Geologi Dasar

BUMI DALAM TATASURYA
Matahari dan planet-planetnya

Anatomi bumi
Dinamika bumi
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A GALAXY IS BUILT BY MANY SOLARS SYSTEM
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MILKY WAY GALAXY
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Universe of
galaxy groups
Local Group
Milky Way
Solar System
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TATASURYA
5
99% of the mass ofMODUL
the2 -solar
system is in the sun
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The composition of the sun
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Planets
- orbit the sun in the plane of the suns equator
- come in two groups:
+ the Terestrial Planets
+ the Jovian Planets
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TERRESTRIAL PLANETS: small, dense, and made of rocks and iron
Mercury
Venus
Mars
Earth
The Asteroid Belt
Uranus
Jupiter
Neptune
Saturn
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2 - TATASURYA
JOVIAN PLANETS: large, low
density,
and made of gas and ice
Kuiper Belt & Pluto
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10
Asteroids
Mathilde & Eros (NEAR)

Ida & Dactyl
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5. Meteorites
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Chondrites
Ordinary
Carbonaceous
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Chondrules under a scope
X-Ray Image
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14
Abundance of
Elements in
Carbonaceous
Chondrites
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Achondrite - Stony Meterorite
A stone from the Stannern eucrite shower

that fell over Moravia, Czech Republic in 1808.
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Iron
Meteorite
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StonyIron:
Palasite
Olivine
Iron
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Pertanyaan:
Ada berapa macam teori terjadinya
galaksi, bintang dan matahari? Jelaskan!
Mengapa PLUTO dilepas dari tatasurya
kita?
MODUL 2 - TATASURYA
20

Anatomi bumi
Dinamika bumi
Struktur dalam bumi:
cold, rigid, brittle
rocks
hot, plastic
ultrabasic
igneous rocks
Depth (km)
hot, high pressure,

rigid, brittle
Fe, Ni
liquid
solid
KERAK BUMI
Kerak bumi merupakan lapisan paling luar: keras,
padat, relatif dingin, ketebalan 70 - 100 km,
tersusun dari batuan beku, batuan sedimen, dan
batuan ubahan.
Kerak bumi dibedakan menjadi dua:
Kerak Samudra danKerak Benua
Mantel
Mantel bumi terdiri dari dua bagian :

Mantel luar ketebalan 40 - 400 km. memiliki densitas antara
3,3 sampai 4,3 gm/ cm3
Mantel dalam
ketebalan 900 - 2700 km. mengandung
senyawa padat MgO dan SiO2
-
Struktur Lapisan Mantel dan Inti Bumi.
Inti Bumi
Inti Luar ( outer core ) bersifat cairan pekat
(liquid) , ketebalan antara 2.900 km - 5.100 km.
kaya akan Besi dan Nikel, suhunya berkisar
4.500 C.
Inti Dalam yaitu bagian yang mempunyai sifat
padatan (solid).
Bagian-bagian
Atmosfer dan
Perannya
Atmosfer
Komposisi udara
N2
78
O2
21
Ar
0,9 %
CO2
0,03%
Unsur jejak < 0,07%

Campuran
(metan, ozon, CO, NO, SO, HS,
hidrokarbon, dll sebagian besar
polutan)
Global Distribution of Water
Classification of Clouds (continued)
Figure 12.15
Moho (1909)
CMB (1914)
Lehmann discontinuity
(1936)
LAPISAN
Kerak
Litosfer
Kerak
samudera
Kerak benua
Litosfer
mencakup
kerak dan
mantel
bagian atas
KOMPOSISI
KEDALAMAN
SIFAT
Basalt
7 - 10 km
Dingin, kaku, dan rapuh
Granit
20 - 70 km
Bervariasi, antara
kerak dan mantel
berbeda
komposisinya
100 km
Bagian atas
mantel
merupakan
bagian dari
litosfer
Berkisar dari 100
Panas dan plastik, 1
- 350 km
atau 2 % bagian mencair
Astenosfer
Mantel
Bagian atas
mantel
sisanya
Mantel
bagian
bawah
Inti
Keseluruhan
Panas, dibawah tekanan
Berkisar dari 350
mantel
yang besar, kaku, dan
- 670 km
merupakan
rapuh
batuan beku
ultrabasa.
Mineralnya
bervariasi sesuai
kedalamannya
Tekanan yang tinggi
mengakibatkan mineral
Berkisar dari 670
yang terbentuk berbeda
- 2900 km
dari yang ada di mantel
bagian atas
Inti bagian
luar
Besi dan nikel
Inti bagian
dalam
Besi dan nikel
Berkisar dari
2900 - 5150 km
Berkisar dari
5150 sampat ke
pusat bumi
Cairan
Padatan

Anatomi bumi
Dinamika bumi
Orbital change
Axial tilt change
Wobble
Distributian of day and night; and climate along year
Energy budget
Heat Flow
40
60
85
120
mW m-2
180
240
350
The hottest and

the coldest places
Winds circulation
Winds circulation
Siklon dan antisiklon

rendahan dan tinggian
TINGGIAN
RENDAHAN (dekat permukaan)
Isobar dan arah angin
Pembentukan siklon dan

antisiklon
Spiral awan
How does water move among

reservoirs?
Ocean Currents
Redistribute heat across planet
Sirkulasi air di samudera
Weather and Climate

What is weather?
What is climate?
How do they differ?
Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere
at a particular place at any given time
Climate is a long-term composite of weather
conditions at a particular place
Short term versus long term---that is how they
differ
Iklim dunia
5. Landforms and Surface Processes

H.C. Berann (1915-1999)
Yosemite National Park, 1987
Glaciers
Mass Wasting
Streams
Shorelines
Deserts
Groundwater
http://www.berann.com
What drives plate motions

Forces that drive plate
motion
Slab-pull
Cold, dense slabs of
subducted oceanic
lithosphere pull the plate
towards the subduction zone
Ridge-push
The higher elevation of
spreading centers result in
oceanic lithosphere wanting
to move downhill, away
from the ridge
Far less important than
slab-pull
Mantle drag and plate
resistance
Can act to increase or
decrease plate motion
Mantle convection provides

the primary drive for
plate tectonics
Models of plate-mantle
convection
Any model must be consistent
with observed physical and
chemical properties of the
mantle
Horizontal movement of
plates causes mantle
upwelling
Models
Layering at 660 km
Explains why basalts
erupted at mid-ocean
ridges are different (more
evolved, relatively shallow
source) compared to those
erupted at hot-spots (more
primitive, deeper source).
We know that subducting
slabs descend beneath 660
km
Whole-mantle convection
Would mix the entire
mantle in the space of a
few hundred million
years, removing
heterogeneities
Deep-layer model
Lava lamp model
Two layers swell and
shrink in a complex
fashion in response to
heat from the Earths
interior
Rumah kaca
Rumah kaca pada skala bumi
Minerals
Definition
What is a Mineral?
A mineral is a naturally formed inorganic crystalline solid
with a definite chemical composition and identifying
physical properties
naturally formed
formed by geologic processes in nature, not by humans
inorganic
was never alive
crystalline solid
a solid composed of atoms arranged in a repeating orderly
framework
definite chemical composition

a homogeneous chemical compound with a chemical formula
distinctive, identifying physical properties
Definition
What is a Mineral?
Is water a mineral?
Why or why not?
Is ice a mineral?
Why or why not?
Is glass a mineral?
Why or why not?
Is gold a mineral?
Why or why not?
Is steel a mineral?
Why or why not?
Definition
Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or
compound having orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and
physical properties
Pertanyaan:
Apakah lampu kristal tergolong mineral?
Bagaimana dengan tubuh kekurangan mineral?
Air mineral?
Definition
Mineral is a structurally homogeneous solid of definite
chemical composition, formed by the inorganic
processes of nature.
Whitten, DGA and Brooks, JRV. 1977. The Penguin Dictionary of

Geology. Middlesex: Penguin Books. p. 293.
Definition
This definition includes ice as a mineral, but excludes
coal, natural oil and gas. The only allowable exception
to the rule that a mineral must be solid is native
mercury (quicksilver), which is liquid.
Definite chemical composition is not synonymous with
fixed or constant composition, since many minerals
have compositions which are variable between certain
limits, which are defined in terms of end members: e.g.
the composition of the common olivines is expressible in
terms of the two compounds, Mg2SiO4 (forsterite) and
Fe2SiO4 (fayalite). The general rule is that minor
variations of composition which do not markedly alter
fundamental properties are discounted
Definition
Structurally homogeneous implies that the fundamental
atomic structure is continuous and constant through the
mineral unit, e.g. in silicates the silicon-oxygen lattice
will be constant in characters, although the interstitial
cations may vary in different parts of the lattice
Although strictly of organic origin, the constituents of
many limestones, siliceous rocks, and bedded
phosphate deposits are treated as though they were true
mineral species
Geology. Middlesex: Penguin Books. p. 293-294.
Review
Electron-bearing shells
Model of Oxygen
Review
2 protons in nucleus
10 protons in nucleus
Model of Helium (He)
Model of Neon (Ne)
Review
Model of Sodium (Na+)
Model of Chlorine (Cl-)
Review
Chlorine (Cl)
Sodium (Na)
Sodium
Chlorine
(Na+) ion (Cl ) ion
Ionic Bonding:
Electron Transfer
Model of crystalline structure of Halite (salt)
Review
Mineral Structures and Atoms
Model of crystalline structure
Elemental Abundances in Continental Crust
ELEMENT YANG MELIMPAH DI KERAK BUMI

Element
Simbol
Oksigen
O
Silikon
Si
Aluminium
Al
Besi
Fe
Kalsium
Ca
Sodium
Na
Potasium
K
Magnesium
Mg
Semua elemwnt lain
% Berat
% Volume
% Atom
46,6
27,7
8,1
5,0
3,6
2,8
2,6
2,1
1,5
93,8
0,9
0,8
0,5
1,0
1,2
1,5
0,3
-
60,5
20,5
6,2
1,9
1,9
2,5
1,8
1,4
3,3
Mineral Classes
Silicate Mineral Group
Non-silicate Mineral
Group
Silicate Mineral Groups

Silicate minerals (silicates) are composed of silica tetrahedra (SiO4 4-)
For silica tetrahedra to be stable, they must either:
be balanced by positive ions,
share oxygens with adjacent silica tetrahedra, or
substitute one or more Al 3+ for Si 4+
Compositions of the silicates
Mafic composition
Is rich in magnesium, iron, and/or calcium
Intermediate composition
Is compositionally between mafic and felsic
Is rich in feldspar and/or silica (quartz)
Felsic composition
Is rich in feldspar and/or silica (quartz)

All the common rock-forming minerals are silicate mineral
The Silica Tetrahedron

(composed of 4 oxygen atoms surrounding 1 silicon atom)

Two
Illustrations
of the
SiO4
Tetrahedron
Single Island Silicates

(ex.: olivine)
Single Chain Silicates

(ex.: augite pyroxene)
Single Chain Silicates: The Pyroxenes (e.g., augite)
Double Chain Silicates: The Amphiboles

(e.g., hornblende)
SheetGroups
Silicates: The Micas
Silicate Mineral
(e.g., biotite, muscovite, and the clays)
Example:
Clay groups
Mica groups
Sheet silicate structure
Because of weak bonds,

mica splits asily between
sandwiches
Positive ions, sandwiches
between two sheets
silicate layers
Framework
Silicate Mineral
Groups Silicates:
(potassium feldspar, sodium and calcium plagioclase feldspar, quartz)
The Common Rock-Forming Silicate Minerals
Non-silicate Mineral Groups

Native Elements: consist of only one element.
Au (gold), Ag (silver), Cu (copper), S (sulfur), C (graphite,
diamond)
Oxides: contain O 2 Fe2O3 (hematite), Fe3O4 (magnetite), Al2O3 (corundum)
Carbonates: contain CO3 2-
CaCO3 (calcite), CaMg(CO3)2 (dolomite)
Sulfides: contain S 2 FeS2 (pyrite), PbS (galena), CuFeS2 (chalcopyrite)
Sulfates: contain SO4 2-
CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum), BaSO4 (barite)
Halides: contain F 1-, Cl 1-, Br 1-, or I 1 NaCl (halite), KCl (sylvite), CaF2 (fluorite)

Native Copper
How do minerals form?

By crystallization from magma (molten rock material)
a saturation response
By crystallization (precipitation) from aqueous fluids
a saturation response
By chemical reaction with
magmatic fluids
hydrothermal fluids
water during weathering
By solid state transformations (metamorphism)
changes crystal form
moves ions to new locations
promotes growth along the edges of mineral grains (crystals)
at the expense of their neighboring mineral grains
Crystallization of Minerals in Cavities: Geodes
The Effect of Crowding on Crystal Growth

Polymorphs
Polymorphs are minerals that have the same chemical
composition but a different crystal form
Graphite and diamond polymorphs of carbon
Graphite forms at low temperature and pressure
Diamond forms at high temperature and pressure
Quartz, stishovite, and coesite are polymorphs of SiO2
Quartz forms at low to medium temperature and pressure
stishovite and coesite form at high pressure, such as that
associated with meteor impacts
Andelusite, kyanite, and sillimanite are polymorphs of Al2SiO5
Andelusite is the low temperature low pressure polymorph
Kyanite is the low temperature high pressure polymorph
Sillimanite is the high temperature high pressure polymorph

Pseudomorphs
Pseudomorphs are minerals that have the same crystal form but
a different chemical composition
Limonite forms cubic pseudomorphs after pyrite
Quartz forms pseudomorphs after fluorite
Minerals: identification
Identification of Minerals
Questions
How can you identify minerals?
How do geologists identify minerals?
Identifying Physical Properties of Minerals

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Crystal form
Color
Streak
Luster
Cleavage
Fracture
Hardness
Tenacity
Specific gravity
Taste
Magnetism
Reaction with acid
Striations

1. Crystal form
Is a set of crystalline faces having a definite
geometric relationship to one another
Garnet
Quartz

2. Color
Is due to visible wavelengths of light not absorbed
Is the most obvious but least reliable property to use
for identification
Milky quartz
Citrine
Colors of ruby and sapphire,

varieties of corundum (Al2O3)
Amethyst
Smoky quartz
Colors of Varieties of Quartz

3. Streak
The color of a mineral in powder form
Figure 1.8

4. Luster
Is the intensity of light reflected from a surface
Pyrite
Potassium feldspar
Galena
Have a metallic luster
Has a nonmetallic luster
5. Cleavage
Is breakage along planes of weakness
Is due to weak bonding between those planes

Various Types of Cleavage

Pyramidal Cleavage Cubic Cleavage, and Rhombohedral Cleavage
Displayed by Fluorite, Halite, and Calcite
Fluorite
Halite
Calcite

Distinguishing between Cleavage Planes and Crystal Faces
Cleavage Planes:
Repeated like a series
of step or terraces
A crytal face:
A single surface
No repetitions of the
crystal face within
a crystal

6. Fracture
Is breakage in random directions

Is due to the absence of weak bonding between planes
Conchoidal fracture yields scalloped edges like in broken glass

7. Hardness
Is the resistance to scratching
Is based on the Mohs Scale

1 talc
2 gypsum
3 calcite
4 fluorite
5 apatite
6 potassium feldspar (orthoclase)
7 quartz
8 topaz
9 corundum
10 diamond
Mohs
Hardness
Scale

8. Tenacity
resistance to breaking or bending
9. Specific gravity: an expression of heaviness
3
density
of
a
substance
X
g/cm
SG
=
=
density of water
1 g/cm3
10. Taste
Halite (rock salt) tastes salty
11. Magnetism
magnetite attracts a magnet
= X

12. Reaction with acid
minerals containing a CO3 ion fizz (release CO2) when
in contact with hydrochloric acid
2HCl + CaCO3 Ca2+ + 2Cl- + H2O + CO2
13. Reaction with acid Striations
Are saw-tooth lines present on crystal planes due to
lamellar twinning (repetition) of crystals on that plane
Striations are characteristic of plagioclase feldspar,
calcite, dolomite, galena, and sphalerite
Rocks
Rocks
What is a rock?
A rock is a naturally formed aggregate
composed of one or more minerals
Rocks are aggregates of one or more
minerals
Which one is the best answer?
Rocks
Example of a rock, an aggregate of more than one minerals
Rocks
Rocks are classified on the basis of
how they form
There are 3 major classes of rocks:
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks form by crystallization of molten
rock material
Molten rock material below Earths surface is
called magma
Molten rock material erupted above Earths
surface is called lava
The name changes because the composition
of the molten material changes as it is erupted
due to escape of volatile gases
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are changed rocks

They are formed in the solid state in
response to one or more of the
following agents of metamorphism:
Change in pressure
Change in temperature
Change in pressure and temperature
Exposure to chemically active fluids
Metamorphic Rocks
The protolith (the parent rock) is the
preexisting rock from which the
metamorphic rock was formed
Metamorphism may cause a change in a
rocks:
Composition
Mineral assemblage
Texture
All of the above
Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks formed from material derived
from preexisting rocks by surfacial
processes followed by diagenesis
Sedimentary Rocks
There are two main classes of sedimentary rocks
Clastic (detrital) sedimentary rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from bits and
pieces of previously existing rocks, called clasts or
detritus
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed in several ways
By precipitation from aqueous solution
From plant material
From animal material
Sedimentary Rocks
Processes Leading to Formation of
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering: the processes that change rocks size and
composition at or near Earths surface
Erosion and Transportation: removal of rock particles
(clasts) from their source by water, wind, or glacial ice
Deposition: the settling of clasts on Earths surface as
sediments, leads to formation of a sedimentary bed
Compaction: pressing together of clasts, squeezing out
pore water, by pressure exerted by overlying beds
Lithification: cementation of clasts together to form a
sedimentary rock
Diagenesis: a process of conversion of unconsolidated
sediments to coherent sedimentary rocks
Rocks Cycle
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism
Due to Increased T and or P
Rocks
How can you identify rocks megas

Colour
Mineral composition: normally expressed in
percentage
Texture: the relationship between the grains of
minerals forming a rock
Structure: the relationship between different
parts of a rock
BATUAN
Adalah merupakan semua bahan penyusun kerak bumi,
dan merupakan suatu kumpulan / agregat mineralmineral yang telah mengeras
KLASIFIKASI
(berdasarkan tekstur dan cara
terbentuknya), ada 3 yaitu :

a.
b.
c.
Batuan beku : batuan yang berasal dari hasil pembekuan

magma, teksturnya hablur / kristalin
Batuan sedimen : batuan yang terbentuk dari hasil proses
pengendapan, baik organik ataupun hasil pengendapan bahan
rombakan serta kimiawi, teksturnya klastik / nonklastik
Batuan metamorf : batuan ubahan oleh proses metamorfisme,
dimana perubahannya tanpa melalui fase cair terlebih dahulu,
tekstur hablur / kristalin
TEKSTUR adalah hubungan yang erat antara bentuk, ukuran butir

dari mineral-mineral sebagai bagian dari batuan.
Igneous Rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks form by crystallization of molten
rock material
Molten rock material below Earths surface is
called magma
Molten rock material erupted above Earths
surface is called lava
The name changes because the composition
of the molten material changes as it is erupted
due to escape of volatile gases
Rock Forming Minerals
Biotite
lase feld
spar
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Pyroxene
Continuous branch
Olivine
Muscovite
Low
SiO2 of liquid increases
Intermediate
Temperature decreases
High
Discontinuous branch
1200C
Quartz
700C
BOWENS REACTION SERIES
Ca-rich
Ca-Na-rich
Na-Ca-rich
Na-rich
Biotite
lase feld
spar
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Pyroxene
Continuous branch
Olivine
Muscovite
Ca-rich
Ca-Na-rich
Na-Ca-rich
Na-rich
Quartz

High Temperature Mineral Suite
Olivine
Isolated Tetrahedra Structure
Iron, magnesium, silicon, oxygen
Bowens Discontinuous Series
Augite
Single Chain Structure (Pyroxene)
Iron, magnesium, calcium, silicon,
aluminium, oxygen
Bowens Discontinuos Series
Calcium Feldspar
Framework Silicate Structure (Plagioclase)
Calcium, silicon, aluminium, oxygen
Bowens Continuous Series

Intermediate Temperature Mineral Suite
Hornblende
Double Chain Structure (Amphibole)
Iron, magnesium, calcium, silicon,
aluminium, oxygen
Biotite
Sheet Silicate Structure (Mica)
Iron, magnesium, potassium, silicon,
aluminium, oxygen
Sodium Feldspar
Framework Silicate Structure (Plagioclase)
Sodium, silicon, aluminium, oxygen

Low Temperature Mineral Suite
Muscovite
Sheet Silicate Structure (Mica)
Calcium, potassium, silicon, aluminium,
oxygen
Potassium Feldspar
Framework Silicate Structure (Orthoclase)
Potassium, silicon, aluminium, oxygen
Quartz
Framework Silicate Structure
Silicon, oxygen
Last to crystallize from magma
Biotite
lase feld
spar
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Pyroxene
Continuous branch
Olivine
Muscovite
Bowens Reaction Series
Ca-rich
Ca-Na-rich
Na-Ca-rich
Na-rich
Quartz


Effect of Cooling Rate on Crystal Size
Crystals are formed by ions arranged in

orderly patterns
Crystal size is determined by the rate of
cooling
Extremely fast cooling
Fast cooling
Slow cooling
Extremely fast cooling

Forms glass, not crystals
Occurs above Earths
surface under water or
ice
Yields obsidian, volcanic
glass
Fast cooling
Forms very small
invisible crystals
Crystallized out less
slowly
Magma moved more
rapidly
Occurs closer to Earths
surface
Typical in small
intrusions and conduit
Slow cooling
Forms large, visible
crystals
The slower the cooling
rate, the larger the
crystals formed
Occurs below Earths
surface
Typical of plutonic rocks
Where do the igneous rocks form?

Volcanic (Extrusive)
Igneous Rocks
Plutonic (intrusive)
Igneous Rocks

Plutonic (intrusive) Igneous Rocks

Form by crystallization of molten
rock material below Earths surface
Coarse-grained plutonic rocks

Crystallized out very slowly in
large magma chambers 12-20
km beneath Earths surface
Fine-grained plutonic rocks

Crystallized out less slowly,
more rapidly, in small
intrusions and conduits closer
to Earths surface


Laccoliths
are masses of igneous rock between layers of
the surrounding rock

Dikes and Sills

are tabular intrusive bodies.
Dikes cut across layer of the surrounding rock
Sills are injected between layers of strata

Volcanic (extrusive) Igneous Rocks
Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks
Form by crystallization of molten
rock material above Earths surface
Lavas
are flowing out (extruded)
Pyroclastic volcanic rocks

are blasted out
Ash
is very finegrained
pyroclastic
material
Blocks
are large
solid blocks
that are
blasted out
Bombs
are large
molten
blocks that
are blasted
out

A lava fountain and rapidly
flowing basalt
AA, a jagged-surfaced form of

basalt that crystallizes out at
the end of a basalt flow
Pahoehoe, a smooth-surfaced,
ropy form of basalt that
crystallizes out near the
beginning of a basalt flow
Basalt, a mafic composition lava

Andesite flow,
Mexico
Andesite flow,
Cascade Range, Oregon
Andesite, an intermediate composition lava

Rhyolite dome,
Mono Craters, California
Rhyolite flow showing columnar
jointing, MacDougalls Island, New
Brunswick
Rhyolite, a felsic composition lava

Pyroclastic Eruption, Eruption of Mount St. Helens,

Washington, 1980

Other Notable Pryoclastic Volcanic Eruptions
Igneous Rocks Texture
A phaneritic texture
Consists of visible grains
Is formed by very slow
cooling below Earths
surface
Characteristic of plutonic
igneous rocks i.e. gabbro,
diabase, diorite, granite
Aphanitic texture
Consists of invisible
grains formed by fast rate
of cooling
Characteristic of the
lavas: basalt, andesite,
rhyolite
Glassy texture
Consists of visible grains
Is not crystalline, is
formed by extremely rapid
cooling
Characteristic of Obsidian
Vesicular texture
Is bubbly, formed by
trapped bubbles of gas
Characteristic of scoria
(vesicular basalt) and
pumice (vesicular
rhyolite)

Porphyritic texture
Consists of phaneritic
(visible) grains in an
aphanitic matrix
Phaneritic crystals form by
very slow cooling below
Earths surface
Aphanitic crystals form by
very rapid cooling above
Earths surface
Characteristic of the
lavas: basalt, andesite,
rhyolite
Formed when a lava is
erupted as a crystal mush
Texture and where they form

ABOVE EARTHS SURFACE
Based on Where They Form

and Their Texture
Glassy Texture Vesicular Texture
Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks
CLOSER EARTHS SURFACE
Aphanitic Texture
Phaneritic Texture
Porphyritic Texture
BELOW EARTHS SURFACE
Igneous Rocks Composition
Dunit (Olivine rich)
Harzburgit (Pyroxene rich)
Ultramafic
Means rich in magnesium
and iron
Is the average composition
of Earths mantle
Composed of olivine and
augite
Example: peridotite
Mafic
Means rich in magnesium,
iron, and/or calcium
of oceanic crust
Composed of olivine,
augite, and calcium,
plagioclase feldspar
Examples: basalt, diabase,
and gabbro
Intermediate
Means half mafic, half
felsic
Is the composition of a
mixture of oceanic and
continental crust?
Composed of hornblende
and calcium-sodium
plagioclase feldspar
Examples: andesite and
diorite
Felsic
Means rich in feldspar and
silica
of continental crust
Composed of potassium
feldspar, sodium
plagioclase feldspar,
quartz
Examples: rhyolite and
granite
Classification and naming of igneous rocks

Identification of Plutonic Igneous Rocks
Plutonic Rocks
Phaneritic texture
Mafic composition
Dark gray
Diabase
(fine-grained)
Gabbro
(coarse-grained)
Medium gray,
~ 50:50 black and white
Felsic composition
Light gray
or pink
Diorite
Granite
Classification
and
of Igneous
igneous Rocks
rocks
Identification
ofnaming
Volcanic
Identification of Plutonic Igneous Rocks
Volcanic Rocks
Vesicular texture
Glassy texture
Scoria
Obsidian
Mafic composition
Dark gray
Pumice
Aphanitic
matrix
The lavas
Felsic composition
Light gray
Basalt
Mafic composition
Dark gray
Andesite
Rhyolite
Medium gray or
greenish gray
Usually porphyritic
Felsic composition
Light gray
or pink
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
TEXTURE
Phaneritic Aphanitic
GABBRO
ANDESITE BASALT
Na-Ca-rich
RHYOLITE
Ca-Na-rich
DIORITE
lase feld
spar
Quartz
Ca-rich
GRANITE
Biotite
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Pyroxene
Continuous branch
Olivine
Muscovite
PERIDOTITE
Na-rich
Plutonic Volcanic
ORIGIN
Classification and naming of igneous rocks
Obsidian (volcanic glass)
Scoria (vesicular basalt)
Pumice (vesicular rhyolite)
Basalt
Porphyritic Andesite
Rhyolite
Gabbro
Diorite
Granite
Metamorphic Rocks
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are changed rocks
The protolith (the parent rock) is the
preexisting rock from which the
metamorphic rock was formed
They are formed in the solid state in
response to the following principal
agents of metamorphism:
Change in pressure
Change in temperature
Change in pressure and temperature
Metamorphisme
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphism may cause a change in a rocks:
Structure/Texture
Mineral assemblage
Composition (slightly)
All of the above
Factors That Control the Characteristics of

Metamorphic Rocks
1.
2.
3.
4.
Protolith Composition
Pressure
Temperature
Time

Metamorphic Rocks
1. Protolith Composition
Mafic protoliths (basalt, diabase, and gabbro)
yield a dark charcoal gray mafic metamorphic
rock called amphibolite
Felsic protoliths (granite, rhyolite, mudstone,
sandstone, conglomerate, breccia) yield light
colored tan, silver, light to medium gray, etc.
felsic metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
2. Pressure (stress)
Increasing pressure flattens grains, crushes
grains (reduces size), causes shearing
Confining pressure, associated with depth of
burial, is equal in all directions
Differential pressure is not equal in all
directions
Produces foliation (parallel alignment of
grains)
Pure shear = compression, flattens grains
Simple shear = skewing, stretches grains,
produces lineation, aligns elongate grains
in direction of transport

Metamorphic Rocks
Confining Pressure
Pressure is equal in
all directions

Metamorphic Rocks
Differential Pressure
Differential pressure
Is not equal in all directions
Leads to formation of foliation by either
Pure shear (flattening)
Simple shear (skewing)
Pure shear (flattening)
Simple shear (skewing)

Metamorphic Rocks
Type of foliation
Slaty Cleavage Alignment of small mica
flakes
Schistosity Alignment of large mica
flakes
Gneissic Banding segregation of felsic
and mafic minerals into alternating light
and dark bands

Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation: Development of Slaty Cleavage
Bedding is perpendicular to cleavage

at the top and bottom of the fold

Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation: Development of Schistosity
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol212/contactmeta.htm

Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation: Formation of Gneissic Banding

Metamorphic Rocks
3. Temperature
Increasing temperature causes increased
movement of ions which in turn causes
Mineral grains to grow larger
New minerals to form moving up Bowens
Reaction Series
Minerals to recrystallize
Decreasing temperature causes new minerals
to form moving down Bowens Reaction series
The upper limit on T for metamorphism is
partial melting
Metamorphic Rocks
The Effect of Temperature Changes on Composition and Metamorphism
1200C
lase feld
spar
Pyroxene
Biotite
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Low
MAFIC
Muscovite
Intermediate
Temperature & pressure increases
High
Temperature & pressure decreases
Olivine
Quartz
700C
Ca-rich
Ca-Na-rich
Na-Ca-rich
INTM
Na-rich
FELSIC

Metamorphic Rocks
4. Time
Metamorphic reactions and textural changes
require millions of years to occur
Index Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks
ite
an
llim
nite
Si
Kya
rolite
Stau
e t)
Garn
ite (
and
it e
Alm
Biot
it e
lus
da
An
ri t
Chlo
Index Minerals
Chlorite
Biotite
Almandite (garnet)
Staurolite
Andalusite
Kyanite
Sillimanite
Not specific
Quartz
Plagioclase
Orthoclase
Biotite
Muscovite
Hornblende
Calcite
Dolomite
Metamorphic Facies
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Regional metamorphic rocks
Form in response to increased temperature
and directed pressure along plate boundaries
Are foliated
Were sheared by pure shear or simple shear
2. Contact metamorphic rocks
Form in response to contact with magma at
high T and /or high confining P
Found adjacent to igneous intrusions
Are usually unfoliated
Where do the metamorphic rocks form?
Formation of
Contact Metamorphic
Rocks
Formation of
Regional Metamorphic
Rocks

Regional metamorphic rocks
Contact metamorphic rocks

Formation of Contact Metamorphic Rocks
Protolith and Metamorphic Rocks
Perubahan Textur
Foliasi
Slaty Cleavage
Sekistositas
Compositional Banding
FOLIASI
TIDAK
YA
UKURAN BUTIR
UKURAN BUTIR
Sedang-halus
Kasar
Halus
Sangat Halus
Slaty Cleavage
YA
Hornfels
Amfibol
Amfibolit
Schistosity
Kasar
Gneissore
Keras?
Mineral Utama?
Keras?
Sedang
Kalsit
Kuarsa
Garnet
Piroksen
Feldspar
Piroksen
Marmer
Kuarsit
Eklogit
Granulit
Kehijauan
Slate
Filit
Pucat
Kataklstik
Milonit
Pilonit
Sekis
Genis
Migmatik
Types of Metamorphic Rocks

A. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Are formed by differential pressure (pure shear, simple shear)
Slate
Dull, microscopic grains, strong slaty cleavage, any
color, mudstone protolith
Phyllite
Shiny, strongly micaceous with microscopic grains,
strong schistosity, cleavage, can be mafic or felsic, any
rock-type protolith
Schist
Shiny, strongly micaceous, fine to medium grained,
strong schistosity, cleavage, any color, any rock-type
protolith
Gneiss
Dull, weakly micaceous, fine to coarse grained, banded,
weak cleavage, any rock-type protolith, but most often
sheared coarse grained protolith such as granite,
conglomerate, breccia
Migmatite
Dull, weakly micaceous, fine to coarse grained, folded
banded texture, weak cleavage, almost melted, any rocktype protolith
Slate
Protolith: Fine grained rock like
shale, mudstone, or siltstone
Appearance: Dull, microscopic
grains, strong slaty cleavage,
any color
Slate (Batusabak)
Phyllite
Protolith: Can be any rock-type
Appearance: Shiny, strongly

micaceous with microscopic
grains, has strong schistose
cleavage, can be felsic
(muscovite-rich, silvery) or
Mafic (biotite-rich, shiny
medium to dark gray)
FILIT MIKA
SEKIS KLORITOID
Schist
Appearance: Shiny, strongly

micaceous, fine to medium grained
has strong schistose cleavage,
can be felsic (muscovite-rich,
silvery) or mafic (biotite-rich,
shiny medium to dark gray)
SEKIS
SEKIS
SEKIS GARNET-MIKA
MILONIT
Gneiss
Protolith: Can be any rock-type, but
most often formed from a sheared
coarse grained protolith such as
granite, conglomerate, breccia
Appearance: Dull, weakly micaceous,

fine to coarse grained, banded, weak
cleavage
GENIS-MIGMATIT
GENES
GENIS
Migmatite
Appearance: Dull, weakly micaceous,

fine to coarse grained, folded banded
texture, weak cleavage, almost melted,
a folded gneiss
MIGMATIT

B. Special Types of Metamorphic Rocks
May be foliated or unfoliated
Quartzite
Metamorphosed sandstone
Harder than marble
Will not fizz (release CO2) in the presence of acid
METAPSAMIT
(META BATUPASIR)

Marble
Metamorphosed limestone
Contains calcium carbonate
Will fizz (release CO2) in the presence of acid
Softer than quartzite
MARMER
MARMER

Amphibolite
Dull black, fine to coarse grained, weak cleavage if
sheared (gneissic)
Metamorphosed gabbro, basalt, or diorite
Dark rock composed mostly of amphibole and Ca-Na plagioclase, may be

either foliated or unfoliated, often with large (visible) elongated crystals of
amphibole
SKARN
EKLOGIT
EKLOGIT
Module 9
Sedimentary Rocks
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Rocks formed from material derived from
preexisting rocks by surfacial processes
followed by diagenesis
There are two main classes of sedimentary rocks
Clastic (detrital) sedimentary rocks
are formed from bits and pieces of previously
existing rocks, called clasts or detritus
Chemical sedimentary rocks
are formed in several ways
By precipitation from aqueous solution
From plant material
From animal material

Processes Leading to Formation of
Weathering: the processes that change rocks size and
composition at or near Earths surface
Erosion and Transportation: removal of rock particles
(clasts) from their source by water, wind, or glacial ice
Deposition: the settling of clasts on Earths surface as
sediments, leads to formation of a sedimentary bed
Compaction: pressing together of clasts, squeezing out
pore water, by pressure exerted by overlying beds
Lithification: cementation of clasts together to form a
sedimentary rock
Diagenesis: a process of conversion of unconsolidated
sediments to coherent sedimentary rocks
Rocks Cycle
Weathering
All rocks exposed

at earths surface
undergo

Transportation
Deposition
Compaction and
Lithification
Uplift and exposure
Where do the sediments form?
Resistance of Minerals to Weathering
Biotite
lase feld
spar
Plagioc
Amphibole
K-feldspar
Pyroxene
Continuous branch
Olivine
Muscovite
the effect of mineral composition

on the resistance to weathering
Quartz
Most readily
to weathering
Ca-rich
Ca-Na-rich
Na-Ca-rich
More resistant
to weathering
Na-rich
Most resistant
to weathering
Most resistant of
all to weathering
Effect of Weathering, Gradient, Distance from Source-Rock

on Clast Size, Shape, Sorting, and Composition
Close to source
clast size large clasts
clast shape angular clasts
sorting poorly sorted
sediments
composition rich in mafic minerals
and feldspar
Far from source

small clasts
rounded clasts
well sorted
sediments
quartz sands and
clays
Effect of Weathering, Gradient, Distance from Source-Rock

on Clast Size, Shape, Sorting, and Composition
07_18.jpg
Effects of Compaction, Cementation on Sediments

On mud
On poorly-sorted
sediments
On well-sorted sediments
From sediments to sedimentary rocks
gravel
sand
silt
conglomerate
sandstone
siltstone
clay
claystone
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Texture

Texture:
the relationship between the grains of minerals
forming a rock
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
grain size
roundness
sorting
fabric
fragment, matrix, & cement

a. Grain size:
Grain (particle, clast, fragment) size is primary
distinguishing factor for clastic sedimentary
rocks
Size means diameter of rocks grains

Size (mm)
>256
128 256
64 128
32 64
16 32
8 16
48
24
12
1/2 1
1/4 1/2
1/8 1/4
1/16 1/8
1/32 1/16
1/64 1/32
1/128 1/64
1/256 1/128
<1/256
Sedimentary clasts
CoarseFineVery coarseCoarseFineVery fine

Very coarseCoarse
MediumFine_
Very fine
Very coarseCoarse
FineVery fine
Boulder
Cobble
Cobble
Pebble
Pebble
Pebble
Pebble
Granule
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Silt
Silt
Silt
Silt
Clay
Sedimentary rocks
Conglomerate (predominantly
rounded clasts)
or Breccia (predominantly
Angular clasts)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Claystone or Shale
Wentworth Scale
Mudstone

b. Sphericity vs roundness
Sphericity is a degree of similarity to a ball
shape
Roundness is a degree of roundedness of the
edges of a fragment
Roundness
angular
High sphericity
Low sphericity
intermediate
rounded
Shapes of sand grains

c. Sorting
Degree of similarity in particle size
This quartz grains are:

-well-sorted
-well-rounded

d. Fabric
Opened fabric
Closed fabric
Opened fabric
Closed fabric

e. Fragments, matrix, cement
Fragments (clasts)
Matrix
Cement

The Most Common Sedimentary Cements
Calcite
The most common cement present in marine sedimentary
rocks
Also common in sedimentary rocks formed from sediments
deposited in evaporite basins
Calcite cemented sedimentary rocks give a positive acid
test (will fizz when an acidic solution is dropped on them)
Hematite
The cement present in red colored terrigenous (landderived) sedimentary rocks, very common
Hematite cemented rocks will not fizz when an acidic
solution is dropped on them
Silica
The cement present in terrigenous (land-derived)
sedimentary rocks that are not red, very common
Silica cemented rocks will not fizz when an acidic solution is
dropped on them
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Structure

Sedimentary Beds and Bedding Planes
Beds represent distinct sedimentary event,
times when deposition occurred
Bedding planes represent pauses between
sedimentary events, times when deposition ceased
Bedding
plane
Bed

Graded Sedimentary Beds
Form in response to
decrease in energy
during deposition
Larger, heavier clasts,
first pebbles then sand,
settle out first, in the
bottom of the bed
Smaller, lighter clasts,
silt and finally clay,
settle out last in the top
of the bed

Cross Beds
Cross beds are
deposited in response
to movement of a
current
Cross beds are
unidirectional if the
current was constant
in direction
Cross beds are bidirectional if the
current was not
constant in direction
Note: these beds are
tilted
Current direction

Mud Cracks
Mud cracks form
when mud dries
up
Their shape and
size may vary
considerably
Mudcracks
in a
sedimentary
rock
Mudcracks in fresh sediment

Ripple Marks
Are formed in response to
movement of a current
Symmetrical ripple marks
form if current is back-andforth, bi-directional
Asymmetrical ripple marks
form if current is constant in
direction
Asymmetrical ripple marks

in fresh sediment
Symmetrical ripple marks

preserved in mudstone

Raindrop Imprints and casts
Form when big rain drops fall on mud
Raindrop imprints are depressions formed on the
bed upon which the raindrops fell
Raindrop casts are knobs formed on the bottom of
the bed deposited on top of the bed upon which the
raindrops fell
Raindrop imprints
and mudcracks

Fossils
Are any evidence of life preserved in ancient rocks
Include bones, teeth, shells, molds and casts,
petrified wood, impressions, footprints, etc.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

derived from material carried in solution to
lakes/ seas
precipitation from solution to form
chemical sediments
by precipitation from aqueous solution
from plant material
from animal material
Salt flats, Utah
Death Valley, California
Evaporites
water evaporates and
dissolved stuff is
deposited
mostly marine rocks,
but some lakes/ playas
Salt, gypsum, potash
T&L Fig 6.12
Agate
Chert
very fine grained silica
also called flint, jasper,
agate
most formed in ocean
occurs as layers (beds)
& as irregular blobs in
limestone
marine creatures
remove silica from sea
water, make shells
Coral reef
Coquina (rock of shell fragments)
Limestone
formed by marine organisms
(corals, clams, algae)
composed primarily of calcite
(calcium carbonate CaCO3)
most abundant chemical
sedimentary rock
10% of all sedimentary rocks
(by volume)
some deposited directly out of
ocean or other waters
Limestone Mountain

Coal
peat
lignite
coal
anthracite
Coal
buried and compacted plant material
different kinds of coal, depending on formation
process
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

SILICATE
Clastic
Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia
Siltstone
Co nglomerate Claystone
Sandstone
Shale
CLASTIC
Marl; Clastic limestone
(Calcarudite, Calcarenite, Calcelutite)
Oolite
Bioclastic limestone
Chemical
Sedimentary Rocks
CARBONATE
Dolomite
Crystalline limestone
Coral limestone
ANORGANIC
ORGANIC
EVAPORITE
Halite
Gypsum
Anhydrite
SILICA
Chert
Radiolarite
Diatomite
CARBONACEOUS
Peat
Lignite
Coal
Anthracite
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:

Mudstones

Sandstones

Conglomerates

Breccias
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks:

Formed by Precipitation from Aqueous Solution
1. The Evaporites
a. Halite (NaCl)
b. Calcite (CaCO3)
c. Gypsum (CaSO4. H2O)
2. Precipitated Silica
Chert
Chemical
Chemical Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rocks:
Rocks:
Formed
from Plants
Material:
The Coal
Formed
from Plant
Material
Inundated
swamp or
marsh
Peat
Lignite
Coal seams in Mesa Verde National Park
Bituminous coal
(soft coal)
Bituminous coal
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks:

Formed from Animal Material: The Limestones
All contain CaCO3
All will fizz in contact with acid
1. Limestone (a limey mudstone)
2. Fossiliferous limestone
3. Coquina
4. Chalk
Modul 10
Fossils
FOSSILS
Fossil
An organic trace buried by natural processes,
and subsequently permanently preserved
Organic trace is used to include skeletal material,
impressions of organisms, excremental material,
tracks, trails, and borings
The preservation is considered older than 10000
years (before Holocene)
Human artifacts are not regarded as fossils
FOSSILS
Fossil may be preserved in the following forms
Physically and chemically almost unaltered
Physically (structurally) unaltered but chemically
altered
Carbonization
Silicification
Calcification
Pyritization
Hematization
Impression
Mold and cast
Internal mold and internal cast
FOSSILS
Taxonomy (organism classification)
Kingdom
Phylum
There are five Kingdoms
Class
Monera (bacteria, single cell)
Order
Protista (single to multiple cells,
e.g. algae)
Family
Fungi (multiple cells, absorb
Genus
surrounding organic material)
Species
Plantae (plants, photosynthesis,
40000 species)
Animalia (30 phyla,
2000000 species,
5% vertebrate, 45000 sp)
FOSSILS
Taxonomy (organism classification)

Kingdom
animalia
Phylum
protozoa
Class
foraminifera
Order
sarcodina
Family
globigerinidae
Genus
globigerina
Species
Globigerina miocenica
FOSSILS
Stegodon
Gigantosaurus
Molar of stegodon
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
Larger foraminifera in bioclastic limestone
Thin section view under microscope
FOSSILS
FOSSILS
Why do we study fossils?
To understand paleobiology
To understand paleoclimate
To understand paleoenvironment/paleoecology
To determine the relative age of rocks (strata)
To reconstruct the Earths history
FOSSILS
Determining the relative age of strata
FOSSILS
Correlation
FOSSILS
Determining paleoenvironment
From Primata to Human
From Primata to Human
Do you believe it?
Tyranosaurus Rex
Modul 11
Plate Tectonics
PLATE TECTONICS
Continental drift
The theory that the continents have moved in
relation to one another
Plate tectonics
The theory of global dynamics in which the
lithosphere is believed to be broken into
individual plates that move in response to
convection in the (upper) mantle. The margins of
the plates are sites of considerable geologic
activity.
Crust Mantle Core (CMC)-sphere

rocks
cold, rigid, brittle

hot, plastic
= 3,3 4,3 g/cm3
ultrabasic
igneous rocks
(MgO, SiO2)
Depth (km)
hot, high pressure,

rigid, brittle
Fe, Ni
Liquid
45000 C
solid
Continental Drift
Antonio Snider-Pelligrini Map (1858)
Continental Drift
Alfred Wegener Map (1915)
Continental Drift
Wegeners Concept of Continental Drift and Orogenesis

Note:
Most geologists and geophysicists rejected Wegeners ideas
because they violated what was known about the STRENGTH
OF ROCKS.
Also, centrifugal force (from Earths rotation) along with tidal
forces were deemed to be TOO SMALL to move the continents!
Evidence on Continent
Continents Fit
Together
Best fit at 100 m below sea level
Rocks and
Structures Match Up
Mountain Belts of
the Same Age
Appalachians
Caledonides
Mauritanides
Appalachians
Glacial Features
Direction of ice flow
Fossils
Early Triassic
Lystrosaurus
Cynognathus
Glossopteris
Permian-Pennsylvanian
Mesosaurus
Permian
Paleoclimate
of Pangea
Evidence on Seafloor
Seafloor
Morphology
Paleomagnetism and
seafloor spreading
Magnetic Time Scale
Magnetic Stripe Formation at Ridge Crest
Paleomagnetism and
seafloor spreading
Seafloor Age Map
Mantle Plume Hot Spot Tracks
Reconstruction
Plate Tectonics
Directions of Motion and Plate Velocities Determined by
Mantle Plume Hot Spot Tracks and Age-Dating of Rocks
Plate Tectonics
Directions of Motion and Plate Velocities Determined
by GPS (Global Positioning System) Satellites
Directions of Motion and Plate Velocities Determined by GPS
(Global Positioning System) Satellites
Plate Tectonics
Earths Tectonic Plates
North
American
North American
Eurasian
Arabian
Juan de
Fuca
Caribbean
Pacific
Philippine
Cocos
Nazca
South
American
African
Indo
Australian
Pacific
Antarctic
Scotian
Antarctic
Plate Tectonics
What drives
Plate Tectonics?
Plate Tectonics
Internal Heat
Plate Tectonics
Divergent Boundary
Results in the formation of Oceanic Crust
Plate Tectonics
Transform Boundary
Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary: Subduction
Melting
Produces
More
Felsic
Magma
Results in the formation & growth of Continental Crust

and destruction of Oceanic Crust
Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary: Collision
Results in the growth of Continental Crust
BASIC PLATE TECTONICS Revised
Earths lithosphere is broken into 12-24

rigid plates
Plates move about 1-10 cm/yr on the plastic
Asthenosphere
Geology happens where the plates
interact with one another along Divergent,
Transform, Subduction and Collisional
Boundaries
Module 12
Volcanoes
The gods of volcanoes doing their task
VOLCANOES
A volcano is a vent or fissure in the Earths crust
through which molten magma, hot gases, and
other fluids escape to the surface of the land or to
the bottom of the sea
Volcanoes may be classified broadly into:
Central Types: the products escape via a single
pipe (vent)
Fissure Types: the products escape from a
linear vent or crack
Vent positions
Vent positions
Central Eruption
Fissure Eruption
Side Eruption
Earths Geotherm
GEOTHERM: increase in
temperature with depth in the
earth
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT is
the rate of change of T with
depth
In upper 100 km, average
geothermal gradient = 300C
km-1
Heat source is decay of
radioactive elements
This heat causes melting of
rocks to form Magma
Composition of Magma
Variation in magma properties include:
SILICA CONTENT
varies from 45% to 75%
VOLATILES (GAS CONTENT)
most common gases: H2O vapor,
CO2, SO2, H2S
TEMPERATURE OF ERUPTED MAGMA
varies from 12000C to about 8000C
Variation in magma properties affect VISCOSITY of
the magma
Viscosity of Magma
VISCOSITY refers to the thickness or fluidity of a
liquid
Liquid with HIGH viscosity are very thick,
sticky
Liquid with LOW viscosity are very fluid
Effect of various properties on magma viscosity:
Temperature: HIGH temperature = LOW
viscosity (i.e. very fluid)
Silica Content: HIGH silica = HIGH viscosity
Volatile Content: HIGH volatiles = LOW
viscosity
(However, high gas contents contribute to
explosive eruptions)
Types of Volcanoes
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
HOT SPOT
Cinder Cone Volcanoes
Cinder Cone Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Lava Dome Volcanoes
Dome Volcanoes
Caldera Volcanoes
Caldera Volcanoes
The formation of
Caldera
Eruption Types
Eruption Types
HAWAIIAN-HAWAI
Eruption Types
STROMBOLIAN - ANAK KRAKATAU
Eruption Types
VULCANIAN DOME - MERAPI
Eruption Types
VULCANIAN - SURTSEYAN
Eruption Types
VULCANIAN - PAPANDAYAN
GAMALAMA
Eruption Types
PELEEAN - ST HELLENS
Eruption Types
PLINIAN PINATUBO
Eruption Types
PLINIAN - TAMBORA
Global Distribution of Volcanoes
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
Distribution of Volcanoes
Most subduction zones are in the Ring of Fire (so-called

because of volcanism of the Pacific)
Volcanism & Plate Tectonics
Volcanism in continental
Volcanism in islands arc
Volcanism in
Mid Oceanic Ridge
Pacific Ocean
Hot Spot Volcanism
Classification of Volcanic Environment
Types and Zones of Volcanism
Finally . . .
Rest in Peace
COLUMNAR JOINT
VOLCANIC NECK
Module 13
Earthquake
EARTHQUAKE
Photo credit: USGS
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake
A series of shock waves generated at a point (the
focus) within the Earths crust or mantle
The point on the surface of the Earth above the
focus is called the epicenter
Three main types of wave motion are generated
by an earthquake: P-Waves; S-Waves; dan LWaves
EARTHQUAKE
P-Waves
S-Waves
High-frequency
High-frequency
Short-wavelength
Short-wavelength
Longitudinal waves Transverse waves
Can be reflected and Can be reflected and
refracted
refracted
Travel through the Travel through the
solid and the liquid solid part of the
part of the Earth
Earth at varying
velocities.
Propagated in all
directions from
the focus
L-Waves
Low-frequency
Long-wavelength
Transverse vibrations
Confined to the outer
skin of the crust
Responsible for most
of the destructive
force of earthquake
EARTHQUAKE
Seismic Wave Types
Body Waves
Primary or Compressional
Secondary or Shear
Surface Waves
Rayleigh (large vertical displacements)
Love (shear)
EARTHQUAKE
Body Waves
Seismic Wave Types
Secondary (S) Wave
Surface Waves
Primary (P) Wave
Love Wave
Rayleigh Wave
EARTHQUAKE
Elastic Rebound Theory
3 m offset
1906 San Francisco Earthquake
EARTHQUAKE
Elastic Rebound Theory
Where does the offset occur?

Draw the relative movement
Offset Lettuce Rows - El Centro, CA
EARTHQUAKE
Equations for velocities
Vp =
Vs =
k + 4/3
1/2
density
shear modulus (rigidity)
bulk modulus (rigidity)
1/2
because shear modulus (rigidity) for fluid is zero,

S waves cannot propagate through a fluid
consequence of equations is that P waves are 1.7x faster than S
can infer physical properties from P and S waves
Effects of the Earthquake

Earthquakes dont kill people - buildings do!
Pancaked Building - 1985 Mexico City
Soil Liquefaction - 1964 Niigata, Japan
Surface Displacement - 1964 Alaska
Ground Rupture, 1906 Olema, CA
Fence Compression - Gallatin County, MT
Buckled Concrete - 1971 San Fernando, CA
Tsunami Devastation - 1964 Alaska Earthquake
Tsumani Generation
Tsunami Wave Propagation Times
Locating the Earthquake

Vertical Component Seismometer

Horizontal Component Seismometer

First Arrivals Seismographic Record

Distance Time Ralations

P vs S Wave Travel Time Curves

Earthquake Location by Range
Measuring the Earthquake

Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two
based on energy and one based on intensity.
Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for
southern California. Log scale, which has no upper
bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative
values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes.
Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the
amount of work done during the earthquake. Based
on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement
during event.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: based on the
damage associated with a particular event at a
particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to
XII (more damage).

Magnitude-Description-Intensity-Frequency Relations

Modified Mercalli Intensity Index (1931)
1886 Charleston, SC earthquake

Historical Earthquake Magnitudes
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries

Subduction Angle

Earthquake Distribution

Relative plate motion and boundaries

different types of structures are associated with each boundary type:
divergent/rifting: extensional (normal faulting)
convergent/collisional: compressional (thrust faulting)
transform/transcurrent: shear-dominated (strike-slip faulting)

Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes

Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes
Earthquakes along
mid-ocean ridge are
shallower than those
along subduction zone
from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

Transform Boundary and Earthquakes

Transform Boundary and Earthquakes
The western US
is somewhat
anomalous
Note: absence of
deep earthquakes

Convergent Boundary and Earthquakes

Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes
Continent-continent collision
zones have broad areas of
of relatively shallow seismicity
Ocean-continent convergent
margins have earthquakes foci
that extend to great depths.
Mechanism tend to change from
extension to compression
downdip.

deep intermediate shallow
Epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to

surface;
Dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper
farther from trench
Location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle is defined
by seismicity.
Earthquakes occur along an inclined belt: the Wadati-Benioff
zone reaches maximum depth of ~670 km

Seismicity of subduction zones
Seismicity Fiji Islands

Region: 1977 - 1997
Seismicity of Japan and Kuril Island:

1975 - 1995
Seismicity of Peru-Bolivia
Border Region: 1977 - 1997
all from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

Tomography (3D seismic)
blue is fast
interpreted as slab
note continuity of blue slab

to depths on order of 670 km
slab is cold and thus can have
earthquakes at greater depths
Seismicity along subduction zones:

earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep
but have systematic location related to subducting slab
shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away
Module 14
Crustal Deformation
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
Although a casual observer might think that the crust
of the Earth is permanent and fixed, a great deal of
evidence, both direct and indirect, indicates that the
crust is in continuous motion and that it has moved
on vast scale throughout all of geologic time.
How do we know that the Earths crust has been and

continuous to be deformed?
Direct evidence: earthquake,
Indirect evidence: folds, joints, faults,
Folds
Folded Appalachians, near Harrisburg, PA
Near Harrisburg, PA, Source: NASA
Folds
Types of Folds:
Anticline = Arch
Syncline = through
Monocline = stair step
Dome
Basin
Chevron Fold, Laurel Mt., CA
Folds
Parts of a fold:
axial plane
limbs
hinge
Hinge
Oldest rocks
in middle
Anticline
Folds
Youngest
rocks
in middle
Syncline and Monocline
Folds
Domes and Basins

Think of an Egg Carton!
Folds
Virgin Anticline,
Southern Utah
Folds
Syncline-Anticline Pairs
+ Domes at Zagros Mts,
Iran
NASA Earth as Art web page
Folds
Grenville Dome: Sinclair, WY
Folds
Syncline, Israel
Folds
Which deformation
and stresses
cause theses
structures ?
Folding of Shale-Sandstone
sequence, Kings Canyon,
California
Folds
Compressive
Forces
Folds axis are

perpendicular to the main
direction of compression
Folds and Thrust have the

same origin
Folds
Folds Classification
Folds
Oil and Gas Concentrate in Domes
Chernicoff and Whitney
Folds and Faults

Folds and thrust are both responsible for
the orogens
R.W.H. Butler
Fold-thrust complex developed in Upper Jurassic limestones in the

Haut Giffre area of the Subalpine thrust belt (Morcles nappe in France)
Continental Extension
Faults
Continental Extensions
Basin and Range
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology
Continental Extension
Extension
Ductile Crust Thins
Brittle Faulting
Continental Extensions
Shearing Forces
Lateral slip creates faults
Common at transform
Faults
Faults
result from brittle
deformation
rocks offset across
fault
Sides referred to as
hanging wall and
footwall
-- 3 types of fault
Hanging Wall
Footwall
Faults
Strike & Dip
Describe fault orientation
Direction of slip determines
kind of fault: dip-slip or
strike-slip
Faults
Normal Fault
Normal Fault (Dip-Slip Fault)
Normal Fault, Lamb Canyon, CA
Faults
Reverse or Thrust Fault
Small thrust fault, Las Vegas, NV,

Source: M. Miller, U. of Oregon
Faults
Strike-Slip Fault
Strike-Slip Fault (left-lateral)
Strike-slip fault near Las Vegas, NV,

Source: M. Miller, U. of Oregon
Faults
Strike-slip fault displacement in orchard
Folds and Faults

Folds and thrust are both responsible for
the orogens
R.W.H. Butler
Fold-thrust complex developed in Upper Jurassic limestones in the

Haut Giffre area of the Subalpine thrust belt (Morcles nappe in France)
JOINTS
Joints
Brittle cracks in rocks
Form near surface
Regular spatial distribution
No offset
JOINTS
Preferential weathering of
joints in Sandstone;
Calcite veins in joints of

marble, Laurel Mt., CA
Module 15
Weathering
WEATHERING
The Dynamic Earth
Earth is very dynamic
Temperature (T) and pressure (P) increase with
increasing depth below Earths surface
Tectonic activity uplifts rocks formed at higher T
and P deep below Earths surface to regions of
lower T and P closer to the surface
At the lower T and P at or near Earths surface, the
minerals composing the uplifted rocks:
Are unstable
Are constantly exposed to agents of
weathering, such as O2, acidic H2O, rain, wind,
ice, etc.
Are thus relentlessly destroyed by weathering,
erosion, and mass wasting
Rocks Cycle
Weathering
All rocks exposed

at earths surface
undergo

Uplift and exposure
WEATHERING
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation
Weathering
The group of processes that change rock at or
near Earths surface
Erosion
The removal of rock particles from their source
by flowing water, wind, or glacial ice
Transportation
The movement of eroded particles by flowing
water, wind, or glacial ice
WEATHERING
Types of Weathering
Chemical weathering
Changes the chemical composition of rocks by
removing and/or adding ions
Mechanical weathering
Breaks rocks into smaller pieces without
changing their composition
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering removes and/or adds ions by
dissolution, hydrolysis, and oxidation
Dissolution
Is removal soluble ions Na+, K+, Ca 2+, Mg 2+,
Fe 2+, SiO2
Is enhanced by acids: H2CO3, H2SO4, HNO3, and
HCl
Hydrolysis is addition of water as the OH- ion
Forms clays from olivine, augite, hornblende,
biotite, feldspars
Forms H4SiO4, a cementing agent, from quartz
Oxidation is addition of oxygen
Iron + oxygen yields hematite (if dry), limonite
(if wet)
Water is the most effective chemical weathering
agent
Chemical Weathering
Effects of Chemical Weathering
ACID RAIN
Carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
sulfur dioxide produced by burning of
fossil fuels react with rain to form
carbonic, nitric, and sulfuric acids,
acid rain
This statue is composed of

marble
Marble is composed of
CaCO3, which dissolved by
acid solutions
The statues facial features
were dissolved by acid rain
Chemical Weathering
Spheroidal weathering occurs

because the corners and edges of
rocks are more readily chemically
weathered than their flat sides
Spheroidally weathered granite
Spheroidal Weathering
Chemical Weathering
In arid regions,
iron in the rocks
reacts
with O2 to form
hematite, Fe2O3, red
rust
Oxidation of Iron
Chemical Weathering
Oxidation and hydrolysis
of pyrite in the rocks
produces red-colored
water rich in sulfuric acid
Acid mine drainage is a
big problem anywhere
pyrite is present in rocks
exposed at the surface,
particularly around, coal
mines and gold mines
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O 2Fe++ (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 4SO42- (aq)
Acid Mine Drainage
Chemical Weathering
Intense hydrolysis of
minerals by hot acidic
groundwater moving
through the bedrock
formed the clays in this
boiling mudpot
Hydrolysis of Bedrock by Hydrothermal Water
Chemical Weathering
Water percolating
through soils forms
clays from the
feldspars
by hydrolysis and
carries away soluble
ions and silica
Hydrolysis of Feldspars in Soils
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering by organism
Chemical Weathering
Negative charges on the flat
surfaces of clay minerals
attract positive ends of water
molecules, which in turn
Keeps the soil moist
Enables plants to absorb
moisture and exchange
ions with the soil
Hydrolysis of Feldspars in Soils
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering breaks rock into smaller
pieces without changing the composition
Mechanical weathering is caused by
Frost wedging: Expansion of water during
freezing
Unloading: Pressure reduction due to removal
of overburden causes formation of sheet joints
and exfoliation domes
Thermal expansion or contraction: Extreme
changes in temperature cause cracks to form in
rocks
Organic fracturing: Due to root wedging,
burrowing by animals, mining activities, etc.
Erosional agents: moving water, wind, ice
Rain water enters joints,
cracks in the rocks
As the water freezes (forms

frost) it expands, wedges the
cracks further open, makes
them wider
Frost Wedging
Overburden
Pluton
Pluton
Weight of the overburden

(the crust and soil above
the pluton) exerts great
pressure on the pluton
keeps it from expanding
Uplift and erosion greatly

reduce pressure exerted
on the top of the pluton,
cause formation of sheet
joints, exfoliation, and
exfoliation domes
Unloading
An exfoliating granite dome
Unloading
Sheet joints produced by

unloading
Plants take advantage of cracks in rocks, wedge the cracks wider

as their their roots grow larger
Root Wedging
Factors That Influence the Rate of Weathering

Structure
Structures such as fractures, foliation,
cleavage, bedding enhance the rate at which
rocks weather
Mineral composition
Mafic minerals weather more rapidly than felsic
minerals
Climate
A warm moist climate most effectively
enhances weathering: hydrolysis, dissolution,
oxidation
Topography
Steep slopes weather less rapidly than
horizontal surfaces because most of the rain
runs off instead of soaking in
Presence of
structure
increases the
surface area of
rocks, which in
turn increases the
rates at which
they weather
Effect of Structure
Mafic minerals
are much more
susceptible to
oxidation,
dissolution, and
hydrolysis than
felsic minerals
Effect of Mineral Composition
Marble (right, composed of

calcium carbonate) weathers
more readily than slate (left, rich
in clays)
Mudstone (bottom, rich in clays)

weathers more readily than
sandstone (top, rich in quartz)
Exposed part of basalt flow 1 is

covered by a thicker layer of soil
because it has been exposed to
soil-forming processes longer
than flow 2
Where underlain by the

same rock-type, steep
slopes weather more slowly,
are covered by thinner soils,
than horizontal surfaces
Time and Topography
SOIL
Soil
A layer of weathered unconsolidated material consisting
of mineral matter, organic matter (humus), and pore
spaces
Loam
A fertile soil consisting of equal amounts of sand, silt,
clay, and organic matter
Topsoil
The dark-colored upper portion of a soil
Subsoil
Infertile stony organic-poor soil usually underlying
topsoil
Regolith
Loose unconsolidated rock material resting on bedrock
SOIL
Soil Horizons
O
A
B
C
D
Organic matter
Organic matter mixed with
mineral matter
Mineral matter mixed with fine clays

and colloids washed down from
the top soil
Rock fragments mechanically
weathered from bedrock mixed
with partially decomposed rock
Bedrock
Downward leaching
of ions and clays due
to percolating water
SOIL
Factors That Control Soil Formation
Composition of the bed rock
Mafic rocks weather more rapidly than felsic
rocks
Time
Longer time leads to more soil formation
Climate
A warm moist climate is most effective
Topography
Horizontal surfaces weather more rapidly
Plants and Animals
Plants supply nutrients, form acids, and fix
nitrogen
Burrowing animals increase porosity, mix
materials
SOIL
What will be happened

if no weathering
process
in our planet?
RUANG LINGKUP GEOLOGI
Pengertian dan cara belajar geologi

Ilmu-ilmu terkait dengan geologi
Sistem dalam geologi
Mengapa belajar geologi?
MODUL 1 - RUANG LINGKUP

GEOLOGI

Geology is the study of the Earth as a whole, its origin,
structure, composition, and history (including the
development of life), and the nature of the processes
which have given rise to its present state.

Geology. Middlesex: Penguin Books. p. 204.
Pertanyaan:
Cari definisi lain dari buku-buku geologi
berbahasa Inggris di Perpustakaan Pusat.
GEOLOGI

Mengikuti pendidikan kebumian
Lokatama untuk belajar geologi:
Perpustakaan termasuk internet
Laboratorium (studio) dan museum geologi
Lapangan
Sebagaimana pembelajaran ilmu alam yang lain, dalam
menghadapi bahan atau fenomena geologi perlu
dilakukan:
Observasi (pengamatan),
Analisis, dan
Sintesis
GEOLOGI
Perhatikan
Belum dikatakan belajar geologi sebelum ke
perpustakaan, laboratorium, dan lapangan
(survei)!
Apakah FTM UPN Veteran Yogyakarta
memfasilitasi pembelajaran di 3 (tiga) lokatama
termasuk museum
tersebut
MODUL 1 - RUANG
LINGKUP di atas?
GEOLOGI

Ilmu-ilmu terkait dengan geologi

GEOLOGI
Ilmu-ilmu terkait
TEKNOLOGI
ILMU-ILMU
TERAPAN
ILMU-ILMU
DASAR
KEBUMIAN
ILMU-ILMU
DASAR
TEKNIK
PERTAMBANGAN
TEKNIK
PANASBUMI
PERTANIAN
DLL
INDUSTRI
TEKNIK
TEKNIK
PARIWISATA
PERMINYAKAN
SIPIL
GEOLOGI
GEOARKEOLOGI
GEOLOGI
BAHAN GALIAN
PANASBUMI
DLL
GEOLOGI
GEOLOGI
GEOLOGI
MINYAKBUMI
TEKNIK
PLANOLOGI LINGKUNGAN
PEDOLOGI
METEOROLOGI
GEOLOGI
HIDROLOGI
FISIKA
STATISTIKA
BIOLOGI
KIMIA
MATEMATIKA
GEOLOGI
Ilmu-ilmu antara
GEOLOGI
GEOFISIKA
FISIKA
GEOKIMIA
KIMIA
GEOSTATISTIKA
STATISTIKA
GEOHIDROLOGI
HIDROLOGI
PALEONTOLOGI
BIOLOGI
GEOWISATA
PARIWISATA
GEOARKEOLOGI
ARKEOLOGI
DLL
Pertanyaan:
Mengapa muncul ilmu-ilmu antara?
GEOLOGI
Cabang-cabang geologi
GEOLOGI
PALEONTOLOGI
MINERALOGI
STRATIGRAFI
GEOMORFOLOGI
GEOLOGI
STRUKTUR
PETROLOGI
TEKTONIKA
VOLKANOLOGI
GEOLOGI
SEJARAH
SPELEOLOGI
LIMNOLOGI
SEDIMENTOLOGI
Pertanyaan:
Mengapa banyak
cabang-cabang
geologi?
GEOLOGI
DLL

Ilmu-ilmu terkait

GEOLOGI
GEOSPHERE
Initially, it was an homogenous material

GEOLOGI
10
GEOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
SOLID EARTH
Diversifications
GEOLOGI
11
GEOSPHERE
Dynamic equilibrium
ATMOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE
HIDROSPHERE

GEOLOGI
SOLID EARTH 12
(LITHOSPHERE TO CORE)

Ilmu-ilmu terkait

GEOLOGI
13
Why Study Geology?

Because geology is all around us.
1. Geological Resources
2. The Environment Environmental
3. Geological Hazards Geology
(Changes posing risks)
4. Engineering
6. Historical Geology
Geology forms the basis of our great civilizations
GEOLOGI
14
Why Study Geology?

1. Geological Resources
The Cradle of
Civilization (Fertile
Crescent)
Development limited
by availability, e.g.,
soil, water, energy
Conflicts based on
resources, e.g.,
water, minerals, oil
GEOLOGI
http://encarta.msn.com/
15
The Cradle of Civilization

Sprung from geology of the region
Tigris River, Iraq
http://encarta.msn.com/
GEOLOGI
16
Misuse of Resources
2. The Environment
These Maps illustrate the
Fertile Crescent in 1973 (top)
and 2000 (bottom).
Permanent marshlands,
pictured in green, have shrunk
90 percent in that period.
Illustration courtesy United Nations

Environment Program
GEOLOGI
17
Misuse of Geologic Resources

Desiccation of the Aral Sea, Kazakhstan
2. The Environment
http://www.grida.no/aral/aralsea/english/arsea/arsea.htm
GEOLOGI
18
Overuse of Geologic Resources

2. The Environment (Geology in the News)
1.7 billion are joining the consumer class
and the environment wont sustain this
standard of living (Worldwatch Institute
2004)
Emissions of Greenhouse gasses is

accelerating global warming
Climate change is accelerating melting of
glaciers and driving mass extinctions
(The Centre of Biodiversity and Conservation,
Leeds University, UK)
GEOLOGI
19
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003
Geology in the News
San Andreas Fault
3. Geologic Hazards
Two die in 6.5
magnitude
Earthquake near
San Lois Obispo
California
Earthquake triggers
mudslides
GEOLOGI
20
Assessing Risk
Major Quake Likely to
Strike San Francisco
Bay Region Between
2003 and 2032
3. Geologic Hazards
Assessing Risks
Avoiding Risks
Preventing
Damage
Predicting Impact
21
http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/research/seismology/wg02/
GEOLOGI
Earthquake
Photos
from AP
Bam, Iran
A Magnitude 6.5
Earthquake hits a
stone- and mudhouse city of
100,000 in Iran 1226-03
30,000 Dead
30,000 Refugees
US sends aid and

releases sanctions
Relations improved

GEOLOGI
22
Volcanoes
3. Geological Hazards
Landslides
Earthquakes

GEOLOGI
23
4. Geology in Engineering
Slope Failure Risk Assessment and Control
To prevent slope failure engineers must understand the

geology that forms and controls the slope
GEOLOGI
24
Geology in Engineering
The Leaning Tower Straightens Up
In Pisa the tilted one is back in
business after an 11-year effort
to keep it from collapsing
Committee member John
Burland, an engineer,
promoted soil extraction as the
best way to save the tower.
Engineers use knowledge of

geology to design, protect
and correct structures
www.smithsonianmag.si.edu25
GEOLOGI

H.C. Berann (1915-1999)
Yosemite National Park, 1987
Glaciers
Mass Wasting
Streams
Shorelines
Deserts
Groundwater
http://www.berann.com
GEOLOGI
26
Sub Disciplines
Areas of Study Which Rely on Geology
Environmental Geology
Environmental Sciences: how we influence
the earth
Geologic Hazards: how geology influences us
Engineering Geology
Geologic Materials
Foundations
Geotechnical engineering
GEOLOGI
27
Sub Disciplines (cont.)

Geological Resources
Locating and characterizing amounts and quality
Extracting and
Understanding environmental effects of
extraction and use (misuse, overuse) of
resources
Historical Geology
Deciphering Earth History and
Evolution of life
GEOLOGI
28
Dengan demikian geologi digunakan dimana saja?

29

GEOLOGI
I WONDER
There are many diversifications in the
world, but they have been being maintained
in a single magnificent system and under
dynamic equilibrium.
Bambang Prastistho

GEOLOGI
30
Module 16
Mass Movement
MASS MOVEMENT
Mass movements
Rock material may move under the influence of
gravity either as a movement of weathering
products down a slope, or as a movement of rock
bodies along joint planes, bedding planes, etc.
Mass movement occurs on slopes
Slopes are dynamic evolving features
Slope evolution is influenced by topography,
rock type, climate, vegetation, water and
geologic time
It occurs naturally and/or are influenced by human
activities
It has caused substantial damage and loss of life
Synonymous: gravity transport, mass wasting,
mass-wasting movement, landslide
MASS MOVEMENT
MASS MOVEMENT
MASS MOVEMENT
Slow or rapid slope failure?
The rate of slope failure depends upon
Gradient, how steep the slope is
Materials composing the slope
Amount of water present in those materials
Rate of movement of those materials
The rate of movement varies from
imperceptible creep
to thundering avalanches
MASS MOVEMENT
What Controls and Triggers Mass Movement?
Gravity
Gravity is the main driving force of
mass wasting
Water
Excessive rains weaken rock, loosen
soils, promote fluid flow
Removal of vegetation
Destroys root systems which bind
soil and regolith together
Earthquakes
Earthquakes dislodge huge volumes
of rock and unconsolidated material
MASS MOVEMENT
Relationship of shear
force and normal force
to gravity, the main
driving force for mass
wasting
MASS MOVEMENT
The effect of water on stability
Unsaturated grains are held

together by surface tension
of water, are more stable
Saturated grains are forced

apart by water, are less
stable, able to flow easily.
MASS MOVEMENT
Why earthquake followed by
mass movement should be
happened in my place?
Mass movements after Yogyakarta

Earthquake May 27th, 2006
MASS MOVEMENT
Classification of Mass Movement Processes
Mass movements processes are classified on the
basis of
slow
Rate of Movement
Type of Movement
Type of Material
Block
Rock
Sand
Debris
Soil
Earth
Mud
rapid
Fall
Slide
Slump
Creep
Flow
Complex movement
(sliding and flow)
Type of movements
FALL
Type of movements
SLIDE
Type of movements
SLUMP
Type of movements
CREEP
Type of movements
FLOW
Classification of Mass Movements
Classification of Mass Movements
Mass Movement Cases

Air photo of the 1970
Peru debris avalanche
The avalanche buried
the villages of Yungay
and Ranrahirca and
killed 19,000 people
Cause: An earthquake
dislodged a slab of
glacier ice, which
rapidly avalanched
down the steep slope
at 125 to 270 mph
Mass Movement Cases
A few people at Yungay

managed to survive the
avalanche by running to
high ground at the
cemetery
Mass Movement Cases
Top of a church buried under 5 m of debris at Yungay
Mass Movement Cases
Creep
Creep is very slow down-slope movement (< 1
cm/yr) of soil or unconsolidated debris
The two factors that contribute most significantly
to creep are
water in the soil
daily cycles of freezing and thawing
Mass Movement Cases

Common Indicators of Creep
Mass Movement Cases
The effect of alternate

cycles of freezing and
thawing on down slope
creep of soil grains
Mass Movement Cases

Debris Flows and Earthflows
The general term debris flow is used for mass
wasting in which motion takes place throughout
the moving mass (flow)
In an earthflow, the debris moves downslope as a
viscous fluid, sometimes slowly, sometimes
rapidly
Earthflows generally occur on steep debriscovered hillsides after heavy rains have saturated
the soil
Mass Movement Cases
Earthflow
Slump (rotational slide)
Mass Movement Cases
La Conchita, CA, Prior to the

1995 Slump and Earthflow
Mass Movement Cases

La Conchita, CA, after
the
1995 Slump and
Earthflow
Mass Movement Cases

Dj vu!
La Conchita, CA, after a
Slump and Earthflow in
2005
Allen photo
Mass Movement Cases
Mudflow caused by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
Mass Movement Cases

Effects of the 2006 Philippine Mudslide
www.chinadaily.com.cn
www.china.org.cn
thestar.com.my
Mass Movement Cases

Rockfalls and Rockslides
When a block of bedrock breaks off and falls
freely or bounces down a steep cliff, it is called a
rockfall
Commonly, an apron of fallen bedrock blocks,
called talus, accumulates at the base of the cliff
A rockslide involves the rapid sliding of a mass of
bedrock along an inclined plane or weakness
Rockfalls and rockslides can be caused by the
undercutting of the base of a slope by erosion or
construction
Mass Movement Cases

Rockfalls
Mass Movement Cases

Rockfalls
Talus at the base
of a cliff
The product of
numerous rock
falls
Mass Movement Cases

The 1996 Yosemite National Park Rockfall
Notice movement of slide debris up the opposite side

of the valley
Mass Movement Cases
The 1925 Gros Ventre Slide, WY
In 1925, a massive slide dammed the Gros Ventre River, WY, creating Lower
Slide Lake. Two years later, the water breached the natural dam, wiping out
the town of Kelly. Jackson Hole Historical Society and Museum
Mass Movement Cases
Slide scarp
Slide debris
deposited on the
opposite side of the
valley
The Gros Ventre Slide
Slide debris, opposite side of the
valley
Mass Movement Cases
The cause of the 1925 rockslide in the Gros Ventre

Mountains, Wyoming
Preventing Mass Movements

Construction and watering can cause a hillside to
become vulnerable to mass wasting
Do not
cut down hillsides
remove vegetation from hillsides
over water terraces that are built up on steep
hillsides

Proper use of French drains can prevent mass wasting
How to install a French drain
Dump well sorted gravel against the wall on the upslope side
Install perforated drain pipes or punch holes through the wall
Cover gravel with a fine mesh to prevent small clasts from the
overlying soil from filling pore spaces in the gravel
Put soil on top of the mesh

Build safe road cuts
Cross section of a hill

showing a safe road cut on
the left and a hazardous
road cut on the right
The hazardous road

cut after removal of
rock that may slide
Stitching is
one method used to
stabilize bedrock to
prevent a rockslide
along a hazardous
road cut
Stitched bedrock along a hazardous road cut near Valdese, Alaska
Summary of Controls of Mass Movements
Module 17
Groundwater
The Hydrologic Cycle
Groundwater-Related Terms to Remember

Aquifer: a body of rock or soil that stores and easily
transmits a significant quantity of groundwater
A confined aquifer is overlain by an aquitard
An unconfined aquifer is overlain by the water table
Aquitard: an impermeable bed that hinders movement of
groundwater
Artesian well: a well in which the groundwater rises to a
level higher than where it was first encountered
Cone of depression: a cone-shaped depression in the
water table surrounding a well from which water is
pumped faster than it can move through the aquifer

Drawdown: is the difference in elevation between the
undisturbed water table and the bottom of a cone of
depression
Geyser: a type of hydrothermal spring that intermittently
erupts jets of hot water and steam
Groundwater: water in the zone of saturation
Hard water: does not lather readily with soap, due to high
concentration(s) of Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Fe 2+, and/or Mn 2+
Karst topography: formed in limestone bedrock in
response to dissolution of the limestone by acidic water
Characterized by the presence of caves, sinkholes,
disappearing streams, solution valleys, etc.

Perched water table: unconfined groundwater separated
from the underlying main body of groundwater by an
aquitard and a zone of aeration
Percolation: slow movement of water through small
openings within a porous material
Permeability: a measure of the ability of a material to
transmit groundwater. Dependent upon
How many conduits are present
How big the conduits are
How straight the conduits are
Pore space: any open space within a body of sediment or
rock

Porosity: the percentage of a material occupied by pore
spaces
Primary porosity: the spaces between grains composing
the rock
Secondary porosity: cracks and caves produced by
jointing, faulting, and dissolution of the bedrock
Sinkhole: a depression formed by collapse of the roof of
a cave
Spring: a flow of groundwater naturally emerging at the
Earths surface

Stalactite: an icicle-like structure attached to the ceiling
of a cave
Stalagmite: a conical-shaped structure attached to the
floor of a cave
Zone of aeration: the unsaturated region above the water
table, the region where the pore spaces are filled partially
with air and partially with water
Water table: the top of the zone of saturation
Zone of saturation: the region below the water table, the
region where the pore spaces are completely filled with
groundwater
Features Associated with Subsurface Water

Perched water table
Water table
Zone of aeration:
Pore spaces contain
air and water
Zone of saturation:
Pore spaces are
filled with water
Perched Water Tables

(Plummer, McGeary, and Carlson, 2003, Physical Geology, 9th ed.)
Mudstone
Sandstone
Sandstone
Surface Exposure of the Water Table

The surface of any sea, lake, pond, stream, or spring is the water table
Water table
A Gaining Stream
Note that groundwater flow (blue lines) is always
perpendicular to the equipotential lines (black lines)
Water table
Movement of
Groundwater
During wet weather
the water table rises,
is recharged
During drought
the water table falls
Movement of Groundwater
Note that the topography of the water table
usually mimics the topography of the land
Gaining and Losing Streams

A gaining stream:
During rainy seasons
streams gain water from
the saturated zone
A losing stream:
During droughts
streams lose water to
the saturated zone
In arid regions:
The topography of the
water table does not mimic
the topography of the land
Cone of Depression Produced by a Pumping Well
A cone of depression:
forms in vicinity of a pumped well
because the groundwater is
pumped out faster than it
can move through the ground
Drawdown:
is the difference in elevation
between the undusturbed water
table and the bottom of the
cone of depression
Porosity and Permeability of Sediments and Rocks
Primary Porosity
Porosity: the percent of a material occupied by pore spaces
Primary porosity: the spaces between

the grains composing the rock
Secondary Porosity
Porosity: the percent of a material occupied by pore spaces
Secondary porosity: the cracks and caves produced

by jointing, faulting, and dissolution of the bedrock
Effect of Porosity and Permeability on Wells:

Mudstone versus Sandstone
High porosity,
high permeability
High porosity,
low permeability

Fractured versus Un-fractured Bedrock
Unconfined and Confined Aquifers
Unconfined
aquifer
Confined
aquifer
Confined
Confined
aquifer
aquifer
Artesian Systems
Artesian systems are systems in which groundwater rises
higher than the elevation at which it was first encountered
Flowing Artesian Well
Karst Topography
Is named after where it was first recognized, in Karst
Yugoslovia
Karst topography is formed by dissolution of limestone
bedrock by acidic groundwater
The features of karst topography are:
Caves
Stalactites and stalagmites
Sinkholes
Dissolution valleys
Disappearing streams
Reappearing streams
Features Associated with Karst Topography
Features Associated with Karst Topography
Fig. 11.21
stalactite
stalagmite
Sinkholes
Sinkholes Developed in Santee Limestone

(the Atlantic Coastal Plain, near Eutaw Springs, SC)
COASTAL PLAIN, SINKHOLES
Sinkhole Formed in Santee Limestone

(the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Santee State Park, SC)
COASTAL PLAIN, SINKHOLE,

SANTEE STATE PARK
Water from recent heavy rains flowing into a sinkhole in a lake bed at Santee State Park. All
the water in the lake rapidly drained into the cave when this sinkhole formed in 1999.
In case you still havent caught on to how and why caves and sinkholes form in
limestone bedrock, here is a display at Santee State Park illustrating their formation.
Springs
A spring is a flow of groundwater naturally
emerging at Earths surface
Springs are formed where:
a prominent joint system intersects the ground
surface
a perched water table intersects the ground
surface
a cave system intersects the ground surface
a fault intersects the ground surface
Springs
Geysers and Travertine Terraces

Geysers occur in hydrothermal areas where
groundwater is heated by hot rock and erupted
at the ground surface
Travertine terraces form at the ground surface
where calcium carbonate is precipitated from
hydrothermal water percolating through
limestone bedrock
Geysers
Old Faithful, Yellowstone National Park, WY
Travertine Terraces, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone
Problems Affecting the Water Table and Groundwater

Subsidence
Problems Affecting the Water Table and Groundwater
Salt Water Intrusion
Contamination
Perched Water Tables

(Plummer, McGeary, and Carlson, 2003, Physical Geology, 9th ed.)
Mudstone
Sandstone
Sandstone
Surface Exposure of the Water Table

The surface of any sea, lake, pond, stream, or spring is the water table
Water table
Gaining and Losing Streams

A gaining stream:
During rainy seasons
streams gain water from
the saturated zone
A losing stream:
During droughts
streams lose water to
the saturated zone
In arid regions:
The topography of the
water table does not mimic
the topography of the land
Cone of Depression Produced by a Pumping Well
A cone of depression:
forms in vicinity of a pumped well
because the groundwater is
pumped out faster than it
can move through the ground
Drawdown:
is the difference in elevation
between the undusturbed water
table and the bottom of the
cone of depression

Mudstone versus Sandstone
High porosity,
high permeability
High porosity,
low permeability

Fractured versus Un-fractured Bedrock
Unconfined and Confined Aquifers
Unconfined
aquifer
Confined
aquifer
Confined
Confined
aquifer
aquifer
Artesian Systems
Artesian systems are systems in which groundwater rises
higher than the elevation at which it was first encountered
Flowing Artesian Well
Module 18
Rivers System
The Hydrologic Cycle
Stream Profiles
Cross Sections of Youthful and mature Streams
Drainage Basins and Divides

Drainage basin the total area drained by a
stream and its tributaries
Divide the high ground separating one
drainage basin from another
North American Continental Divides
Drainage Basin of the Mississippi River, Continental Divides
Stream Drainage Patterns
Form on uniformly
erodible rock
The most common
Form on
rectangularly
fractured rock
Form on mountains,
volcanoes, and domes
Form in regions of folded

shale and sandstone
Types of Sediment Loads Carried by Streams:

Dissolved load, Suspended load, Bed load
Stream Capacity and Competence

Capacity - refers to the total amount of sediment
a stream is able to transport
The greater the discharge (amount of water flowing in
a stream), the greater the streams capacity
Competence - refers to the maximum size of

particles a stream can carry
The greater the velocity, the greater the competence
Base Level
A base level is a level at which no erosion can occur
A stream reaches a local base level where it flows over
erosionally resistant rock
A stream also reaches a local base level where it flows into
a pond, lake, or the ocean because the gradient is 0.
Sea level is the ultimate base level
A base level can be below sea level (e.g., Death Valley)
Local Base Levels
17_14.jpg
Effect of Gradient on Stream Velocity
Effect of Channel Characteristics on Stream Velocity
Effect of Gradient and Channel Clutter on Stream Velocity

Stream velocity is greatest in the center of the channel along straight
stretches
Stream velocity is greatest along the outside of a curve along curved
sections
Regions of Maximum Stream Velocity
Types of Stream Erosion

Downcutting: deepens the channel
Headward erosion: lengthens the channel
Lateral erosion: widens the channel and
flood plain
Downcutting
Headward Erosion
Lateral Erosion
Lateral Erosion yields a wide floodplain and a meander belt
Characteristics of a Youthful Stream
Relatively steep gradient

Narrow V-shaped valley
No floodplain
Relatively straight channel
Rapids and/or waterfalls
Rocky channel filled with pebbles, cobbles,
and/or boulders
Characteristics of a Mature Stream
Low gradient
Wide floodplain
Meanders
Point bars
Cut banks
Natural Levees
Oxbow lakes
Meander scars
Back swamps
Yazoo tributaries
Stream terraces
Youthful or mature?
Youthful or mature?
Formation of Depositional and Erosional Features

The greater a streams discharge (volume of water per
cross sectional area)
the faster it is flowing
the greater its energy
the greater its capacity (amount of sediment it can carry)
the greater its competence (size of sediment grains it can carry)
Where a stream slows down, due to
decreased gradient,
decreased inflow,
overflowing its banks, or
obstructions in its channel
it loses energy and therefore deposits its coarser

suspended load (sand and silt) as bars or natural levees
Formation of Depositional and Erosional Features

The suspended load
mud - a mixture of clay and silt
is deposited only under low energy conditions
such as on a lake bottom or flood plain
In Summary
Where the current is fast, energy is high, erosion occurs
Where the current is slow, energy is low, deposition
occurs
Formation of Point Bars and Cut Banks
A Meander Loop on the Colorado River
Formation of Point Bars and Cut Banks
Deposition of Natural Levees
Meander Cutoff Oxbow Lake
17_22a.jpg
Stream Terraces:
Products of Downcutting, flooding, and lateral Erosion
Stream Terraces
Alluvial Fans
Are fan-shaped depositional features formed by
intermittently flowing streams
They form at the base of a hill or mountain where the
gradient suddenly flattens
Alluvial fans commonly form where steep-gradient
gullies and canyons dump into low-gradient ditches,
valleys, or deserts
The sudden decrease in gradient drastically decreases
the streams energy, competence
Which, in turn, causes the stream to drop its
bed load nearest the hill
suspended load farthest away, in the toe of the fan
Alluvial Fan in Death Valley
17_21a.jpg
Braided Streams
Are continuously-flowing, sediment-overloaded streams
that flow in networks of interconnected rivulets around
numerous channel bars
They form where steep-gradient gullies and canyons
dump into low-gradient ditches, valleys, or plains
They also form down hill of melting glaciers, in glacial
valleys and on their outwash plains
The sudden decrease in gradient drastically decreases
the streams energy, competence
Which, in turn, causes the stream to become sedimentoverloaded and drop its bed load and suspended load
as channel bars
17_21b.jpg
Channel bars
Braided Stream
Deltas
Are fan-shaped depositional features formed at the
mouth of a stream where it flows into a large body of
relatively still water, such as a lake or ocean
Thus, the stream has reached a base level, where the
stream suddenly loses energy and competence
because the gradient is flat (horizontal)
The stream diverges into small, shifting channels,
distributaries, that carry sediment away from the main
channel and distribute it over the surface of the delta
The topset beds and bottomset beds deposited in a
delta are subhorizontal
The foreset beds, deposited where the water suddenly
deepens, dip shallowly to steeply seaward
Features of a Delta
The Mississippi Delta
17_24c.jpg
Evolution of the Mississippi Delta
17_25a.jpg
Floods
Floods are the most common and most
destructive geologic hazard
Floods result from naturally occurring and
human-induced factors
Causes of flooding include
heavy rains
rapid snow melt
dam failure
topography
surface conditions
Big Thompson Canyon Flash Flood (1976) and

Fort Collins Flash Flood (1997)
Devastation caused by the Big Thompson Canyon Flash Flood, 1976
Devastation caused by the Fort Collins Flash Flood, 1997
17_34a.jpg
Flood Control
Engineering efforts include
building artificial levees
building flood-control dams
clearing and straightening channels
Good floodplain management

Geologi Dasar

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BUMI DALAM TATASURYA

Matahari dan planet-planetnya

A GALAXY IS BUILT BY MANY SOLARS SYSTEM

MILKY WAY GALAXY

The composition of the sun

TERRESTRIAL PLANETS: small, dense, and made of rocks and iron

The Asteroid Belt

Kuiper Belt & Pluto

Mathilde & Eros (NEAR)

Chondrules under a scope

Achondrite - Stony Meterorite

A stone from the Stannern eucrite shower

BUMI DALAM TATASURYA

Struktur dalam bumi:

cold, rigid, brittle

hot, high pressure,

Mantel bumi terdiri dari dua bagian :

Struktur Lapisan Mantel dan Inti Bumi.

Unsur jejak < 0,07%

Global Distribution of Water

Classification of Clouds (continued)

Dingin, kaku, dan rapuh

Dingin, kaku, dan rapuh

Dingin, kaku, dan rapuh

Besi dan nikel

Besi dan nikel

BUMI DALAM TATASURYA

Axial tilt change

Distributian of day and night; and climate along year

The hottest and

Siklon dan antisiklon

RENDAHAN (dekat permukaan)

Isobar dan arah angin

Pembentukan siklon dan

How does water move among

Sirkulasi air di samudera

Weather and Climate

5. Landforms and Surface Processes

What drives plate motions

Mantle convection provides

What drives plate motions

What drives plate motions

What drives plate motions

Rumah kaca pada skala bumi

definite chemical composition

distinctive, identifying physical properties

Whitten, DGA and Brooks, JRV. 1977. The Penguin Dictionary of

Model of Neon (Ne)

Model of Sodium (Na+)

Model of Chlorine (Cl-)

Model of crystalline structure of Halite (salt)

Mineral Structures and Atoms

Model of crystalline structure

Elemental Abundances in Continental Crust

ELEMENT YANG MELIMPAH DI KERAK BUMI

Silicate Mineral Groups

Is rich in feldspar and/or silica (quartz)

Silicate Mineral Groups

The Silica Tetrahedron

Silicate Mineral Groups

Silicate Mineral Groups

Single Island Silicates

Single Chain Silicates