore be con- sidered, and mentioned in the reconnaissance. The roads leading to the points where it is proposed to construct a bridge should also be examined and reported on. 6. The Boats on a River. 307, If the river is navigable, it is very important to ascertain the number of boats which can be collected for the purpose of forming bridges or crossing troops over. Their average size and description should be stated, as well as the number of men they would hold. Great care should be taken to secure all the boats; or, if this cannot be done, a reconnoitring officer may sometimes have an opportunity of preventing the enemy from using them by sinking them. 7. Country on each Bank. 808, The nature of the country on either bank, the military positions and camping grounds to be found, the towns and villages onor near the river, are all points of considerable importance which should not be overlooked in the reconnaissance of rivers; par- ticularly villages, which often form a prominent feature in the passage of rivers, 8. The extent to which the River freezes. 809. It should bo ascertained whether the river is frozen over in winter sufficiently to allow of troops marching over it. Ice three inches thick will bear troops and light pieces, and if six inches thick will support heavy artillery, and all.the burdens which the passage of troops may bring upon it. If ice is covered with ° straw, and water be poured on it, which then freezes, the bearing power may be further increased. All the afiluents of a river, within the front of operations, should also be examined and reported on in a similar manner. - Canale. 310. Canals and minor streams are reconnoitred in a similar manner, and the means of forming inundations, and destroying the locks, or the canals themselves, should be considered.SECTION 27.] 147 (Cunrerra, Note on the Method of ascertaining the Swiftness of the Current of the River. ee S11. The swiftness of a river varies according to the height of the water. The height of the water at the time of measurement should therefore be mentioned. The swiftness of a river is not uniform, either in respect to its breadth or itsdepth. It is generally swiftest where the bed is deepest. The Germans call that line the “Thalweg” or “ path of the valley,” because it follows the lowest part of the valley in which the river flows. It has been ascertained that the greatest swiftness of a river is just below the surface of the water, while its least swiftness is at the bottom of the water. Hence, to ascertain the swiftness of the current of a river, set up two flags on the bank at any convenient distance from each other and parallel to the direction of the current. Throw into the “Thalweg,” above the upper flag, a piece of wood or cork, which will be but little affected by the wind. Observe very accurately (with a watch which has » “second” hand) the time taken by the floater in passing from one flag to the other. Repeat the operation several times, and take the mean. If the bank of the river is unsuited to the purpose, or if the « Thalweg ” is too far from the bank for the floater to be distinctly seen, the operation may be performed by anchoring two small boats in the stream, and proceeding in the same manner as with the fixed flags. The swiftness of a current may also be measured by means of the ordinary naval “log” in the same way as the rate of a ship's progress is measured at sea. If it is desired to know the mean velocity of a river the following formule may be used. Let U be the swiftness at the surface (measured as above), V the mean velocity. ‘Then If U is less than 12 foot per second 0-75 U. Tf -U is between 1'"2 and 4’ ,, 0-84 U. If U is between 4’ and 8’ ” V=085 U*. Rates of Velocity of Rivers, 312, A river is said to be sluggish when it flows at the rate of 1' 6” per second (about 1 mile per hour); ordinarily swift from 2' to 3” per second (about 2 miles per hour) ; rapid from 3’ to 5” per second (about 3 miles per hour) ; very rapid from 5’ to 8” per second (about 5 miles per hour), A torrent from 9 and upwards (about 6 miles per hour and upwards). Sxction 27.—-RECONNAISSANCE OF A WOOD OR FOREST. 313, The principal points to examine in a wood or forest are— 1, Its extent. 2. The nature of the ground—whether flat or hilly, * Laisné (Aide-Mémoire des Officiers du Génie).‘Wooos.] 148 [parr nm. 8. The roads that cross it, their nature and direction. 4. The rivers and streams which flow through it, or out of it. 5. The ravines and the nature of their bottom. 6. What parts are open and practicable and what im- practicable. 7. The towns, villages, farms, and patches of cultivation. 8. The marshes. The plan of a forest should distinctly show what parts are practicable and what parts are impracticable, and the roads should be clearly traced throughout their whole extent. It would be well to go round the wood to ascertain its extent, noting all roads that come out of it, and ascertaining whence they come and where they lead. In like manner all rivers and ravines which come out of the forest should be carefully observed. ‘The chief point to ascertain in a wood is the manner of getting troops through it. The roads are therefore of the greatest interest ; an examination of the roads will also show what parts of the forest are practicable and what impracticable for troops. The closeness of the trees to each other, and the state and - nature of the underwood, are material points as respects the Conditions of a ‘geod position. passage of troops of the various arms. They should be carefully noted. By following up the ravines and rivers much information and a good exploration of a wood may be obtained. ‘Towns and villages in woods are generally situated at the junetion of the roads, they are therefore important points to note. 7 Section 28.—RECONNAISSANCE OF A POSITION. 814, The selection and occupation of a military position belongs rather to strategy and the higher branches of tactics than to reconnaissance, and is more the province of the commander than of the staff officer. The selection and proper occupation of a position requires, indeed, great experience in the field, and a natural aptitude for war. Still every officer who has to recon- noitre a position should, at least, be acquainted with the theory of the matter, and be competent to give the commander information on which to base his selection. Military positions are either defensive or offensive. In either case, they must be chosen with reference to the position of the enemy, and must command the approaches to the position in the first case, and the “debouchés” from the position in the second case. 815, A good military position should fulfil as many as possible of the following conditions. Few positions will fulfil them all. 1, It should command a view of the movements of an assailant. 2, Its extent should be proportionate to the strength of the foree which is to occupy it, and the nature of the ground shouldSECTION 28.] 149 [Posrrions. be suitable to the description of arm by which it is to be chiefly occupied. 3. It should not be commanded in front or on the flanks by any higher ground within cannon shot. 4, Its flanks and rear should be secure. The flank should rest upon natural or artificial obstacles. 5. Tho position should command the approaches on the enemy’s side, and should cover the lines of retreat to a second position and to the rear. 6. The communications in rear of the troops from flank to flank, and to the reserve, should be perfectly free and uninterrupted by ravines, marshes, or other impassable obstacles which would pre- vent the free circulation of troops from one part of the position to the other. 7. The position shou!d have a sufficient depth to allow of the troops being drawn up in two or more lines, with a reserve. A flat country will not furnish so many good positions as a hilly one ; still they may be found in such a country, particularly where natural obstacles exist, such as villages, woods, marshes, hollow ronds, and enclosures. 316. In selecting a position care must be taken (ns stated in No. 2 condition) not only that its extent is not too great for the number of the troops, but also that the nature of the ground is suited for ihe arm which is chiefly to occupy it. A position may be excellent in itself, yet, from » defect in that particular, it may become useless. Again, a position may have a very strong front, and xe the army may be unable to manceuvre in it for want of depth. Another may be formidable in all respects as a defensive position, but the troops may be unable to debouch from it for the purpose of attacking the enemy, and they are thus reduced to the detensive, Finally, @ position may be liable to be turned by an unforseen movement of the enemy. All these defects should be carefully considered and guarded against in the selection of a position. 817, In reconnoitring position with a view to its military occupation, the first thing is to ride over it and examine it carefully, and to make a sketch of it. The humber and description of troops necessary to occupy it, and their distribution, should then be considered. This will depend upon the extent of the position, its strongth, the nature of the ground, and the number of the enemy. No rigid rules can be Jaid down upon this point. 818. As a rough guide, however, as to the extent of ground which troops cover, it may be said thut 5,200 infantry drawn-up in grou line two deep will occupy a mile. But as troops are generally drawn up in two or more lines, with a reserve, this number may be considerably increased, even trebled. Or if the troops are drawn up in column, a still greater number may be placed on that extent of front. At Waterloo, for instance, the British army of 68,000 men occupied about two miles and a quarter of front, while the French army was quite as closely packed; so that there is no Defective positions. ‘The manner of reconnoitring a position. Extent of d occu- pied by troops.\ Manner of occupying a position, Depth of a position. ‘Obstacles. Strengthening the position. Posrrioxs.] 150 [parr mr. general rule which will be applicable to all cases, as so much depends on the manner in which the formation of the ground requires it to be occupied.” Cavalry and artillery take up more room than infantry, and an accurate knowledge of the space occupied by the three arms in their several formations is necessary to enable an officer to occupy ground correctly. 819. It isnot always necessary that a position should be occupied continuously. Some parts may be held in line, others in column, while others need not be occupied at all. Second and third lines are usually of about the same strength as the first, and may be drawn up in a deployed line, or in a line of columns if not exposed to cannon shot. Under all circumstances there should be a reserve of about one-fifth of the whole force. It should be drawn up in contiguous columns, or in mass of columns, in rear of the position, out of fire, and in the most convenient situation for reinforcing any part of the position. Ifa position is to be occupied for any length of time it should, of course, afford the means of supplying water and fuel. Should these means not exist, the general should be informed of it before- hand, so that he may bring these supplies with him. 320. The depth of a position should (as has been said) be such as to admit of the troops being formed in one or more lines at convenient intervals, and to allow them to be moved from one flank to the other by the rear. An army drawn up in two lines will require 600 yards of depth of position to answer the above conditions. 21, A position should.not be divided in two by any impassable obstacle, such as a river, a ravine, or ® morass, because in that case the enemy might attack and beat one part of the defensive force before the other part could come to its assistance. On the other hand, these obstacles cannot be too numerous in front of a position on the ground over which the enemy has to pass in order to attack, because the order of his march is thereby broken and the force of his attack weakened. ‘A good way of judging how to occupy a defensive position is to get in front of it and consider how it should be attacked. The defensive force can then be disposed so as to meet the probable attack. 822: The next step is to consider the means of strengthening artificially such parts of the position as require it by breastworks, searpments, cuts, abatis, and other obstacles, according to the time and means available, taking particular care to protect. the flanks, if they’are exposed. Should there be any villages or houses, either in the position or immediately in front of it, they should be strongly occupied, as they often form a prominent feature in the defence ; for instance, the chateau de Huguomont in the field of Waterloo. * General Sir J. Shaw Kennedy, in treating of the defence of England, givesas a guide in this respect (to be modified, however, by local circum stances), 20,000 men per mile for the occupation of a position, or line of battle,SECTION 28.] 451 [Posrrions. 828, Villages have formed in many fields of battle the tactical Importance of points of the position, particularly if the position is ina plain. They villages in a act, as it were, as fortresses to strengthen the flanks and the front Position. of an army drawn up in line of battle. They also enable the army which holds them to use them as a pivot on which to throw forward a wing. They cover the retreat of an army, as the roads generally lead through them, and if set on fire form a very serious obstacle to an attack or a pursuit. The possession of them is therefore always obstinately contested. 24, Among the means of strengthening @ position are the Barricading barricading of the roads leading to it, and the destruction of bridges; roads and but it must be recollected that, generally, a commander who fights a blowing up defensive battle hopes to repulse the enemy, and then to assume bridges. the offensive and follow him up. Care must, therefore, be taken not to destroy or block up all the avenues leading to a position so as to render it impossible to debouch from it. The obstructions placed on a road should therefore be such that the road can be reopened and made passable when required. For similar reasons bridges should generally not be blown up until the last moment, when such a step is absolutely necessary for the safety of the defenders; but they may always be prepared for obstruction beforehand, by being mined. 825. Besides strengthening the front and flanks of the position, Communicas the communication in rear of the line of troops must be opened from tion in rear of one flank to the other, and also to the reserve, and to the several position. lines of retreat upon a second position, or to tho rear. ‘These communications must be perfectly free, so as to allow the troops to move from one point to another with ease. ‘When troops occupy a position their front is always protected by outposts; the principles by which the position of these is regulated will be found in section 29. 326. In most positions there is one point the possession of which The key of a is of the utmost importance to both attackers and defenders. It is position. called the key of the position. It is the point the possession of which generally decides the victory. So long as the defenders can retain possession of this point they may dispute the victory ; but once lost, little chance of success remains. It requires some experience of war to determine which is the key of a position, depending as it does so entirely upon the nature of the ground, the direction of the line of retreat (which it should cover and protect), tho object with which the position is occupied, and the probable direction of the attack. It may be an intrenched village, a wood, a height, or any obstacle which stops the enemy and protects the movements of one’s own troops. 327. The sketch of a position should be drawn upon a scale of The sketch. Jes than four inches to a mile, and on it should be marked the sites of all proposed parapets, epaulments, abatis, entanglements, and other obstacles, as well as the proposed distribution of the ttoops.* When the position is on a height one or more sections of the hill should bo given. .A landscape drawing of the position will also be very useful. * The troops should always be put in to scale.Caurs.] 152 [Parr m1. The Report. 928. The report should begin by a description of the ground and of the roads leading to the position, and of the obstacles presented to the supposed assailants by the nature of the ground. The pro- bable way in which the position would be attacked should then be. stated, and the arrangements proposed for the defence as well as the number and distribution of the troops judged necessary for the proper occupation of the ground. The nature of the works recommended for strengthening the position should also described. + Section 29.—RECONNAISSANCE OF AN ENCAMPING GROUND. Principles for $29. Napoleon says, “ The art of encamping a force ina position the selection of “ ig nothing else than the art of drawing it up ina line of battle camps. “ in that position.”* Such being the case all the principles which have been laid down in the preceding section for the selection of a position apply equally to the selection of a camp. ‘The position of the enemy and the nature of the ground both in a military and sanitary point of view, must determine the choice of a camp. The front of a camp should be proportionate to the force which is to occupy it. It should not be of greater extent than the front of that force when drawn up in line of battle. A camp should not be intersected by ravines or other obstacles, such as marshes, rivers, ditches, &c.; and the communication should be quite free from flank to flank and to the rear. A camp should have its flanks secure, and should not be com- manded or enfiladed by any high ground in front or on the flanks within cannon shot. When, however, this cannot be avoided, such commanding ground should be occupied by advanced posts strongly entrenched, and the camp itself should’ be protected as much as possible by traverses, retrenchments, epaulments, and scarpments. Care must be taken to secure the means of retreating from a camp as well as those of debouching for the purpose of attacking the enemy. Supplies, 830, A camp should be well supplied with water within a con- venient distance and secure from interruption by the enemy. It should also afford the means of fuel, so as to prevent the necessity of its being brought from a distance. The neighbourhood of a camp should furnish as many supplies as possible for the support of the troops. A camp should be situated upon dry healthy ground, and should of course be accessible from the road, ‘Mode of en- 881, The details of the several methods of encamping the diffe- camping troops. rent branches of the service, as well as the extent of ground required * The camp should be in rear of the actual line which the troops are to occupy in battle array, in the event of an attack upon their position.SECTION 29.] 153 {Ourrosrs. by each, are laid down in the regulation for encampments pub- lished by the Quartermaster General’s department. They need not be repeated here; but as it is convenient, when selecting a camping ground to have some fixed general idea as to the space Space required. required for encamping a battalion of infantry, a regiment of cavalry, or a battery of artillery of an average strength, and on Geld service, it may be observed that— ‘A battalion of infantry of 800 rank and file will require (includ- ing its parade ground of 80 yards in depth) from quarter guard to rear guard, » space of 220 yards deep by 250 yards in length. A regiment of cavalry of four squadrons, each of 120 men and 96 horses, will require 220 yards of depth and 228 yards of frontage. A battery of six guns, with 276 men and 244 horses, will require 160 yards of depth by 134 yards of front. ‘The interval which should be left between the camps of infantry Intervals, battalions is five yards, that between cavalty and artillery camps is about 34 yards, Each arm will naturally be encamped on the ground most suitable to it, remembering, however, that the whole force should be so encamped as to readily fall into line of battle at any moment. Some military men consider that there should always be a battalion of infantry'on each flank of the camp, to protect the horses of the cavalry and artillery from a sudden rush of the enemy in the dark for the purpose of hamstringing them. With this ex- ception the infantry should be kept together, and encamped as near as possible in the order in which they would be drawn up for battle. It is imperative that the head-quarters, the hospitals, the mili- Position of tary train, the commissariat, the artillery and engineer parks, besd-quatters, and all non-combatant corps, should be encamped in a safe place, & generally in rear of the troops. The commissariat, military train, and the parks should also be near the main roads by which they would have to move in case of a retreat. The head-quarters are always, if possible, established in a house, on account of the necessity of being under cover for the purpose of writing, studying, and receiving visitors. The Outposts. 982. An army, whether on the line of march, encamped, or drawn up in position, is invariably covered by advanced parties. On the line of march these consist of an advanced guard and flanking parties, whose duty is to precede the main body and examine the ground in its front and on its flanks, and to feel for the enemy. When the army arrives at the camp or the position it is to occupy a chain of outposts is immediately established in front for its pro- tection. This chain may be parallel to the main position, or it may cover more especially one or both of its flanks, or it may occupyObject of out- posts, Distance of the ‘outposts from the main body. Composition of the outposts. Ovrrosrs.] 154 [parr un, a semicircular line stretching beyond the flanks and embracing all the approaches to the position. ‘A system of outposts consists of picquets, with double sentries in their front and supports in their rear, Cavalry vedettes are stationed further in advance, while cavalry pairols are sent out to examine the ground in front of all and beyond the flanks. 833, The object of outposts is to secure the safety of the troops they caver, and to observe the enemy. Consequently they should be placed not only so that they can discover the movements, the approach, or the retreat of the enemy, but so that in case of attack they may be enabled to check him and give time to the troops in their rear:to stand to their arms and to prepare for defence. 834, An army is often covered by a division which forms the advanced guard on the march and takes the outpost duties at the halts, throwing out its own chain of picquets-and sentries in its front, according to the general rules which will be presently stated. In such a case the covering division may be at a considerable distance from the main body, even so far as five miles in front of it, taken as an extreme case. When tho advanced guard or covering division encamps, as is sometimes the case, on the same ground. as the main army, its chain or outposts then becomes that of the main camp or position. The exact distance at which the outposts should be placed beyond the main position or camp cannot be reduced to any fixed rule, because so much depends upon the nature of the ground and the strength and composition of the out posts themselves. A strong chain of picquets can obviously be pushed out further than a weak one, and cavalry can be employed at » greater distance from the main body than infantry. If the outposts are too far from the camp there is the danger of their being destroyed before they can be supported ; while, on the other hand, if they are too.near the main body, the latter might not have time, in the event of a sudden attack, to get under arms, In on average country the furthest infantry outpost may perhaps be three-quarters of a mile from the camp. 335, The nature of the ground will determine the arm of which the outposts should be composed as well as the disposition of them. If the ground be much broken, enclosed, or wooded, infantry would be chiefly employed ; while in an open country of large plains cavalry would naturally predominate. ‘The strength of a picquet will depend partly upon the nature of the post it occupies, partly upon the number of sentries it has to fornish. The support may be about three times the strength of the picquet ; but these rules are not absolute, and must be modified by circumstances. 336. The extremities of the line of outposts should rest upon some natural support, and should well overlap the flanks of the camp so as to observe all the approaches by which it might be turned. If the nature of the ground affords no such support, the extremities should be thrown back “en potence.” The line of outposts should also be placed behind some natural ebstacle, which should even, if practicable, be rendered moreSECTION 30.] 155 (Drsrarcr. difficult by artificial means. When no such obstacle exists its want must be supplied by redoubled vigilance and activity on the part of the picquets and patrols, When the front of a camp is covered by some natural obstacle, such as a ravine, a marshy rivulet, or a river, the pickets must not be placed on one side of it and the sentries on the other. Both must be placed on the same side, either beyond it or on the near side of it; with the exception, however, of small cavalry posts, which being swifter in their movements may be pushed out further. 837. The great principle to be observed in placing a chain of General prin- outposts is that every vedette, sentry, and picquet should be able to see and communicate with the next vedette, sentry, or picquet on either side ; and that while they should be able to observe the movements of the enemy, they should themselves be as little seen by him as possible. But this, like many other very good general rules, is easier laid down than followed. 338, At night it is usual to draw in the chain of outposts nearer to the main body ; but whether this be done or not, redoubled vigilance from all is then required, and all sentries or posts which during the day have been placed’ on the top of hills should be withdrawn and posted on lower ground, whence they can more readily discover the enemy against the sky line, should he ad- vance, while they are themselves more screened from observation. 839, What has been here said about camps applies to those taken up within the theatre of war, When troops are encamped during peace on the march, or in camps of exercise, the same precautions are no longer necessary. In these cases the convenience and health of the troops are mainly consulted, and the facility of obtaining supplies. In every case, however, each regiment must have its quarter guard and rear guard, and adopt whatever police regulations may be necessary. Srcrion 30.—RECONNAISSANCE OF A DISTRICT. 340. Although the reconnaissance of a large district of country is not likely to be undertaken by any but staff officers, some account of the general mode of proceeding can hardly be omitted in a treatise on reconnaissance. It is an extensive operation, and if undertaken in a friendly country, with plenty of time at command, may be made to em- brace @ great variety of information, extending even to the statistics, the public works and buildings, the colleges, the manu- factures, trade, the army and navy the government, and the whole political economy of a country. 7 841, But the reconnaissance of a district for strictly military purposes is ordinarily confined to the following heads : ~ 1. The features of the country. 2, The roads, railroads, woods, defiles, &c, 3. The rivers, canals, lakes, marshes. 4, The towns, villages, and farms. ciple, Night posts, Camps in time of peace. Heads of reconnaissance,How per- formed. ‘The map. 1. Features of the country. Durescr.] 156 [part 1. 5. The produce and supplies. 6. The population. 7. The means of transport. 8. The military positions and encamping grounds ; and general military considerations. 342, A reconnaissance of this nature is usually performed by several officers, who divide the district among them, and a general plan and report is drawn up from the whole. Such a reconnaissance is best performed on horseback. 348, Some kind of map of the country about to be examined can always be procured, which although possibly very inaccurate, will serve as a guide to the officer, who may verify and correct it as he rides along; or he may, if he prefers it, transfer some of the principal points from the map to his sketching paper, and then fill in the details of the country as in an ordinary field sketch. The sketch or map should be on a small scale, one or two inches to a mile, remembering, however, that when military positions are described, a separate sketch of them on a scale of 4 or 6 inches to amile should be appended. Upon the general sketch of the district should be shown the features of the country, namely, the direction of the mountains and ranges of hills, the “ watershed,” as it is termed; the general course of the rivers and streams, with their bridges, ferries, and fords; the lakes, marshes, canals, and sea coasts; the roads, rail- roads, causeways, cuttings, and defiles; the woods and fences ; the cultivated and uncultivated ground; the enclosed and the open country ; the towns,* villages, farms, and large buildings. ‘The height of the principal hills above the level of the sea, or of the lowest valley of the district, should be marked on the sketch, or, if that cannot be ascertained, the relative heights of the hills to one another should invariably be marked by the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., 1 being the highest. The high roads should be ‘clearly distinguished from the bye roads by being coloured light-brown, Kivers and all waters should be coloured blue. The Report. 844, The report should be written on balf margin paper, and should be drawn up under the following heads, which should be written in the margin. 845. ‘The boundaries of the district reconnoitred should be stated in general terms, and its area in square miles should be given, as well as a general description of its physical features (watershed and course of streams), and geological structure.t * The class of town might be denoted on the sketch, either by writing down the population in round numbers thus (5,000) under the town, or by using symbols to denote certain classes of towns. + There can be no doubt of the value of a knowledge of geology in opera- tions of this nature. ‘The form of ground and the features of the country are influenced by the geological nature of the soil, and an officer who is acquainted with the different forms which the surface of the earth assumes uccording as itSECTION 30.] 157 (Disraicr, Describe the general nature of the ground, whether it is mountainous or undulating, broken or flat; the height and slopes of the mountains and hills; the extent of country under cultivation; the nature of the crops; the size of the fields, and the nature of the fences; the extent of uncultivated or un- inclosed ground; the quantity of wood, its nature, whether coppice or of large timber, and whether practicable for cavalry and artillery ; and any other information which may appear to be useful, The slopes of hills to be particularly noticed for military operations are those of— 45° inaccessible for infantry except as skirmishers, 30° very difficult for cavalry, inaccessible for guns. 15° accessible for guns, and the limit of manceuvring ground for all arms. 846. The particulars to be noted under this heading have already been stated in sections 25 and 27. The reconnaissance of rivers and canals has also been fully explained in section 26, ‘Ascertain their size, shape, and depth, and how they can be brought to bear in any scheme of military operations. State the number of steamboats and other boats plying upon them, and what number of troops could be placed on board. Note their shape, extent, depth of water, aud how far they are practicable in winter and summer ; the quality of the bottom ; whether they are traversed by causeways, ond if so, whether these are commanded, easily destroyed, or repaired. Their breadth should also be particularly stated. Swampy meadows should also be mentioned, as in winter they are often impracticable for cavalry and artillery. The general healthiness or otherwise of the district recon- noitred should be stated, and malaria, where it exists, should be specially reported. State whether they are open or precipitous; note all places favourable for the embarkation or disembarkation of troops; state the means of opposing a landing afforded by the nature of the ground ; ascertain the description of anchorage in the bays, and the prevailing winds and amount and period of tide. Describe their situation and size; whether fortified or open; the means of defending them ; the number of troops that could be quartered in them, either permanently or on the march ; the number of inhabitants; their general trades and occupations ; whether friendly or hostile in their feelings. ‘The supplies, transport, horses, and other animals ; the number of bakeries, butchers” shops, mills, and forges. : is composed of chalk, gravel, or plutonic rocks, evidently possesses an additional element of facility in sketching and describing country. Moreover, any geo- logical information which may be embodied in the report of a reconnaissance cannot fail to contribute both to its general usefulness and interest. In the present day indeed, survey and report upon a country would not be considered complete unless it contained some amount of geological information. 26834, 7 M 2. Roads, rail- roads, woods, defiles. 3. Rivers, &c. Lakes. ‘Marshes. 4, Towns, vil- lages, farms. iDisrascr.] 158 [parr m1 This information may be stated in a tabular form (see end of : the section). 5. Produce and State the general nature of the cultivation—whether corn, supplies, pasture, vines, or olives, distinguishing the quantity of arable land and of pasture land ; the quantity of uncultivated and barren land, and wood : the nature of the standing crops and the time of the harvest ; also whether the corn is fit to be gathered in; the quantity of hay, straw, oats, barley, and wheat in sacks or in barns ; the quantity and average size and weight of cattle, sheep, goats, that can be supplied; and in general terms the time durin which the occupying corps might be fed in the district ;* al which information may be obtained from the farmers and other inhabitants. Calculation of . The contents of a hayrick ‘may be calculated by ascertaining supplies, the number of cubic yards in it, and multiplying by 200 Ibs., as a cubic yard of stacked hay weighs about 200 Ibs. A cubic yard of stacked straw weighs about 140 Ibs. To measure grain easily, make it up in rectangular forms which can be reduced to cubic yards; each cubic yard of grain will contain about 20} bushels. A bushel of maize weighs 66 lbs. ” wheat ,, 62 ,, ” rye » 58 5, ” barley 4, 54 ” oats » 42 » 6. Rural popu- This information may be useful when foraging. lation. Note the character and general health of the population ; occupation and trades; whether friendly or hostile ; state the number of labourers that could be procured for the purposes of repairing roads, throwing up entrenchments, felling trees where required, as well as the number and the nature of the tools that could be supplied by the population. (This information also may be given in # tabular form.) 7, The means Tnformation upon the head of transport should also be drawn of transport. up in a tabular form, and should state the number and description of waggons, horses, carts, and mules available at each town and village, and generally throughout the whole district, and what weight each description of carriage will safely bear; also what weight the horses and mules of the country-would be able to carry on pack saddles. The general features of the district should be considered with * reference to their bearing upon any plan of campaign which may be denoted in the instructions as being under consideration ; the obstacles or facilities which the district would offer to such plan, either by means of its mountains, hills, rivers, roads, or forests. The best positions to be occupied with a view to the operations “of the campaign should be pointed out and described, and a sketch of them should be annexed to the report. The lines of * In making this estimate it will not do to adopt the principle of a French ‘Marshal that the inhabitants of a country are only entitled to the superfiuity of the army! From one-third to one-half of the produce should be allowed for the inhabitantsSECTION 30.] 159 (Distazor. operation either covered or impeded by them should also be stated. . Any positions favourable to the enemy must also be noticed, with reflections as to the means of turning or attacking such positions, The same details should be given with respect to places adapted for entrenched camps, or fer mere camps of passage. In _ the article on “reconnaissance,” in the Aide Mémoire, will be found full information upon the reconnaissance of a district, as laid down in the instructions issued to the quarter- master-general’s department in the Peninsula by Sir George Murray. Meuns of obtaining the Information above mentioned. 3417. Much of the information with respect to the supplies, accommodation, population, and transport of a district must neces- sarily be obtained from the inhabitants of the country. If the re- connaissunce is carried on ina friendly country, it is comparatively easy to acquire all necessary information from the local authorities, farmers, and others ; yet not always so, because when the farmers observe several officers riding about the country, asking all sorts of questions as to the nature and the amount of the produce of their farms, their horses, their cattle, their sheep, their pigs, their carts, and their waggons, they begin to fear that their taxes or their rents are about to be raised, and they become very chary of their information. If then this difficulty exists, even in one’s own country in time of peace, how much more will it exist in an enemy’s country in time of war, when it may be the interest of the inhabitants to mislead the reconnoitring officer in every way? It is true that in this case the officer has it in his power to coerce the authorities into giving him information, and laying before him the public records of their offices; still, he must beware of trusting implicitly the information he receives; he must sift it, compare it with the results of his own observation, and test it in every way; and, finally, he should state in his report the sources whence his information is derived, and the degree of confidence that may be reposed in it. Nore.—It is evident that the reconnaissance of a district, as above described, can only be thoroughly performed when there is plenty of time at command. It might indeed be more properly called a “report,” or a “memoir” upon a district than strictly a “reconnaissance,” which latter term conveys an idea of a hasty examination made in an enemy’s country. Officers will, therefore, do well to remember that if time does not admit of their making so full a reconnaissance they must do the best they can, which, however little, will still be better than nothing, provided that what they do is intelligently executed, and is not liable to misinterpretation, as to the degree of accuracy to which it can pretend. u2 Positions and camps. ‘Means of pro- curing infor- mation. °[parr un 160 Dustarer.] | | | Tor, ; { i 2 lo|ele a : SV EEVEIT e) FSS | E| | came é 8 soReTItA “syreUTY ‘SUMO, Jo sourEN ‘soomonyy *LOIMISIQ] B JO FONVSSIYNNOOAY 04} Ausduiodo8 0} NAOT UVIAAV],SECTION 31.] 161 ([Becornorraixe tHe Ewexr. Section 31—RECONNOITRING THE ENEMY. 348. The reconnaissances which have been described in the foregoing sections may be considered as defensive, or undertaken for the purpose of obtaining information necessary for the com- bination of marches, the passage of rivers, the occupation of positions, camps, or districts. Those which are now about to be described may be considered as offensive, or undertaken for the purpose of diseovering the strength and position of the enemy previous to attacking him. On active service this species of reconnaissance is constantly recurring, and its execution demands great intelligence, caution, and coolness. It cannot be thoroughly practised in time of peace, and can only be practically learned on actual service in the field. Still, in conducting such reconnaissances, certain general rules are to be observed ; and it is well that officers should be familiar with these rules, remembering always that they are liable to be modified by circumstances. These reconnaissances are the especial duty of cavalry officers. Cavalry are the eyes and the ears of an army, and in these days their use in this respect is greater perhaps than it ever has been. 349. The great difficulty of this kind of reconnaissance is Difficulty of obvious. Suppose, for instance, that an enemy is occupying a this kind of position, and that an officer is ordered to reconnoitre him ; that is, "connaissance. to ascertain the strength of the position itself—how it is oécupied, and by what number and description of troops. Conceive the difficulty of doing this when the enemy is not only covered by his pickets, but has even taken care to screen his main force itself from observation. How difficult it is to approach the outpost unseen, and to penetrate between them, and when this has been accomplished there still remains the arduous task of examining the position itself, and ascertaining the strength of the enemy’s forces ; and, lastly, of making good a retreat to one’s own camp. Unless the reconnoitring officer can penetrate within the line of the enemy’s outposts, the reconnaissance, at the best, can give but an approximate estimate of the number and position of the enemy, and the desired information can only be partially acquired from the inhabitants. Nevertheless, such an imperfect reconnaissance is of some use, and is more or less valuable according to the enter- prise and intelligence of the officer who conducts it. Reconnaissance of a Position with a view to attacking it, 850. -A position is cither in an open plain, in a broken or close country, or in a mountainous country. In the first case the position will probably be entrenched, and the nature of the ground will render any approach to it, without being discovered, v difficult, Yet the weak points of the position must be ascertained, in order to determine the proper direction to be given to the attack. It is necessary, therefore, to reconnoitre, as closely as they can be approached, either by day or by night, the nature of the ground whereby the position is protected, and the means of defence whichReconnorrarne Tue Exemy.] 162 [parr m1. have been prepared. It must also be ascertained how far and to what distance the attacking columns can advance (under cover of woods or other obstacles) without being discovered, as well as the circumstances which exist favourable to an attack, such as villages, positions to occupy, the best direction to follow, what parts of the ground are favourable for cavalry, and what for artillery. Such reconnaissances are usually made with an escort of cavalry, but the officer will hardly fulfil his duty satisfactorily unless he precedes his escort, so as not to attract the attention of the enemy’s patrols and outposts. B51. If the position is in a close or broken country, it may be possible to reconnoitre it more closely than in the preceding case; ‘but, on the other hand, the front of the position will then be more covered by obstacles, ditches, rivers, marshes, ravines, woods, which will afford the enemy so many posts and protected lines more or less easy to defend. The approaches and the course of the streams will be the essential points to examine in such a case. 352. In a mountainous country positions often consist of posts connected one with the other ; or if the position be on a table land, it will occupy commanding ground, and will probably be covered by ravines, scarpments, and other obstacles, whose existence it is essential to know, so that the assailant may not run his head against the most formidable part of it. The reconnaissance of such a position is therefore most important, Officers should consequently be employed to examine the avenues by which the attack can be made, and to approach as near as they possibly can to the works or obstacles which protect the position. Positions in mountainous countries being, when well chosen, extremely strong, it is generally better to turn them than to attack them. The reconnoitring officer will therefore consider the means of doing so. But sometimes it is absolutely necessary to seize by force a strong post which closes a passage which the assailant must have possession of. : 858, An offensive reconnaissance may be conducted in two ways either (as has been already stated) by stealing upon the enemy unseen, and thus gaining some position from which the distribution of his forces may be observed; or by forcibly driving his pickets from some elevated spot which commands a view of his forces, and making the best use of one’s eyes during the short time which may elapse before the reconnoitring party is driven off again. In sucl an operation prisoners are often taken, from whom information may be gained. 354, The secret reconnaissance of an enemy is performed by an officer accompanied by a small escort, generally of cavalry, to which infantry is sometimes added. * The escort should consist of picked men, and the officer should, if possible, be personally acquainted with them, in order that he may employ them to the best advan- tage. He should communicate to them the object of the recon- naissance, so as to make sure of its accomplishment, even if he himself with part of his escort should be taken prisoners.SECTION 31.] 163 (Reconxorraixe raz EXEmy, If the object be to penetrate within the line of the enemy’s outposts, the party should leave their camp so as to arrive at the outposts in the dark, in order that they may have the best chance of evading the enemy’s patrols and sentries. If the object be merely to gain what intelligence they can as to the intentions and movements of the enemy without penetrating within the line of his outposts, the reconnoitring party may set out at any time. In either case the officer in command must proceed with the reatest caution. During the day he should be preceded at the stance of 200 or 800 yards by a corporal and a few dragoons, accompanied by a guide. “This small advanced guard should throw outa file a short distance in front, and when necessary, on each flank, in order to search the country. At night this advanced guard had better join the escort for fear of losing itself in the dark, : The detachment must take every precaution to conceal its march from the enemy, and should take advantage of all inequalities of ground, hedges, woods, standing corn, &c., to advance unseen, All hills must be examined by a man on foot, who creeps up to the top, and looks all round to see that there is no enemy near before he gives the signal to the party to advance. In like manner the escort must never commit itself by entering @ town, village, wood, or defile without first sending on one or two men to see that it is free from the enemy. According as the party advances the, officer in command enquires of the inhabitants as to the movements of the enemy, and their supposed strength and position. He carefully examines the country, and notes such places as appear favourable for covering his retreat in case of need. He also makes notes ‘of everything which he thinks will be of use to the general in command. ‘When he approaches the enemy’s outposts he must redouble his precautions. If he can find some inhabitant of the place who will lead him to within sight of the enemy’s bivouac fires, he will take him with him. When in sight of these fires he divides his escort into several | parties, leaving them concealed here: and there along the road. He then, either alone, or accompanied by two or three deter- mined men, endeavour to penetrate between the vedettes and out- posts. If he is discovered in this attempt he must gallop back to his nearest support, favoured by the partial obscurity and by the fear of the enemy, who on seeing him joined by other horsemen will suspect an ambuscade. If the officer succeeds in penetrating the outposts unperceived, he will at break of day make whatever observations he can (before he is discovered) of the strength of the enemy’s position, the manner in which it is occupied, and the forces occupying it. He will then endeavour to rejoin his escort, and make good his retreat to his own camp. 7 In the above duty he should avoid as much as possible all colli- sion with the enemy; his object being not to fight, but to gain information.Recossorraxe a Post.) «dO [part m1. On regaining his camp he will make his report, simply stating what he has heard and seen. In such a reconnaissance great care must be taken not to be misled by appearances. Cattle, haycocks, sheaves of corn, are often mistaken for the enemy by officers whose eyesight is defective, or whose nerves have not been strong enough to allow them to - approsch sufficiently near to such objects. Srction 32.—OFFENSIVE RECONNAISSANCE OF A FORTIFIED POST. 855. Previous to attacking a fortified post, it is necessary to know the nature of the ground on which it is situated, the roads which lead to’it, the amount of help which it can receive from the corps to which it belongs, the strength and trace of the works which defend it, the number and the quality of the troops which occupy it, the character of the commandant, how the duties are carried on ; if a town or village, the number of inhabitants, and their feelings towards the garrison. It cannot be expected that all this information can be acquired immediately ; but it may be gained from persons who know the locality, or who have seen the post established, from spies and deserters, and lastly from personal observation. It should be ascertained whether the post is commanded or not —whether it is on a height or a plain, If commanded, the distance it is from the ground which com- mands it should be known, and whether such ground is favourable for the attack ; also what measures the defenders have taken to cover themselves from such attack. If the post is on a height, ascertain its elevation, steepness, the most accessible sides, the means of defence ; whether it is accessible on several sides, . If ina plain, observe the nature of the ground round it, the obstacles—such as marshes, ravines, rivers—whether there are woods and hollows which might conceal ambuscades ; it there are in the environs any villages where the attacking party might esta- blish itself; if the country furnishes wood from which fascines can be made; if the enemy can inundate the approaches to the post; the number of the roads leading to the post, their nature ; whether the post is connected with the corps to which it belongs by other posts and safe communications, or whether the com- munications can be intercepted. 856. In the reconnaissance of a post or a position the following objects should be examined in detail :— [Sattis.—Observe the construction of the abattis, whether the trunks are fastened together, and how; if the abattis is com- manded, if it can be turned, if the ends of the trees are buried in the ground, and if there is a parapet behind it; the means of burning or otherwise destroying it,SECTION 33.] 165 [Recoxxorrnine a Post. Other obstacles, such as palisades, fraizes, hedges, and ditches, troups de loup, &c., should all be carefully examined and reported upon as to position, strength, means of overcoming them. Cemetery, Farmyards, &c-—The thickness, the height, and the nature of the walls, whether loopholed, or how defended ; if it is commanded, and, if so, at what distance ; the best way of gaining possession of it. Degile.—Its breadth, length, nature of the ground on each side, how it may be attacked, whether it can be turned. Fieldworks.—Note their trace, their extent, the flanking defences, the command, the thickness of the parapet, the breadth of the berm, breadth and depth of the ditch, whether wet or dry, whether it has a cunette, the best means of crossing the ditch, the height and slope of the glacis ; the obstacles, such as palisades, fraizes, abattis, trous de loup. The nature of the ground near the post, and the facilities it affords for any attack. Gardens.—Whether they are walled. If so, the height, and whether ioopholed; whether prepared for defence, and how they could best be seized. ; Hedges.—Their nature, and whether they could be used for ambuscades, or defence, and whether easily converted into a parapet. Marshes.—Depth of water, quality of the bottom, parts where they are practicable, whether they could be easily drained, what causeways cross them, and whether they are available for the attack or the defence. Ravines.—Note the best places for crossing, in order to attack ; means of defending them. Roads and Rivers.—For what to observe on these heads see sections 25 and 26. Tambours.—Their position, the strength of the posts of which the tambour is constructed, how it is covered and loopholed. Woods.—Observe where they are penetrable, and where im- penetrable, whether infantry can traverse them easily, whether there are roads through them which are practicable for cavalry and artillery, whether the trees are fit for making abattis, Sxcrion 33.—RECONNAISSANCE OF A VILLAGE. 857. ‘The reconnaissance of a fortified village demands the same preliminary inquiries as that of a fortified post, with the following additional ones :—If the village has been protected by several works, the mutual defence afforded by these works must be ascertained. ‘The nature, construction, and trace of these works must also be noted. In this way their relative strength will be discovered, and the work upon which the principal attack should be directed will be ascertained. The next thing to be observed will be what approaches have been blocked up, and by what means ; how the enemy has prepared theRecoxnorrame a VitLacR.] 166 {PART 1. houses, bridges, &c. at the entrance of the village for the purposes of defence ; how he has barricaded the streets ; in what buildings he has quartered his troops, and where he has established his “ reduit” or citadel. Information should also be gained as to the plan of the village, the position of the churches, the means adopted for the internal defence, the number of inhabitants, their occupation, the supplies in money, cattle, carts, &c. 358, All this information may be obtained in the following manner :—1. By good maps and plans of the place, which should be verified by observation. 2. By the reports of spies and deserters. 3. From prisoners of war and friends within the place. 4, From the inhabitants of the neighbourhood, the tax-gatherers, game- keepers, woodmen, men and women of all kinds, and from soldiers who know the country. 5, Finally from reconnaissances. In making these reconnaissances one is first of all guided by the information obtained as above mentioned and compared one with the other. Certain precautions must be observed in the execution of these reconnaissances, to avoid being discovered and falling into anambuscade. Yet it is essential that the commander of the attacking party should personally examine the ground between him and the post, so as to avoid fatal errors in the attack. Such @ reconnaissance should be made by night in the following manner :— 359. The commander, accompanied by two or three officers, will proceed towards the place by the road by which he intends his troops to move to the attack. Of the officers who accompany him one will be desired to examine the roads and their embankments ; another will observe the obstacles, the bridges, heights, defiles ; a third will note the streams, ravines, marshes, &c. These officers will’ be instructed to leave upon the objects which are to be avoided, and upon the roads which are ¢o be followed, certain marks which may be easily recognized, such as a notch, or a blaze upon the trunk of the trees, or by breaking the branches. Th will take notice of any remarkable objects on the side of the road, such as a mound of earth, a single tree, a signpost, a bush, &e., all which will serve as guides ; and when the intrenchments are reached they will measure with poles the height of the works, the depth of the ditch, and any other dimensions which may be necessary. The officers who make such a reconnaissance should advance in the greatest silence with dark-coloured great coats on, stopping frequently to listen whether any patrol is approaching. In such case they must hide behind some object till the patrol has passed. ‘When the reconnaissance is finished each officer will, on regain- ing his quarters, hand a report of what he has observed to the commander, who, after considering all the information obtained, will form his plan of attack. 360. The Report—The report upon an offensive reconnaissance should be written in a simple manner. It should begin by. quoting the instructions received, so as to show how the execution hasSECTION 33.] 167 [Reconnorrrine 4 Vittacy. answered the object of the reconnaissance. A short account is then given of the nature and configuration of the ground about the post to the distance of cannon-shot, if the post is such as to require to be attacked by artillery, or rifle shot if it is only necessary to attack it with infantry. -The roads by which the post may be reached, and the obstacles which will be met with, are then described. The nature of the defences of the post should then be stated, as far as they have been ascertained, together with what- ever observations or information have been acquired during the reconnaissance. The means of attack should then be described, together with the means of resistance likely to be resorted to by the defenders,Measurements of horizontal distances. Measverments witnour =, > 468" . * [part tv. Instaumests.] : Bees PART IV. MISCELLANEOUS. Sxcrion 34.-MEASUREMENTS WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS. 861. It may often be necessary to ascertain heights and distances when no measuring instruments are at hand. The following problems are extracted from the Chatham course :— “ A (Fig. 249) is an inaccessible point on the opposite bank of a river or ravine, the distance of which from B is required. Ina line with the two points A and B, drive a picket at any point D, and set out any other line D E from the point D, marking the points E and C (DC being equal to CE). Measure the distance BC by pacing or other means, and set out a line C F in con- tinuation of and equal to BC, and mark the point F with a picket. In the line E F produced, find, by observation, a point G in a line with the points A and C. The distance F G will be equal to A B the distance required, and can be determined by pacing. 862. Another method is to produce the line through the two points A and B to H, bisecting B H in K, marking each point with a picket. From H lay off any other line H N equal to HB, in which make H M equal to H K. Then determine by observation the point O, where lines drawn between the pickets B and M and K and N intersect, also the point P the intersection of the line H 0 produced with line joining the points A and N, and finally determine the point L the intersection of a line joining the points B and P, and HN produced. Then the distance NL will be equal to AB, the distance required. 863. Another method may be advantageously used when the ground along the back of the river is unfavourable for setting out long lines. To PQ (Fig. 250) the distance required, set off PR at right angles, and along PR drive any number of pickets at equal distances. From R, the last picket, set off RT at right angles to PR, and find any point T in it, which is also in lino with Q and any one of the pickets, as S. Then Fi=py that is, in this case PQ is three times RT. The distance can be determined without setting off equal distances, by measuring PS, SR, after the observation is made,”1 face pages Plate XVI.De eso, Google. “BeoTION 34,] 169 (Measurements wirnour IxerRoMenrs. 864. “The height of an inaccessible point P can be ascertained Measorement as follows by two persons, without the use of instruments :— of vertical Drive in a picket, until its head at A is sbout 4 feet above the ground (Fig. 251); at convenient distances between A and P, drive three pickets, until their heads B, C, and D are in the same horizontal line as A. Hold a rod vertically at B, of such a length, that its head is at Ein the line AP. Hold the same rod vertically on the picket C, and then by observation determine the point F, in line with P and G (the head of the rod), and also in line with CD. Measure the length of the rod EB, and the distances AB, AF, and FC. ‘Then the height of P above A=EB,“¥,.. To prove this, in the figure, draw a vertical line from P, cutting AD produced in H; make BJ=CF, join JE and EG. ‘JE and EG must be parallel to FG and AH respectively. Then the triangles PAF, EAJ are similar, and 24=47 ; AT but AJ=AB—BJ=AB—FC ee ea distances, ‘The two triangles PAH, EAB being also similar. = AF EB oat aa PH the height required = EB, A¥,, a FC The height of P above any point K in a vertical tine below it could be determined in the same way ; the only difference being that the heads of the pickets would have to be lined with the points A and K, that line not being o horizontal line. The rod would still have to be held vertically. The horizontal distance AH= ,,4* AB LAP ang AP AP for 35 aa and 4g ay= xU-FO “ AR =a and AH=AB,A",.” To find the Height of an inaccessible Tower B A (Fig. 252). 865. Fix a staff DE of a known height at E ; retire back to the point C, the position of which is determined by the prolongation of the line B D meeting the eye at C. Measure EC, C A, D E being known, then B A is the same multiple of D Eas A C is of : N.B—A C must bo a horizontal line. 866, If a shadow can be found from the tower B A (Fig. 258), the approximate height ean be quickly obtained by setting up the known staff D E and measuring the shadows A C and E H. Thn AB:DE:: AC: EH. Section 35.—CAMP DETAILS. 867. Whenever any body of troops halts in the open for the day, or for any longer period, it either bivouacs or encamps. In eitherField kitchens, Camp Deraris.] 170 [Part Iv. ease the exact position of every component part of the force is marked out by officers appointed for the purpose. The following is the usual mode of proceeding :— Every disciplined force when on the march is preceded by an advanced guard. This advanced guard is under the command of a “General of the day,” or a “Field Officer of the day,” according to its strength, The officers charged with the duty of marking out the camp for each division, brigade, regiment, or battery should either accompany the advanced guard or join it before it reaches the halting ground, in order that the right: and left of the camps of the several divisions, brigades, and regiments may be marked out before the troops reach the ground. In the British army the duty of selecting the site fot the camp usually devolves upon the quartermaster-general, who points out to the divisional assistant quartermasters-general the right and left of their respective divisions, the position of head- quarters, of the general hospital, and other such details, and then proceeds to reconnoitre the country in front, and to select the general line of the chain of out-posts. In like-manner the assistant quartermasters-general of divisions indicate to the brigade majors the position of their respective brigades, and of the divisional head- quarters, and make the necessary arrangements. for the supply of water and other details. In company with the field officer of the day they select the position for the pickets of the division, and give the necessary directions as to thejr strength, &. to the brigade majors, who in their turn inform the adjutants of regiments. e exact position of the camp of each regiment or battery having been thus marked out, and the pickets, outposts, and camp guards mounted, the tents are pitched, kitchens and latrines are constructed, and a small trench is dug round each tent, the water and wood parties are told off and despatched, together with fatigue parties for clearing passages for troops, guns, &., both along the front and rear of the camp. In Part 3 the rules which govern the selection of a camp have ‘been noticed, and for the manner of laying out the several camps for a regiment of cavalry, a battalion of infantry, and a battery of artillery, the reader is referred to the “ Regulations for Encampments,” published by the Quartermaster-General in 1853, while for the manner of pitching tents, constructing huts, aad other details connected with camp duties, he cannot do better than consult “The Soldier's Pocket Book for Field Service,” published by Colonel Wolseley. 368. The following instructions as to the construction of field kitchens are extracted from the course of military engineering at Chatham. Field. Kitchens. ‘ When troops are encamped for two or more days, it is advis- able to construct temporary kitchens with such simple materialsTe lace page 170 Plate X{VI. BROAD ARROW Scale for Figs 254 to 262 8 ft.to 1 inch. — ‘Vincent Brooks Dey San LithDigtized by GoogleSECTION 35.] 171 {Came Devas, as are found everywhere. These aro of three kinds, viz. :—The broad arrow, Fig. 254, Plate XLVII. ; the circular kitchen, Fig. 255, Plate XLVIIL.; and the circular covered kitchen, Fig. 256, Plate XLVILI.” The site having been selected, a picket must be driven to mark the centre of the chimney, and circles respectiveiy of 1 foot, and 3 feet radii, marked on the ground for the base of the chimney, The trenches are next traced, the centre one, towards the quarter from which the wind is blowing. The trench is traced 10 feet long and 10 inches broad, with a mouth as shown on plan. The other two trenches are traced in a similar manner, one on either side, making an angle of about 40° with the central one. - One man excavates each trench, commencing from the bottom of the chimney, making it in the thickness of the chimney only 6 inches wide, and 12 inches deep. When beyond the base of the chimney, each man works to a width of 10 inches, gradually increasing the depth to 14 inches at the mouth, and forms the ramp. Another man cuts out the bottom of the chimney to con- nect the three trenches, and then commences building it, laying stones or sticks over the trenches at their ends, to carry the base of the chimney, and gradually building it up with sods, cut by a fifth man. The men in the trenches having completed them, are employed respectively in providing and mixing clay, carrying water, and getting stones and sticks to lay across the trench, Great care must be taken in the construction of the chimney, all holes and interstices being plastered up with clay. ‘The inside of the trenches may be rendered with clay ifit be plentiful, in which case the dimensions should be slightly increased ; if clay be scarce, they should be cut smooth. Each trench will accommodate seven kettles, the holes for which should be moulded from one, the intervals between being covered with stones, hoop iron, or sticks plastered with clay, all interstices being closed with sods, &e. Such a kitchen will cook for 360 men, and will last a fortnight even when not rendered with clay. One non-commissioned officer will superintend its construction by a party of five men, whose duties are as follows, viz. :— 1 man to cut out one trench and temper clay. a a "I carry water. ” ” ” prepare brushwood. » build the chimney, and 1 man to cut turf. The tools, &c. required are,— Axes, pick - - 8] Rammer - - 1) Hook, bill - - - 1 | Shovel, field service - 1] 3 Kettle, camp - - Sod cutter - - 198 Pickets, bundle of - - 1] Tape, tracing, or line- 1{ @ Spades - - - 4| Trowel, maso’s - 1) % ‘Time to construct, 3 hours. ‘Time to cook, 1 hour.” 869, “From an inspection of Fig. 255, Plate XLVIIL, it will be seen that this kitchen is but an extension of the last, the number of trenches being increased to eight, and the diameter of the chimney made 2 ft. 6 in. ‘The other dimensions are the same, A circular’ passage is made 18 inches wide and 14 inches deep, Broad arrow kitchen. Construction. Circular kitchen.Construction. Covered. kitchen for a standing camp. Remarks on kitchens. Camp Derarts.] 172 [part Iv. connecting the mouths of the trenches with a drain at its lowest point. Although there is standing room for kettles for 1,000 men, yet it is better to assume that such a kitchen will cook for but 600 men, as then only those trenches that are to windward of the chimney need be used. The kitchen is traced in the same way as the last, each trench making an angle of 45° with the one on either side of it. One non-commissioned officer and seven men are sufficient to construct this kitchen. Their duties are as follows :— 2 men to dig 4 trenches and temper clay. 1 man to dig 2 trenches and carry water. ay 2 ” prepare brushwood. 1 > to build chimney, and 2 men to cut turf. The tools, &e. required are,— Axes, pick - - 7{ Rammer - -1)3 Hook, bill - - - 1 | Shovels, field service - 2] 2 Kettles, camp - - 2 Sod cutter - - 1-8 Pickets, bundles of - 2 Tape, tracing, orline- 1{ @ ades - - 7 | Trowel, mason’s - 135 ‘Time to construct, 8 hours. ‘Time to cook, 1 hour.” 3870. “ This kitchen answers well, and with a moderate amount of care no danger from fire is to be apprehended. It is covered with a couple of bell tents, and therefore consumes much less fuel (Fig. 256, Plate XLVIII.) All the trenches may be used at the same time, and may be reduced in length to 8 feet. : One non-commissioned officer and 30 men are required. 20 men to dig circular trench, and fire-trenches. 2 ,, to cut turf. 2 men to carry water. 3. ,, to build chimney. | 1 man to prepare brushwood. 2 ,, to temper clay. The following tools, &c. are required :— Axes, pick - - - 10 | Tents, bell - - -2 Hooks, bill - - - 2| Timbers, 18 feet long - 16 Kettles, camp =~ - 2| Rammers - - 2) Pickets, bundles of - 2 | Sod cutter - - 1 a Spades - - + 4 | Tapes, tracing, or lines 2 (73 Shovels, field servic ~ 22 | Trowel, mason’s - ys ‘Time to construct, 8 hours. ‘Time to cook, 1 hour.” 871. “All the turf from the top of the trenches should be carefully pared off to a thickness of not exceeding 3 inches, and in lengths of from 1 foot to 1 ft. 6 in. to be used in building the chimneys. All flat stones should be put on one side for paving the bottoms of the trenches. ‘The following are the service kettles :— | 1 i No. of Men Name, | ‘Weight. | Content | pisetr | Depth. | No.of Men | Ibs. | gattons, inches. | inches. | l Flanders kettle (ange) | 8% |” 8 12 ul 20 Camp kettle (ight) ~| 2} 1h 9 7 10 Torrenskettle - -| 3 | If u 103 ul 1FIELD KITCHENS. seer Seotion through a Covered Kitchen: Scale tor Fig 255 10 ft wlin " » 256 oy ow» __Toface nage 172 Plate XLVI. Vani \contBrooks Day Sor LithDe eso, GoogleSEOTION 35.] 173 (Cancer Derarzs. The kitchens above described requiring some time to construct, cannot be used on the line of march, and the simplest method is to suspend the kettles from a stick, supported on forked uprights driven into the ground, on each side the fire. Where fuel is scarce, two lines of flat stones may be placed on the ground, parallel to one another, and 8 inches apart, the fuel laid between them, and the kettles put on the top, not more than six in one row. Sods should be placed between the stones to stop up all interstices, and promote a draught.” 372. “A field oven consists of a hearth sunk below the surface, Field ovens. with an arch formed bya hurdle. The lines to be traced (Fig. 257, Plate XLVI.) are the cutting lines of the hearth, its doorway, and those for the ramp. A rectangular space, 5 feet long, and 2 ft. 6 ine broad, is excavated to a depth of 6 inches, to form the hearth of the oven. It is levelled, and covered with a layer of clay mixed with cowdung, which is also plastered on the sides of + the excavation. At the mouth of the oven a sod-work fiue if constructed, 9 inches square inside, & square hole 1 foot high and broad being left in the lower part of it on a level with the hearth, for a door to the oven. At the other end of the oven, a wall of sod work plastered with clay is built up to the height of the top of the arch, and a hole dug 8 feet deep, 9 inches in front of the chimney, 3 ft, 6 in. wide, connected with the ground level by means of a ramp 18 inches wide. While the above work is being done, the arch of the oven is Forming the made ; an arc is struck on the ground, with a radius of 1 ft. 10 in, arch. and 9 pickets rather more than 5 feet long are driven into the ground as in Fig, 258, and a brushwood hurdle 5 feet in height formed on the pickets ; the concave surface is then covered with a mixture of one part cow-dung to three clay, and having been dried in the sun, it is coated over with another thin coat of the same mixture. The arch so ‘prepared is laid over the hearth already levelled, and is then well coated over externally with the clay mixture, and is finally covered over with the earth from the ramp to @ thickness of 1 ft. 3 in, at the top, the slopes projecting 18 inches beyond the hearth (Fig. 259). The entrance to the oven is closed, either by a door made of hurdle work covered with clay, or simply by sods. One non-commissioned officer and seven men are required to Men, tools, &c. construct each oven, two men being employed in cutting out Field oven. and preparing the hearth, building the flue and end walls, and excavating the ramp, two more men procuring and mixing the dung and clay, while three men cut the brushwood, make the hurdle, and plaster it. Figs. 260, 261, show the oven complete. “The following tools are required — Axes, pick - - 2{ Mallet - -1 Hook, bill - - 1| Rammer - -1 Knives, gabion - 8] Shovels, field service - 4 Line, tracing - - 1 | Sod cutter (ifavailable) 1 26834. xSlaughter places. Destruction of Railways. Camp Deana.) 174 _ [PART ay. The oven might be completed in four hours, but as the puttin; on of the second coat of. plaster on the arch must be donot the first is dry, the time depends much on the heat of the sun. Thig oven will contain from 70 to 80 two-pound loaves, and would therefore bake, each time the oven was heated, bread, enough for from 140 to 160 men. The time for heating such ap oven on the’first occasion would be from one hour to 1} hours. A kneading trough, of the dimensions shown in Fig. 262, should be constructed near the oven.” 378, Latrines are usually placed in the rear of the camp of each battalion, They may however be placed in the front, or, indeed, in any position where the ground is most favourable. . This is a matter of little corisequence, but it is important that: they should not (se has sometimes happened) be placed alongside of the water supply of a battalion. : Latrines consist simply of a trench of from 2 to 8 feet wide ati P: and narrower at bottam, 4 to 6 feet deep, and 12 to 16 feet long. ‘A pole or tree is generally fixed over the top’ near the edge at. 1} feet from the' ground for the men .to sit upon; and if there. i is brushwood at hand’ a:screen may be constructed. Once: or twice a:day lime or earth shiould: be: thrown into the pit; when: full it should: be closed ‘and a fresh latrine constructed. In standing camps it is well to construct ash-pits, into ‘which all ashes and other rubbish are thrown. - 374, It is very important that the animals, required for the food of the camp, should be slaughtered systematically, and the offal buried.. For this purpose, in the Crimes, after some ex- perience, it was found advisable to dig a long trench to which the cattle were brought tailon. They were then killed, skinned, cut m, and cleaned ; the-offal of each beast being placed in. its own skin and turned: over into the trench, which was then filled i: in with earth. ‘Thus there was no offensive smell and the camp was kept clean and wholesome. Sorton 86.-DESTRUCTION OF RAILWAYS. ; 375. The destruction of railways would generally be entrusted _ to a special corps of engineers, which should accompany an army” in the field for the purpose of repairing railways that have been destroyed by the enemy, and laying a temporary line of rail wherever required. But it may sometimes be necessary for troops of the a in the absence of such a special corps to destroy railways. following instructions are therefore extracted from the ook of “Instruction in Military Engineering ” :— “Tt.is often of the utmost importance to render railways useless:to an enemy. ‘The officer entrusted with this task should be well acquainted with the time at his disposal, and with the nature of the operations of his general, It would occasionally not be desirable to destroy large bridges or to create serious obstacles,SECTION 36.] 176 (Dzsravorion or Rattwars. as, for instance, when the object was only to delay an enemy for a short time, while troops were being assembled, after which the offensive would be taken, and the line would have to be re-opened, On the other hand, the ‘object might be to destroy the railway as thoroughly 98 possible'in a given time. - : The following are points to which attention should be paid, viz., ** to remove the rolling stock, demolish the watering tanks, remove or burn the stores of fuel, fill up the cuttings, make gaps in the embankments, destroy the railway bridges and viaducts, and also those over the line, close the tunnels, and to remove or destroy the permanent way. Csre should be taken not to destroy prematurely anything which would aid in the progress of the work. Mines for the destruction of bridges, embankments, &c. should not be ‘fired until all rolling stock is removed from the enemy’s side of them. Material which would be of use to the enemy, should not-be allowed to fall into his hands; in case of apprehension of capture it should be injured. If: there be not time to remove the rolling stock, it can be rendered useless by being set on fire, or by destroying the axles, or by removing important working parts of engines, such’ as Boch Destruction of rolling stock. connecting rods, safety valvds, lever arms, &c. A locomotive might ° be quickly destroyed by firing a gun shot longitudinally through the boiler ; the fire-box can be burnt out by keeping up a strong. fire in it, with the boiler empty. It may be blown up, by serewin, down tho safety valves, or by a charge’ of powder fired inside it, carefully plagged shell filled with powder, might safely be placed ¢ in the engine furnace, and would not explode till the metal w: heated through, thus allowing time for escape. . In dismantling a railway, such’ a length of perminent way should if possible be removed, as would not ve sufficient materials for the enemy to re-establish even a single line. Under any-circumstances, the points, crossings, and switches should be renioved. It will be convenient to take up in the first place, one’ line of rails, leaving portions which would be useful for sidings,’ and also the sidings themselves, and. the cross-over roads, fll the last, as they would: allow empty return wagons to: stand ‘out of the way, and the loaded wagons to pass. The rails.as they are taken up should be loaded on to 4 train drawn up alongside on the other line; ballast and open goods wagons would be: the best for the rails, whereas any carriages would do for the removal of the chairs, fish-plates, bolts, &c. Each train should be sent. to the rear’ as soon ss‘loaded, and the rails, &. deposited in a place of safety, or thrown into any deep or muddy river the line passes‘ over, or destroyed. The removal of the last line of rails should be commenced at the point nearest the enemy. ‘The sleepers and keys can be collected in piles and burnt. Dismantling the permanent way. Rails are most effectually destroyed by heating and twisting Destroying them, it being impossible to: use them when so treated, unless rails. they are sent to the rolling mill. For: the purpose a trench 6 feet, wide, 8 or 10 feet long, and 1 ft. 6 in. deep, should be dug, and a fire lighted in it, of sleepers, keys, or fencing; the rails are laidDesravorion or Rarcways.) 176 PART Iv. across the trench, and in about 40 minutes become sufficiently hot to be twisted by two men, by means of crowbars having clips on their ends, Rails will become bent by their own weight if simply placed on top of a burning pile of sleepers, &c., but they can then be restored to nearly their original form, by being placed on a fire the reverse way. Chairs may be broken with sledge hammers. ‘When time presses, the keys may be knocked out and burnt, or otherwise made away with, the trenails of the chairs cut, and the Tine thrown out of gauge. Destroying Embankments and cuttings can be destroyed by mines in the enl s usual manner. In steep cuttings, a good obstruction can be made and cuttings. by lodging charges so as to cause a heavy slip of earth across the Tine; it would be more advantageous to make two or three such slips in one cutting, than one in each of two or three different cuttings, as the enemy could not then work at each end of each mass. The slips should not be at the ends of the cutting, in order that the distance, the earth has to be removed before it can be tipped out of the way, may be as great as possible, If only one slip can be made in a cutting, it should be nearer the enemy’s end, so that if he wishes to work at both sides of the mass, he will have no trucks where they would be most useful. It would also delay an enemy more, if two or three gaps were made in one - embankment, than if one gap were made in each of: two or three- different embankments, Destroying Bridges and viaducts can be demolished in the usual manner bri with powder, &c., as described in section 14. The demolition of tunnels, &e. _ tunnel would be an effectual way of stopping up a line. Tunnels are more easily attacked at the mouths over the haunches of the arch, or at the tops of the air shafts, behind the linings of which charges can be lodged to throw down débris, into the tunnel ; the manholes or sanctuaries would also be favourable points at which to commence mines, Under ‘some circumstances stopping up arches, or even culverts, might cause such a head of water, as to destroy a bridge or embankment. In certain cases it might be advisable to leave a line of railway intact, but yet prepare it so that an enemy could not use it; this may be done by placing carefully concealed mines at interval with arrangements for their being exploded by the passage of enemy’s train over them, a simple contrivance rendering them harmless at other times, A knowledge of the means at the enemy's disposal, would neces- sarily influence the mode of proceeding to be adopted, and therefore every effort should be made to obtain information.” LONDON: Printed by Gxonon B Braz and Wrut.a Srorriswoops, ‘the Queen's most Excellent Majesty. Por Her Majesty Stationery Ofc Bate abo0, $74)MILITARY BOOKS, published by Authority—continued, In demy 16mo, leather, with clasp, price 2s. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. SAPPERS’ MANUAL, | Compiled for the Use of ENGINEER VOLUNTEER CORPS. By Carram W. A. FRANKLAND, RE. | ‘Just published (in Two Volumes, and Case of Maps), cloth, 4/.'4s., half moroceo, Ot. 5s. 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