Engine Calibration: A Model-Based Approach

David J. M. Sampson

Letitia A. D. Sheridan

Introduction

Vehicle customers continue to demand ever-improving performance and economy, while government regulators impose ever-tightening restrictions on engine emissions. In response, engine
developers have turned to increasingly complex control systems that provide great flexibility
to trade off these conflicting objectives and optimise operation through a wide variety of conditions. Complex combinations of powertrain actuator technology variable inlet and exhaust
valve timing, exhaust gas recirculation, variable geometry turbochargers, direct injection systems
with multiple injection events per cycle, swirl control valves are becoming common on modern
production series engines. However, as engine complexity increases, the time and cost needed
to calibrate engines (that is, to optimise the control system settings) using traditional methods
becomes impractical.
Model-based calibration refers to the process of using modern design of experiments, statistical modelling and optimisation techniques and tools to define a methodology for efficiently
producing high quality calibrations for complex engine applications. Model-based calibration
provides a way to break down the calibration process into manageable subtasks. This paper illustrates the approach using two typical example applications: a gasoline engine for a passenger
car, and a diesel engine for a heavy-duty off-road vehicle. Spin-off benefits that can be leveraged
by engineers involved in vehicle simulation, controller software design and component testing are
also detailed, and future applications for model-based calibration techniques are also discussed.

Gasoline engine application

2.1

Problem definition

The first example application involves a 2.2 litre gasoline engine with dual independent variable
valve timing. This is a representative engine type for modern passenger cars. The calibration
engineers problem is to find the best settings of spark, intake cam and exhaust cam as a function
of engine speed and load; best settings means balancing engine power, fuel consumption and
emissions to meet customer requirements, government regulations and hardware constraints.

2.2

Design of experiments

This application is challenging for two reasons: there are a large number of possible input
combinations (spark, cam timings, speed and load) to explore, and the engine responses (torque,
fuel consumption and emissions) vary in a complex way with those inputs.
Design of experiments techniques can be used to give an efficient set of test combinations
to make best use of engine dynamometer time. The Model-Based Calibration Toolbox provides
calibration engineers with a range of design types, from classical to space-filling to optimal,
depending on the application and a priori engine knowledge. Space-filling designs are suitable

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Figure 1: Experimental design for the gasoline engine application.

when there is little knowledge of the engine behaviour or the operating envelope, while optimal
designs give advantages if the behaviour (in the form of a suitable model type) is known from
previous experience on similar engines. It is also possible to mix and match design techniques:
first, run an initial survey using the space-filling approach; second, build some models of this
initial data to discover the dominant shape of the responses; finally, augment the design in
targeted regions using the optimal approach. This can be an practical process for producing an
efficient design. There is always a trade-off between the number of data points collected and the
quality of the resulting models.
For this application, a latin hypercube space-filling design with 253 points in speed, load,
inlet cam timing and exhaust cam timing was chosen. At each point, a spark sweep was run.
The design was constrained in the speed-load space to avoid points with high load and low speed.
(In this region, a different operating mode with a richer air-fuel mixture is required.)
Designs can be run on the dynamometer manually or through a test automation system.
For early calibration development, before final engine hardware is available, it is also becoming
more common to run a design on a virtual dynamometer consisting of an engine simulation
software (e.g., GT-POWER or WAVE). This can significantly reduce overall engine development
time. In this application, the data was generated using a GT-POWER model featuring predictive
combustion. Such a model produces realistic results but is computationally expensive. The model
was executed on a cluster of three dual-processor (Pentium III 800 MHz) machines and controlled
by a Simulink/Stateflow test harness to monitor convergence to steady-state conditions. The
total simulation time required was approximately 5 days (30 processor days, 2.9 hours per sweep).

2.3

Modelling

Statistical modelling techniques can be used to bundle the information gathered during engine
testing into a form that can be evaluated throughout the operating region. This provides the
capability to accurately predict the engine responses in between points where data is collected.
Physical models based on detailed thermodynamics and fluid mechanics equations are extremely
difficult to build, and run so slowly that they are inappropriate for calibration applications. Statistical modelling takes a black box approach to capture the multivariable influence of inputs on
outputs. The models described here are steady-state models, as steady-state mapping accounts
for a large fraction of the base calibration process. The Model-Based Calibration Toolbox provides calibration engineers with a range of sophisticated models including splines, radial basis

Figure 2: Torque and exhaust temperature model slices for the gasoline engine application.
Both the torque model (N.m) and exhaust temperature model (degrees Celsius) are shown as a
function of spark timing (degrees) and engine speed (rpm).

functions and neural networks, and a range of visualisation and validation tools to assist with
assessing model quality and selecting between candidate models.
For this application, models were built for torque and exhaust temperature. A two-stage
modelling approach was used. This involved fitting a local model to each spark sweep, and
then building a global model of how the parameters of the local model vary in speed, load,
inlet cam timing and exhaust cam timing. The two-stage approach has numerous advantages
over the one-stage approach (building models as a single function of all the variables) including
more appropriate treatment of factors caused by unregulated environmental conditions (e.g.,
temperature and humidity), easier outlier identification, and a more natural, step-by-step model
reviewing process for tool users. Two-stage modelling also provides scope for choosing models
based on engineering knowledge of underlying physical processes or previous experience. For the
torque response, the best local model (torque versus spark) was a quadratic polynomial spline,
while the best global model to predict the spline parameters was found to be a radial basis
function with a multiquadratic kernel. For the exhaust temperature, a quadratic local model
was sufficient, while the global model selected was a hybrid radial basis function with a quadratic
polynomial part. The average difference between model and data was 0.7% for torque and 1.2%
for exhaust temperature. A range of statistical metrics including the overall error (RMS), the
overall prediction error (RMS) and the small-sample Akaike information criteria were used to
compare candidate models. Slices of models for torque and exhaust temperature are shown in
figure 2.

2.4

Optimisation

Optimisation techniques can be used to specify objectives and constraints to achieve an trade-off
between performance, economy and emissions. The Model-Based Calibration Toolbox provides
calibration engineers with flexible tools to specify and solve optimisation problems and to populate calibration tables with the results. A scripting interface also allows engineers to use advanced
algorithms from the Optimization Toolbox and the Genetic Algorithm and Direct Search Toolbox.
For this application, the objective was to maximise torque by selecting optimal settings of
spark, inlet cam timing and exhaust can timing, subject to constraints on exhaust temperature (to ensure a safe operating temperature for the catalyst). A boundary model constraint,
representing the feasible operating region, was also included. The optimisation was carried out

Figure 3: Optimisation results for the gasoline engine application.

Figure 4: Optimised tables for the gasoline engine application, as a function of speed (rpm)
and load (dimensionless). Clockwise from top left: spark timing (degrees), intake cam timing
(degrees), torque (N.m), exhaust cam timing (degrees).

using a gradient-based (steepest descent) method at fifteen important speed-load combinations.

The results are summarised in figure 3. The optimal spark and cam timing results were then
inserted into tables, with the remaining remaining table values filled by using a smoothing spline
to interpolate and extrapolate. Illustrations of the resulting tables for spark and cam timings
are shown in figure 4. The best torque values found by the optimisation were also used to fill a
torque estimator table. (In addition to filling tables used for control, ECUs often employ tables
for estimation, thereby saving on the cost of including expensive sensors.)

3
3.1

Diesel engine application

Problem definition

The second example application involves a 9.0 litre diesel engine with cooled EGR and a variable
geometry turbocharger. This is a representative engine type for modern heavy-duty off-road
applications. The calibration engineers problem is to find the best settings of injection timing,

Figure 5: Experimental design for the diesel engine application.

fuel quantity, fuel pressure, EGR and turbo rack position as a function of engine speed and
torque; best settings again means balancing engine power, fuel consumption and emissions within
hardware constraints.

3.2

Design of experiments

For this application, a V-optimal design based on an underlying quadratic model was used.
The V-optimal class of optimal designs is used to produce a model that has good predictive
qualities (see [1] for a detailed comparison of optimal design types) and is most suitable for
engine calibration applications. The quadratic model was selected after reviewing existing test
data from a similar engine. The design featured 65 points in speed, injection timing, fuel quantity,
fuel pressure, EGR and turbo rack position. Constraints on reasonable injection timing, fuel
quantity, fuel pressure and turbo rack position as a function of speed were included, again based
on data from a similar engine and engineering judgement.
The data was generated using a WAVE model, running on a four-processor cluster and
controlled by a Simulink/Stateflow test harness. The total simulation time required was 2.4 days
(9.6 processor days, 3.5 hours per sweep) for 30 engine cycles per point.

3.3

Modelling

Two-stage models were built for the relevant responses: torque, NOx, exhaust temperature and
peak cylinder pressure. In all cases, quadratic models were used at the local level and hybrid
radial basis functions (with quadratic polynomial parts) were used at the global level. The
average difference between model and data was 1.0% for torque, 0.9% for NOx, 0.2% for exhaust
temperature and 0.4% for peak cylinder pressure. Slices of models for torque and NOx are shown
in figure 6.

3.4

Optimisation

For this application, the objective was to minimise brake specific fuel consumption by selecting
optimal settings of injection timing, fuel quantity, fuel pressure, EGR and turbo rack position,
subject to constraints on turbo speed and peak cylinder pressure (to ensure reliable operation).
The optimisation was again carried out using a steepest descent method, at seven of the eight

Figure 6: Torque and NOx model slices for the diesel engine application. The torque model (N.m)
is shown as a function of injection timing and turbo rack position. The NOx model (mg/s) is
shown as a function of injection timing and engine speed.

Figure 7: Optimisation results for the diesel engine application.

points in the current U.S. eight-mode off-road drive cycle (idle was neglected). The results are
summarised in figure 7. The optimal results were inserted into tables which are shown in figure 8.

Other applications

While the applications described have been control problems (e.g., populating tables for best
spark timing and best injection timing), the model-based approach is equally useful for estimation
problems (e.g., filling tables for air charge determination) [1, 2].
The model-based calibration methodology and tools described have also been applied successfully to a range of additional complex engine calibration applications, including on-road diesel
and gasoline direct injection engines. Organisations have achieved significant reductions in development time and improvements in calibration quality from using a model-based approach,
compared to traditional methods, for these complex applications.

Figure 8: Optimised tables for the diesel engine application, as a function of speed (rpm) and
torque (N.m). Clockwise from top left: injection timing (degrees), fuel pressure (MPa), EGR
valve position (mm), turbo rack position (mm).

Future directions

Sophisticated tools for design of experiments, modelling and optimisation are enabling productivity improvements throughout the engine development process.
The model-based calibration approach, coupled to physics-based engine simulation packages,
is enabling engineers to produce initial ballpark calibrations, even before production engine
hardware is available for dynamometer testing. The same technology is also allowing engineers
to simulate the effects of unexpected engine hardware changes.
High-fidelity, fast-running statistical engine models (such as those generated using the ModelBased Calibration Toolbox) can be of great value to ECU software designers, who can prototype
their algorithms conveniently and rapidly on the desktop using simulation tools (e.g., Simulink
and Stateflow).
At the other end of the development process, the same statistical engine models can enable
validation of production ECU hardware and software, for example, in the area of fault detection
and management. This is achieved by deploying the engine model to a real-time system (e.g.,
xPC Target or dSPACE) and connecting to a candidate production ECU for hardware-in-the-loop
simulation.
Design of experiments and modelling tools, coupled to increasingly flexible test automation
systems, enable robust test automation and reduced test time. In future, calibration engineers
will be able to program systems that adjust a design on the fly when infeasible operating regions
are encountered, or that collect data until a specified level of model accuracy is reached [3].

Acknowledgements
Thanks to the following colleagues at The MathWorks for their involvement in the modelling
and optimisation: Ian Noell, Tanya Morton, Paul Kerr-Delworth, Russell Goyder, Richard Lang,
Richard Alcock, Jon Cherrie and Jos Martin (Cambridge, UK) and Pete Maloney (Novi, USA).
Thanks also to Gamma Technologies for use of their GT-POWER software for the gasoline
engine example, and to Ricardo for use of their WAVE software for the diesel engine example.

References
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2004.
[2] P. J. Maloney. Embedded torque estimator for diesel engine control application. In Electronic
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[3] T. M. Morton, R. D. Connors, P. J. Maloney, and D. J. M. Sampson. Model-based optimal
calibration of a dual independent variable valve-timing engine. In K. Ropke, editor, Design
of Experiments (DOE) in der Motorenentwicklung, pages 7785. expert verlag, Renningen,
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