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Dr. John Bardeen(left), Dr. Walter Brattain(right), and Dr. William Shockley(center)
discovered the transistor effect and developed the first device in December, 1947, while
the three were members of the technical staff at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, NJ.
They were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956.
The PN Junction:
What the Bell Labs scientists discovered was that silicon was comprised of two distinct
regions differentiated by the way in which they favored current flow. The area that
favored positive current flow they named "P" and the area that favored negative current
flow they named "N." More importantly, they determined the impurities that caused these
tendencies in the "P" and "N" regions and could reproduce them at will. With the
discovery of the P-N junction and the ability to control its properties, the fundamental
ground work was laid for the invention of the transistor. This Bell Labs discovery was
instrumental in the development of all semiconductor devices to come.
The First Silicon Transistor:
It was late afternoon in 1954 at a conference for the Institute of Radio Engineers. Many
people giving talks had complained about the current germanium transistors--they had a
bad habit of not working at high temperatures. Silicon, since it's right above germanium
on the periodic table and has similar properties, might make a better gadget. But, they
said, no one should expect a silicon transistor for years.
Then Gordon Teal of Texas Instruments stood up to give his talk. He pulled three small
objects out of his pocket and announced: "Contrary to what my colleagues have told you
about the bleak prospects for silicon transistors, I happen to have a few of them here in
my pocket."
That moment catapulted TI from a small start-up electronics company into a major
player. They were the first company to produce silicon transistors -- and consequently the
first company to produce a truly consistent mass-produced transistor.
Scientists knew about the problems with germanium transistors. Germanium worked, but
it had its mood swings. When the germanium heated up--a natural outcome of being part
of an electrical circuit--the transistor would have too many free electrons. Since a
transistor only works because it has a specific, limited amount of electrons running
around, high heat could stop a transistor from working altogether.
While still working at Bell Labs in 1950, Teal began growing silicon crystals to see if
they might work better. But just as it had taken years to produce pure enough
germanium, it took several years to produce pure enough silicon. By the time he
succeeded, Teal was working at Texas Instruments. Luring someone as knowledgeable
about crystals as Teal away from Bell proved to be one of the most important things TI
ever did.
On April 14, 1954, Gordon Teal showed TI's Vice President, Pat Haggerty, a working
silicon transistor. Haggerty knew if they could be the first to sell these new transistors,
they'd have it made. The company jumped into action -- four weeks later when Teal told
his colleagues about the silicon transistors in his pocket, TI had already started
production.
The Invention of the First Transistor
November 17 - December 23, 1947
Getting 'Wet':
On November 17, 1947, Walter Brattain dumped his whole experiment into a thermos of
water. The silicon contraption he'd built was supposed to help him study how electrons
acted on the surface of a semiconductor -- and why whatever they were doing made it
impossible to build an amplifier. But condensation kept forming on the silicon and
messing up the experiment. To get rid of that condensation, Brattain probably should
have put the silicon in a vacuum, but he decided that would take too long. Instead he just
dumped the whole experiment under water -- it certainly got rid of the condensation!
Out of the blue, the wet device created the largest amplification he'd seen so far. He and
another scientist, Robert Gibney, stared at the experiment, stunned. They began fiddling
with different knobs and buttons: by turning on a positive voltage they increased the
effect even more; turning it to negative could get rid of it completely. It seemed that
whatever those electrons had been doing on the surface to block amplification had
somehow been canceled out by the water--the greatest obstacle to building an amplifier
had been overcome.
Putting the Idea to Use.
When John Bardeen was told what had happened he thought of a new way to make an
amplifier. On November 21, Bardeen suggested pushing a metal point into the silicon
surrounded by distilled water. The water would eliminate that exasperating electron
problem just under the point as it had in the thermos. The tough part was that the contact
point couldn't touch the water, it must only touch the silicon. But as always, Brattain was
a genius in the lab. He could build anything. And when this amplifier was built, it
worked. Of course, there was only a tiny bit of amplification--but it worked.
Big Amplification.
Once they'd gotten slight amplification with that tiny drop of water, Bardeen and Brattain
figured they were on the road to something worthwhile. Using different materials and
different setups and different electrolytes in place of the water, the two men tried to get an
even bigger increase in current. Then on December 8, Bardeen suggested they replace the
silicon with germanium. They got a current jump, all right--an amplification of some 330
times--but in the exact opposite direction they'd expected. Instead of moving the electrons
along, the electrolyte was getting the holes moving. But amplification is amplification -it was a start.
Brattain Makes a Mistake
Unfortunately this giant jump in amplification only worked for certain types of current -ones with very low frequencies. That wouldn't work for a phone line, which has to handle
all the complex frequencies of a person's voice. So the next step was to get it to work at
all kinds of frequencies.
Bardeen and Brattain thought it might be the liquid which was the problem. So they
replaced it with germanium dioxide -- which is essentially a little bit of germanium rust.
Gibney prepared a special slab of germanium with a shimmering green oxide layer on
one side. On December 12, Brattain began to insert the point contacts.
Nothing happened:
In fact the device worked as if there was no oxide layer at all. And as Brattain poked the
gold contact in again and again, he realized that's because there wasn't an oxide layer. He
had washed it off by accident. Brattain was furious with himself, but decided to fiddle
with the point contact anyway. To his surprise, he actually got some voltage amplification
-- and more importantly he could get it at all frequencies! The gold contact was putting
holes into the germanium and these holes canceled out the effect of the electrons at the
surface, the same way the water had. But this was much better than the version that used
water, because now, the device was increasing the current at all frequencies.
Bringing it All Together:
In the past month, Bardeen and Brattain had managed to get a large amplification at some
frequencies and they'd gotten a small amplification for all frequencies -- now they just
had to combine the two. They knew that the key components were a slab of germanium
and two gold point contacts just fractions of a millimeter apart. Walter Brattain put a
ribbon of gold foil around a plastic triangle, and sliced it through at one of the points. By
putting the point of the triangle gently down on the germanium, they saw a fantastic
effect -- signal came in through one gold contact and increased as as it raced out the
other. The first point-contact transistor had been made.
Telling the Brass:
For a week, the scientists kept their success a secret. Shockley asked Bardeen and
Brattain to show off their little plastic triangle at a group meeting to the lab and the
higher-ups on December 23. After the rest of the lab had a chance to look it over and
conduct a few tests, it was official -- this tiny bit of germanium, plastic and gold was the
first working solid state amplifier.
--------------Shockley Invents the Junction Transistor
January and February, 1948
A Solitary New Year's Eve
William Shockley spent New Year's Eve alone in a hotel in Chicago. He was there for a
Physical Society meeting, but he was most excited about having some time to himself to
concentrate on his work. There may have been a party going on downstairs, but Shockley
wanted nothing to do with it. He had more important things to think about. He spent that
night and the next two days working on some of his ideas for a new transistor-one that
would improve on Bardeen and Brattain's ideas.
Scratching page after page into his notebook, one of Shockley's ideas was to build a
semiconductor "sandwich." Three layers of semiconductors all piled together, he thought,
just might work like a vacuum tube-with the middle layer turning current on and off at
will. After some 30 pages of notes, the concept hadn't quite come together so Shockley
set it aside to do other work.
The Idea Comes Together
Shockley's January was pretty dismal. He thought he should get sole credit for inventing
the transistor--the initial research ideas, after all, had been his own. The Bell Labs
attorneys didn't agree. They refused to even put him on the patent. The only thing to do,
Shockley decided, was to build a better mouse trap.
As the rest of the group worked merrily away on improving Brattain and Bardeen's pointjunction transistor. Shockley concentrated on his own ideas -- never letting anyone else in
the lab know what he was up to.
On January 23, unable to sleep, Shockley was sitting at the kitchen table bright and early
in the morning. He suddenly had a revelation. Building on the "sandwich" device he'd
come up with on New Year's Eve, he thought he had an idea for an improved transistor.
This would be three-layered sandwich. The outermost pieces would be semiconductors
with too many electrons, while the bit in the middle would have too few electrons. The
middle layer would act like a faucet--as the voltage on that part was adjusted up and
down, it could turn current in the sandwich on and off at will.
Shockley told no one about his idea. The physics behind this amplifier was very different
from Bardeen's and Brattain's, since it involved current flowing directly through the
chunks of semiconductors, not along the surface. No one was sure if current even could
flow right through a semiconductor and possibly Shockley wanted to test it before
discussing it. Or possibly he felt that Bardeen and Brattain had "taken" ideas of his for the
While one lab at Bell was trying to improve those first type-A transistors, William
Shockley was working on a whole different design that would eventually get rid of these
problems.
Early in 1948, Shockley conceived of a transistor that looked like a sandwich, with two
layers of one type of semiconductor surrounding a second kind. This was a completely
different setup which didn't have the shaky wires that made the point-contact transistors
so hard to control.
Not Just on the Surface
A working sandwich transistor would require that electricity travel straight across a
crystal instead of around the surface. But Bardeen's theory about how the point-contact
transistor worked said that electricity could only travel around the outside of a
semiconductor crystal. In February of 1948, some tentative results in the Shockley lab
suggested this might not be true. So the first thing Shockley had to do was determine just
what was going on.
Careful experiments led by a physicist in the group, Richard Haynes, helped. Haynes put
electrodes on both sides of a thin germanium crystal and took very sensitive
measurements of the size and speed of the current. Electricity definitely flowed straight
through the crystal. That meant Shockley's vision of a new kind of transistor was
theoretically possible.
Growing Crystals
But Haynes also discovered that the layer in the middle of the sandwich had to be very
thin and very pure.
The man who paved the way for growing the best crystals was Gordon Teal. He didn't
work in Shockley's group, but he kept tabs on what was going on. He'd even been asked
to provide crystals for the Solid State team upon occasion. Teal thought transistors should
be built from a single crystal-as opposed to cutting a sliver from a larger ingot of many
crystals. The boundaries between all the little crystals caused ruts that scattered the
current, and Teal had heard of a way to build a large single crystal which wouldn't have
all those crags. The method was to take a tiny seed crystal and dip it into the melted
germanium. This was then pulled out ever so slowly, as a crystal formed like an icicle
below the seed.
Teal knew how to do it, but no one was interested. A number of institutions at the time,
Bell included, had a bad habit of not trusting techniques that hadn't been devised at home.
Shockley didn't think these single crystals were necessary at all. Jack Morton, head of the
transistor-production group, said Teal should go ahead with the research, but didn't throw
much support his way.
Luckily, Teal did continue the research, working with engineer John Little. Three months
later, in March of 1949, Shockley had to admit he'd been wrong. Current flowing across
Teal's semiconductors could last up to one hundred times longer than it had in the old cut
crystals.
Growing Even Better Crystals
Nice crystals are all well and good, but a sandwich transistor needed a sandwich crystal.
The outer layers had to be a semiconductor with either too many electrons (known as Ntype) or too few (known as P-type), while the inner layer was the opposite. Under
Shockley's prodding, Teal and Morgan Sparks began adding impurities to the melt while
they pulled the crystal out of the melt. Adding impurities is known as "doping," and it's
how one turns a semiconductor into N- or P-type.
As they pulled the seed crystal out of an N-type germanium melt, they quickly added
some gallium to turn the melt into P-type. As a layer of P-type formed on the everlengthening crystal, they added antimony, which compensated for the gallium and turned
the melt back into N-type. Once the process was done, there was a single, thin crystal
formed into a perfect sandwich.
By etching away the surface of the outside layers, Sparks and Teal left a tiny bit of P-type
crystal protruding. To this they attached a fine electrode-creating a circuit the way
Shockley had envisioned. On April 12, 1950, they tested what they had built. Without a
doubt, more current came out of the sandwich than went in. It was a working amplifier.
The First Junction Transistor
The first junction transistor had been born.
But It Wasn't a Very Good One . . . Yet
This transistor could amplify electrical signals, but not particularly complicated ones. If
the signal changed rapidly, as a voice coming over a phone line does, the transistor
couldn't keep up and would garble the output. The problem lay in the middle of the
sandwich: it was too easy for electric current to spread out and become unfocused as it
crossed the P-type layer. To solve the problem, the layer had to be even thinner.
In January of 1951, Morgan Sparks figured out a way to accomplish that. By pulling the
crystal out more slowly than ever, while constantly stirring the melt, he managed to get
the middle layer of the sandwich thinner than a sheet of paper.
This new, improved sandwich did all that the researchers hoped. They still weren't up to
the point-contact transistor's ability to handle signals that fluctuated extremely rapidly,
but in every other way they were superior. They were much more efficient, used very
little power to work, and they were so much quieter that they could handle weaker signals
than the type-A transistors ever could.
In July of 1951, Bell held another press conference -- this time announcing the invention
of a working and efficient junction transistor.
--------------Sharing the Technology: Bell Hosts Transistor Symposia
1951-1952
Bell Labs had an important realization: development of the transistor was going to move
a lot more quickly if they opened up the field to other companies. So in September 1951,
Bell Labs hosted a symposium to spread the gospel about what the transistor could do.
Attending the conference were some 300 scientists and engineers. The attendees all went
home to their respective companies with a great sense of what the transistor could do -but little idea of how to build one. For that knowledge, Bell announced, a company would
have to pay a licensing fee of $25,000. Twenty-six companies, from both the US and
abroad, signed up for the privilege. The companies were both big, such as IBM and
General Electric, and small, such as then-unknowns like Texas Instruments.
Over one hundred registrants from the select companies returned for the Transistor
Technology Symposium in April of 1952. For eight days Bell Labs worked the attendees
day and night -- but at the end, they were equipped to go off and build transistors for
themselves.
Bell took all the information from the meeting and bound it into a two volume book set
called "Transistor Technology." The book became fondly known as "Mother Bell's
Cookbook."
---------------William Shockley Moves to California
1956
William Shockley had gone as far as he was going to go at Bell Labs. He had watched the
people underneath him get promoted above him -- and with good reason. Too many top
quality scientists hadn't been able to work with him . A genius he may have been, but a
good manager he was not.
Shockley decided he needed a big change. The first thing to go was the car -- he traded in
the fancy MG for a Jaguar convertible. Next: the job. He spent a semester at Caltech and
then a year working for the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in Washington DC., but
nothing completely satisfied him. Eager to be able to run things his own way, he finally
decided to strike out on his own -- get some funding and start his own company.
In August of 1955, Shockley flew to LA to spend a week with his new friend Arnold
Beckman, a California chemist and businessman. Shockley shared his dream of starting a
company to build cutting edge semiconductor devices. Beckman was sold on the idea and
agreed to underwrite the venture.
Shockley was lured to the Palo Alto area by Stanford's provost, Fred Terman who thought
that a solid research institution in the area would benefit Stanford. With a location picked
out, Shockley just had to find the people. He wanted to staff his company with only the
best and the brightest. He first sought to employ his colleagues from Bell Labs, but they
wouldn't make the jump to the west coast -- or perhaps they couldn't make the jump to
working with Shockley again. So Shockley began traveling all over the country recruiting
young scientists.
At a lavish luncheon in February of 1956, Shockley and Beckman announced the
formation of their brand new lab. They only had four employees at the time, but Shockley
Semiconductor Laboratory had officially opened for business. Shockley's was the first
company of its kind to settle in the Palo Alto area, but over the years more and more
semiconductor labs -- and the computer industries they initiated -- flocked to the area. It
wasn't long before the region had earned a new name: Silicon Valley.
--------------The Future of Transistors
The first announcement of the invention of the transistor met with almost no fanfare. The
integrated circuit was originally thought to be useful only in military applications. The
microprocessor's investors pulled out before it was built, thinking it was a waste of
money. The transistor and its offspring have consistently been under valued -- yet turned
out to do more than anyone predicted.
Today's predictions also say that there is a limit to just how much the transistor can do.
This time around, the predictions are that transistors can't get substantially smaller than
they currently are. Then again, in 1961, scientists predicted that no transistor on a chip
could ever be smaller than 10 millionth of a meter -- and on a modern Intel Pentium chip
they are 100 times smaller than that.
With hindsight, such predictions seem ridiculous, and it's easy to think that current
predictions will sound just as silly thirty years from now. But modern predictions of the
size limit are based on some very fundamental physics -- the size of the atom and the
electron. Since transistors run on electric current, they must always, no matter what, be at
least big enough to allow electrons through.
On the other hand, all that's really needed is a single electron at a time. A transistor small
enough to operate with only one electron would be phenomenally small, yet it is
theoretically possible. The transistors of the future could make modern chips seem as big
and bulky as vacuum tubes seem to us today. The problem is that once devices become
that tiny, everything moves according to the laws of quantum mechanics -- and quantum
mechanics allows electrons to do some weird things. In a transistor that small, the
electron would act more like a wave than a single particle. As a wave it would smear out
in space, and could even tunnel its way through the transistor without truly acting on it.
Researchers are nevertheless currently working on innovative ways to build such tiny
Transistors Tutorial
Part 1:
"Bipolar Basics"
"We look at the tiny devices that have reshaped the world of electronics."
Along with the solid-state diode, the point-contact transistor--invented in 1947 at Bell
Labs--started the semiconductor revolution and has gone on the become one of the
rudimentary devices in today's electronic equipment. The transistor, whether in discrete
or IC form, is at the heart of most modern circuitry. Therefore, understanding how
transistors function will help you properly design circuits containing them, and in case of
a failure, enable you to find and correct the problem.
Bipolar-Transistor Composition:
A bipolar transistor is basically a two PN junctions connected back-to-back within the
same piece of semiconductor material and sharing a common P- or N-doped
semiconductor region. There are two types of bipolar transistor, the NPN and the PNP.
Fig. 1A is a simplified illustration of the composition of the NPN type of transistor. In our
illustration, the NPN type unit is shown as P-doped semiconductor material sandwiched
between two layers of N-doped material. The composition of a PNP transistor is just the
opposite of that, (i.e. the N- and P-doped materials in the transistor are interchanged). It
follows then that biasing considerations for NPN units are also opposite from those for
the PNP unit.
Note from Fig. 1A that a bipolar transistor is comprised of a center region called the base
surrounded by two other regions known as the collector and the emitter. The difference
between them will be discussed shortly. The two junctions are arranged so that they are
very close together; that's done by making the shared base region very thin and lightly
doped. That causes the two junctions to interact with one another. Conduction is the
collector-base junction depends largely on what happens in the emitter-base junction.
Because the region is lightly doped, it has a relatively small number of free carriers (holes
in a P-type base and electronics in an N-type base) to conduct current. On the other hand,
the emitter region is quite heavily doped, containing a much larger amount of donor
impurity (for the NPN type) or acceptor impurity (for the PNP type), so there are many
more free carriers available in the emitter region to conduct current than in the adjacent
base region. Because of that, the emitter-base junction, when forward biased, conducts
To the normal majority carriers in the base and emitter, that potential barrier is a big wall
that must be overcome before they can pass to the other side. So just as in the case of a
normal diode, virtually no current flows across the collector-base junction when left to its
own devices. However, the junction is not left to its own devices.
Remember that the base region is deliberately made very thin and lightly doped, while
the emitter is made much more heavily doped. Because of that, applying a forward bias to
the emitter-base junction causes vast majority carriers to be injected into th the base, and
straight into the reverse-biased collector-base junction. Those carriers are actually
minority carriers in the base region, because that region is of opposite semiconductor type
to the emitter. To those majority-turned-minority carriers, the collector-base junction
depletion region is not a barrier at all but an inviting, accelerating filed; so as soon as they
reach the depletion layer, they are immediately swept into the collector region.
Forward biasing the emitter-base junction causes two things to happen that might seem
surprising at first: Only a relatively small current actually flows between the emitter and
the base. much smaller than would flow in a normal PN diode despite the forward bias
applied to the junction between them. A much larger current instead flows directly
between the emitter and the collector regions, in this case, despite the fact that the
collector-base junction is reversed biased.
That effect is illustrated in Fig. 1A, which (hopefully) will help you to understand what is
going on. The diagram shows a NPN transistor, but the action in a PNP unit is similar
except for the opposite region polarity and conduction mainly by holes rather than
electrons.
From a practical point of view, the behavior of bipolar transistors means that, unlike the
simple PN-junction diode, it is capable of amplification. In effect, a small input current
made to flow between the emitter and collector. Only a small voltage--around 0.6 volts
for a typical silicon transistor--is needed to produce the small input current required.
In contrast, the reverse-bias voltage applied across the collector-base junction can be
much larger; typically anywhere from 6 to 90 volts or more. So in producing and being
able to control a larger current in this much higher-output circuit, the transistor's small
input current and voltage can achieve considerable voltage, power, and current, gains.
Bipolar transistors, therefore, work very well as both amplifiers and electronics switches.
That is why they have become the workhorses of modern electronics, virtually replacing
the vacuum tube. The diagram in Fig. 1A is designed to show how a bipolar transistor
works, rather than its physical construction. The actual form of the modern, planar,
double-defuse epitaxial-junction transistor is shown in Fig. 1A.
The collector region is formed from a lightly doped layer grown epitaxially on the main
substrate, which is made from the same type (but more heavily doped) material to
provide a low resistance connection. Here, both are N-doped material; for a PNP
transistor, they would be P-doped material.
The base region is formed by lightly diffusing the opposite type impurity into a mediumsized area of the chip surface to reverse that type of area and create the base-collector
unction. The emitter region is formed by a second and heavier diffusion over the smaller
area inside the first, but this time with the same kind of impurity as used for the epitaxial
collector region.
The second diffusion is very carefully controlled so that the emitter region that results
extends almost--but not quite--to the bottom of the base. That leaves the area of the base
right below the emitter quite thin to ensure that as many as possible of the carriers are
injected from the emitter region will be swept through to the collector. The thinner that
active base region, the higher (in general) the gain of the transistor.
Note that although the collector and emitter regions are made of the same type of
semiconductor material, the two are physically quite different. The emitter is heavily
Because a vast array of amplifier circuits in use in modern electronics, amplifier circuits
are often subdivided by application--AF, IF, RF, Instrumentation, op-amp, etc. Another
way of categorizing amplifiers is by configuration: common-emitter, common-collector,
and common-base for example. The important parameters in such circuits are the cutoff
frequency and the input/output impedances. The cut-off frequency at which the gain of an
amplifier falls below 0.707 times the maximum gain of the circuit. The input impedance
is the output impedance of the transistor.
Amplifier Configurations:
An example of a common-base amplifier is shown in Fig. 4A. The optimum load
impedance can range from a few thousand ohm to 100,000 ohms, depending on the
circuit's requirements. In this type of circuit, the output signal (at the collector) is in phase
with the input signal (applied at the emitter). THe current that flows through the base
resistance of the transistor is therefore in phase as well, so the circuit tends to be
regenerative and will oscillate if the current-amplification factor is greater than one.
A common-emitter (also called a "grounded-emitter") amplifier is shown in Fig. 4B. Base
current in this amplifier configuration small and the input impedance is therefore fairly
high (several thousand ohms on the average). Collector resistance on the other hand, can
be tens of thousands of ohms, depending on the signal's source impedance. The commonemitter amplifier has a lower cutoff frequency than does the common-base type, but gives
the highest power gain of the three configurations. Note that the output signal is 180 outof-phase with (or the opposite of) the input (base-current) signal, so the feedback that
flows through the small emitter resistance is negative (degenerative), keeping the circuit
stable. The common-emitter amplifier is one of the most often seen configurations for the
bipolar transistor.
The common-collector amplifier (also referred to as an emitter follower), see Fig. 4C, has
a high input impedance and a low output impedance.
The impedance is approximately:
The fact that the input resistance is directly related to the load resistance is a disadvantage
of this type of amplifier if the load is one whose resistance or impedance varies with
frequency.
The current transfer ratio of this type of circuit is:
and the cutoff frequency is the same as in the common-emitter amplifier circuit. The
output and input currents of this type of circuit are in phase.
Amplifier Classifications:
Amplifiers may be otherwise classified by their specific operational characteristics, in
particular, the bias voltages between the emitter-base and base-collector junctions. The
relationship between the bias voltage and the cutoff voltage of an amplifier is what
classifies an amplifier as being class A, B, C, or AB. Each class has a specific
characteristic that makes it most suitable for a particular application.
In a class-A amplifier--which is the least efficient, but offers the least distortion--the
transistor is biased so that its quiescent operation point is in the middle of the powersupply extremes, i.e., the transistor is always turned on and the resulting output varies
around the bias voltage; see the output waveform in Fig. 5A. Because of that, the input
signal must be small enough so that its positive and negative swings do not drive the
amplifier near the non-linear cutoff and saturation regions.
Since a high-value resistor is used to change the output voltage to a current (I=V/R) in a
class-A configuration, the output current is small. That is important since current flows at
all times in such amplifiers, with or without an input signal. Power is wasted and
efficiency (the ratio of output to total power consumed) is low--only about 20-25%--in
call-A amplifiers. Class-A amplifiers can be configured for single-ended or push-pull
operation and are used in AF (audio frequency), IF (intermediate frequency), and RF
Transistors Tutorial
Part 2:
"Bipolar Transistors"
"The bipolar junction transistor is still one of the cornerstone's of modern
solid-state electronics. Learn (or review) the basics of this important active
device.
The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) triggered the revolution in modern solid-state
electronics in the 1960's. Although the discrete small-signal BJT has since yielded to the
integrated circuit (IC) in economic importance, it lives on in the form of discrete linear
and switching power transistors as well as radio-frequency transistors into the microwave
region.
The principles behind the operation of the BJT are important to the understanding of
many of today's most popular linear and digital integrated circuits. Moreover, the
transistor families--TTL, Schottky TTL, and emitter-couple logic (ECL) are BJT's.
This article focuses small-signal BJT's and practical circuits that can be made with them.
They function either as linear amplifiers or digital switches.
The term bipolar junction transistor (BJT) distinguishes it from the junction field-effect
transistor or JFET.
BJT Basics:
A BJT is a three-terminal (base, emitter, and collector) device. There are two types: NPN
and PNP. Today both are typically made by the double-diffusion process that involves the
deposition of two additional layers of doped silicon on a doped silicon wafer.
Figure 1-a shows the cross section of an NPN BJT. Its base and
emitter terminals are metal depositions on top of the silicon wafer,
and its collector is the metalized lower surface of the wafer. Figure
2-a shows the cross section of a PNP BJT. It is similar to the NPN
BJT, except that the N- and P-type materials have changed places.
Figure 1-b and 2-b are the schematic symbols for the NPN and PNP
transistors, respectively. Notice that they are the same except for the
direction of the arrowhead within the symbol at the emitter terminal.
This difference will be explained shortly.
The term bipolar means that the BJT's operation depends on the
movement of two different carriers: electrons and holes. In NPN
BJT's the electron is the majority carrier and the hole is the
minority carrier. This situation is reversed in the PNP BJT.
By contrast, all filed-effect transistors (JFET's and MOSFET's) depend upon the
movement of only one carrier, either electrons or hoes, depending on whether they are Nchannel or P-channel devices, so they are technically unipolar devices. (For more on this,
see Electronics Now, April and May 1993).
The voltage on the collector of the NPN BJT must be positive with respect to its emitter if
current Ic is to flow. That current will increase with a positive bias on the base. Figure 3-a
shows how a small input current applied at the base (Ib) of the NPN BJT can control Ic.
The arrowhead indicates the direction of conventional current flow--collector to emitter.
Note that it is in the same direction as the arrowhead in the symbol for the NPN
transistor. (Electrons flow in the direction opposing the arrowhead.)
Similarly, the PNP transistor requires a negative collector supply with respect to its
emitter to operate, and a negative base bias to increase conduction. Fig. 3-b shows
conventional current flow in the PNP BJT from the emitter to the collector, as shown in
the symbol for the NPN transistor, but opposite to that shown in Figure 3-a.
Most of the common commodity NPN and PNP BJT's available from electronics
distributors and retail stores have been standardized and are made by many different
suppliers around the world. Table 1 lists the basic characteristics of two typical generalpurpose, small-signal BJT's that are included in the projects discussed in this article: the
2N3904 NPN-type and the 2N3906 PNP-type. Both are packaged in small, three-pin
plastic cylindrical TO-92 packages with flat faces.
Brief definitions for the parameters in Table 1 are:
Power dissipation is the maximum mean power that the BJT can dissipate without an
external heatsink, at normal room temperature, 25C.
FT is the gain-bandwidth product, the frequency at which the common-emitter
forward current gain is unity.
VCBO is collect-base voltage (emitter open), the maximum voltage that can be
impressed across collect and emitter when the base is open.
VCEO is the collector-emitter voltage (base open), the maximum voltage that can be
impressed across collector and emitter when the base is open.
IC(max) is the maximum mean current that should be allowed to flow through the
collector terminal of the BJT.
When the collector-to-emitter voltage exceeds a few hundred millivolts, the collector
current value is almost directly proportional to the base current value. It is only slightly
affected by the actual collector voltage value. Thus, the transistor can perform as a
constant-current generator by feeding a fixed bias current into the base.
The transistor can also perform as a linear amplifier by superimposing the input signal on
a nominal input bias current. (This will be discussed in more detail later.)
Circuit Applications:
Even a simple small-signal BJT has many applications related to its ability to amplify or
switch. Some of the most important and practical circuit designs are described her. With
few exceptions, all of the circuits are based on the 2N3904 NPN transistor. (With certain
minor component value changes, other NPN transistor can be substituted.) The circuits
can also be made with a PNP transistor such as the 2N3906, if the polarities are altered.
Diodes and Switches:
It was explained earlier that both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions of a silicon
BJT can be considered equivalent to a zener diode. As a result, either of these junctions
can perform as a fast-acting rectifier diode or
zener diode, depending on the bias polarity.
Figure 6 shows two alternative ways to make
an NPN BJT perform as a diode in a clamping
circuit that converts an AC-coupled
rectangular input waveform into a DC square
wave. The input AC waveform is symmetrical
above and below the zero-voltage reference.
However, the output signal retains the input's
form and amplitude, but it is clamped to the
zero-voltage reference.
If you build this circuit, use the base-collector
terminals as the diode as in Fig. 6-b because
they provide a larger zener voltage value than
the circuit shown in Fig. 6-a.
Figure 7 shows how an NPN BJT can function as a zener diode in a circuit that converts
an unregulated supply voltage into a fixed-value regulated output voltage. Typical values
range from 5 to 10 volts, depending on the characteristics of the selected transistor. The
base emitter junction is the only one suitable for this application.
Figure 8 shows a BJT functioning as a simple electronics switch or digital inverter. Here
the base is driven through resistor Rb by a digital input step voltage that has a positive
value. The load resistor Rl can be a simple resistor, tungsten lamp filament, or a relay
coil. Connect the load between the collector and the positive supply.
When the input voltage is zero, the transistor switch is cut off. Thus no current flows
through the load, and the full supply voltage is available between the collector and
emitter terminals. When the input voltage is high, the transistor switch is driven fully on.
Maximum current flows in the load, and only a few hundred millivolts is developed
between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus the output voltage signal is the inverted
form of the input signal.
Linear Amplifiers:
A BJT can function as a linear current or voltage amplifier if a
suitable bias current is fed into its base, and the output signal is
applied between a suitable pair of terminals. A transistor amplifier
can be configured for any of three operating modes: commonemitter(Fig. 9), common-base(Fig. 10), and common-collector(Fig.
11). Each of these modes offers a unique set of characteristics.
In the common-emitter circuit of Fig. 9, load resistor Rl is connected
between the collector and the positive supply, and a bias current is
fed into the base through Rb. The value of Rb was selected so that the
collector takes on a quiescent value of about half the supply voltage
(to provide maximum undistorted signal swings).
The input signal in the form of a sine wave is applied between the
base and the emitter through C1. The circuit inverts the phase of the
input signal, which appears as an output between the collector and emitter. This circuit is
characterized by a medium-value input impedance and a high overall voltage gain.
The input impedance of this amplifier is between 500 and 2000 ohms, and the load
impedance equals Rl. Voltage gain is the change in collector voltage divided by the
change in base voltage (from 100 to about 1000). Current gain is the change in collector
current divided by the change in base current of Hfe.
In the common-base linear amplifier circuit of Figure 10, the base is biased through Rb
and AC-decoupled (or AC-grounded) through Cb. The input signal is applied between the
emitter and base through C1, and the amplified but non-inverted output signal is taken
from between the collector and base. This amplifier offers very low input impedance, and
output impedance equal to the resistor Rl. Voltage gain is from 100 to 1000, but current
gain is near-unity.
In the common-collector linear amplifier circuit of Fig. 11, the collector is connected
directly to the positive voltage supply, placing it effectively at ground impedance level
The input signal is applied directly between the base and ground (collector), and the noninverted output signal is taken between the emitter and ground (collector).
The input impedance of this amplifier is very high; it is equal to the product of hfe and the
load resistance Rl. However, output impedance is very low. The circuit's overall voltage
gain is near-unity, and its output voltage is about 600 millivolts less than the input
voltage. As a result, this circuit is know as a DC-voltage follower or an emitter follower.
A circuit with very high input impedance can be obtained by replacing the single
transistor of the amplifier of Fig. 11 with a pair of transistors connected in a Darlington
configuration, as shown in Fig. 12. Here, the emitter current of the input transistor feeds
directly into the base of the output transistor with an overall hfe value equal to the product
of the values for the individual BJT's. For example, if each BJT has an hfe of 100, the pair
acts like single transistor with an hfe of 10,000. Darlington BJT's with two transistors on a
single chip (considered to be discrete device) are readily available for power
amplification.
The voltage-follower circuit of Fig. 11 can be modified for an alternating current input by
biasing the transistor base with a value equal to half the supply voltage and feeding the
input signal to the base. Figure 14 shows how this particular circuit is structured.
The emitter-follower circuits of Figs. 12 to 14 can source or feed relatively high currents
into an external load through the emitter of the transistor. However, those circuits cannot
sink or absorb high currents that are fed to the emitter from an external voltage source
because the emitter is reverse-biased under this condition. As a result, these circuits have
only a unilateral output capability.
In many applications, (such as audio amplifier output stages), a bilateral output
characteristic is essential. A bilateral amplifier has equal sink and source output
capabilities. This is obtained with the complementary emitter-follower circuit of Fig. 14.
The series-connected NPN-PNP transistor pair is biased to give a modest quiescent
current through the network consisting of resistors R1 and R2 and diodes D1 and D2.
Transistor Q1 can provided large source currents, and Q2 can absorb large sink currents.
Phase Splitters:
Transistor linear amplifiers can be used in active filters or oscillators by connecting
suitable feedback networks between their inputs and outputs. Phase splitting is another
useful linear amplifier application. It provides a pair of output signals from a single input
signal: one is in phase with the input phase, and the other is inverted or 180 out of phase.
Fig. 16 and 17 show these alternative circuits.
In the circuit shown in Fig. 15, the BJT is connected as a common-emitter amplifier with
nearly 100% negative feedback applied through emitter resistor R4. It has the same value
as collector resistor R3. This configuration provides a unity-gain inverted waveform at
output 1 and a unity-gain non-inverted waveform at output 2.
The phase-splitter circuit shown in Fig. 16 is known as a long-tailed pair because the two
BJT's share common-emitter feedback resistor R7. An increasing waveform applied at the
base of transistor Q1 causes the voltage to increase across resistor R7, reducing the bias
voltage on transistor Q2. This results in the generation of an inverted waveform at the
collector of Q1 (at output 1), and an in-phase waveform at the collector of Q2, (at output
2).
Multivibrators:
Figures 17 to 20 show BJT's in the four different kinds of multivibrator circuit: bistable,
astable, monostable, and Schmitt trigger.
The bistable multivibrator is a simple electronic circuit that has two stable states. It is
more often known as the flip-flop, but is also called a binary multivibrator, or an EcclesJordan circuit. The circuit is switched from one state to the other by a pulse or other
external signal. It maintains its state to the other by a pulse or other external signal. It
maintains its state indefinitely unless another input signal is received.
Figure 17 is a simple, manually-triggered, cross-coupled bistable multivibrator. The base
bias of each transistor is obtained from the collector of the other transistor. Thus one
transistor automatically turns OFF when the other turns ON, and this cycle can be
continued in definitely as long as it is powered.
The output of the multivibrator in Fig. 17 can be driven low by turning off transistor Q2
with switch S2. The circuit remains "locked" or stable in this state until transistor Q1 is
turned off with switch S1. At that time, the output is locked into its high state, and the
process is repeated. It can be seen that this action makes it a simple digital memory
circuit that holds its state until manually or electronically switched.
Figure 18 is the schematic for a monostable multivibrator or one-shot pulse generator. It
has only one state. The output of this circuit, a manually triggered version, is normally
low, but it switches high for a period determined by the values of capacitor C1 and
resistor R2 if transistor Q1 is turned off with switch S1. It then returns to tits original
state.
The pulse duration time of the monostable multivibrator can be determined from the
equation: T = 0.69 RC
Where: T is in microseconds, R is in ohms, and C is in microfarads.
Monostable multivibrators are used as pulse generators and weep generators for cathoderay tubes.
Transistors Tutorial
Part 3:
In the Fig. 7 circuit, consider that C1 is fully discharged so that the R1-C1 junction is at
zero volts and relay RY1 is off (contacts open) when the power supply is connected.
Capacitor C1 then charges exponentially through R1, and the increasing voltage is fed to
the relay circuit through Darlington pair Q1 and Q2. That causes relay RY1's contacts to
close after a time delay determined by the product of R1 and C1.
Consider that capacitor C1 in the Fig. 8 circuit is also fully discharged when the power
supply is connected. The junction of R1 and C1 is initially at the supply voltage, and the
relay contact close at that moment. Capacitor C1 then charges exponentially through R1,
and the decaying voltage at the R1-C1 junction appears across the coil of relay RY1. The
contacts of RY1 open after the delay determined by R1 and C1 times out.
Constant-Current Generators:
A BJT can serve as a constant-current generator if it is connected in the commoncollector topology and the power supply and collector terminals function as a constantcurrent path, as shown in Fig. 9. The 1000-ohm resistor R2 is the emitter load. The series
combination of resistor R1 and zener diode D1 applies a fixed 5.6-volt reference to the
base of Q1.
The Fig. 10 circuit takes this concept a step further. It can be seen, for example, that the
circuit of Fig. 9 was inverted to give a ground-referenced, constant-current output.
Adjustment of trimmer potentiometer R3 provides a current range of from 1 to about 10
milliamperes.
Bootstrapping:
The relatively low input impedance of the circuit in Fig. 14 circuit
can be increased significantly by bootstrapping as illustrated in Fig.
15. The 47-kilohm resistor R3 is located between the R1-R2
junction and the base of transistor Q1, and the input signal is fed to
Q1's base through capacitor C1.
Notice, however, that Q1's output signal is fed back to the R1-R2
junction through C2, so that almost identical signal voltages appear
at both ends of R3. Consequently, very little signal current flows in
R3. The input signal "sees" far greater impedance that the true
resistance value.
To make this point clearer, consider that the emitter-follower circuit in Fig. 15 has a
precise voltage gain of unity. In this condition, identical signal voltages would appear at
the two ends of R3, so no signal current would flow in this resistor, making it "appear"
equal to Rin, or 1 megohm.
Practical emitter-follower circuits provide a voltage gain that is slightly less than unity.
The precise gain that determines the resistor amplification factor, or AR of the circuit is:
AR = 1/(1 - AV).
For example, if circuit gain is 0.995 (as in Fig. 13), then AR is 200 and the R3 impedance
is almost 10 megohms. By contrast, if AV = 0.975, AR is only 40 and the R3 impedance is
almost 2 megohms. This impedance is effectively in parallel with Rin so, in the first
example, the complete Fig. 15 circuit exhibits an input impedance of about 900 kilohm.
The input impedance of the circuit in Fig. 16 circuit can be further increased by
substituting a 520 Darlington pair for Q1 and increasing the value of R3, as shown in Fig.
17. This modification gives a measured input impedance of about 3.3 megohms.
Alternatively, even greater input impedance can be obtained with a bootstrapped
"complementary-feedback pair" circuit as shown in Fig. 18; it offers an input impedance
of about 10 megohms.
In this instance, Q1 and Q2 are both connected as common-emitter amplifiers but they
operate with nearly 100% negative feedback.
As a result, they provide an overall voltage gain that is almost exactly one. This transistor
pair behaves like a near-perfect Darlington emitter-follower.
Emitter-followers:
Recall from the previous articles on bipolar transistors, a standard NPN emitter-follower
can source current but cannot sink. By contrast, an PNP emitter-follower can sink current
but cannot source it. This means that these circuits can only handle unidirectional output
currents.
A bidirectional emitter-follower (that can source or sink currents with equal ease) has
many applications. This response can be obtained with a complementary emitter-follower
topology--NPN and PNP emitter followers are effectively connected in series. Figures 18
to 20 illustrate some basic bidirectional emitter-follower circuits.
The circuit in Fig. 18 circuit has a dual or "split" power supply, and its output is directcoupled to a grounded load. The series connected NPN and PNP transistors are biased at
a quiescent "zero volts" value through the voltage divider formed with resistors R1 and
R2 and diodes D1 and D2. Each transistor is forward biased slightly with silicon diodes
D1 and D2. Those diodes have characteristics that are similar to those of the transistor
base-emitter junctions.
Capacitor C2 assures that identical input signals are applied to each transistor base, and
emitter resistors R3 and R4 protect the transistor against excessive output currents.
Transistor Q1 in Fig. 18 sources current into the load when the input goes positive, and
transistor Q2 sinks load current when the input goes negative. Notice that input capacitor
C1 is non-polarized.
Figure 19 shows an alternative to the circuit of Fig. 18 designed for operation from a
single-ended power supply and an AC-coupled output load. In this circuit, input capacitor
C1 is polarized.
Notice that output transistors Q1 and Q2 in Figs. 18 and 19 are slightly forward biased by
silicon diodes D1 and D2 to eliminate crossover distortion problems. One diode is
provided for each transistor.
If these circuits are modified by substituting Darlington pairs, four biasing diodes will be
required. In those variations, a single transistor "amplifier diode" stage replaces the four
diodes, as shown in Fig. 20.
The collector-to-emitter voltage of Q5 in Fig. 20 equals the base-to-emitter voltage drop
across Q5 (about 600 millivolts, more or less) multiplied by (R3 + R4)/R4. Thus, if
trimmer potentiometer R3 is set to zero ohms, about 600 millivolts are developed across
Q5, which then behaves as a silicon diode. However, if R3 is set to its maximum value of
47 kilohm, about 3.6 volts is developed across Q5, which then behaves like six series
connected silicon diodes. Trimmer R3 can set the voltage drop across Q5 precisely as
well as adjust the quiescent current values of the Q2-Q3 stage.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 4: "Power Amplifiers"
Copyright 2006 - Tony van Roon, VA3AVR
Last updated: September 18, 2007
Transistors Tutorial
Part 4:
by Tony van Roon (VA3AVR)
If resistor R1 equals R2, the circuit will act like two series-connected diodes, and if R1
equals three times R2, the circuit will act like four series-connected diodes, and so on.
Therefore, the circuit in Figs. 10 can be made to simulate any desired whole or fractional
number of series-connected diodes, depending on how the R1/R2 ratios are adjusted.
Figure 11 shows how the circuit in Fig. 10 can be modified to act as a fully adjustable
Bootstrapping:
The main purpose of the Q1 driver stage in Fig. 6, the base complementary amplifier, is
to give the amplifier significant voltage gain. At any given value of Q1 collector current,
this voltage gain is directly proportional to the effective Q1 collector load value. It
follows that the value of resistor R1 should be as large as possible to maximize voltage
gain. However, there are several reasons why this does not work.
First, the effective or AC value of R1 equals the actual R1 value shunted by the input
impedance of the Q2-Q3 power amplifier stage. Therefore, if R1 has a higher value, the
power amplifier input impedance must be even greater. That can usually be done by
replacing Q2 and Q3 with high-gain transistor pairs, as was done in Figs. 7 to 9.
The second reason is that Q1 in Fig. 6 must be biased so that its collector assumes a
quiescent half-supply voltage value to provide maximum output signal swings; this
condition is set by the Q1's collector current and resistor R1's value.
The true value of R1 is predetermined by biasing requirements. To achieve high voltage
gain, a way must be found to make the AC impedance of R1 much greater than its DC
value. This is accomplished with he bootstrapping technique shown in Figs. 12 & 13.
In Fig. 12, Q1's collector load consists of R1 and R2 in series. The circuit's output signal,
which also appears across SPKR1, is fed back to the R1-R2 junction through C2. This
output signal is a near unity-voltage-gain copy of the signal appearing on Q1's collector.
If resistor R1 has a value of 1 kilohm, the Q2-Q3 stage provides a voltage gain of 0.9. As
power amplifiers.
An IC power amplifier:
Improvements in the power-handling capabilities of monolithic
integrated circuits have permitted power amplifier to be
integrated on a single silicon substrate or chip. The techniques
for designing integrated circuit power amplifiers are similar to
those for discrete device circuits. It turns out that the
similarities between discrete and IC power amplifier designs
are closer than for most other linear circuits.
Figure 17 is a simplified circuit diagram for the LM380, an IC
power amplifier, drawn in the manufacturer's data book style.
The LM380 was developed by National Semiconductor Corporation for consumer
applications. It features an internally fixed gain of 50 (34 dB) and an output that
automatically centers itself at one-half of the supply voltage.
An unusual input stage permits inputs to be referenced to the ground or AC coupled, as
required. The output stage of the LM380 is protected with both short-circuit current
limiting and thermal-shutdown circuitry.
The LM380 has two input terminals. Both Q1 and Q2 are connected as PNP emitter
followers that drive the Q3 and Q4 differential amplifier transistor pairs. The PNP inputs
reference the input to gro8und, thus permitting direct coupling of the input transducer.
The output is biased to half the supply voltage by resistor ratio R1/R2 (resistor R1 is
formed by two 25-kilohm resistors and R2 has a value of 25-kilohms). Negative DC
feedback, through resistor R2, balances the differential stage with the output at half
supply, because R1 = R2.
The output of the differential amplifier stage is direct coupled into the base of Q12, which
is a common-emitter, voltage-gain amplifier with a constant current-source load provide
by Q11. Internal compensation is provided by the pole-splitting capacitor C'. Polesplitting compensation permits wide power bandwidth (100 KHz at 2 watts, 8 ohms).
The collector signal of Q12 is fed to output pin 8 of the IC through the combination of
Transistors Tutorial
Part 4:
by Tony van Roon (VA3AVR)
The impedance of the Fig. 4 circuit equals the product of the speaker
load impedance and the current gain of either Q1 or Q2. The circuit
can be improved by replacing transistors Q1 and Q2 with Darlingron
pairs which will significantly increase the circuit's input impedance
and increase the amplifier's collector load capacity.
Figures 7 to 9 show three different ways of modifying the Fig. 6
circuit by replacing individual transistors with Darlington pairs. For
example, in Fig. 7, transistors Q2 and Q3 form a Darlingron NPN
pair, and Q4 and Q5 form a darlington PNP pair. There are four baseemitter junctions between the bases of Q2 and Q4, and the output
circuit is biased with a string of four silicon diodes, D1 and D4, in
series to compensate for the Darlingron pairs.
Figure 8, Q2 and Q3 are a Darlington NPN pair, but Q4 and Q5 are a
complementary pair of common-emitter amplifiers. They operate
with 100% negative feedback, and provide unity-voltage gain and
very high input impedance. Thisquasi-complementary output stage is probably the most
popular Class AB power amplifier topology today. Notice the three silicon biasing diodes,
D1, D2, and D3.
Finally, in Figure 9, both pairs Q2 and Q3 and Q4 and Q5 are complementary pair of
unity-gain, common-emitter amplifiers with 100% negative feedback. Because the pairs
produce outputs that are mirror images of each other, the circuit has a complementary
output stage. Notice that this circuit has only two silicon biasing diodes, D1 and D2.
Amplified Diodes:
The circuits in Figs. 6 to 9 include strings of two to four silicon biasing diodes. Each of
those strings can be replaced by single transistor and two resistors configured as an
amplified diode, as shown in Figs. 10.
The output voltage of the circuit, Vout can be calculated from the formula: Vout = VBE x R1
+ R2/R2
If resistor R1 is replaced by a short circuit, the circuit's output will be equal to the baseemitter junction "diode" voltage of Q1 (VBE). The circuit will then have the thermal
characteristics of a discrete diode.
If resistor R1 equals R2, the circuit will act like two series-connected diodes, and if R1
equals three times R2, the circuit will act like four series-connected diodes, and so on.
Therefore, the circuit in Figs. 10 can be made to simulate any desired whole or fractional
number of series-connected diodes, depending on how the R1/R2 ratios are adjusted.
Figure 11 shows how the circuit in Fig. 10 can be modified to act as a fully adjustable
"amplifier diode", with an output variable from 1 to 5.7 times the base-emitter junction
voltage (VBE)
Bootstrapping:
The main purpose of the Q1 driver stage in Fig. 6, the base complementary amplifier, is
to give the amplifier significant voltage gain. At any given value of Q1 collector current,
this voltage gain is directly proportional to the effective Q1 collector load value. It
follows that the value of resistor R1 should be as large as possible to maximize voltage
gain. However, there are several reasons why this does not work.
First, the effective or AC value of R1 equals the actual R1 value shunted by the input
impedance of the Q2-Q3 power amplifier stage. Therefore, if R1 has a higher value, the
power amplifier input impedance must be even greater. That can usually be done by
replacing Q2 and Q3 with high-gain transistor pairs, as was done in Figs. 7 to 9.
The second reason is that Q1 in Fig. 6 must be biased so that its collector assumes a
quiescent half-supply voltage value to provide maximum output signal swings; this
condition is set by the Q1's collector current and resistor R1's value.
The true value of R1 is predetermined by biasing requirements. To achieve high voltage
gain, a way must be found to make the AC impedance of R1 much greater than its DC
value. This is accomplished with he bootstrapping technique shown in Figs. 12 & 13.
In Fig. 12, Q1's collector load consists of R1 and R2 in series. The circuit's output signal,
which also appears across SPKR1, is fed back to the R1-R2 junction through C2. This
output signal is a near unity-voltage-gain copy of the signal appearing on Q1's collector.
If resistor R1 has a value of 1 kilohm, the Q2-Q3 stage provides a voltage gain of 0.9. As
a result, an undefined signal voltage appears at the low end of resistor R2, and 0.9 times
that undefined voltage appears at the top of R2. In other words, only one-tenth of the
unknown signal voltage is developed across R2. Therefore, it passes one-tenth of the
techniques for designing integrated circuit power amplifiers are similar to those for
discrete device circuits. It turns out that the similarities between discrete and IC power
amplifier designs are closer than for most other linear circuits.
Figure 17 is a simplified circuit diagram for the LM380, an IC power amplifier, drawn in
the manufacturer's data book style. The LM380 was developed by National
Semiconductor Corporation for consumer applications. It features an internally fixed gain
of 50 (34 dB) and an output that automatically centers itself at one-half of the supply
voltage.
An unusual input stage permits inputs to be referenced to the ground or AC coupled, as
required. The output stage of the LM380 is protected with both short-circuit current
limiting and thermal-shutdown circuitry.
The LM380 has two input terminals. Both Q1 and Q2 are connected as PNP emitter
followers that drive the Q3 and Q4 differential amplifier transistor pairs. The PNP inputs
reference the input to gro8und, thus permitting direct coupling of the input transducer.
The output is biased to half the supply voltage by resistor ratio R1/R2 (resistor R1 is
formed by two 25-kilohm resistors and R2 has a value of 25-kilohms). Negative DC
feedback, through resistor R2, balances the differential stage with the output at half
supply, because R1 = R2.
The output of the differential amplifier stage is direct coupled into the base of Q12, which
is a common-emitter, voltage-gain amplifier with a constant current-source load provide
by Q11. Internal compensation is provided by the pole-splitting capacitor C'. Polesplitting compensation permits wide power bandwidth (100 KHz at 2 watts, 8 ohms).
The collector signal of Q12 is fed to output pin 8 of the IC through the combination of
emitter-coupled Q7 and the quasi-complementary pair emitter followers Q8 and Q9. The
short-circuit current is typical 1.3 amperes.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 5: "Audio Amplifiers"
Transistors Tutorial
Part 4:
distortion, but transistor Q1 consumes current continuously-even in the quiescent state--giving it low efficiency.
Amplifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of AC power input
to the load divided by the DC power consumed by the
circuit.
At maximum output power, the efficiency of a typical Class
A amplifier is only 40%, about 10% less than its theoretical
50% maximum. However, its efficiency falls to about 4% at
one-tenth of its maximum output power level.
A typical Class B amplifier is shown in Fig. 2-a. It has a pair
of BJTs, Q1 and Q2, operating 180 out-of-phase driving a
common output load, in this example another speaker. In this
topology, the BJTs operated as common-emitter amplifiers
drive the speaker through push-pull transformer T2. A phasesplitting transformer T1, provides the input drives for Q1 and
Q2 180 out-of-phase.
The outstanding characteristic of any Class B amplifier is
that both transistors are biased off under quiescent conditions
because they are operated without base bias. As a result, the
amplifier draws almost no quiescent current. This gives it an
efficiency that approaches 79% under all operating conditions. In Fig. 2-b, neither Q1 nor
Q2 conducts until the input drive signal exceeds the base emitter zero-crossing voltage of
the transistor. This occurs at about 600 millivolts for a typical power transistor.
The major disadvantage of the Class B amplifier is that its output signal is seriously
distorted. THis can be seen from its dynamic transfer curve, also shown in Fig. 2-b.
Class AB Fundamentals:
Audio distortion caused by the crossover between two out-of-phase transistors is
annoying. To overcome this defect, the Class B amplifier is modified into the third
category called Class AB for most high-fidelity audio equipment. Fortunately, Class B
distortion can usually be eliminated by slight forward bias to the base of each transistor,
as shown in Fig. 3-a. This modification sharply reduces the quiescent current of a Class B
amplifier and converts it into a Class AB amplifier.
Many early transistorized power amplifiers were Class AB, as shown in Fig. 3-a, but that
circuit is rarely seen today. That circuit requires one transformer for input phase-splitting
and another for driving the speaker, both costly electronics components.
In addition, electrical characteristics of both Q1 and Q2 must be closely matched. The
amplification of each transistor will be unequal if they are not, and it will be impossible
to minimize output distortion. Figure 3a shows a dynamic transfer characteristic for a
Class AB power amplifier.
The Class AB amplifier shown in Fig. 4 avoids both transformers and the need to match
transistors. A complementary pair of transistors (Q1 and NPN and Q2 a PNP) is
connected as an emitter follower. Powered by a split (dual) supply, the circuit's two
emitter followers are biased through R1 and R2 so that their outputs are at zero volts; no
current flows in the speaker under quiescent conditions.
If resistor R1 equals R2, the circuit will act like two series-connected diodes, and if R1
equals three times R2, the circuit will act like four series-connected diodes, and so on.
Therefore, the circuit in Figs. 10 can be made to simulate any desired whole or fractional
number of series-connected diodes, depending on how the R1/R2 ratios are adjusted.
Figure 11 shows how the circuit in Fig. 10 can be modified to act as a fully adjustable
"amplifier diode", with an output variable from 1 to 5.7 times the base-emitter junction
voltage (VBE)
Bootstrapping:
The main purpose of the Q1 driver stage in Fig. 6, the base complementary amplifier, is
to give the amplifier significant voltage gain. At any given value of Q1 collector current,
this voltage gain is directly proportional to the effective Q1 collector load value. It
follows that the value of resistor R1 should be as large as possible to maximize voltage
gain. However, there are several reasons why this does not work.
First, the effective or AC value of R1 equals the actual R1 value shunted by the input
impedance of the Q2-Q3 power amplifier stage. Therefore, if R1 has a higher value, the
power amplifier input impedance must be even greater. That can usually be done by
replacing Q2 and Q3 with high-gain transistor pairs, as was done in Figs. 7 to 9.
The second reason is that Q1 in Fig. 6 must be biased so that its collector assumes a
quiescent half-supply voltage value to provide maximum output signal swings; this
condition is set by the Q1's collector current and resistor R1's value.
The true value of R1 is predetermined by biasing requirements. To achieve high voltage
gain, a way must be found to make the AC impedance of R1 much greater than its DC
value. This is accomplished with he bootstrapping technique shown in Figs. 12 & 13.
In Fig. 12, Q1's collector load consists of R1 and R2 in series. The circuit's output signal,
which also appears across SPKR1, is fed back to the R1-R2 junction through C2. This
output signal is a near unity-voltage-gain copy of the signal appearing on Q1's collector.
If resistor R1 has a value of 1 kilohm, the Q2-Q3 stage provides a voltage gain of 0.9. As
a result, an undefined signal voltage appears at the low end of resistor R2, and 0.9 times
that undefined voltage appears at the top of R2. In other words, only one-tenth of the
unknown signal voltage is developed across R2. Therefore, it passes one-tenth of the
techniques for designing integrated circuit power amplifiers are similar to those for
discrete device circuits. It turns out that the similarities between discrete and IC power
amplifier designs are closer than for most other linear circuits.
Figure 17 is a simplified circuit diagram for the LM380, an IC power amplifier, drawn in
the manufacturer's data book style. The LM380 was developed by National
Semiconductor Corporation for consumer applications. It features an internally fixed gain
of 50 (34 dB) and an output that automatically centers itself at one-half of the supply
voltage.
An unusual input stage permits inputs to be referenced to the ground or AC coupled, as
required. The output stage of the LM380 is protected with both short-circuit current
limiting and thermal-shutdown circuitry.
The LM380 has two input terminals. Both Q1 and Q2 are connected as PNP emitter
followers that drive the Q3 and Q4 differential amplifier transistor pairs. The PNP inputs
reference the input to gro8und, thus permitting direct coupling of the input transducer.
The output is biased to half the supply voltage by resistor ratio R1/R2 (resistor R1 is
formed by two 25-kilohm resistors and R2 has a value of 25-kilohms). Negative DC
feedback, through resistor R2, balances the differential stage with the output at half
supply, because R1 = R2.
The output of the differential amplifier stage is direct coupled into the base of Q12, which
is a common-emitter, voltage-gain amplifier with a constant current-source load provide
by Q11. Internal compensation is provided by the pole-splitting capacitor C'. Polesplitting compensation permits wide power bandwidth (100 KHz at 2 watts, 8 ohms).
The collector signal of Q12 is fed to output pin 8 of the IC through the combination of
emitter-coupled Q7 and the quasi-complementary pair emitter followers Q8 and Q9. The
short-circuit current is typical 1.3 amperes.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 5: "Audio Amplifiers"
Transistors Tutorial
Part 5:
by Tony van Roon (VA3AVR)
or piezoelectric ceramic/crystal.
Magnetic transducers typically offer
low output impedance and a low signal
sensitivity of about 2 millivolts. Their
outputs must be fed to a highimpedance preamplifier stage with
near-unity voltage gain.
Most microphones have a near flat
frequency response, so they can be matched to simple, flat-response preamplifier stages.
Figure 2 shows a unity-gain preamplifier circuit that will work with most high-impedance
ceramic or crystal microphones. It is an emitter-follower (common-collector) amplifier
with an input network bootstrapped by C2 and R3. It has a typical input impedance of
about 2 megohms. The combination of C5 and R5 decouples the amplifier from the DC
power supply.
Figures 3 and 4 show alternative preamplifier circuits that will match magnetic
microphones. The single-stage circuit of Fig. 3 gives 46dB (x200) of voltage gain, and
will work with most magnetic microphones. The two-stage circuit of Fig. 4, however,
gives 76dB of voltage gain, and it is intended for preamplification of the output of verylow-sensitivity magnetic microphones.
The preamplifier circuit is designed around transistors Q1 and Q2, with C2 and R5, and
C3 and R6 forming the feedback resistor capacitor equalization network. The output of
the emitter-follower buffer stage, transistor Q3, can be controlled by volume control
potentiometer R10.
The quality of reproduction of ceramic or crystal phono cartridges is generally lower than
that of magnetic cartridges, but they produce far higher amplitude output signals.
Ceramic and crystal phone cartridges will work with simple equalization preamplifiers-one reason why those cartridges were installed in so many low-cost record players.
Figure 8 and 9 show alternative phone cartridge preamplifier/equalization circuits that
can function with wither ceramic or crystal phono cartridges. Both circuits are designed
around transistorized emitter-follower output stages Q1 and Q2. The output of the circuit
in Fig. 8 can be controlled by volume control potentiometer R4, and that of Fig. 9 is
controlled by R5.
The preamplifier/equalizer in Fig. 8 will work with any phone cartridge whose
capacitance is between 1000 and 10,000pF. Two-stage equalization is provided by the
resistance-capacitance network made up of C1, C2, R2, and R3.
Preamplification/equalization for this circuit is typically within 1.6 dB of the RIAA
standard between 40 Hz and 12KHz.
The alternative
preamplifier/equalizer shown in
Fig. 9 will work only with
phono cartridges whose
capacitance value are between
5000 and 10,000pF because this
capacitance is part of the
circuit's frequency response
network. The other part of the
network is formed by C1 and
R3. At 50 Hz, this circuit has a
high input impedance of about
600 kilohms, which causes only
slight cartridge loading.
However, as frequency
increases, input impedance
decreases sharply, increasing
cartridge loading and effectively
reducing circuit gain. The
equalization curve approximates the RIAA standard, and circuit
performance is adequate for most practical applications.
A Universal Preamplifier:
Most audio amplifier systems must have preamplifiers with many different
characteristics. These include high-gain linear response for magnetic microphones, lowgain linear response for tuners, and high-gain RIAA equalization for magnetic phone
cartridges.
To meet this broad requirement, most amplifier designers include a single universal
preamplifier circuit such as the one shown in Fig. 10. Basically a high-gain linear
amplifier, its characteristics can be altered by switching alternative resistor filter networks
into its feedback system.
For example, when the selector switch is set to the Mag phono position, alternative input
sources can be selected by S1-a, and appropriate linear-response gain control feedback
resistors R8, R9, and R10 are now selected by S1-b. Those feedback resistor values are
selected between 10 kilo ohms and 10 megohms to suit individual listener tastes. Circuit
gain will be proportional, to the feedback resistor value.
Volume Control:
The Volume control circuitry of an audio amplifier system is normally located between
the output of the preamplifier stage and the input of the tone-control circuit. It is usually
only a potentiometer within the circuit, as shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9. However, the catch
here is that rapid rotation of the potentiometer knob can apply DC voltage to the next
circuit for brief intervals. That voltage could upset circuit bias and cause severe signal
distortion.
The block diagram in Fig. 11 shows the ideal topology and location for a volume control.
It is fully DC-isolated from the output of the preamplifier by capacitor C1, and from the
input of the tone-control circuit by C2. As a result, variation of the wiper of control
potentiometer R1 has no effect on the DC bias levels of either circuit. Potentiometer R1
should have a logarithmic taper, that is, its output should be logarithmic function rather
than linear.
A comparison of Figs. 15 and 12 will reveal that the bass control section of Fig. 15 is a
simplified version of Fig. 12-a. It can be seen that the two capacitors C1 and C2 of Fig.
12-a have been replaced by the single 0.039uF capacitor C2 of Fig. 15. Similarly, the
treble version of Fig. 13-a, with resistors R1 and R2 eliminated. Resistors R3 and R4
balance the performance of the two section of the Fig. 15 control circuit.
An Audio Mixer:
A multichannel audio mixer is an attractive modification that can be added to the
volume/tone-control section of an audio amplifier. This mixer permits several different
audio signals to be mixed together to form a single composite output signal. This
modification will be of value if, for example, you want to hear the front-door buzzer or
the sounds of a baby crying in a child's room while you listening to music.
Figure 16 is the schematic for a three-channel audio mixer that will provide an overall
gain of one between the output and each input channel. Each input channel includes a
single 0.1 uF capacitor and a 100-kilohms resistor, to provide an output impedance of 100
kilohms. The number of input channels to this audio mixer can be increased by adding
more capacitors and resistors with the same values as C1 and R1.
The mixer should be located between the output of the tone-control circuitry and the
input to the power amplifier. One input should be taken from the output of the tonecontrol circuit, and the other inputs should either be grounded or taken from the desired
source.
"Build these circuits that can amplify, filter, generate white noise, flash lamps,
locate hidden metal--and perhaps even detect lies."
This last article on bipolar junction transistors (BJT) is a potpourri of circuits. Some are
practical and some are not so practical, but they can be great for experiments. With these
circuits you can amplify signals, filter high and low frequencies, generate white noise,
and flash lamps. You can also boost DC voltage levels, locate hidden metal objects, and
detect rising water. One circuit will even demonstrate the fundamentals of lie detection!
More Power Amplifiers:
Today the easiest way to build a low- to medium-power audio amplifier is to pick an
integrated circuit (IC) amplifier from a manufacturer's data book and supplement it with
additional components recommended in the applications notes in the data book. However,
if you just want to learn amplifier principles by experimentation or you have a simple
application in mind, you should build the amplifier with discrete transistors.
Figure 1 is a schematic for a general-purpose, low-power, high-gain amplifier based on
discrete transistors. A Class-A amplifier, it can drive a load such as a speaker or headset
with an impedance greater than 65 ohms. The amplifier draws a quiescent current of
about 20 milliamperes. However, this drain can be reduced by increasing the value of R3.
dB. Notice that resistor R3, the emitter load of Q2, is decoupled by capacitor C3 so that
the Q2 emitter follows the average collector voltage of Q1.
The base bias for Q1 is derived from Q2's emitter through R2. With this configuration,
the bias is stabilized by negative DC feedback. Input potentiometer R4 serves as the
circuit's volume control.
Figure 2 is the schematic for a simple, three-transistor, Class-AB complementary
amplifier which can drive about 1 Watt into a 3-ohm speaker load. Transistor Q1, which
is configured as a common-emitter amplifier, drives a load that is the sum of speaker
SPKR1. resistor R1 and potentiometer R5. Its output voltage is followed and boosted in
power by the complementary emitter-follower stage made up of Q2 and Q3.
The output of the amplifier is fed through capacitor C2 to the junction of SPKR1 and R1
where it provides a low-impedance drive for SPKR1. It simultaneously bootstraps the
value of R1 so that the circuit has high-voltage gain. The output is also fed back to Q1's
base through R4 so that it produces a base bias through a negative feedback loop.
Carefully adjust trimmer potentiometer R5 to minimize audible signal crossover
distortion so that it is consistent with lowest quiescent current consumption that can be
measured. To obtain a reasonable value, set the quiescent current from 10 to 15
milliamperes.
Figure 3 shows a more complex audio power amplifier that can deliver about 10 watts
into a 8-ohm load when powered from a 30-volt supply. This circuit includes four, highgain, quasi-complementary output stage (Q3 to Q6). Transistor Q1 functions as an
adjustable amplifier diode output biasing device in this circuit.
The rumble filter in Fig. 4 is a high-pass filter that provides unity voltage gain for all
frequencies greater than 50Hz. however, it provides 12 dB per octave rejection to all
frequencies below 50Hz. For example, attenuation is 40dB at 5Hz. Transistor Q1 is
configured as an emitter-follower biased at about half the supply value from the lowimpedance junction formed by R1 and R2 in parallel with capacitor C3.
However, negative feedback applied through the filter network of R3, C2, C1, and R4
causes an active filter response. The rolloff frequency of the circuit can be altered, if
desired, by changing the values of capacitors C1 and C2--provided that they are kept
equal. For example, if the values of C1 and C2 are reduced 50% from 0.220 to 0.110
microfarads, the rolloff frequency will be double to 100Hz.
The scratch filter circuit in Fig. 5 acts as a low-pass filter that provides unity voltage gain
to all frequencies below 10KHz, but it rejects all frequencies above 10 KHz at 12dB per
octave. This circuit resembles Fig. 4 except that the positions of the resistors and
capacitors are transposed in the network consisting of C2, R4, C4, and R5.
signal output is amplified to this peak level, the noise peaks will not exceed signal output.
Therefore, the receiver signal will be far more intelligible.
Astable Multivibrators:
The astable multivibrator or square-wave generator circuit is versatile. Figure 9, for
example, shows how it can flash two light-emitting diodes (Led) about once per second.
Its flash rate is controlled by the time constant values of resistive-capacitive combinations
of R4 and C1 and R3 and C2.
The Leds are in series with the collectors of transistors Q1 and Q2, and they flash on and
off symmetrically out-of-phase with each other. The flash rate can be changed by altering
the values of either R4 and C1 or R3 and C2. You can also replace one of the Leds with a
short circuit to make a one-Led flasher.
Figure 10 is a simple variation of the Fig. 9 astable multivibrator. This circuit generates
an asymmetrical waveform at about 800 Hz, which is fed to speaker SPKR1 and limiting
resistor Rx in the collector circuit of Q2. A monotone audio signal is generated when
switch S1 is closed.
This circuit becomes a simple sound generator if S1 is a simple on-off switch, or it can be
a Morse-code practice oscillator if a telegrapher's key is substituted for S1. The frequency
of the generated tone can be changed by altering the values of either or both capacitors
C1 and C2.
Figure 11 shows how an astable multivibrator can act as a signal injector-tracer for testing
radio receivers. When S1 is in the inject position 1, transistors Q1 and Q2 are configured
as a 1KHz astable multivibrator. With that setting, a sharp squarewave signal is sent to
the probe terminal through R1 and C1.
That waveform, which is rich in harmonics, will produce an audible output through a
LC Oscillators:
Many applications can be found for inductancecapacitance (L/C) oscillators in test equipment and
practical circuits. Figure 12 is a local oscillator
Beat-Frequency Oscillator (BFO). Transistor Q1 is
configured as a conventional Hartley Oscillator with
modified 465 KHz Intermediate Frequency (IF)
transformer as its collector load.
If the internal tuning capacitor of the transformer is
removed, variable capacitor C1 becomes the tuning
control of a variable-frequency oscillator. The
output frequency can be varied from well below 465
KHz to well above 1.7MHz.
Any radio capable of receiving broadcast band frequencies will detect the oscillation
frequency if it is placed near the signal generator circuit. If the signal generator is tuned
to the intermediate frequency of a radio, a beat note can be heard. This will permit
continuous-wave or sinus-sideband transmissions to be detected.
Figure 13 is a modification of Fig. 12 without a transformer secondary. When the circuit
is functioning with a nearby radio receiver acting as a detector and amplifier, it becomes a
simple metal object locator. Oscillator coil L1 is made by winding 30 turns of wire tightly
on a 3- to 4-inch diameter plastic core or bobbin about 1 inch long. It becomes a search
head or sensing coil when it it is connected to the circuit with a 3-wire cable.
The searching head or sensor can be mounted at the end of a long wooden or plastic
handle if you want to use the circuit as a classic ground-sweeping metal detector. Similar
circuits can detect buried treasure of military mines that include at least some metal parts.
However, the complete circuit can be housed in a handheld case if you want to locate
metal pipes or wiring that are hidden behind walls that are made of brick, wood, or
plasterboard (gypsum/drywall).
The operation of the object locator circuit in Fig. 13 depends on the presence of a metal
object that will interfere with coil L1's electromagnetic field. The presence of the metal
object can be detected by a battery-portable broadcast band radio held close to the locator
circuit. It senses the frequency shift and gives out an audible screech.
To detect a hidden metal object, first tune the radio to a local station, and then adjust C1
so that a low-frequency beat or chirp is heard from the radio's speaker. This beat note will
change significantly if the locator circuit is placed near the hidden metal object.
Figure 14 shows the Hartley oscillator used as a DC-to-DC converter. It is capable of
converting the output of a 9-volt battery to 300-volts DC. TransformerT1 is a 9-0-9 to
250-volt transformer. Its primary forms the inductance (L) part of the oscillator.
The supply voltage is stepped up to a peak of about 350 volts at T1's secondary. This
waveform is rectified by half-wave rectifier diode D1, and it charges capacitor C4. With a
permanent load, the output falls to about 300 volts at a load current of a few
milliamperes.
Caution: Without a permanent load across C4, the capacitor can deliver a powerful but
non-lethal shock to the unwary!
Conductive Water Switch:
- "A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System:", Physical Sciences (19251980). S. Millman, Editor.
- "Revolution in Miniature:", The History and Impact of Semiconductor electronics.
- "Crystal Fire", by Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson
- "Transistorized!", Morgan Sparks interview.
- "How we Built the Transistor" by William Shockley. New Scientist December 1972.
- "The Improbable Years," Electronics (19 February 1968)
- "They Had Eight Days to Learn About Transistors"
Copyright and Credits:
Original author Ray Marston. Published by Gernsback Publishing. (Hugo Gernsback
Publishing is (sadly) out of business since January 2000).
Re-posting or taking graphics in any way or form from this website or of this project is
expressly prohibited by international copyright laws. Permission by written permission
only.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 7
Copyright 2006 - Tony van Roon, VA3AVR
Last updated: September 26, 2007
Transistors Tutorial
Part 7:
"Oscillators"
"Learn about transistor oscillators and multivibrators that generate useful sine
and square waves."
Oscillators based on the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) are the subjects of this article.
Previous articles in this series have included articles on the characteristics of the bipolar
junction transistor, the common-collector amplifier, common-emitter and common-base
voltage amplifiers, etc.
Oscillator Fundamentals:
An oscillator is a circuit that is capable of a sustained AC output signal obtained by
converting input energy. Oscillators can be designed to generate a variety of signal
waveforms, and they are convenient sources of sinusoidal AC signals for testing, control,
and frequency conversion. Oscillators can also generate square waves, ramps, or pulses
for switching, signalling, and control.
Simple oscillators produce sinewaves, but another form, the multivibrator, produces
square or sawtooth waves. These circuits were developed with vacuum-tubes, but have
since been converted to transistor oscillators. Figure 1 is a simple block diagram showing
an amplifier and a block representing the many oscillator phase-shift methods. Regardless
of its amplifier, an oscillator must meet the two Barkhousen conditions for oscillation:
1 - The loop gain must be slightly greater than unity.
2 - The loop phase shift must be 0 or 360.
To meet these conditions the oscillator circuit must include some form of amplifier, and a
portion of its output must be fed back regeneratively to the input. In other words, the
feedback voltage must be positive so it is in phase with the original excitation voltage at
the input. Moreover, the feedback must be sufficient to overcome the losses in the input
circuit (gain equal to or greater than unity).
If the gain of the amplifier is less than unity, the circuit will not
oscillate, and if it is significantly greater than unity, the circuit will be
over-driven and produce distorted (non-sinusoidal) waveforms.
As you will learn, the typical amplifier--vacuum tube, BJT, or fieldeffect transistor--imparts a 180 phase shift in the input signal, and the
resistive-capacitive (RC) feedback loop imparts the additional 180 so that the signal is
returned in phase. Energy coupled back to the input by
inductive methods can, however, be returned with zero
phase shift with respect to the input.
Specialized oscillators such as the Gunn diodes and
Klystron tubes oscillate because of negative resistance
effects, but the basic oscillator principles apply here as
well.
RC Oscillators:
Figure 2 is the schematic for a phase-shift oscillator, a
basic resistive-capacitive oscillator. Transistor Q1 is
configured as a common-emitter amplifier, and its output
(collector)signal is fed back to its input (base) through a
three-stage RC ladder network, which includes R5 and
C1, R2 and C2, and R3 and C3.
Each of the three RC stages in this ladder introduces a 60 phase shift between its input
and output terminals so the sum of those three phase shifts provides the overall 180
required for oscillation. The phase shift per stage depends on both the frequency of the
input signal and the values of the resistors and capacitors in the network.
The values of the three RC ladder network capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are equal as are the
values of the the three resistors R5, R2, and R3. With the component values shown in Fig.
2, the 180 phase shift occurs at about 1/14 RC or 700 Hz. Because the transistor shifts
the phase of the incoming signal 180, the circuit also oscillates at about 700 Hz.
At the oscillation frequency, the three-stage ladder network has an attenuation factor of
about 29. The gain of the transistor can be adjusted with trimmer potentiometer R6 in the
emitter circuit to compensate for signal loss and provide the near unity gain required for
generating stable sinewaves. To ensure stable oscillation, R6 should be set to obtain a
slightly distorted sinewave output.
The amplitude of the output signal can be varied with trimmer potentiometer R4.
Although this simple phase-shift oscillator requires only a single transistor, it has several
drawbacks: poor gain stability and limited tuning range.
There are ways to overcome the drawbacks of the phase-shift oscillator, and one of them
is to include a Wien-bridge or network in the oscillator's feedback loop. The concept is
illustrated in the Fig. 3 block diagram. A far more versatile RC oscillator than the phaseshift oscillator, its operating frequency can be varied easily.
LC Oscillators:
Resistive-capacitive sine wave oscillators can generate signals from a few
hertz up to several megahertz, but inductive-capacitive (LC) oscillators can
generate sinewave outputs from 20 or 30 KHz up to UHF frequencies.
An LC oscillator includes an LC network that provides the frequencyselective feedback between the output
of the amplifier and its input terminals.
Because of the inherently high Q or frequency
selectivity of LC networks or resonant tank circuits,
LC oscillators produce more precise sinewave
outputs--even when the loop gain of the circuit is
far greater than unity.
temperature changes or aging) can shift the oscillator frequency. This shift can be
minimized for high frequency stability by selecting values of C1 and C2 that are relative
to the internal capacitances of Q1.
The Clapp Oscillator, a modification of the Colpitts oscillator, shown in Fig. 8, offers
higher frequency stability than the Colpitts oscillator. This is achieved by adding
capacitor C1 in series with the coil in the tuned resonant tank circuit. It is selected to have
a value that is small with respect to C2 and C3.
As a result of the presence of this capacitor, the resonant frequency of the tank and
oscillator will be determined primarily by the values of L1 and C1.
Capacitor C3 essentially eliminates transistor capacitance variations as a factor in
determining the Clapp oscillator's resonant frequency. With the component values shown,
the Clapp oscillator oscillates at about 80KHz.
Figure 9 shows the classic Reinartz Oscillator. In this circuit, tuning coil L1 in the
collector circuit and the tuning coil L2 in the emitter circuit are inductively coupled to
tuning coil L3 in the resonant tank circuit. Positive feedback is obtained by coupling the
collector and emitter signals of the transistor through windings L1 and L2, and
inductively coupling both of these coils to L3. This Reinartz oscillator oscillates at a
frequency determined by L3 and trimmer capacitor C2. With the values and turns ratios
given in Fig. 9, the circuit will oscillate at a few hundred KHz.
Modulation:
The LC
oscillator
circuits
shown in
Figs. 5 to 9
can be
modified to
produce
amplitude- or
frequencymodulated
(AM or FM)
rather than
continuous
wave (CW)
output
signals.
Figure 10 is the schematic for a beat-frequency oscillator (BFO). It is based on the tunedcollector circuit of Fig. 5, but modified to become a 465-KHz amplitude-modulated (AM)
BFO. A standard 465-KHz IF transformer (T1), intended for transistor circuits, is the LC
resonant tank circuit in this oscillator. An audio-frequency AM signal fed to the emitter of
Q1 through blocking capacitor C2 will modulate the supply voltage of Q1 and thus
amplitude-modulate the circuit's 465-KHz carrier signal.
This BFO can provide 40% signal modulation. The value of emitterdecoupling capacitor C1 was selected to present a low impedance to
the 465-KHz carrier signal, while also presenting a high impedance to
the low-frequency modulation signal.
Transistors Tutorial
Part 7:
"Oscillators"
"Learn about transistor oscillators and multivibrators that generate useful sine
and square waves."
Oscillators based on the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) are the subjects of this article.
Previous articles in this series have included articles on the characteristics of the bipolar
junction transistor, the common-collector amplifier, common-emitter and common-base
voltage amplifiers, etc.
Oscillator Fundamentals:
An oscillator is a circuit that is capable of a sustained AC output signal obtained by
converting input energy. Oscillators can be designed to generate a variety of signal
waveforms, and they are convenient sources of sinusoidal AC signals for testing, control,
and frequency conversion. Oscillators can also generate square waves, ramps, or pulses
for switching, signalling, and control.
Simple oscillators produce sinewaves, but another form, the multivibrator, produces
square or sawtooth waves. These circuits were developed with vacuum-tubes, but have
since been converted to transistor oscillators. Figure 1 is a simple block diagram showing
an amplifier and a block representing the many oscillator phase-shift methods. Regardless
of its amplifier, an oscillator must meet the two Barkhousen conditions for oscillation:
1 - The loop gain must be slightly greater than unity.
2 - The loop phase shift must be 0 or 360.
To meet these conditions the oscillator circuit must include some form of amplifier, and a
portion of its output must be fed back regeneratively to the input. In other words, the
feedback voltage must be positive so it is in phase with the original excitation voltage at
the input. Moreover, the feedback must be sufficient to overcome the losses in the input
circuit (gain equal to or greater than unity).
If the gain of the amplifier is less than unity, the circuit will not
oscillate, and if it is significantly greater than unity, the circuit will be
over-driven and produce distorted (non-sinusoidal) waveforms.
As you will learn, the typical amplifier--vacuum tube, BJT, or fieldeffect transistor--imparts a 180 phase shift in the input signal, and the
resistive-capacitive (RC) feedback loop imparts the additional 180 so that the signal is
returned in phase. Energy coupled back to the input by
inductive methods can, however, be returned with zero
phase shift with respect to the input.
Specialized oscillators such as the Gunn diodes and
Klystron tubes oscillate because of negative resistance
effects, but the basic oscillator principles apply here as
well.
RC Oscillators:
Figure 2 is the schematic for a phase-shift oscillator, a
basic resistive-capacitive oscillator. Transistor Q1 is
configured as a common-emitter amplifier, and its output
(collector)signal is fed back to its input (base) through a
three-stage RC ladder network, which includes R5 and
C1, R2 and C2, and R3 and C3.
Each of the three RC stages in this ladder introduces a 60 phase shift between its input
and output terminals so the sum of those three phase shifts provides the overall 180
required for oscillation. The phase shift per stage depends on both the frequency of the
input signal and the values of the resistors and capacitors in the network.
The values of the three RC ladder network capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are equal as are the
values of the the three resistors R5, R2, and R3. With the component values shown in Fig.
2, the 180 phase shift occurs at about 1/14 RC or 700 Hz. Because the transistor shifts
the phase of the incoming signal 180, the circuit also oscillates at about 700 Hz.
At the oscillation frequency, the three-stage ladder network has an attenuation factor of
about 29. The gain of the transistor can be adjusted with trimmer potentiometer R6 in the
emitter circuit to compensate for signal loss and provide the near unity gain required for
generating stable sinewaves. To ensure stable oscillation, R6 should be set to obtain a
slightly distorted sinewave output.
The amplitude of the output signal can be varied with trimmer potentiometer R4.
Although this simple phase-shift oscillator requires only a single transistor, it has several
drawbacks: poor gain stability and limited tuning range.
There are ways to overcome the drawbacks of the phase-shift oscillator, and one of them
is to include a Wien-bridge or network in the oscillator's feedback loop. The concept is
illustrated in the Fig. 3 block diagram. A far more versatile RC oscillator than the phaseshift oscillator, its operating frequency can be varied easily.
LC Oscillators:
Resistive-capacitive sine wave oscillators can generate signals from a few
hertz up to several megahertz, but inductive-capacitive (LC) oscillators can
generate sinewave outputs from 20 or 30 KHz up to UHF frequencies.
An LC oscillator includes an LC network that provides the frequencyselective feedback between the output
of the amplifier and its input terminals.
Because of the inherently high Q or frequency
selectivity of LC networks or resonant tank circuits,
LC oscillators produce more precise sinewave
outputs--even when the loop gain of the circuit is
far greater than unity.
temperature changes or aging) can shift the oscillator frequency. This shift can be
minimized for high frequency stability by selecting values of C1 and C2 that are relative
to the internal capacitances of Q1.
The Clapp Oscillator, a modification of the Colpitts oscillator, shown in Fig. 8, offers
higher frequency stability than the Colpitts oscillator. This is achieved by adding
capacitor C1 in series with the coil in the tuned resonant tank circuit. It is selected to have
a value that is small with respect to C2 and C3.
As a result of the presence of this capacitor, the resonant frequency of the tank and
oscillator will be determined primarily by the values of L1 and C1.
Capacitor C3 essentially eliminates transistor capacitance variations as a factor in
determining the Clapp oscillator's resonant frequency. With the component values shown,
the Clapp oscillator oscillates at about 80KHz.
Figure 9 shows the classic Reinartz Oscillator. In this circuit, tuning coil L1 in the
collector circuit and the tuning coil L2 in the emitter circuit are inductively coupled to
tuning coil L3 in the resonant tank circuit. Positive feedback is obtained by coupling the
collector and emitter signals of the transistor through windings L1 and L2, and
inductively coupling both of these coils to L3. This Reinartz oscillator oscillates at a
frequency determined by L3 and trimmer capacitor C2. With the values and turns ratios
given in Fig. 9, the circuit will oscillate at a few hundred KHz.
Modulation:
The LC
oscillator
circuits
shown in
Figs. 5 to 9
can be
modified to
produce
amplitude- or
frequencymodulated
(AM or FM)
rather than
continuous
wave (CW)
output
signals.
Figure 10 is the schematic for a beat-frequency oscillator (BFO). It is based on the tunedcollector circuit of Fig. 5, but modified to become a 465-KHz amplitude-modulated (AM)
BFO. A standard 465-KHz IF transformer (T1), intended for transistor circuits, is the LC
resonant tank circuit in this oscillator. An audio-frequency AM signal fed to the emitter of
Q1 through blocking capacitor C2 will modulate the supply voltage of Q1 and thus
amplitude-modulate the circuit's 465-KHz carrier signal.
This BFO can provide 40% signal modulation. The value of emitterdecoupling capacitor C1 was selected to present a low impedance to
the 465-KHz carrier signal, while also presenting a high impedance to
the low-frequency modulation signal.
Transistors
Tutorial
Part 8:
"Amplifier Design"
Try it when you need a little extra gain for that next audio project.
An Audio Amp:
This particular project involved injecting the audio from a TV receiver
into a stereo system. (These days even the cheapest TV has that feature,
including MTS stereo inputs for digital accessories). Anyways, the
audio-output portion of the TV-audio receiver was abandoned because
of its poor frequency response and high distortion. Instead, we wanted
to come right off the detector into a quality audio amplifier and speaker.
So, after picking off the audio at a convenient point in the set (in this
case, from a potentiometer), we wanted to feed it to the auxiliary input
of the stereo amplifier.
The amplifier we used required an input of 1 volt RMS, but a quick check with an AC
VTVM indicated that out picked-off audio signal was only 0.1-volt RMS. Obviously, an
amplifier with a gain of 10 was needed.
Scanning the literature on transistor amplifiers reveled that a common-emitter amplifier
with a voltage-divider bias circuit would solve our problem nicely. Such a circuit is
shown in Fig. 1. Some of that circuit's characteristics include: moderate input impedance,
moderate voltage gain, inverted output, and input/output impedance and gain that depend
only slight on transistor beta.
There are, of course, several rules that must be followed in using a common-emitter
amplifier, including:
With a positive supply use an NPN transistor.
With a negative supply use an PNP transistor.
The supply voltage must not exceed the transistor's Vce rating.
The power-dissipation rating of the transistor must not be exceeded.
The beta of the transistor should be 100 or higher.
In our example the following facts are known:
Our amplifier had a single-ended 12-volt power supply.
We need a voltage gain of 100.
The input impedance of the amplifier should be about 15K, the same as the
potentiometer from which the audio was taken.
The impedance of the stereo amplifier's auxiliary input is about 50K.
As is the case in most circuit designs, a few facts are known, and the rest must be
calculated or picked using a a few "rules of thumb". We will learn how to make the
calculations next.
Doing the Math:
For maximum undistorted output swing, we will make the quiescent collector voltage 1/2
the supply voltage. See Fig. 2. The drop across Rc must therefore be 6 volts.
The value of Rc, the collector load resistance, is chosen considering output impedance,
gain, and collector current. If possible, the output impedance should be lower than the
=
=
=
=
We can use a 22K resistor. In general, if input impedance is not critical, for maximum
stability R2 can be 10 to 20 times Re.
The drop across R2 must be 1.20 volts so the current through R2 is 1.20/22,000, or 0.054
mA. Therefore, R1 must drop the rest of the supply voltage, which is 12 - 1.20 = 10.8
volts. The current flowing through R1 is a combination of the voltage-divider current plus
the base current.
The base current is equal to the collector current divided by beta. It is found from:
Ibeta = 1.28/100 = 0.0128 mA
using C = 1/(3.2 x x R), where C equals the capacitor value in farads, equals the
frequency at which response will be down 1dB, and R equals the impedance on the load
side of the capacitor.
To calculate the value of C1, the amplifier's input impedance (15K) is used for R. To
calculate the value of C2, the input impedance of the next stage (50K) is used for R.
The value of C1 can now be calculated for a drop of 1dB at 20 Hz: C1 = 1/(3.2 x 20 x
15000) = .00000104 farad = 1.0 uF. The value of C2 = 1/(3.2 x 20 x 50000) = .00000031
farad = 0.33uF.
To increase the gain of the stage, you could bypass Re with a capacitor, as shown in Fig.
4. Nothing comes for free, however. The price you pay for increase gain is lower input
impedance, which will vary widely with beta. If that variation is not a problem, a
significant gain increase can be realized by adding the bypass capacitor. Our original
circuit has a gain of 10; if the emitter is bypassed the gain becomes Rc/003/Ie = 4700/
(0.03/0.00129) = 4700/23 = 200 (approx).
The value of the bypass capacitor in farads is calculated from the formula C = 1/(6.2 x
x R). Again is the low-frequency limit in Hz, and R is the dynamic emitter resistance
(0.031/Ie). In our example, if we stick to a 20-Hz lower limit we have C = 1/[6.2 x 20 x
(0.03/0.00129)] = .000344 farads = 344 uF. A 350uF unit can be used.
Thoughts:
A few thoughts on components before we finish: using 5% resistors allows closer
adherence to the calculated values. Because of their temperature stability and low leakage
specifications, silicon rather than germanium transistors are preferable for this type of
circuit.
Finally, you've no doubt noticed that we have yet to specify a specific transistor. That's
because for this type of application it really doesn't matter! Almost any small signal
device will do fine.
Copyright and Credits:
Copyright of the original article by author Jack Cunkelman, published in Radio
Electronics Magazine, August 1987.
Published by Gernsback Publishing. (Hugo Gernsback Publishing is (sadly) out of
business since January 2000).
Re-posting or taking graphics in any way or form from this website or of this project is
expressly prohibited by international copyright laws. Permission by written request
only.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 9, FET's
Copyright 2006 - Tony van Roon, VA3AVR
Last updated: November 5, 2007
Transistors
Tutorial
Part 9:
"Learn about field-effect
transistor: JFET's, MOSFET's,
DMOS MOSFET's, and CMOS-how they are made, how they work, and what to look for when selecting them
for your designs."
steps. But power MOSFET' now being fabricated with vertical structures are
actually capable of handling much higher current in smaller areas of silicon.
Junction FET's:
The simplest FET, the JFET, is illustrated by the cross-section view of Fig. 1-a.
It is made by selectively implanting or diffusing ions into the wafer or
substrate. An N-type region is defined on the P-type substrate by
photolithographic methods, and N-type ions are implanted to form the Nchannel. Later in the manufacturing process, following further masking, oxide-deposition
and etching steps, P-type ions are implanted or diffused into the N-channel to form the Ptype gate.
Aluminum source and drain terminal are formed directly on the N-channel and an
aluminum gate terminal is formed to the P-type gate. The symmetrical construction of the
JFET permits the drain adn source to be interchanged, if necessary.
If a positive voltage is applied at the drain of the N-channel JFET shown in Fig. 1-a, and
a negative voltage is applied at the source with the gate terminal open, a drain current
flows. When the gate is biased negative with respect to the source, the PN junction is
reverse biased, and a depletion region, devoid of current carriers, is formed.
Because the N-channel is more lightly doped than the P-type gate material, the
depletion region penetrates into the N-channel. This region,
depleted of charge carriers, behaves like an insulator. The
depletion region narrows the N-channel and increases its
resistance. If the bias is made even more negative, drain
current is cut off completely.
The gate-bias voltage that cuts off the drain current is called
the pinchoff or gate-cut-off voltage. However, as the bias
becomes positive, the depletion region recedes, the channel
resistance is reduced, and drain current increases. Thus, the
JFET gate actually controls JFET current.
The schematic symbol for the N-channel JFET is shown in
Fig. 1-b. As in other schematic symbols for solid-state
devices, the arrowhead (representing the direction of
conventional current flow) points form P-doped material to
N-doped material. In the N-channel JFET symbol, the
arrowhead points from the P-type gate toward the N-type
channel.
A section view of a P-channel JFET is shown in Fig. 2-a. The channel of the device is Ptype material, and the gate is N-type. If a positive voltage is applied to the source,
conventional current flows from the source to the drain. To reverse bias the junction
between the N-type gate and the P-type channel, the gate must be made positive with
respect to the channel. The biasing voltages of a P-channel JFET are opposite
to those of the N-channel JFET>
The schematic symbol for the P-channel JFET is shown in Fig. 2-b. The
arrowhead also points form P-type material to N-type material. In this
instance, it points from the P-type channel to the N-type gate region. The
characteristics of the P-channel JFET are similar to those of the N-channel
device, except that the voltage and current polarities are reversed.
Both N-type and P-type JFET's operate in the depletion mode; that is, they conduct with
zero bias on their gates. Figure 3 shows a typical family of drain characteristics for an Nchannel JFET. As the gate-to-source voltage is made increasingly negative, the depletion
region is increased, and drain current decreases. As a result, pinchoff voltage occurs at a
lower value of VDS. Curves for different values of gate-to-source bias, VGS, are plotted in
the figure because the FET is a voltage-operated device.
JFET Circuits:
When an N-channel JFET is connected to a VDS supply as shown in Fig. 4, a drain current,
ID can be controlled by a gate-to-source bias voltage, VDS. Similarly, when a P-channel
JFET is connected to a negative drain voltage, a drain current, ID, flows in the
device. The value of ID is maximum when VGS equals zero, and it is reduced
(to bring the JFET into a linear operating region) by applying a reverse bias
to the gate terminal of the device (negative bias in a N-channel devices,
positive bias in a P-type).
In Fig. 3, the value of VGS to reduce ID to zero, the gate-to-source pinchoff
voltage VP is about -7 volts. The value of ID when VGS equals zero (called IDSS
or saturation current for zero bias) is about 52 milli-amperes for the device
shown in the figure.
The gate-to-source junction of the JFET has the characteristics of a silicon
diode. When reverse biases (to bring it into its linear operating region), gate
leakage currents (IGSS) are measured in thousandths of a micro-ampere at
room temperature. Actual gate signal currents are only a fr4action of that, and
the input impedance to the gate is typically 1000 megohms at low frequencies. The gate
junction is effectively shunted by a capacitance of a few picofarads, so input impedance
falls as input frequency is increased.
If the gate-to-source junction of the JFET is forward biased, it conducts like a normal
silicon diode, and if it is severely reverse biased it avalanches like a Zener diode. Neither
of those conditions will harm a JFET if its gate currents are limited to those specified.
Referring to the N-channel JFET drain characteristics in Fig. 3, it can be seen that, for
each value of VGS, drain current ID rises linearly from zero as the drain-to-source voltage
(VDS) is increases from zero to a value at which a knee occurs on each curve. Moreover, ID
remains virtually constant as VDS is increased beyond where the knee occurs.
Thus, when VDS for any of the family of VGS curves is below
its knee value, the drain-to-source pins of the JFET act like a
voltage-variable resistor with value determined by VGS. The
drain-to-source resistance, RDS, can be varied from several
hundred ohms at VGS = zero to thousands of megohms at
pinchoff. That characteristic permits the JFET to be used in a
circuit as a voltage-controlled switch.
From the drain characteristic curve of Fig. 3, it can be seen
that when VDS is above the knee value, the ID value is
dictated primarily by the VGS value, and is virtually
independent of the VDS value. This characteristic permits the
JFET to function as a voltage-controlled current generator.
The gain of a JFET is specified as a transconductance, gm, the rate of change of drain
current with respect to gate voltage. A gm of 5 milli-amperes per volt indicates that a
variation of one volt on the gate produces a change of 5 milli-amperes ID. The units of this
measurement are in inverse ohms or mhos. You will find that JFET data sheets usually
specify gm in millimhos or micromhos.
The N-channel JFET in Fig. 4 is organized as a common-source amplifier, analogous to a
bipolar NPN common-emitter amplifier. In typical applications, the JFET is biased into
its linear region and organized as a voltage-to-voltage converter or amplifier. As shown in
Fig. 4, a load resistor of suitable value, RL, should be placed in series with the JFET's
drain-to-source current.
Another common JFET configuration is the common drain or source-follower
configuration shown in Fig. 5. That configuration is analogous to the bipolar emitterfollower configuration. Yet another possible JFET configuration is the common-gate
configuration shown in Figure 6. That configuration is analogous to a bipolar commonbase configuration.
MOSFET's Explained:
The metal-oxide-FET or MOSFET was developed as an improvement on the JFET, and it
has become the most important form of FET. Figure 7-a illustrates an N-channel
depletion-mode MOSFET with a negative gate bias. The gate of this MOSFET is fully
insulated from the adjacent channel. This is the most important distinction between an Ntype depletion-mode MOSFET and an N-type JFET, which is manufactured with a doped
gate region directly under and in contact with the gate.
The surface of the silicon P-type wafer is first coated with a layer of silicon dioxide
(SiO2), and the source and drain windows are masked and etched to expose the P-type
substrate. N-dopants are heavily diffused or implanted into those regions. Another
window is masked and etched over the channel, and it is given a lighter concentration of
N dopant. In subsequent steps, the channel is recoated with an insulating oxide, and the
metal source, drain, and gate terminals are deposited.
When the voltage input to the inverter is low (logic 0), the gate
voltage of the P-channel device is negative, equal to the supply
voltage VDD. As a result, the P-channel MOSFET is switched on, and
there is a low impedance path from the output to VDD. Because the Nchannel is off (gate voltage is zero), there is a very high impedance
path from the output to ground. Therefore, the output voltage rises to
VDD.
When the input voltage is high (logic 1), the situation is reversed.
The P-channel FET is cut off, and the N-channel FET is on, so the
output voltage falls to zero. Therefore, the circuit is a logic inverter:
a low input results in a high output, and vice versa.
In either logic state one FET is ON while the other is OFF. Because one FET is always
turned OFF, the quiescent current of the the CMOS unit is extremely low. These
properties of N- and P-type enhancement-mode FET's combined to form CMOS gates
provide many advantages:
Extremely low power consumption.
Wide power supply voltage range.
High DC noise margin.
High input impedance.
Wide operating temperature range.
The diagram in Fig. 11-a illustrates standard CMOS metal-gate technology (74C/4000),
but there are many other CMOS technologies including the high-speed silicon-gate HC,
HCT, and FACT families. Another digital logic technology called BiCMOS takes
advantage of the lower power consumption and higher integration density of CMOS, and
the higher speed adn superior drive capability of bipolar transistors.
Power MOSFET's:
Power MOSFET's exhibit the properties of small-signal MOSFET's such as high-input
impedance and voltage control, and they have drains, sources and gater, but they are
designed to handle higher currents. As majority-carrier devices that store no charges, they
can switch faster than bipolar power transistors.
Figure 12 is a section view of an N-Channel, enhancement-mode power MOSFET.
Unlike its small-signal counterpart, the latest power MOSFET's are fabricated with
vertical rather than planar structures. They are made with the double diffused (DMOS)
process, and they have conductive silicon (polysilicon) gates. The gate of this device is
isolated from the source by a layer of insulating silicon oxide.
When a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, an electric field is set
up within the MOSFET. This field alters the resistance between the drain and source
terminals, and it permits conventional current to flow in the drain in response to the
applied drain circuit voltage. There are also P-channel, enhancement-mode power
process that was widely used to fabricate power MOSFET's back in the 1970's.
Radio-Frequency power MOSFET's are now available that will operate over the 2 to 200
MHz frequency range. The high power and high gain of these devices makes them
suitable as power amplifiers in solid-state transmitters for FM and TV br5oadcasting.
Copyright and Credits:
1993 Original author Ray Marston. Electronics Now, March 1993. Published by
Gernsback Publishing. (Gernsback Publishing is (sadly) out of business since January
2000).
All graphics, drawings, photos, 2006 Tony van Roon.
Re-posting or taking graphics in any way or form from this website or of this project is
expressly prohibited by international copyright laws. Permission by written consent only.
Continue with Transistor Tutorial Part 10: "MOSFet's"
Copyright 2006 - Tony van Roon, VA3AVR
Last updated: November 6, 2007