Coal is a fossil fuel and is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated in

swamps and peat bogs.

The energy we get from coal today comes from the energy that plants absorbed from the sun millions of
years ago. All living plants store solar energy through a process known as photosynthesis. When plants
die, this energy is usually released as the plants decay. Under conditions favourable to coal formation,
the decaying process is interrupted, preventing the release of the stored solar energy. The energy is
locked into the coal.
Coal formation began during the Carboniferous Period - known as the first coal age - which spanned 360
million to 290 million years ago. The build-up of silt and other sediments, together with movements in
the earth's crust - known as tectonic movements - buried swamps and peat bogs, often to great depths.
With burial, the plant material was subjected to high temperatures and pressures. This caused physical
and chemical changes in the vegetation, transforming it into peat and then into coal.
Coalification
The quality of each coal deposit is determined by:

varying types of vegetation from which the coal originated

depths of burial

temperatures and pressures at those depths

length of time the coal has been forming in the deposit

The degree of change undergone by a coal as it matures from peat to anthracite is known as
coalification. Coalification has an important bearing on coal's physical and chemical properties and is
referred to as the 'rank' of the coal. Ranking is determined by the degree of transformation of the
original plant material to carbon. The ranks of coals, from those with the least carbon to those with the
most carbon, are lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite (see 'Coal Types' diagram).
Types of Coal
Initially the peat is converted into lignite or 'brown coal' - these are coal-types with low organic
maturity. In comparison to other coals, lignite is quite soft and its colour can range from dark black to
various shades of brown.
Over many more millions of years, the continuing effects of temperature and pressure produces further
change in the lignite, progressively increasing its organic maturity and transforming it into the range
known as 'sub-bituminous' coals.
Further chemical and physical changes occur until these coals became harder and blacker, forming the
'bituminous' or 'hard coals'. Under the right conditions, the progressive increase in the organic maturity
can continue, finally forming anthracite.

In addition to carbon, coals contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of sulphur. Highrank coals are high in carbon and therefore heat value, but low in hydrogen and oxygen. Low-rank coals
are low in carbon but high in hydrogen and oxygen content.
Coal is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary, organic rock. It is formed from plant remains
that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over 300
million years. Coal is composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and smaller amounts of nitrogen, sulphur
and other elements. It also contains a small amount of water, and grains of inorganic matter that remain as a
residue known as ash when coal is burnt

Coal Formation
During the Pennsylvanian Period, the Earth was covered with large swampy forests of giant ferns, reeds and
mosses, which grew taller than our tallest trees today. As these plants died and fell into the swamp water, new
plants grew to take their place and when these plants died, still others grew. In time, there was a thick layer of
dead, decaying plants in the water.
The surface of the earth also changed and sediments washed into the water, covering the dead plants and
preventing them from completely decomposing. More plants grew, but they too died and fell into the water,
forming a separate layer of decaying plants which over time were also covered by sediments. After millions of
years, many layers of organic matter and sediments had formed one on top of the other.
The weight of the overlying layers compressed the lower layers of organic matter, forming peat. Heat and pressure
caused by the overlying sediments produced chemical changes in the peat, forcing out oxygen and hydrogen
andleaving behind rich carbon deposits, i.e. coal. Geologists estimate that a layer of plants 20 feet thick may have
been required to form a one foot thick coal seam. Coal seams vary in thickness, ranging from only a few inches
thick to more than 100 feet in thickness.

Coal Rank and Classification

Coal starts off as peat. After a considerable amount of time, heat, and burial pressure, it is metamorphosed from
peat to lignite. Lignite is considered to be "immature" coal at this stage of development because it is still somewhat
light in color and remains soft. As time passes, lignite increases in maturity by becoming darker and harder and is
then classified as sub-bituminous coal. As this process of burial and alteration continues, more chemical and
physical changes occur and the coal is classified as bituminous. At this point the coal is dark and hard. Anthracite is
the last rank in the classification, and this term is used when the coal has reached ultimate maturation. Anthracite
coal is very hard and shiny.

The degree of alteration (or metamorphism) that occurs as a coal matures from peat to anthracite is referred to as
the "rank" of the coal. Low-rank coals include lignite and sub-bituminous coals. These coals have a lower energy
content because they have a low carbon content. They are lighter (earthier) and have higher moisture levels. Highrank coals include bituminous coals and anthracite. They contain more carbon which results in a much higher
energy content. They have a more vitreous (shiny) appearance and lower moisture content than low-rank coals.

All coal has carbon and sulfur to some degree. Coal that was formed in swamps covered by seawater contains a
higher sulfur content; low sulfur coal was generally formed under freshwater conditions.

Lignite

Lignite, also known as brown coal, is a brownish-black coal with generally high
moisture and ash content and lower heating value. Geologically, it is the youngest and the lowest ranked coal,
containing 25 to 35% carbon and the lowest heating value - 4,000 to 8,300 Btus (British thermal units) per pound.
However, it is an important form of energy for generating electricity and producing synthetic natural gas and
liquids. About 9% of the United States coal reserves are lignite.

Sub-bituminous Coal

Under more pressure, some lignite was changed into the next rank of coal: sub-bituminous. This
coal is a dull black coal with a higher heating value than lignite. It is used primarily for heating and generating
electricity. It contains about 35 to 45% carbon and has a heating value between 8,300 to 11,500 Btus per pound.
In the United States, sub-bituminous coal is predominately found in Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New
Mexico, Washington, and Alaska. It accounts for about 37% of the coal reserves in the US.

Bituminous Coal

This rank of coal, sometimes called "soft coal" or black coal, is the most common
type of coal found in the United States. It is 45 to 86% carbon and has a heating value between 10,500 and
14,000 Btus per pound. This is the type most commonly used for electric power generation in the US and for
producing coke for the steel industry. About 52 percent of the United States' coal reserves are bituminous coal.

Anthracite

Sometimes called hard coal", anthracite was formed from bituminous coal when
great pressures developed in folded rock strata during the creation of mountain ranges. Anthracite has the highest
energy content of all coals. It contains 86 to 97% carbon, and has a heating value of nearly 15,000 Btus per
pound. It is used for heating and generating electricity, and accounts for about 2% of the coal reserves in the
United States.
Geologists also classify coal types according to the organic debris, called macerals, from which the coal is formed.
Macerals are identified (microscopically) by reflected light, the reflective or translucent properties of the coal
indicating the individual component macerals and the way they have combined to form the coal.
The purpose of classifying coal in this way is to determine its best uses. There is a finite supply of the resource and
therefore type and chemical composition must be matched to the most suitable end use. If you are not familiar
with the terminology used in the coal industry, please visit the Energy Information Administrations coal glossary.
A combustible compact black or dark-brown carbonaceous sedimentary rock formed from compaction of layers of
partially decomposed vegetation and occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits.

Definition:
Coal is formed by biological, physical and chemical processes, governed by temperature and pressure, over millions
of years on plant remains, deposited in ancient shallow swamps. The degree of alteration (metamorphism), caused
by these processes, during the temporal history of development determine their position or rank in the coalification
series which commence at peat and extend through lignite to bituminous coal and finally anthracite. The relative
amount of moisture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon content varies from one to the other end of the coalification
series. The moisture and volatile matter decrease with enhancement of rank while carbon content increases i.e.,
carbon content is lowest in peat and highest in anthracite.
From lignite to anthracite all the members of the series are widely used as fossil fuel in different industries.
Type / Grade:
Coal: It is classified into different types mainly on the basis of certain chemical (ash, moisture and volatile matters)
and physical (caking index, coke type and swelling index) parameters. However, different modes of classifications
are being followed in different countries mainly on the basis of prevalent industrial need. The Indian coal is broadly
classified into two types Coking and Non-Coking. The former constitute only a small part of the total coal
resources of the country. These two are further subdivided as follows on the basis of certain physical and chemical
parameter as per the requirement of the industry.

Coking Coal

Prime Coking - Mainly used for metallurgical purpose.

Medium Coking - Mainly used in steel industry.

Semi Coking - Mainly in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries.

Non Coking Coal: Non- coking coal comprises lions share of Indian coal. Based on Useful Heat Value
(UHV), it is classified into grades A to G for commercial use. A to C grades are considered as Superior and
are used in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries. D to G grade, available in almost in all the
coalfields, is considered as Inferior and is mostly used in power sector.

Lignite: It is commonly known as brown coal and is classified into grades A to C on the basis of Gross
Calorific Value as per the requirement of the industries. It is considered as apt fuel for power generation
especially due to its low ash content.

Origin:
The vegetable origin of coal is supported by the presence in coal of carbonized fibers, stems, leaves, and seeds of
plants, which can be detected even with the naked eye. Sometimes carbonized tree stumps have been found
standing in layers of coal.

Plant fossil

The general interpretation of these facts is that coal originated in swamps similar to present-day peat bogs and in
lagoons, probably partly from plants growing in the area and partly from plant material carried in by water and
wind. From the thickness of coal seams, it is assumed that the coal swamps were located near sea level and were
subject to repeated submergence, so that a great quantity of vegetable matter accumulated over a long period of
time.

A present day analog - a thick layer of sand deposited on a flood plain during a flood,
burying the accumulating plant debris.

It is generally accepted that there were at least two stages of coal formation from plant material. The initial
processes of disintegration and decomposition of the organic matter were brought about by the action of bacteria
and other microorganisms (bio-chemical change), resulting in formation of peat. Subsequently the geochemical
process ushers in and the peat is altered to form lignite and coal through metamorphism. The pressure of the
accumulated layers of overlying sediments and rock upon the submerged plant matter forced out much of the
water and caused some of the volatile substances to escape and the nonvolatile carbon material to form a more
compact mass. The greater the depth of burial, the process of metamorphism increases, resulting in the
enhancement of rank of coal produced.

Enhancement of rank of coal with depth and time

Paleogeography :
Following are the main suitable paleogeographic environs/sites required for peat formation.

Slow and continuous subsidence of terrain leads to gradual rise of the water table thus
helping formation of peat, the first stage of coal formation.
Presence of sand bars and natural levees to protect swamps (sites for deposition of
vegetation ) against major inundation by sea or river flood.
Positive areas around the swamps, susceptible for erosion, has to have a low relief for
restriction of supply of eroded fluviatile sediments.
Plains exposed after abrupt marine regression, narrow coastal strips, widespread delta
and estuary prior to drowning are some of the suitable sites for peat formation.
Natural Occurrence:
Coal is found in beds or seams interstratified with shale, clays, sandstones, or limestone (rarely).
It was formed chiefly in the Carboniferous period(c. 360 - 290 Ma.) of geologic time, but valuable
deposits date also from the Permian(c. 290 - 250 Ma.), Triassic(c. 250 - 200 Ma.), Jurassic(c. 200 150 Ma.), Cretaceous(c. 150 - 70 Ma.) and Tertiary (c. 65 - 20 Ma) periods.
In India, coal is mainly reported from the rocks of Permian period. These coal bearing rocks
belong to the Gondwana Super Group. The name Gondwana was introduced by H.B.Medlicott in
1872 after the ancient Kingdom of Dravidian Gonds in Central India. Pioneer workers were struck
by the astounding similarity of Gondwana sediments and their fossil contents, occurring in widely
separated continents of the Southern hemisphere.

Concept of the Gondwanaland:

By the end of the 19th century the geology of the southern continents were sufficiently well
studied and it was postulated by Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist that Africa, South America,
Australia and India were once part of a supercontinent, for which he coined the name
"Gondwanaland". During the Mesozoic period (265 - 65 Ma) the Gondwana supercontinent started
breaking up due to plate movement and slowly India, Australia, Africa, South America and
Antarctica separated from each other. This resulted in opening up of the Atlantic and Indian
Ocean and closing of the Tethys, sea.
Indian Coal Occurrences:
Geological set- up:
Coal resources of the country are mainly reported from two different stratigraphic levels
(geological period) and basinal set-up - Permian sediments deposited in intra-cratonic Gondwana
basins and Early Tertiary coal and lignite occurrences in peri-cratonic near shore basins and
shelf.
Gondwana basins of Peninsular India are generally restricted in the east-central part of the
country along some well defined linear belts namely - Damodar-Koel, Son- Mahanadi, Satpura, and
Pranhita-Godavari valleys besides the Rajmahal basin. In addition rocks belonging to Gondwana
Formation are also reported beneath the Ganga and Brahmaputra alluvium in Bengal basin and
also below the Deccan Trap. Report of coal occurrences (mostly of academic importance) are also
available from Foot Hills of the Eastern Himalaya.
Economic deposits of Tertiary coals occur in two distinct geotectonic domains of the
Northeastern India - one in the shelf sediments of Meghalaya and Assam and the other is in the
intricately thrusted belt (Schuppen Belt) of Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. Lignite
occurrences of economic importance are found within the Tertiary sediments, occurring along the
pericratonic basins of the southeastern and western Peninsular Region.

Geographical distribution and resource position:

Geographically coalfields of economic viability are distributed mainly in the states of Orissa,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya , Nagaland and Sikkim.

The state-wise in-situ geological coal resource status is depicted schematically

In India the major economically potential lignite deposits are located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Rajasthan and Puducherry. Besides these, minor occurrences are reported from Jammu &
Kashmir, Kerala and West Bengal. The geographical disposition of the major workable deposits
and the state-wise in-situ geological resource of lignite are shown in the following diagram.

New Generation Alternative Exploration Techniques:

Considering environmental factors as well as optimal utilization of the available coal resources of the country
the following alternative clean coal exploration techniques are presently considered.
Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
Methane is produced within the coal seams during the coalification process and thus forms an integral part of
the coal seams which act as a reservoir rock. Interestingly, coal seams have 3 - 7 times more capacity than any
other type of reservoir of the same dimension. More than 95% of methane remains adsorbed in micro-pores or
intermolecular space within coal beds under adequate pressure. This entrapped methane is brought to the
surface
through
wells
by
depressurizing.
Exploration for Coal Bed Methane has already been initiated in several coalfields of India. Amongst these one
of the notable site for commercial production is in Raniganj coalfield.

Schematic Diagram Of CBM Extraction

Under Ground Coal Gasification (UCG):

In this process in-situ coal seams are ignited by injection of air or oxygen and steam through well. After under
ground burning of coal the resulted gas (methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide) is brought
to the surface through another well. Presently, areas in Raniganj and Godavari coalfields and lignite fields of
Rajasthan and Gujarat have already been taken up for exploration purpose.

Schematic Diagram of Under Ground Gasification Project

Coal to Oil (CTL):

Coal may be used to produce liquid fuel, suitable for transportation operation by removal of carbon or addition
of hydrogen, either directly or indirectly. The fast operation is usually known as carbonization and the second
one as liquefaction. In India a direct coal liquefaction pilot project has already been taken up in the Tertiary
coalfields of Northeastern region.

It has been estimated that there are over 861 billion tonnes of proven coal reserves worldwide. This means that there
is enough coal to last us around 112 years at current rates of production. In contrast, proven oil and gas reserves are
equivalent to around 46 and 54 years at current production levels.
Coal reserves are available in almost every country worldwide, with recoverable reserves in around 70 countries.
The biggest reserves are in the USA, Russia, China and India. After centuries of mineral exploration, the location,
size and characteristics of most countries' coal resources are quite well known. What tends to vary much more than
the assessed level of the resource - i.e. the potentially accessible coal in the ground - is the level classified as proved
recoverable reserves. Proved recoverable reserves is the tonnage of coal that has been proved by drilling etc. and is
economically and technically extractable.

Coal
What Is Coal and How Does It Form?
What is Coal?

Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and preservation of plant materials, usually in a swamp environment. Coal is
a combustible rock and along with oil and natural gas it is one of the three most important fossil fuels. Coal has a wide range of uses; the most
important use is for the generation of electricity.

How Does Coal Form?

Coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris, usually in a swamp environment. When plant debris dies and falls into the swamp the standing
water of the swamp protects it from decay. Swamp waters are usually deficient in oxygen, which would react with the plant debris and cause it to
decay. This lack of oxygen allows the plant debris to persist. In addition, insects and other organisms that might consume the plant debris on land
do not survive well under water in an oxygen deficient environment.

Coal Through a Microscope

To form the thick layer of plant debris required to produce a coal seam the rate of plant debris accumulation must be greater than the rate of decay.
Once a thick layer of plant debris is formed it must be buried by sediments such as mud or sand. These are typically washed into the swamp by a
flooding river. The weight of these materials compacts the plant debris and aids in its transformation into coal. About ten feet of plant debris will
compact into just one foot of coal.
Plant debris accumulates very slowly. So, accumulating ten feet of plant debris will take a long time. The fifty feet of plant debris needed to make a
five-foot thick coal seam would require thousands of years to accumulate. During that long time the water level of the swamp must remain stable. If
the water becomes too deep the plants of the swamp will drown and if the water cover is not maintained the plant debris will decay. To form a coal
seam the ideal conditions of perfect water depth must be maintained for a very long time.

How Do Diamonds Form?

If you are an astute reader you are probably wondering: "How can fifty feet of plant debris accumulate in water that is only a few feet deep?" The
answer to that question is the primary reason that the formation of a coal seam is a highly unusual occurrence. It can only occur under one of two
conditions: 1) a rising water level that perfectly keeps pace with the rate of plant debris accumulation; or, 2) a subsiding landscape that perfectly
keeps pace with the rate of plant debris accumulation. Most coal seams are thought to have formed under condition #2 in a delta environment. On
a delta large amounts of river sediments are being deposited on a small area of Earth's crust and the weight of those sediments causes the
subsidence.
For a coal seam to form perfect conditions of plant debris accumulation and perfect conditions of subsidence must occur on a landscape that
maintains this perfect balance for a very long time. It is very easy to understand why the conditions for forming coal has occurred only a small
number of times throughout Earth's history. The formation of a coal requires the coincidence of highly improbable events.

What is Coal "Rank"?

Plant debris is a fragile material compared to the mineral materials that make up other rocks. As plant debris is exposed to the heat and pressure
of burial it changes in composition and properties. The "rank" of a coal is a measure of how much change has occurred. Sometimes the term
"organic metamorphism" is used for this change.
Based upon composition and properties coals are assigned to a rank progression that corresponds to their level of organic metamorphism. The
basic rank progression is summarized in the table below:

Rank
(From
Lowest
to Highest)

Properties

Peat

A mass of recently accumulated to partially

carbonized plant debris. Peat is an organic sediment.
Burial, compaction and coalification will transform it
into coal, a rock. It has a carbon content of less than
60% on a dry ash-free basis.

Lignite

Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It is a peat that has

been transformed into a rock and that rock is a brownblack coal. Lignite sometimes contains recognizable
plant structures. By definition it has a heating value of
less than 8300 British Thermal Units per pound on a
mineral matter free basis. It has a carbon content of
between 60 and 70% on a dry ash-free basis. In
Europe, Australia and the UK some low-level lignites
are called "brown coal".

Sub
Bituminous

Sub bituminous coal is a lignite that has been

subjected to an increased level of organic
metamorphism. This metamorphism has driven off
some of the oxygen and hydrogen in the coal. That
loss produces coal with a higher carbon content (71 to
77% on a dry ash-free basis). Sub bituminous coal
has a heating value between 8300 and 13000 British
Thermal Units per pound on a mineral matter free
basis. On the basis of heating value it is subdivided
into sub bituminous A, sub bituminous B and sub
bituminous C ranks.

Bituminous

Bituminous is the most abundant rank of coal. It

accounts for about 50% of the coal produced in the
United States. Bituminous coal is formed when a sub
bituminous coal is subjected to increased levels of
organic metamorphism. It has a carbon content of
between 77 and 87% on a dry ash-free basis and a
heating value that is much higher than lignite or sub
bituminous coal. On the basis of volatile content,
bituminous coals are subdivided into low volatile
bituminous, medium volatile bituminous and high
volatile bituminous. Bituminous coal is often referred
to as "soft coal," however this designation is a
layman's term and has little to do with the hardness of
the rock.

Anthracite

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It has a carbon

content of over 87% on a dry ash-free basis.

Anthracite coal generally has the highest heating
value per ton on a mineral matter free basis. It is often
subdivided into semi-anthracite, anthracite and metaanthracite on the basis of carbon content. Anthracite
is often referred to as "hard coal"; however this is a
layman's term and has little to do with the hardness of
the rock.

What are the Uses of Coal?

Electricity production is the primary use of coal in the United States. Most of the coal mined in the United States is transported to a power plant,
crushed to a very small particle size and burned. Heat from the burning coal is used to produce steam, which turns a generator to produce
electricity. Most of the electricity consumed in the United States is made by burning coal.
Coal has many other uses. It is used as a source of heat for manufacturing processes. For example, bricks and cement are produced in kilns
heated by the combustion of a jet of powdered coal. Coal is also used as a power source for factories. There it is used to heat steam and the
steam is used to drive mechanical devices. A few decades ago most coal was used for space heating. Some coal is still used that way but other
fuels and coal-produced electricity are now used instead.
Coke production remains an important use of coal. Coke is produced by heating coal under controlled conditions in the absence of air. This drives
off some of the volatile materials and concentrates the carbon content. Coke is then used as a high carbon fuel for metal processing and other
uses where an especially hot-burning flame is needed.
Coal is also used in manufacturing. If coal is heated the gases, tars and residues produced can be used in a number of manufacturing processes.
Plastics, roofing, linoleum, synthetic rubber, insecticides, paint products, medicines, solvents and synthetic fibers all include some coal-derived
compounds. Coal can also be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels; however, these uses of coal are mainly experimental and done on a small
scale.

Coal Information
Coal Takes Millions of Years To Create
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and
hydrocarbons. lt is the most abundant fossil fuel produced in the United States.
Coal is a non-renewable energy source bcause it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal
comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the Earth was
partly covered with swampy forests.
For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water
and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the
plant remains turn into what we today call coal.

Source: National Energy Education Development Project (Public Domain)

Types of Coal
Coal is classified into four main types, or ranks (anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite),
depending on the amounts and types of carbon it contains and on the amount of heat energy it can
produce. The rank of a deposit of coal depends on the pressure and heat acting on the plant debris as it
sank deeper and deeper over millions of years. For the most part, the higher ranks of coal contain more
heat-producing energy.
Anthracite contains 86-97% carbon, and generally has a heating value slightly higher than bituminous
coal. It accounts for less than 0.5% of the coal mined in the United States.
All of the anthracite mines in the United States are located in North-eastern Pennsylvania.
Bituminous coal contains 45-86% carbon. Bituminous coal was formed under high heat and pressure.
Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 to 300 million years old. It is the most abundant
rank of coal found in the United States, accounting for about half of U.S. coal production. Bituminous
coal is used to generate electricity and is an important fuel and raw material for the steel and iron
industries.
West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania are the largest producers of bituminous coal.
Sub-bituminous coal has a lower heating value than bituminous coal. Sub-bituminous coal typically
contains 35-45% carbon. Most sub-bituminous coal in the United States is at least 100 million years old.
About 46% of the coal produced in the United States is sub-bituminous.
Wyoming is the leading source of sub-bituminous coal.
Lignite is the lowest rank of coal with the lowest energy content. Lignite coal deposits tend to be
relatively young coal deposits that were not subjected to extreme heat or pressure, containing 25%-35%
carbon. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content. There are 19 lignite mines in the United
States, producing about 7% of U.S. coal.

Most lignite is mined in Texas and North Dakota. Lignite is mainly burned at power plants to generate
electricity.
Benefits of Coal
Coal has an important role to play in meeting the demand for a secure energy supply. Coal is abundant
and widespread. It is present in almost every country in the world with commercial mining taking place
in over 50. Coal is the most abundant and economical of fossil fuels. At current production levels coal
will be available for at least the next 118 years - compared to 46 years for oil and 59 years for gas.
Indigenous coal resources enable economic development and can be transformed to guard against
import dependence and price shocks.
Coal is also readily available from a wide variety of sources in a well-supplied worldwide market. It can
be transported to demand centres quickly, safely and easily by ship and rail. A large number of suppliers
are active in the international coal market, ensuring competitive behaviour and efficient functioning.
Coal can also be easily stored at power stations and stocks can be drawn on in emergencies. Unlike
gaseous, liquid or intermittent renewable sources, coal can be stockpiled at the power station and
stocks drawn on to meet demand.
Coal is also an affordable source of energy. Coal prices have historically been lower and more stable
than oil and gas prices and it is likely to remain the most affordable fuel for power generation in many
developed and industrialising countries for several decades.
Coal-based electricity is well-established and highly reliable. Over 41% of global electricity is currently
based on coal. The generation technologies are well-established and technical capacity and human
expertise is widespread. Ongoing research activities ensure that this capacity is continually being
improved and expanded, facilitating innovation in energy efficiency and environment performance.
Coal can also be used as an alternative to oil. The development of a coal to liquids industry can serve to
hedge against oil-related energy security risks. Using domestic coal reserves, or accessing the relatively
stable international coal market, can allow countries to minimise their exposure to oil price volatility
while providing the liquid fuels needed for economic growth.
Use of Coal
About 93% of the coal used in the United States is used for generating electricity. Except for a small
amount of exports, the rest of the coal is used as a basic energy source in many industries including
steel, cement, and paper. The major uses of coal are:
For Electricity Power
Coal is used to create almost half of all electricity generated in the United States. Power plants burn coal
to make steam. The steam turns turbines (machines for generating rotary mechanical power) that
generate electricity.

In addition to companies in the electric power sector, industries and businesses with their own power
plants use coal to generate electricity.
For Industry
A variety of industries use coal's heat and by-products. Separated ingredients of coal (such as methanol
and ethylene) are used in making plastics, tar, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, and medicines.
Coal is also used to make steel. Coal is baked in hot furnaces to make coke, which is used to smelt iron
ore into iron needed for making steel. It is the very high temperatures created from the use of coke that
gives steel the strength and flexibility for things like bridges, buildings, and automobiles.
The concrete and paper industries also use large amounts of coal.
Coal Mining and Transportation
Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods: surface or
underground mining. Many U.S. coal beds are very near the ground's surface, and about two-thirds of
coal production comes from surface mines. Modern mining methods allow us to easily reach most of our
coal reserves. Due to growth in surface mining and improved mining technology, the amount of coal
produced by one miner in one hour has more than tripled since 1978.
Surface mining (including mountain top removal) is used to produce most of the coal in the United
States because it is less expensive than underground mining. Surface mining can be used when the coal
is buried less than 200 feet underground.
In surface mining, giant machines remove the top soil and layers of rock known as "overburden" to
expose the coal seam. Once the mining is finished, the dirt and rock are returned to the pit, the topsoil is
replaced, and the area is replanted.
Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is buried several hundred
feet below the surface. Some underground mines are 1,000 feet deep. To remove coal in these
underground mines, miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts where they run machines that dig out
the coal.
Processing the Coal
After coal comes out of the ground, it typically goes on a conveyor belt to a preparation plant that is
located at the mining site. The plant cleans and processes coal to remove other rocks and dirt, ash,
sulfur, and unwanted materials, increasing the heating value of the coal.
Transporting the Coal
After coal is mined and processed, it is ready to be shipped to market. The cost of shipping coal can cost
more than the cost of mining it.

About 71% of coal in the United States is transported, for at least part of its trip to market, by train. Coal
can also be transported by barge, ship, truck, and even pipeline.
It is often cheaper to transport coal on river barges, but barges cannot take coal everywhere that it
needs to go. If the coal will be used near the coal mine, it can be moved by trucks and conveyors. Coal
can also be crushed, mixed with water, and sent through a "slurry" pipeline. Sometimes, coal-fired
electric power plants are built near coal mines to lower transportation costs.

Ultimate Analysis
Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen
Importance: Carbon is the major combustible constituent. Its percentage depends on the ranking of coal
and & percentage increases from lignite to anthracite.
Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen better the quality of coal and calorific value increases.
The hydrogen present in the fuel is associated with the volatile matter. It affects the uses for which coal is
utilized.
Determination: A known quantity of coal is burnt in a current of dry oxygen and the carbon and hydrogen
present is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water

Carbon and Hydrogen estimation

Determination of Nitrogen
Importance: Nitrogen is undesirable in a sample. A good quality coal must have very low nitrogen
content.
Determination: The percentage nitrogen can be determined in a coal sample by kjeldahls method.
1 g of powdered coal is taken and heated with concentrated H2SO4 along with K2S04 and CuSO4 in a
kjeldahls flask (Fig. 3). The heating is continued till a clear solution is obtained. In this stage nitrogen
present in the sample gets converted to (NH4)2S04. This is then treated with excess NaOH to liberate
NH3. The ammonia produced distills over and is absorbed in a known volume (V1) of standard H2SO4.

Nitrogen estimation by kjeldahls Method

N2 + H2S04 (NH4)2S04 + 2NaOH
2Na2S04 + 2NH3 + 2H20
2NH3 + H2S04 (NH4)2S04
The volume of unused H2SO4 can be determined by titrating against standard NaOH. V2 ml of 0.1 N
NaOH is required to neutralized the excess acid. The amount of acid neutralized by liberated NH 3 is
determined.
Standard acid taken for absorption of NH3 = V1 ml of N normality
Volume of alkali used for titration of excess acid = V2 ml of N normality
Volume of H2SO4 left unused = (V1 - V2) ml of N normality
(V1 - V2) mol of N H2S04 = (V1 - V2) ml of N NH3
Volume of NH3 evolved = (V1 - V2) ml of N normality
Amount of N= 14(V1V2)N/1000 g
[1000 ml 1N NH3 = 14 g N]
% N = 14(V1V2)N/1000 100
% N =14Normality of acidvolume of acid/Mass of substances

Determination of oxygen
Importance: Oxygen is present in the combined form with hydrogen in coal. The amount of hydrogen
actually available for combustion is lesser than the actual hydrogen present. Higher the oxygen content,
higher the inherent moisture and lower the calorific value. Increase in 1% oxygen content, decreases the
calorific value by 1.7%.
Determination:
% O = 100 - % of [C + H + N + S + ash]
A sample of coal was analyzed as follows: Exactly 2.00 g was weighed in a silica crucible. After heating
for 1 hr at 110C, the residue weighed 1.975 g. The crucible was then covered with a vented lid and
strongly heated for exactly 7 min at 95020C. The residue weighed 7.328 g. The crucible was then
heated without the cover, until a constant weight was obtained. The last residue was found to weigh
0.205 g. Calculate the percentage of the above results.

Determination of Sulphur

Importance: Sulphur increases the calorific value, but on oxidation produces harmful and corrosion
causing SO2 and SO3 gases, which pollutes the atmosphere. Sulphur is undesirable for making coke' for
iron industry because it affects the properties of steel.
Determination: A known amount of coal is burnt completely in a bomb's calorimeter in a current of
oxygen and the sulphur present is oxidized to sulphate. The ash is extracted with dil HCl and the acid
extract is treated with BaCl2 solution to precipitate SO4" as BaSO4. The precipitate is filtered, washed,
dried and heated to a constant weight.
2
S + O2 SO 4 + BaCl2 BaSO4
233 g of BaSO4 contains 32 g Sulphur
W g of BaS04 will contain 32W/233 g S
(Where W is the weight of the precipitate obtained)
% S = 32Weight of precipitate100/233Weight of coal sample taken