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Introduction
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Caliper
SP
GR
NGT
Neutron
Density
Sonic
Resistivity
Induction
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Invasion Model
Mud
Rm
Uninvaded
zone
Mudcake
Rmf
Sxo
Rt
Rw
Sw
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Rmc
Flushed
zone Transition
Zone
Rxo
CALIPER LOGS
CALIPER LOGS
- Applications:
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Origin of SP
Electrochemical
The electrochemical interaction is caused by the difference in
salinity between mud filtrate and water formation.
There two types of Electrochemical components, Membrane
Potential (Em) and Liquid Junction Potential (Ej)
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SP Membrane Potential
Consider a permeable formation with thick shale beds above and below; assume, too, that the two
electrolytes present, mud filtrate and the formation waters contain NaCl only. Only Na+ cations are
able to move through shales from more concentrated to less concentrated NaCl solution. Shales
are impervious to the Cl- anions. This movement of charged ions is an electric current, and the
force causing them to move constitutes a potential across the shale. Since shales pass only the
cations, shales resemble ion-selective membrane, and the potential across the shale is therefore
called the membrane potential.
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invaded zone, where the mud filtrate and formation water are in direct contact. Here
the Na+ and Cl- can diffuse (move) from either solution to the other. Since Cl- has
greater mobility than Na+, the net result of this ion diffusion is a flow of negative
charges from more concentrated to less concentrated solution. The current flowing
across the junction between solutions of different salinity is produced by an
electromagnetic force (emf) called liquid junction potential.
SP
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SP
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Electrokinetic component of SP
This is generated by the electrolyte flow (of the mud filtrate)
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Rw from SSP
SSP K c log
Rweq
R mfeq
Rweq
R mfeq
10
SSP
k c
K c 61 0.133T F
K c 65 0.24TC
R w eq , R mfeq : Chart _ SP .2
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Same with Rw
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Chart SP-2
SP as Rw indicator
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Rmf = Rw
Rw > Rmf
Saline mud
Rmf > Rw
Fresh mud
SP for correlation
-ve SP
deflection
+ve SP
deflection
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SP for correlation
Keep in mind that SP deflection is Rmf dependent and
never an absolute value
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SP log
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Static SP (SSP)
SSP is the SP deflection opposite a thick,
clean formation. The deflection is
measured from the shale baseline and its
magnitude:
Rwe
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SSP k log
Rmfe
SP Deflection
Negative
SP Deflection
Negative
Rw>Rmf
Rw<Rmf
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Little deflection
Negative deflection
Rmf < Rw
Shale
Clean Ss
Little deflection
Positive deflection
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Rmf > Rw
Shale
Clean Ss
SP Example
Rw<Rmf?
Where is Sand?
Where is Shale?
SP reading on Sand?
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SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL SP
APPLICATIONS
ESSP
Code/Name
SP, units = mV
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SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL SP
APPLICATIONS
Correlation - Correlation permits logs made on one trip into the borehole to be
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tied-in (depth matched) with those made on another trip. Correlating is done for
two primary reasons:
Depth matching between separate trips in the well.
Positioning of open hole sampling tools.
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Rmf = Rw
Rmf <Rw
SALINE MUD
K = 61 + .133*F
K = 65 + .24*C
Rmf >Rw
FRESH MUD
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Rw=0.35 @ 75 degF
What is Rw at 190 degF?? (assuming the salinity does not
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Exercises:
1. Rw = 0.21 ohm-m @ 75 degF.
What is the salinity?
30000 ppm
0.08 ohm-m
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Calculation of Rw
from SP
thick, (water-wet) zone). --- Just read SP from logs for this
training
Enter Chart SP-1 with SSP, FT., & Rmfe and compute
Rmfe/Rwe.
Compute Rmf @ FT (Gen-9).
Convert Rmf to Rmfe @ FT. from Chart SP-2 Rwe
From Chart SP-2 convert Rwe to Rw at formation
temperature.
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Get Rmf @ meas. Temp from log heading along with BHT.
Compute FT from BHT.
Calculate SSP from log at maximum deflection (in a clean,
SP Example for Rw
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SP Example for Rw
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SP Example for Rw
SP-1 Chart
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SP Example for Rw
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SP Example for Rw
SP-2 Chart
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Exercise
Essp = -100 mV @250 degF
Rmf = 0.7 ohm-m at 75 degF
What is Rw?
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Principle
The Gamma Ray log is a measurement of the formations natural
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radioactivity
Gamma Ray emission is produced by three radioactive series found in
the Earths crust
Potassium (K40) series
Uranium series
Thorium series
Gamma Ray passing through rocks are slowed and absorbed at a rate
which depends on the formation density
Less dense formation exhibit more radioactivity than dense formations
even though there may be the same quantities of radioactive material per
unit volume
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Pair Production
It is the conversion of a gamma ray into an
electron and positron when the gamma ray
enters the strong electric field near an atom's
nucleus. It predominates at gamma ray
energy levels above 10 MeV. Because the
electron and positron have a combined mass
equivalent of 1.02 MeV, a gamma ray must
have at least this much energy to cause pair
production.
Compton Scattering
It is the scattering of a gamma ray by an orbital
electron. As a result of this interaction, the
gamma ray loses energy and an electron is
ejected from its orbit. Compton scattering
predominates in the 75 keV to 10 MeV energy
range.
Vsh=(GRlog-GRsand)/(GRshale-GRsand)
Shale
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Reservoir
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Application
Correlation
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This is the most widely used application of the GR log. It permits logs
made on one trip into the borehole (openhole, cased hole or both) to be
tied in (depth matched) with those made on another trip.
Correlation is done for three primary reasons:
Depth matching between separate trips in the well.
Positioning of open hole sampling tools.
Providing the depth control needed for cased hole perforation.
General lithology indicator
In areas where certain lithology aspects are already known, the GR log
can be used as a lithology indicator.
Quantitative shaliness evaluation
The GR log reflects the proportion of shale and, in many regions, can be
used quantitatively as a shale indicator.
Operating Environment
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Principles
Natural Gamma Rays
Gamma ray emission is produced by three radioactive series found in the
Earth's crust.
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Potassium (K40) series, Uranium (U238) series and Thorium (Th 232)
series.
NGT Example
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NGT Applications
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Lithology identification
Study of depositional environments
Investigation of shale types
Correlation of the GR for clay content evaluation
Identification of organic material and source rocks
Fracture identification
Geochemical logging
Study of s rocks diagenetic history
NGT Elements
The three radioactive elements measured by the NGT occur in different parts of
the reservoir. If we know the lithology, we can deduce further information
In Carbonates:
In sandstone:
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shaliness
K indicates clay type and mica
NGT/GR Parameters
Vertical resolution
18
Depth of investigation
6-8
Readings in:
API units
Limestone
<20
Dolomite
<30
Sandstone
<30
Shale
80-300
Salt
<10
Anhydrite
<10
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Code/Name
GR
CGR
SCGR
POTA
THOR
URAN
*GR
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Exercise
What is the VSH from GR @ 10235
ft?
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Approximately 43%
Shale
GR log example
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Porosity Logs
The major porosity logs are:
The tool response is
affected by the formation
porosity, fluid and matrix.
If the fluid and matrix effects are known or can be determined, the
tool response can be related to porosity, therefore these devices
are referred to as porosity logs.
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Neutron Logs, n
Density Logs, b
Sonic Logs, t
Sonic Logging
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Sonic Logs
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Principles :
In its simplest form, a sonic tool consists of :
A transmitter that generates a sound pulse
A receiver that picks up and records the pulse
as it passes the receiver.
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Sonic Tool
The sonic tools create an acoustic signal and measure how long it takes to pass
through a rock.
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The amplitude of the signal will also give information about the formation.
Correlation
Porosity
Lithology
Seismic tie in / time-to-depth conversion
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formations
Used for:
Porosity, lithology
Seismic tie/ time-to depth conversion
Mechanical properties (from shear and compressional)
Fracture identification (from shear and Stoneley)
Permeability (from Stoneley)
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Sonic Logs
Compr. Shear Stoneley
Rec1
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Rec8
Sonic Logs
Sonic velocities In Formations
In sedimentary formations the speed of sound depends on
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POROSITY LOGS
SONIC TOOL
STANDARD DISPLAY OF
BOREHOLE COMPENSATED
SONIC LOG (BHC)
DT
Cycle Skip
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POROSITY LOGS
SONIC TOOL
Poissons Ratio
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DT4S
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Vertical Resolution:
Sonic
Parameters
24
36
6 DT
Depth of investigation
BHC(5) LSS-SDT(12)
Limestone (0pu)
47.5 us/ft
Sandstone (0pu)
51-55 us/ft
Dolomite (0pu)
43.5 us/ft
Anhydrite
50 us/ft
Salt / Coal
67 / >120 us/ft
Shale
Steel (casing)
>90 us/ft
57 us/ft
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Code/Name
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DT
AC
DT*
Sonic Porosity
The porosity from the sonic slowness is different than that from the density or neutron tools
It reacts to primary porosity only, I.e. it doesnt see the fracture or vugs
The difference between the sonic porosity and the neutron-density porosity gives a Secondary
t log t f 1 t ma
t log t ma
t f t ma
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Porosity Index (SPI) which is an indication of how much of this type of porosity there is in the
formation
The basic equation for sonic porosity is the Wyllie Time Avearge:
1
1
t c
t ma
t f
2
A simplified version used on the Maxis is: (C is a constant, usually taken as 0.67 )
t log t ma
t log
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fluid slowness
There is another possibility for transforming slowness to porosity, called Raymer Gardner
Hunt, this formula tries to take into account some irregularities seen in the field. The basic
equation is:
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Exercise
Calculate Sonic
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Porosity @10200 ft
assuming the matrix
delta is 65 msec/ft and
the fluid delta t is 189
msec/ft.
Density - Lithology
The density logging tool measures the formation density and
formation lithology.
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Density
Principles :
Gamma Ray Interactions
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Gamma Ray Interactions depend on the current Gamma Rays energy level
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Rhoe = Rhob * ( 2Z / A )
Rhoe = Rhob
Most cases, 2Z/A = 1
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Gamma rays lose their energy when they collide with electrons (Campton Scattering)
The number of Compton-scattering collision is related directly to the number of
electrons in the formation. Consequently, the response of the density tool is
determined essentially by the electron density. Understanding the relationship
between electron density and bulk density is an essential part of the density
measurement.
Relationship between Electron Density to Bulk Density
The spectrum represents the energy lost by gamma rays (emitted from the
source) as they interact with the formation.
Plot 1 shows the different regions of the energy spectrum.
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A parameter that links the number of gamma rays that are absorbed by
photoelectric absorption to lithology.
LDT Uses
The density tool is extremely useful as it has high accuracy and
Borehole diameter - A single axis diameter of the borehole is measured from the
face of the skid pad to the end of the caliper arm that holds the skid against the
formation.
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LDT Parameters
Vertical Resolution:
18
Enhanced
Depth of Inverstigation
6-9
Limestone(0 pu)
2.71
Sandstone(0 pu)
2.65
Dolomite(0 pu)
2.85
Anhydrite
2.98
Salt
2.03
Shale
2.2-2.7
Coal
1.5
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Standard
Pe Parameters
Vertical Resolution:
Standard
Limestone
5.08
Sandstone
1.81
Dolomite
3.14
Anhydrite
5.05
Salt
4.65
Shale
1.8-6
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Code/Name
RHOB
RHOZ
DEN
RHO*
PEF
PE
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Density Porosity
b f ma 1
There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix density and the
fluid density
The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate
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ma b
ma f
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12 p.u
2.46 g/cc
b = (1-d) * ma + d * f
For ma:
Sandstone: 2.65 g/cc
Limestone : 2.71 g/cc
Dolomite : 2.87 g/cc
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ma b
D
ma f
Scaling/Porosity
The density tool is usually run with the neutron
To aid quicklook interpretation they are run on
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compatible scales
This means that the scales are set such that for a given
lithology the curve overlay
Scaling/Porosity (continued)
The standard scale is the limestone compatible where the neutron porosity
scale is:
same position as the neutron porosity zero and the range of the scale has to fit
the neutrons 60 porosity units hence the scale is:
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To fit this, the density log has to have its zero limestone point (2.7 g/cc) on the
Exercise
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Neutron
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the formation. Since oil and water contain practically the same quantity of
hydrogen per unit volume (HI), the responses reflect the liquid-filled
porosity in clean formations.
Liquid hydrocarbons have HI close to that of water. Gas, however, has
lower hydrogen concentration, hence neutron log reads too low a porosity.
This characteristic allows the neutron log to be used with other porosity
logs to detect gas zones and identify gas/liquid contacts.
A neutron and density log combination provides a more accurate porosity.
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The Figure shows that the neutron slows down to a thermal energy level at a
fairly quick rate. The slowing down rate is determined by the hydrogen index (HI)
of all components of the formation and formation fluids that contain a significant
fraction of hydrogen.
STANDARD DISPLAY OF
COMPENSATED NEUTRON
LOG (CNL)
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Enhanced
12
Depth of Investigation
9-12
Limestone(0%)
Sandstone(0%)
-2
Dolomite(0%)
Anhydrite
-2
Salt
-3
Shale
30-45
Coal
50+
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Standard (TNPH)
Code/Name
NPHI
TNPH
CN
CNL
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CNT Uses
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(NPHI NPHIma)
n = ---------------- (Chart Por-13b)
(NPHIf NPHIma)
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33.5 p.u in LS
Archies Equation
Empirical constant
(usually near unity)
Water
saturation,
fraction
Saturation
exponent
(also usually
near 2)
Porosity,
fraction
Rtt
Cementation
exponent
(usually near 2)
Resistivity of
uninvaded
formation, -m
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Sw n
a Rww
Resistivity of
formation water,
-m
Archie Parameters
Rw = resistivity of connate water
m = cementation factor, set to 2 in the simple case
n = saturation exponent, set to 2 in the simple case
All the constants have to be set
Two common sets of numbers for these constants are:
In a simple carbonate, the parameters are simplified to:
m=2, n=2, a =1
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Saturation Equations
Indonesia Equation
Sw
1
Vcl
1
2
Vcl
Rcl
Nigeria Equation
1
*
Rt
e
Rw
Waxman-Smiths Equation
Ct
1
Sw2
BQv Sw
*
*
Rt F Rw
F
Dual-Water Equation
n
S
t
wt
a
Swb
Cw
Cwb Cw
wt
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2
n
1 V
e
Sw
Rt Rc l
aRw
1.4
cl
Rw Determination
Rw from SP
Rt*Rmf
Rw = -------------Rxo
Rw from client (water chemical analysis)
All the Rw from different sources should be in consistent.
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Rw=(^m)*Rt
Rmf and Rw
Chart Gen-9
Exercise
Rt = 20 ohm-m
Rw = 0.6 ohm-m @ 75 degF
BHT = 150 degF
M=n=2 ; a = 1
What is water salinity? 10Kppm
What is Rw @ 150 degF? 0.3 ohm-m
What is Sw? 0.61
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= 0.2 ; Vcl = 0
Exercise
Rt = 100 ohm-m
Salinity (Cl-) = 45 Kppm
BHT = 180 degF
M=n=2 ; a = 1
What is salinity (NaCl)? 74 Kppm
What is Rw @ 180 degF? 0.04 ohm-m
What is Sw? 0.09
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= 0.22 ; Vcl = 0
ma b
ma f
n
1
2
2
dphi
nphi
Rw from SP or
Rwa m Rt
Rw
1/ n
Sw
a Rw
Sw
m R
I Rt / Ro 1 / Sw m
F 1 / m Ro / Rw
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Crossplot porosity
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Resistivity Logs
Resistivity is one of the primary inputs required to evaluate the producing
potential of an oil or natural gas well. This measurement is needed to
determine Sw, which is needed to estimate the amount of oil or natural gas
present in the well.
Principles
(Conventional electrical logs)
Currents were passed through the formation from the current
electrodes and voltages were measured between measuring
electrodes.
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Focusing
It is forcing the electrical currents to flow in the formation in the situation where the
formation resistivity gets high.
Laterolog devices are focused devices. The term laterolog came about because the
current is forced to flow "laterally" away from the tool.
Passive Focusing Systems DLL, ARI
Active Focusing Systems - ARI
Computed Focusing - HRLA
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Distortion of equipotential
surfaces
Active Focusing
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Computed Focusing
The Laterolog Tool uses the main monitoring condition of M1 - M2 = 0 as the main control condition.
Limited Dynamic Range. To maintain M1 - M2 conditions in very high resistivities requires infinite
gain.
Temperature Variations. Variations in temperature introduce errors in the measurements.
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Continued developments in data processing, transmission, and digital conversion capabilities have
made it possible to take advantage of some electromagnetic principles, specifically the principles of
electromagnetic superposition. These capabilities allow us to obtain focused measurements through
computations instead of by mechanical means. The principles of computed focusing allow us to
maintain the condition of M1 - M2 = 0 by mathematically combining linear combinations of pairs of
operating modes. These operating modes and the combinations used to obtain the different depths of
investigation are shown in the "Computed Deep Focusing" and the "Computed Shallow Focusing"
diagrams. Array laterolog devices have multiple operating modes that are combined together to obtain
a series of computed focusing modes with increasing depths of investigation. An in-depth discussion
of these modes is beyond the scope of this text.
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Depth Of Investigation
Different depths of investigation are obtained by varying lengths of bucking current electrodes.
Shallow Focusing
Deep Focusing
In this system the currents are returned to the surface electrode instead of the tool body.
This maintains the shape of the equipotential surfaces much deeper into the formation
insuring the measure current is flowing deeper into the formation than the shallow
measurement. To measure both the shallow and deep depths of investigation
simultaneously is very desirable to help estimate the invasion profile for more accurate
measurements. The Dual Laterolog (DLT), a device that measures at two depths of
investigation was developed for this purpose.
This tool combines the measurement principles of the LLD and LLS into a single device by
having each measurement operate on a different frequency.
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If the current is returned to the tool body, instead of the surface electrode, the equipotential
surfaces distort very quickly and the resistivity measurement is influenced by events very
close or shallow to the tool. This is known as the laterolog shallow (LLS) measurement.
Depth Of Investigation
Invaded Zone or Rxo Devices
Azimuthal Resistivities
Azimuthal resistivities are resistivity measurements made around the
circumference of the borehole. Azimuthal measurements are very useful in
evaluating highly deviated and horizontal boreholes.
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Depth Of Investigation
Array Resistivities - HRLA
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RLL=Rm+Rmc+Rxo+Rt
Tornado Charts
The simple invasion model is used to solve for the three unknowns: Rt, Rxo, di
Three resistivity measurements are needed
Deep: ILD,ILDH,LLD,AIT90,RLA5
Medium: ILM,IMPH,LLS,SFL,AIT30,RLA2
The equation can be solved using Tornado charts
Several charts exist: one for each possible configuration of the resistivities. The correct one must be
chosen for each situation
There are zones on each chart where the solution is impossible, this is where the tool is being run
outside its specifications or the corrections have not been properly applied
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Shallow: MSFL,AIT10,RLA1
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Code/Name
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Deep: RT,LLD,RLA5,RT*
Medium: LLS,RLA3
Shallow: RXO,MSFL,SFLU,RLA1/RLA2
LOG EXAMPLE
STANDARD DISPLAY OF
(PHASOR) INDUCTION LOG (PI)
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Applications
Correlation, Water saturation, and Invasion analysis
Because laterolog tools have the ability to control the region of investigation in
Vertical, radial and azimunthal directions, these tools have additional apps :
measurements.
Enhance the evaluations of horizontal and or highly-deviated wells using azimuthal
and array measurements.
Fracture analysis using azimuthal measurements.
Enhance the evaluations of thin and invaded formation using array measurements.
Enhance the accuracy of Rt evaluation in difficult environments such as Groningen
affected areas, high contrasts, thinly bedded formations and high apparent dip by
using array measurements and formation inversion processes.
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Evaluate mud cake and mud resistivity for borehole correction using very shallow
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Section 10:
Induction Logging
Induction Theory
An induction tool uses a
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high frequency
electromagnetic
transmitter to induce a
current in a ground loop of
formation
This, in turn, induces an
electrical field whose
magnitude is proportional
to the formation
conductivity
Induction Logs
Induction Principles :
A high-frequency AC of constant intensity is sent through a
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Code/Name
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Deep: RT,ILD,IDPH,AIT90,RT*
Medium: ILM,IMPH,AIT30/AIT60, A*
Shallow: RXO,MSFL,SFLU,AIT10/AIT20, A*
RESISTIVITY - INDUCTION
Log Example
STANDARD DISPLAY OF
(PHASOR) INDUCTION LOG (PI)
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Induction vs Laterolog
Induction
OBM
no
yes
yes
Fresh mud
No**
yes
High resistivity
yes
no
Air-filled hole
no
yes
Low resistivity
Possible***
yes
Rt<Rxo
Rt>Rxo
Induction prefered
Laterolog
Prefered
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Laterolog
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AUXILIARY LOGS
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Vital Input Log Analysis:
Maximum Thermometers: Thermometers tied to the tool string and read once
the string returns to surface. The time the tool string reaches the bottom of the
well is recorded on the log header together with the temperature reached. Using
the maximum recorded temperature a linear temperature gradient is established
to correct mud sample measurements to down-hole conditions.
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LOGGING RESULTS
GRAPHICS -
DELIVERABLES
DIGITAL DATA -
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LOG DISPLAY
LOG HEADER -
PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS
MAIN LOG -
REPEAT SECTION -
LOG TRAILER -
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LOG DISPLAY
LOG HEADER 1
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LOG DISPLAY
LOG HEADER 2
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LOG DISPLAY
LINEAR SCALE
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LOG DISPLAY
LOGARTIHMIC SCALE
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LOG DISPLAY
LOG TRAILER 1
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Tool/Computation
Parameter Table
LOG DISPLAY
LOG TRAILER 2
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Calibration
and Check
Summary
LOG DISPLAY
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Tool Calibration
Details
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