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Gabriela Gonzalez
September 12, 2006
Consider a pendulum with mass m hanging from a rod of length l. The support point
moves horizontally with a known function R(t) = X(t)i + Y (t)j. We can use the angle
between the vertical and the pendulum rod as a generalized coordinate, the only one
needed to describe the system.
The position vector of the mass m is
r = R + l(sin i + cos j)
The velocity is
+ l(cos
v=R
i sin j)
The kinetic energy is
1
1
X cos Y sin )
2 + l2 2 + 2l(
T = mv 2 = m(|R|
2
2
The potential energy is
V = mg r = mg cos mgY
and although time dependent (through Y (t), it is not dissipative, since it doesnt contain
.
The Lagrangian is
L = T V
1
X(t)
t) = 1 ml2 2 + ml(
dt
d 2
X sin Y cos ) mgl sin
=
ml + ml(X cos Y sin ) ml(
dt
cos Y sin ) + mgl sin
= ml2 + ml(X
cos
= ml2 + ml(g Y ) sin + mlX
0 =
= 0: this is because the supportWe see that the equation of motion is unchanged if R
would be moving with constant velocity, and thus it is just like setting up the system in
another inertial frame. We also notice that a vertical acceleration of the support point is
like increasing or decreasing the local gravitational acceleration g: this can be recognized
as the relativity principle (imagine Einstein in an elevator).
The energy function is
L
h =
L
= ml2 + ml(X cos Y sin )
1 2 2
1
2
X cos Y sin ) + mV + mgl cos + mgY
ml + ml(
2
2
1
1 2 2
ml mgl cos mV 2 mgY
=
2
2
The first two terms are the usual expression for the energy of a pendulum hanging from
a fixed support (or the energy with respect to a frame moving with the support), but there
are extra terms.
Since the Lagrangian is not homogeneous in the second order with respect to (through
Y ), the energy function is not equal to the mechanical energy, which we
the terms X,
can calculate:
E = T +V
1 2 2 1
X cos Y sin ) mgl cos mgY
=
ml + mV 2 + ml(
2
2
X cos Y sin ) + mV 2
= h + ml(
We can calculate the time derivative of the energy from this expression:
1 2 2 1
X cos Y sin ) mgl cos mgY
ml + mV 2 + ml(
2
2
X cos Y sin ) + ml(
X
R
+ ml(
cos Y sin )
= ml2 + mR
E =
dE
dt
Since the Lagrangian depends explicitly on time, we know that the energy function is
not conserved:
dh
dt
L
X
R
mg Y
cos + Y sin ) mR
= ml(
t
We can also use this result to calculate the rate of change in the mechanical energy:
X cos Y sin ) + mV 2
E = h + ml(
dE
dh
d
=
+
ml(X cos Y sin ) + mV 2
dt
dt
dt
X cos Y sin ) ml2 (X sin + Y cos ) + mR
R
= mg Y + ml(
which is of course the same expression we had obtained earlier.
Let us look at some particular cases:
Small angle approximation: 1
The Lagrangian is
L =
1 2 2
X cos Y sin ) + 1 m(X 2 + Y 2 ) + mgl cos + mgY
ml + ml(
2
2
1 2 2 1
2
X Y ) + 1 mV 2 + mgl
ml mgl + ml(
2
2
2
dt
+ (g Y )
0 = l + X
=0
The equation of motion does not necessarily with periodic solutions, unless X
2
and Y is constant, in which case the oscillations have a frequency = (g Y )/l.
The frequency increases if the motion is accelerated down (in the same direction than
gravity), or lower if the support is accelerated upwards.
The energy is
E= =
1 2 2
ml +
2
1 2 2
ml +
2
1
X cos Y sin ) mgl cos mgY
mV 2 + ml(
2
1
X Y ) + 1 mV 2 mgY mgl
mgl2 + ml(
2
2
= mg Y + ml(
R
lX mg Y + mR
3
2
X 0 2
=
g l2
l 02 2
with 02 = g/l. The horizontal displacement of the pendulum with respect to the
inertial frame is x = X + l. The ratio of amplitude of the horizontal motion of the
pendulum mass, x, to the amplitude of the horizontal motion of the top, X0 , is called
the transfer function (a function of driving frequency) of the pendulum to support
motion:
x
2
02
F () =
= X0 + l0 = X0 1 + 2
=
X
0
X0
0 2
02 2
If driven at low frequencies (2 g/l), the pendulum will follow the support, with
a small angle , ans x X: the rod is almost vertical (although the maximum
pendulum displacement is larger than the tops maximum displacement). At driving
frequencies near the natural pendulum frequency, 0 , the motion will grow very
large: the system is near resonance. At driving frequencies higher than 0 , the
pendulum motion is out of phase with respect to the motion of the support, since
4
the transfer function is negative, and the maximum pendulum displacement is now
smaller than the tops maximum displacement. At very high driving frequencies
( 0 ), the limit of the transfer function is zero, and the angular amplitude of
the pendulum motion is X0 /l: the pendulum mass stays near the equilibrium point,
while the top moves back and forth.
The energy (for small oscillations) is
E =
=
=
1 2 2 1
1
ml + mgl2 + mlX + mV 2
2
2
2
1
1
ml(l2 + g)02 cos2 (t) + ml2 0 X0 sin2 (t) + m2 X02 cos2 (t)
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ + sin ( t) 2
mX0 cos (t) ( + 0 ) 2
2
0 2
0 2
= mlV + mR
= mlX0 0 2 sin t cos t + mX02 2 sin t cos t
1
2
2 2
=
mX0
+ 1 sin 2t
2
02 2
=
2 2
1
mX02 2 0 2 sin 2t
2
0
Since dE/dt is periodic with frequency 2, the system absorbs energy during half of
the cycle of the top motion, and returns the energy in the other half. Which half is
which depends on the driving frequency being larger or smaller than the pendulum
energy, i.e., the pendulum moving in phase or out of phase with the support. The peak
power is proportional to a factor X02 02 2 /(02 2 ): this is very large near resonance;
small and proportional to X0 2 at low driving frequencies; and independent of driving
frequency at large driving frequencies, X02 02 .
Vertical periodic motion: Y = Y0 cos(t), X = 0.
The equation of motion is l = l(g Y ) sin = l(g + 2 Y0 cos t) sin . The motion
of the support adds an oscillating component to the gravitational acceleration. This
is not a driven oscillator like the previous case, because the oscillatory driving force
is vertical but the natural oscillatory pendulum motion is horizontal. If Y0 2 g,
we can use a perturbative approach to find a solution starting with the pendulum
solution; if Y0 2 g, we can also use a perturbative approach to find a solution
starting with the driven pendulum solution.
The energy is
E =
=
1 2 2 1
X cos Y sin ) mgl cos mgY
ml + mV 2 + ml(
2
2
1
1 2 2
ml mgl cos + mY02 2 cos2 t + mlY0 sin cos t mgY0 cos t
2
2
= mg Y + ml(
= mgY0 sin t + mlY0 sin t sin + mlY0 2 sin t cos + mY02 2 sin t cos t
1
= mgY0 sin t + mY02 2 sin 2t + mlY0 sin t( sin + 2 cos )
2
L =
=
Lagranges equation is
d L L
dt
2
= ml + mgl sin mlR2 sin(t )
= ml2 + ml(g + R2 cos t) sin mlR2 cos sin t
0 =
For small oscillations, we see that there is an oscillating contribution to the restoring
gravitational force, and an oscillatory driving term.
The energy is
E =
1 2 2
1
ml mgl cos + mlR sin(t ) + mR2 2 mgR cos t
2
2
= mg Y + ml(
cos(t ) + mlR2 sin(t )
= mgR sin t + mlR