A PROJECT REPORT ON

INVESTIGATION OF MODEL
REDUCTION OF FLOWS WITH
MODAL AND NON
NON-MODAL
MODAL GROWTH
By

AMAL SAHAI (Roll No 08010359)

In Partial Fulfillment of the Award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology, Mechanical Engineering

Project Work Carried Out at

Department of Fluid Mechanics & Engineering Acoustics

Berlin Institute of Technology
Technology, Berlin - 10623
Under the Guidance of

Prof. Dr. Joern Sesterhenn

Dr. Julius Reiss

Submitted To

Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati 781039

MAY-JULY (2011)

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Joern Sesterhenn for accepting me
as summer intern at the Department of Fluid Mechanics and Engineering Acoustics. His
constant support and guidance not only allowed me to explore the different facets of the
study assigned for the study but also, constantly expand on my overall understanding of
the subject and academics in general. I would also like to thank Dr. Julius Reiss, who was
instrumental in making this period of study possible for me and assisted me through
every set of obstacles I encountered while realizing this brilliant learning opportunity. His
assistance during the actual period of study was even more crucial and allowed me to
gain firsthand knowledge of implementing reduced order modeling through well-defined
and clear objectives.
I would also like to thank Flavia Cavalcanti Miranda, Mathias Lemke, Jens
Brouwer, Oliver Henze and Mario Sruka whose help has been invaluable in overcoming
difficulties that I managed to hit at every step of my study. I have constantly pestered
every living soul at the department and it was their unwavering patience that allowed me
to rectify multiple flaws and grapple with challenging concepts that I encountered all
along. I would also like to mention the generosity I have received from everyone around
me and the ease with which I could assimilate into the group. The satisfaction I received
from working at the Department of Fluid Mechanics and Engineering Acoustics can only
be matched by the fun I had with the rest of the team during the period of my stay. I
would find this the most apt opportunity to mention that I would very much look forward
to a similar opportunity at TU Berlin in the future and engage in exhilarating research in
Fluid Mechanics while never missing out on all the fun banter that goes around the place.
I am also deeply grateful to Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati and the
Honda Motor Company for facilitating this entire experience and translating my desire to
explore the different dimensions of the field of aeronautics and fluid mechanics into a
tangible opportunity to build on my theoretical background (if limited) in the subject by
working on challenging real world applications and problems.

Amal Sahai
Junior Undergraduate Student
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati - 781039
India

Table of Contents
1

Background of the Study.................................................................................. 1

Model Reduction Techniques .......................................................................... 1

2.1

An Introduction ......................................................................................... 1

2.2

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) .................................................. 2

2.2.1

Methods of Snapshots ......................................................................... 2

2.2.2

Case 1: Undisturbed Channel Flow ...................................................... 3

2.2.3

Case 2: Channel Flow with Disturbance ............................................... 4

2.3

Balanced Truncation .................................................................................. 5

2.4

Balanced POD ............................................................................................ 6

2.4.1

Balanced Truncation Using the Method of Snapshots ......................... 6

2.4.2

Case 2: Channel Flow with Disturbance Continued:............................. 8

Non-Modal Growth........................................................................................ 10
3.1

Introduction............................................................................................. 10

3.2

Linear Stability ......................................................................................... 11

3.3

Transient Growth and the SVD Problem .................................................. 12

3.4

Non-Orthogonal Growth in Channel Flow ................................................ 13

3.4.1

Simulations with Periodic Boundary Conditions ................................ 14

3.4.2

Simulations with Non-Periodic Boundary Conditions ........................ 15

Summary and Future Work ............................................................................ 17

Index of MATLAB Programs Created .............................................................. 18

Bibliography................................................................................................... 19

Tables of Figures
2-1: First 10 POD Modes for Base Flow .................................................................. 3
2-2: Difference between the Actual & Approximated Value of the Streamwise
Velocity Component Using POD Modes ........................................................... 4
2-3: Comparison of Energy of the Disturbance between Full and Reduced System
Constructed Using POD Modes ........................................................................ 5
2-4: First 10 Balanced Modes for a System Disturbed by a Velocity Peak .............. 8
2-5: Comparison between Actual & Approximated Value of Streamwise Velocity
Component Using Balanced Modes ................................................................. 9
2-6: Comparison between Actual & Approximated Value of Perpendicular Velocity
Component Using Balanced Modes ................................................................. 9
2-7: Comparison of Energy of the Disturbance between Full and Reduced System
Constructed Using Balanced Modes .............................................................. 10
3-1: The envelope of two-dimensional optima (circles) for the backward-facing
step flow at Re = 500 together with curve of linear energy evolution starting
from three optimal initial conditions (t = 20, 60, and 100) ............................. 11
3-2: Evolution of Normalized Energy of Disturbance for Periodic Boundary
Conditions starting from two optimal initial conditions (t = 15, 75) ............... 14
3-3: Evolution of Normalized Energy of Disturbance for Non-Periodic Boundary
Conditions starting from optimal initial condition for t = 5 ............................ 15
3-4: Optimal Initial Disturbance for t = 5 for Achieving Non-Orthogonal Growth. 16

1 Background of the Study

The following study has been conducted as a part of my summer internship for the period MayJuly, 2011 at the Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics, TU-Berlin. It is aimed at
investigating different techniques for model reduction with applications in fluid mechanics
problems. Additionally, an attempt has been made to explore the suitability of applying such
techniques for calculating optimal starting disturbances for achieving non-orthogonal growth at
sub-critical Reynolds numbers in case of channel flow.

2 Model Reduction Techniques

This section aims to explore the different techniques and present the underlying principles with
for achieving model reduction. It also presents the efficacy of these techniques at representing
non-modal growth satisfactorily.

2.1 An Introduction
The application of different principles of dynamical systems and control theory is a considerable
challenge in the field of fluid mechanics because of the complex nature of many of the governing
equations which are high-dimensional and non-linear. Model Reduction is aimed at obtaining
low dimensional approximations of the full systems in order to circumvent the problem of
analyzing the full flow problem directly.
The problem of obtaining a reduced model is tackled initially through the use of two
traditional techniques and eventually by a final method that combines elements from the last two
approaches to obtain satisfactory results. The method of Proper Orthogonal Decomposition
(POD) and the accompanying Galerkin projection that has seen widespread use, involves
projecting the full system onto empirically obtained base functions. POD can yield unpredictable
results based on the empirical data and these error may persist even near stable equilibrium
points.
The next approach is referred to as balanced truncation largely eliminates the limitations
faced by POD, and provides for error bounds that are close to the lowest error possible for any
reduced-order model. Although very effective, this approach has seen limited application on
problems pertaining to fluid systems due to computational difficulties it suffers at high
dimensions.
The final method, referred to Balanced Proper Orthogonal Decomposition, combines
ideas from both the aforementioned techniques. It provides for balanced truncations with
computational cost similar to POD. This technique aims at overcoming several limitations
1

primarily regarding the computational costs at large dimensions and the unbalanced truncating of
states (poorly observable but strongly controllable and vice-versa) by incorporating a different
methods of snapshots.

2.2 Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD)

POD, also referred to as principal component analysis has been used for a long time to generate
low-dimensional models of fluid systems. It involves the creation of subspace Vr of fixed
dimension r, given a set of data that lies in a vector space V, such that the error in projecting onto
the subspace is minimized. Also, it would be assumed that for a fluid problem the equations have
been suitably discretized so that V has finite dimension (for a finite difference simulation, this
would simply be the number of grid points times the number of flow variables).
Suppose we have a set of data given by x(t) belongs to
 , with 0 < t < T. We seek a
projection  
 
 of fixed rank r, that minimizes the total error



  
  

2.2(a)

The    matrix is now introduced:



 

  

2.2(b)

where * denotes the transpose. R being symmetric, positive-semidefinite would generate

eigenvalues that are real and non-negative. The eigenvectors   may be chosen to be
orthonormal. The optimal subspace of dimension r is spanned by  , ,  . The vectors
  are also referred to as POD modes.
2.2.1 Methods of Snapshots
To generate POD modes for the given problem,    eigenvalue problem needs to be solved. In
case of a fluid mechanics problem, this  could exceed 10! . Thus, it is a much more efficient to
generate snapshots of the system at discrete times (m in number) and then, reduce the original
eigenvalue problem to an "  " eigenvalue problem. Thus, the integral is transformed into a
sum:


 (
%)
$% &
% '%

2.2(c)

where '% are quadrature coefficients. The data is assembled into a   " matrix:
*  +
 ,'
( ,'( -

2.2(d)

The sum is then written as
 **  . Thus, this reduced "  " eigenvalue is then solved,
*  *.  / .

2.3(e)

with the eigenvectors . may be chosen to be orthonormal. The POD modes are then given

by   *. /,/ . In matrix form, with  2 , , ( 3 , and 4  2. , , .( 3 , this

becomes:
 XU8/

2.4(f)

This problem is much more efficient when the number of snapshots m is smaller than the number
of states n.

2.2.2 Case 1: Undisturbed Channel Flow

POD modes are used to approximate the stream wise and vertical components of velocity for an
undisturbed flow. Additionally, the kinetic energy of the full system and the reduced system is
compared in order to explore the possibility of applying POD modes to the problem of reducing
different types of fluid systems. It should be noted that a sub-critical Reynolds number 1000 and
a CFL 0.5 for all subsequent simulations.

2-1: First 10 POD Modes for Base Flow

3

POD modes perform satisfactorily to a certain extent and successfully enable a representation of
an original grid size of 64  32  2  8192 (with velocity as the only variable used from the
snapshots) using a reduced system size of 200 with 20 modes. The errors encountered can easily
be marginalized using a convenient scale factor.

2.2.3 Case 2: Channel Flow with Disturbance

A similar system as above is taken but is given an initial disturbance in addition to the initial
conditions for base flow in the form of velocity peak at a single grid point. This disturbance then
propagates through the channel and affects the development of the flow in time. Additionally, the
kinetic energy of the full system and the reduced system is again compared in order to verify the
suitability of this approach.

2-2: Difference between the Actual & Approximated Value of the Streamwise Velocity Component Using POD
Modes

2-3: Comparison of Energy of the Disturbance between Full and Reduced System Constructed Using POD Modes

A similar system as above with the same size of the reduced system and the number of POD
modes yields unsatisfactory results. POD involves a high degree of time averaging of the
snapshots and therefore, a large amount of information is lost while representing a disturbance
that is evolving over time and space.

2.3 Balanced Truncation

Balanced Truncation is a method of model reduction for stable, linear input-output systems.
Consider a stable linear input-output system where symbols carry their usual meaning:

?  @
A B.
C  D

2.3(a)
2.3(b)

The controllability and observability Gramians are symmetric positive-semidefinite matrices and
are defined by:
J

EF   G HI BB  G H I 
EK 


J
 G H I D  DG HI

2.3(c)

2.3(d)

These are usually computed by solving Lyapunov equations:

@EF A EF @ A BB   0

2.3(e)
5

@ EK A EK @ A D  D  0

2.3(f)

The controllability Gramian EF measures to what degree each state is excited by an input (that it
takes a smaller input to drive the system from rest. The Gramian EF is positive-definite if and
only if all states are reachable with some input . . Conversely, the observability Gramian
EK measures to what degree excites future outputs. States which excite larger output signals are
called more observable, and in this sense are more dynamically important than states that are
less observable. The objective is to find a coordinate system in which the Gramians for
controllability and observability are equal and diagonal. Using a coordinate transformation
like
 LM, one obtains the Gramians in the new coordinate system:
EF NOP L 8 EF L 8 

2.3(g)

EK NOP L  EK L

2.3(h)

In order for them to be equal:

L 8 EF L 8   L  EK L   QRST , , T

2.3(i)

with the Hankel singular values TU . Solving Lypanov equations is very expensive for highdimensional systems and empirical Gramians can be computed using data from numerical
simulations. This can be possible by computing the state responses to unit impulses for the
forward system (Controllability Gramian) and the adjoint system (Observability Gramian). But
this method would if done directly would require V integrations of the forward system and the
adjoint system, where V is the number of outputs. Thus, this method is not feasible when the
number of inputs is large, for instance if the output is the full state.

2.4 Balanced POD

The Balanced POD approach aims at obtaining an approximation of the balanced truncation that
has acceptable computational costs for larger systems. The method combines elements of the
previous two approaches and presents a technique for computing the balancing transformation
directly from the snapshots of empirical Gramians, without needing to compute the Gramians
themselves. This is followed by an additional output projection method to enable tractable
computation even when the number of outputs is large.
2.4.1 Balanced Truncation Using the Method of Snapshots
The controllability and the observability Gramians can be factored as:
EF  ** 

EEK  WW 

2.4(a)

where EF and EK are    matrices, but X and Y may be rectangular, with different
dimensions. X and Y are simply the data matrices from the forward and adjoint system with
snapshots stacked as columns of a matrix (given at discrete times) and the integral for the
Gramian becomes a quadrature sum.
In the method of snapshots, the balancing modes are then computed by forming the
singular value decomposition (SVD) of the matrix W  * :
W  *  4Y  24

4 3 Z 
0

0 V
[ \ ^  4  V
0 V

2.4(b)

Where  is invertible and its order is equal to the rank of W  * . Then, the balancing
transformation T and the inverse transform S can be defined as:
T  *V  8/

S   8/ U W 

2.4(c)

where T a
 and S a
 . In case b c  , then the columns of T form the first b columns
of the balancing transformation and the rows of S form the first b columns of the inverse
transformation. The considerable advantage through the technique of snapshots is the enormous
savings made due when the number of number of snap shots is much smaller than .
Reduced order models can be obtained be obtained by transforming to balanced coordinates.
Also, there is no need to transform all of the states:

  LM  2T

T 3 \

M 
^  T M  A T M 
M 

2.4(d)

where M  are states to be retained and M  are states to be truncated. Then, the transformed
equations are:
M?  S @T A S B.
C  DT M

2.4(e)
2.4(f)

Thus, to compute a reduced-order model of order r, all we need is the first r columns of T and the
first r rows of S.

2.4.2 Case 2: Channel Flow with Disturbance Continued:

In order to achieve clear comparative data between different model reduction techniques, a
similar channel configuration, in terms of original & reduced system size and the number of
modes used, is utilized for balanced truncation.

2-4: First 10 Balanced Modes for a System Disturbed by a Velocity Peak

2-5: Comparison between Actual & Approximated Value of Streamwise Velocity Component Using Balanced
Modes

2-6: Comparison between Actual & Approximated Value of Perpendicular Velocity Component Using Balanced
Modes

2-7: Comparison of Energy of the Disturbance between Full and Reduced System Constructed Using Balanced
Modes

Balanced Truncation as evident from simulations overcomes the various shortcomings of POD
method and can be used effectively to represent non-modal growth with respect to capturing the
evolution of a non-orthogonal growth initiated by an optimal disturbance.

3 Non-Modal Growth
3.1 Introduction
We begin with a base flow that is steady or time varying and compute it with the help of direct
numerical simulations. The geometry of the flow would be restricted to a channel flow case,
similar to the ones used for applying the model reduction techniques. In case an infinitesimal
perturbation . is added to the base flow U, the development of this perturbation can be described
by the following linearized Navier-Stokes equations:
eI .  4. g .  . . g U  gh A
G 8 g .

3.1(a)

g. .  0

3.1(b)

The important statements that then completely characterize the solution are two folds:

10

1. In case there are solutions that grow without bounds, the base flow U is linearly unstable.
2. Even when the base flow is linearly unstable, there can be the possibility of bounded
solutions that exhibit large transient growth before eventually decaying. In this case, the flow
is linearly stable but has local regions of convective stability, or is susceptible to non-linear
instability, or both.
An illustration of point 2 is provided in figure 3-1 which illustrates the evolution of optimal
two-dimensional disturbances to steady two-dimensional flow over a backward-facing step. At
the inflow Reynolds number = 500, the flow is asymptotically stable. However the flow has
localized convective instability and hence exhibits large linear transient growth of suitable
disturbances.

Figure 3-1: The envelope of two-dimensional optima (circles) for the backward-facing step flow at Re = 500
together with curve of linear energy evolution starting from three optimal initial conditions (t = 20, 60, and 100)

3.2 Linear Stability

Equations (3.1) define a linear operator @ which evolves perturbations forward in time:
.   @ . 0

3.2(a)

11

We can evaluate the linear stability of the base flow through the use of this forward evolution
operator. In case the flow is periodic with period T, we can evaluate the eigenvalue problem by
setting time t to T in the following manner:
@ .i%  j% .i%

3.2(b)

Classic linear stability of the base flow is then determined from the dominant eigenvalues of
@L , i.e. the j% of largest modulus. If there are any eigenvalues j% with kj% k l 1, then there
exists exponentially growing solutions of (3.1) and hence, the base flow is linearly unstable.
Conversely, if every eigenvalue satisfies kj% k c 1, then every solution of (3.1) eventually decays
to zero and the flow is linearly stable. Generally, kj% k  1 would represent a bifurcation point.

3.3 Transient Growth and the SVD Problem

This section explores situations in which despite the base flow being linearly stable,
perturbations exhibit substantial transient response due to regions of local convective instability.
Owing to the non-orthogonality of the eigenmodes of @, which arise due to the asymmetry of the
convective terms in the Navier-Stokes equations, the dynamics of interest may not be of the form
of an exponential function of time multiplying a fixed modal shape rendering the eigenvalue
problem in (3.2(b)) of no direct relevance. Instead a better way to characterize the dynamics
would be through a computation of the singular vectors and values of @.
A step towards quantifying the size of a perturbation would be the choice of a suitable
norm. A physically meaningful choice would be the total energy of the perturbation field over
the flow domain. The transient growth can then be measured as the perturbation energy at time m
normalized to its initial energy. We can then state the following considering normalized initial
perturbations:
no

n

 . m   . m , . m ,

. 0  1

3.3(a)

The evolution operator @m can be used to write:

no

n

 $@m . 0 , @m . 0 &  $. 0 @ m , @m . 0 &

3.3(b)

where @ m represents the adjoint evolution operator to @m .

For the case of the transient growth problem, the objective would be to calculate the
perturbations which lead to maximal or near maximal growth. The eigenfunction corresponding
to the dominant eigenvalues of @ m @m will be dictated by the largest possible growth. Letting
/% and p% denote the eigenvalues and normalized eigenfunctions, we have:
12

@ m @m p%  /% p%

3.3(c)

Thus, qm , which denotes the maximum growth obtainable at time m would be:
qm  max u  )

no

n

 max% /%

3.3(d)

The process of finding dominant eigenvalues of @ m @m is equivalent to finding the largest

singular values of @m , and this has a direct physical interpretation. The eigenfunction p% in
(3.3(a)) provides an initial perturbation . 0 which generates a growth /% over time m. Defining
.% to be the normalized perturbation at time m evolved from initial condition . 0  p% , we
have:
@m p%  T% .% ,

. 0  1

3.3(e)

where T%  . m . This is nothing other than the singular value decomposition of @m , with .%
being the left and p% being the right singular vectors respectively (real and orthonormal as well).
Also, T%  /% / with both /% and T% being real and non-negative.

3.4 Non-Orthogonal Growth in Channel Flow

The dominant eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector for achieving non-orthogonal
growth are achieved by running power iteration by repeatedly pre-multiplying @ m @m to an
intial disturbance vector generated through random noise. Scaling is done to a convenient factor
after every iteration for the resultant variable.
A non-linear DNS solver is used for the forward computation and depending on the
choice of m for which optimal growth is being obtained, the number of time steps are varied. For
every iteration of the eigenvalue calculation, the disturbance vector is added to the base flow and
the forward solution obtained. The base flow is then subtracted from the full disturbed flow in
order to obtain the evolution of only the perturbation for the period m . The effect of premultiplying @ m is obtained by running the adjoint solver with initial conditions
being @m . m , with the code linearized around the base flow. Scaling at the end of every
complete solution in the forward and backward direction becomes even more crucial since we
have used a non-linear DNS solver which would cause the non-linearties to start dominating
while calculating the evolution of the disturbance in case the initial disturbance is large
compared to the base flow.
A steady base flow used for this entire set of calculations which is initialized with
parabolic profile for the streamwise velocity component, zero normal velocity component and
uniform pressure and entropy. A choice of Reynolds number = 1000 is made to ensure the base is
13

linearly stable with localized instabilities allowing for transient growth. A careful choice of grid
size is made in this regard to ensure under-resolution doesnt affect the absolute instability of the
flow and alters results.

3.4.1 Simulations with Periodic Boundary Conditions

The initial batch of simulations for achieving non-orthogonal growth was carried out with
periodic boundary conditions in the x-direction for both the forward and adjoint solvers. Besides
the obvious ease while defining the boundary conditions, this allowed the base flow to develop
completely and become steady much faster. It was expected that in case of the disturbed flow,
suitable non-orthogonal growth would be achieved quickly as well.
As figures clearly illustrate, when the u and v components of the disturbance were evaluated over
a period of time, certain structures which were well defined and periodic in nature were obtained.

3-2: Evolution of Normalized Energy of Disturbance for Periodic Boundary Conditions starting from two optimal
initial conditions (t = 15, 75)

The energy of the disturbance as it evolved over time also showed a consistent decay mired in
oscillations. The results thus, obtained were not satisfactory and in spite of attempts to work with
different time periods for optimization, the results were largely similar. The periodicity caused

14

the perturbations that would leave the domain to re-enter and interfere with the further
development of the flow causing anomalies in the results obtained.
3.4.2 Simulations with Non-Periodic Boundary Conditions
The second set of simulations was carried out with non-periodic boundary in the x-direction
while retaining the adiabatic wall boundary condition in the y direction. The left boundary (x
minus) was defined as fixed in time while the right boundary (x positive) was defined as nonreflecting for the forward solver. In case of the adjoint equation, both the left and right boundary
(x minus & positive) were defined as non-reflecting. Additionally, the velocity was made zero at
all boundaries to ensure homogeneous boundary conditions and avoid possible complexities.
As illustrated in figures non orthogonal growth was indeed achieved for m  5. The low values
of amplification for the energy of the disturbance can be explained because of the low value of m
being used for the first run. Higher values of m would yield greater growth that resemble Figure:
3-1 more closely.

3-3: Evolution of Normalized Energy of Disturbance for Non-Periodic Boundary Conditions starting from optimal
initial condition for t = 5

15

3-4: Optimal Initial Disturbance for t = 5 for Achieving Non-Orthogonal Growth

A key consideration that should be incorporated into simulations for optimal growth
computations is that the velocity perturbations should not have significant amplitude at the
outflow boundary. If a perturbation reaches the outflow boundary with non-negligible amplitude
it is thereafter washed out of the computational domain and the corresponding perturbation
energy is lost to the computation. Thus, when simulations were run with the same domain size as
utilized for m  1 , non-orthogonal growth was not achieved because disturbances which
previously did not have enough time to flow out were getting washed out for larger values of m.
The domain should be of sufficient size so as to ensure that the velocity perturbations reach the
outflow boundary with negligible energy. In practice, it is crucial that the computational domain
for such calculations be much larger when compared to stability calculations.

16

4 Summary and Future Work

The viability of various model reduction techniques that have been have been put forth in
contemporary literature were investigated through section 2 with the eventual aim of applying
them to solving non-orthogonal growth problems. Of the various simulations conducted,
Balanced POD was found to be adept at representing time varying disturbances evolving through
the flow domain with the minimum set of modes and for reduction to the lowest possible order.
POD involves a high degree of averaging across the time domain using the snap shots obtained
for discrete time intervals and therefore, perturbations cannot be fully represented using the
reduced model obtained through POD satisfactorily. Although it must be added at this point that
POD did perform well while reducing base flow simulations, but again it should be stressed that
this would be inadequate for application to representing a channel system that has been given an
optimal disturbance for initiating non-orthogonal growth.
In the next section, an attempt has been made to achieve non-orthogonal growth for subcritical Reynolds number for a full system. This has been achieved by calculating optimal growth
for maximizing energy of the disturbance for a definite time. Simulations were initially carried
out using periodic boundary conditions in the streamwise direction but were not successful and
resulted in periodic structures being created in the disturbed flow as it evolves over time. Also,
the energy of the disturbance decayed, albeit while oscillating without any transient growth being
achieved. Non-periodic boundary conditions have resulted in more successful simulations but
require larger domains so as to ensure that no significant perturbations get washed out of the
computational domain.
Hence, this report has laid the foundation of successfully applying model reduction
techniques to this particular problem by gauging the performance of different model reduction
techniques on similar systems. Also, non-orthogonal growth has been achieved to a certain
degree on full systems thereby, paving the way for a reduced model to achieve similar results
being computed. Also, the various MATLAB programs that have been created during the course
of study can be easily tweaked to obtain results for a multitude of systems and therefore, can be
extremely helpful while executing routines for the aforementioned objectives.

17

5 Index of MATLAB Programs Created

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

Balanced_modes.m: Creates balanced modes (the direct and inverse transformation

matrix for a given data set using the method of snapshots.
Balanced_reductionchannel.m: Carries out simulations for a reduced model of channel
flow and compares it with the full system simulations.
balanced_Truncation.m: Performs Balanced Truncation using modes from (I) to compute
the reduced model.
Barkley_algo.m: Computes eigenvectors and eigenvalues using a Krylov subspace, the
nomenclature is a reference to the use of this algorithm in Barkley(2007).
check_channel.m: Carries simulations using optimal disturbances for achieving nonorthogonal growth and then presents the evolution of the disturbance for channel flow.
check_mixinglayer.m: Performs a similar operation as in (V), albeit for a mixing layer.
controlmatrix.m: Computes the full system matrix using simulation data from the DNS
solver.
MatrixCheck.m: Checks the nature of the direct and adjoint full system matrix (for
symmetry).
non_orthogonal_growth.m: Computes the optimal disturbance for different values of time
for achieving non-orthogonal growth.
NSM_uPODmodes.m: Computes the POD modes using the method of snapshots with
the stream-wise velocity component as the only variables.
NSM_uvPODmodes.m: Computes the POD modes using the method of snapshots with
velocity as the only variables.
NSM_uvpPODmodes.m: Computes the POD modes using the method of snapshots with
velocity and pressure as the variables.

Additionally, it must be added that all programs created during the course of this study
are highly modular and can be applied to a host of different problems revolving around similar
principles with minor modifications. Proper commenting has been provided at all points of
interest to expedite the same.

18

6 Bibliography
Barkley, D., Blackburn, H. M., & Sherwin, S. J. (2007). Direct Optimal Growth Analysis for Time-steppers.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids , 231: 1-20.
Luchtenburg, D. M., Noack, B. R., & Schlegel, M. (2009). An Introduction to the POD Galerkin for Fluid
Flows with Analytical Examples and MATLAB Source Codes. Department for Fluid Dynamics and
Engineering Acoustics, Berlin Institute of Technology.
Martinelli, F., Monokrousos, A., Schulze, J., & Vourliotakis, G. (2008). Model Reduction and Control of
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