Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Integrated optics
Waveguide architectures
Photonic materials
Guided-wave theory
Planar-mirror waveguides
Planar dielectric waveguides
2D waveguides
Single-Frequency
Tunable Laser
Electroabsorption
Modulator
Phase
Modulator
Semiconductor
Optical Amplifier
Electronic
Integrated Circuits
Optical
Splitter/Combiner
Circuit Components
Optical filter
Arrayed Waveguide
Grating
Core
Strip
Optical Fiber
Substrate
Strip Waveguide
Cover
Slab
Substrate
Slab Waveguide
Laser diode
Integrated Photonic
Transmitter/Receiver
Modulator
Coupler
Coupler
Photodiode
Fiber
www.intel.com
Siliconize Photonics
IEEE Spectrum, January 2004
CMOS compatible
- Easy integration with microelectronics
Low cost
Optical interconnect
Neil Savage, IEEE Spectrum, Aug. 2004
Si ?
Light sources
Waveguides
Modulators
B 10 GHz
http://www.intel.com/technology/silicon/sp/index.htm
Photodetectors
R 0.8 A/W
B 30 GHz
Passive
Alignment
CMOS
processing
S-bend
Flare
Y-branch
Directional coupler
Passive
Filtering
Coupling
Emission
Detection
Tunable Coupling
Combining
Splitting
Tunable Filtering
Attenuation
Modulation
Variable Attenuation
Amplification
Optical Isolation
Routing
Mode Transformation
Integrated Delay
Line (IDL)
Grating Coupler
Spot Size Converter
Optical modulator
Photodiode
Photonic Materials
Silicon on Insulator
(SOI)
= 40-45%
Small devices (~m)
Modulators,
photodetectors,
passives
Silica on Si (Dielectric)
Lithium Niobate
Ge, B, P:doped SiO2
(LiNbO3)
Si3N4 (n=1.9)/SiO2 (n=1.5) = 0.5-1%
= 0.5-20%
Large devices (~mm Large devices (~mm-cm)
cm)
Passives
Modulators,
passives
11
Polarization dependence
Polarization dependent loss, coupling,
Why use extra bends (source of loss) and not just build like this?
Waveguide Architectures
Planar Slab
Ridge
Rib
Buried Rib
Buried Channel
Deep Ridge
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
Concept of waveguide modes
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
Phase shift from A to B must equal (or differ by integer multiple of 2) phase shift
from A to C (which undergoes two reflections); recall: = kl
AC = d / sin
q = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Original wave
AB = (d / sin )(cos 2 )
cos(2 ) = 1 - 2 sin 2 ( )
AC AB = 2d sin
m = 1, 2, . . .
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
m = 1, 2, . . .
sinm = m/2d,
m = 1, 2, . . .
ky = nkosin
quantized form:
m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Propagation Constants
The sum (or difference) of the two distinct waves (that traveling at angle + and
that traveling at angle ) has component exp(-jkz z)
The propagation constant of the guided wave is kz = kcos.
Thus is quantized with values
m = kcosm
m2 = k 2 (1 sin 2 m )
sin m = m
2d
Dispersion relation
Higher order modes travel with smaller propagation constants.
Quantization
Field Distributions
The phase shift encountered when a wave travels a distance 2d (one round trip) in the y
direction, with propagation constant kym, must be a multiple of 2. ( k ym 2d = m 2 )
Recall: total field in waveguide is sum of upward and downward TEM plane waves
When the self-consistency condition is satisfied, the phases of the upward and
downward plane waves at points on the z axis differ by half the round-trip phase
shift q, q = 0, 1, . . . , or (m 1), m = 1, 2, . . .
So waves add for odd m and subtract for even m
There are therefore symmetric modes, for which the two plane-wave components are
added, and antisymmetric modes, for which they are subtracted.
General principle: the modes of every symmetric structure can be classified as
ODD or EVEN with respect to a symmetry axis
y
exp(-jkyy z)
m
m
z
exp[j(m-1)]exp(jkyy jz)
TE Modes
Consider first TE modes, such that the electric field is in the x direction
Upward wave component:
Downward wave component:
Am e
jk ym y j m z
e j ( m 1) Am e
jk ym y m z
E x ( y, z ) = 2 Am cos(k ym y )e j m z
E x ( y, z ) = 2 jAm sin( k ym y )e j m z
Transverse distributions
Odd m
am = j 2d Am Even m
Transverse distributions have been normalized
k my y
cos(my/d)exp(-jmz)
m odd
sin(my/d)exp(-jmz)
m even
y
d
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
z
0
m=4
m = 1,2,3,...
sin m = m
k ym = m
2d
d
m = k cos m
TE vs. TM Modes
TE Modes
cos(my/d)exp(-jmz)
sin(my/d)exp(-jmz)
Ex
m odd
m even
y
E .
TM Modes
Ez
.E
H
cos(my/d)exp(-jmz)
sin(my/d)exp(-jmz)
m odd
m even
y
E
z
.
H
. E
Number of Modes
Recall sinm = m/2d, m = 1, 2, . . .
Since sinm < 1, the maximum allowed value of m is the greatest integer
smaller than 1/(/2d)
The actual number of modes
that carry the optical power
depends on the source of
excitation but the maximum
number is M
Number of Modes
Cutoff frequency: the lowest frequency of light
that can be guided by the waveguide.
If 1 < 2d/ 2 (i.e., d < 2d or c < 2c), only one mode is allowed.
The structure is then said to be a single-mode waveguide.
=
c
c
M=
Dispersion Relation
Dispersion relation is the relation between the propagation constant and
the angular frequency
c = 2c = c/d
Group Velocity
A pulse of light (wavepacket) travels with a velocity v = d/d (group velocity)
Take derivative of - relation (ignoring dispersion in waveguide material, i.e.
assume c independent of )
Group velocity of mode m
- relation
Group velocity
TM Modes
TM modes have magnetic field in the x direction; electric field has
components in y and z
Recall that the z-component of the electric field here, behaves exactly as xcomponent for TE mode (both always parallel to mirrors)
z-component of TM mode
y-component of TM mode
Multimode Fields
Waveguide may support several modes (more than one mode satisfy boundary conditions)
E1(y, z) = u1(y)exp(-j1z)
E2(y, z) = u2(y)exp(-j1z)
ETOT(y, z) = u1(y)exp(-j1z) +
u2(y)exp(-j1z)
Arbitrary field polarized in the x direction and satisfying the boundary
conditions can be written as a weighted superposition of the TE modes:
Optical power divided among modes
and power distribution is position
dependent
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
Concept of waveguide modes
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
Planar-Mirror Waveguides
m = 1, 2, . . .
sinm = m/2d,
m = 1, 2, . . .
ky = nkosin
quantized form:
m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Propagation Constants
The sum (or difference) of the two distinct waves (that traveling at angle + and
that traveling at angle ) has component exp(-jkz z)
The propagation constant of the guided wave is kz = kcos.
Thus is quantized with values
m = kcosm
m2 = k 2 (1 sin 2 m )
sin m = m
2d
Dispersion relation
Higher order modes travel with smaller propagation constants.
TE Modes
Consider first TE modes, such that the electric field is in the x direction
Upward wave component:
Downward wave component:
Am e
jk ym y j m z
e j ( m 1) Am e
jk ym y m z
E x ( y, z ) = 2 Am cos(k ym y )e j m z
E x ( y, z ) = 2 jAm sin( k ym y )e j m z
Transverse distributions
Odd m
am = j 2d Am Even m
Transverse distributions have been normalized
k my y
Dispersion Relation
Dispersion relation is the relation between the propagation constant and
the angular frequency
c = 2c = c/d
Group Velocity
A pulse of light (wavepacket) travels with a velocity v = d/d (group velocity)
Take derivative of - relation (ignoring dispersion in waveguide material, i.e.
assume c independent of )
Group velocity of mode m
- relation
Group velocity
TM Modes
TM modes have magnetic field in the x direction; electric field has
components in y and z
Recall that the z-component of the electric field here, behaves exactly as xcomponent for TE mode (both always parallel to mirrors)
z-component of TM mode
y-component of TM mode
Multimode Fields
Waveguide may support several modes (more than one mode satisfy boundary conditions)
E1(y, z) = u1(y)exp(-j1z)
E2(y, z) = u2(y)exp(-j1z)
ETOT(y, z) = u1(y)exp(-j1z) +
u2(y)exp(-j1z)
Arbitrary field polarized in the x direction and satisfying the boundary
conditions can be written as a weighted superposition of the TE modes:
Optical power divided among modes
and power distribution is position
dependent
c = sin-1(n2/n1)
The dielectric waveguide has an inner medium (core or slab) with refractive index n1 larger
than that of the outer medium (cladding or cover/substrate) n2
The electromagnetic wave is trapped in the inner medium by total internal reflection at an
angle greater than the critical angle c = sin-1(n2/n1)
Waves making larger angles refract therefore losing a portion of power at each reflection
(so eventually vanish)
Guiding condition:
> c
TE-reflection
phase shift
TM-reflection
phase shift
two reflections
Determine TE Modes
Guiding (self-consistency) condition:
Rewrite self-consistency
equation in this form:
2d sin 2 r = 2m
sin 2 c
tan =
1
2
2
sin
1 = / 2
c = / 2 c
d
tan sin m = tan( r / 2)
2
This is a transcendental equation for sin
plot both sides
Solutions yield the bounce angles
Determine TE Modes
Self-consistency condition (TE modes):
sin 2 c
tan sin m =
1
2
2
sin
In this plot:
sin c = 8
LHS
2d
RHS
M=9
odd m (cot)
For planar-mirror:
r =
tan( r / 2) =
sin m = m / 2d
Propagation Constants
z-components of wavevectors are the propagation constants
_
Since cosm lies between 1 and cosc = n2/n1
m lies between n2k0 and n1k0
Guiding condition
Number of Modes
_
Modes exist for all sin sinc where there is a mode for each interval of /2d
sin c
M=
2d
.
cos c = n2 / n1
smallest integer
greater than
Rewrite in terms of
numerical aperture
M=
.
2d
sin c = 1 cos 2 c
NA
= 0 / n1
NA = n12 n 22
Number of Modes
_
When /2d > sinc or (2d/0)NA < 1 only one mode allowed
(single-mode waveguide)
Dielectric waveguide has no absolute cutoff frequency, i.e. there is at
least one TE mode since fundamental mode (m = 0) always exists
Cutoff frequency given by:
Field Distributions
Concept of internal and external fields
um ( y )
functions
Forward-looking observation:
Higher order modes leak more into upper and lower cladding layers
TE Internal Fields
The field inside the slab is composed of two TEM plane waves traveling at angles
m and -m with wavevector components (kx, ky, kz) = (0, n1k0sinm, n1k0cosm).
At the center of slab, these fields have same amplitude and phase shift (m, i.e. half
of a round trip)
Arbitrary field is superposition over all the modes:
where
Proportionality constant to be
determined by matching the fields at
the boundaries
TE External Fields
The external field must match the internal field at all boundary points y = d/2.
Substitute
into
m2 > 0
For guided waves m > n2 ko
Normalization:
2
u
m ( y)dy = 1
Orthogonality:
( y )ul ( y )dy = 0
for l m
Arbitrary TE field in the waveguide:
E x ( y, z ) = amum ( y ) exp( j m z )
m
60
Dispersion Relation
From expressing self-consistency equation
in terms of and
Rewrite in parametric form in terms of c
and n and then plot
Group Velocity
Group velocity
d
v=
dk
(slope of the dispersion)
For each mode, as increases above mode
cutoff frequency, v decreases
Maximum value of v is c2, minimum value
is below c1
v asymptotically returns back toward c1
Rectangular Waveguide
Two-dimensional waveguides confine light in the two transverse directions
(the x and y directions)
2d
M NA2
4
2
k x2 + k y2 + 2 = n 2 k02
kx, ky, kz () therefore have discrete values
Each mode identified by indices mx, my
As shown in plot, all integer values permitted as
long as kx2 + ky2 n2ko2
2d
M NA2
4
2
k x2 + k y2 n1 k02 sin 2 c
2
c = cos 1
n2
n1
NA = n12 n22
The exact analysis of these geometries/devices is far from easy and approximations are needed
See: Fundamentals of Optical waveguides, K. Okamoto, Academic Press, 2000
67