SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

Peach

Midterm Exam
When: Wednesday October 24th, 2012
What: This midterm covers material presented in lectures and reading through October 19th.
F
Tree of life and animals twig
Introduction
Earth is a set of interconnected systems: Hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere
The Big Bang
The Big Bang (~13.7 billion years ago)
Big Bang is a highly successful theory with no obvious competitor.
Explains what we see, and has made several successful predictions.
Universe expanding, and all began through density, pressure, temperature
Violent release of energy (all matter expands outward)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS): Key to understanding the observations
Continuous spectrum of energy that emanates from all things.
Frequency, wavelength, temperature and energy are all related in the EMS:
o High frequency=short wavelength=high temperature=high energy
o Low frequency=long wavelength=low temperature=low energy.
Human eyes see the visible part of the spectrum; most animals on Earth are adapted to the peak in solar
spectrum, which is in the visible range.
Visible light: colors of the rainbow
Know relative energy of parts of the EMS (e.g. High to Low gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible,
infrared, microwaves, radiowaves
1st Evidence: DOPPLER EFFECT:
Doppler effect (also called Doppler shift): A shift in the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation observed from
moving objects in space dependent on whether or not they are moving towards the observer (blue shift) or away
from the observer (red shift). Hubble observed that all observed stars and galaxies are red shifted, that is
moving away from us, and that their distance from us is related to the speed at which they are receding
(Hubbles Law). So objects that are far away are receding very quickly and are highly red shifted.
Light year: The distance light travels (at the speed of light!) in an Earth year.
Supporting evidence for the Big Bang: Looking at electromagnetic spectrum of the universe
Observed red shift (Doppler effect) of radiation observed in all bodies in the universe because
everything is moving apart.
Hubble: a shift in an objects spectrum due to a change in wavelength of light when an object
moves towards earth or away from earth
2nd Evidence: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:
Observed microwave (low energy) background radiation left over from the big bang. This radiation is
the farthest thing we can see in space, the most red shifted
Universe expanded and cool down, allowing atoms to form
Looking into distant space is looking back in time (takes a long time for electromagnetic radiation to travel the
vast distances of space)
Light from other bodies (stars, galaxies) is old it has taken time to travel to our eye
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SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

Peach

How old the light is depends on the distance to the object

FORMATION OF STARS, GALAXIES, PLANETS

Star: Massive luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity
Nearest star to earth is the Sun (source of most of the planets energy)
CORE: hydrogen and helium fusion, releasing energy and radiating into outer space
Light elements within the stars fuse to create heavier elements
All stars fuse hydrogen into helium
Elements heavier than iron are produced in rare conditions through a collapse of star supernova

The universe shares a common set of elements

In the early universe only H and He around.
Up to Fe, formation occurs in core of normal stars
Heavier elements require other processes and thus heavier elements much less abundant in the universe
than those that are lighter than Fe
This process has an impact on the composition of the solar system and Earth (e.g. more lighter elements
(<Fe) and fewer of the heavier elements (>Fe)).

Formation of the Solar System

Any theory to account for the formation of the solar system must account for:
Planets and planetary composition
o Inner rocky terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (rock and metal)
o Outer gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (Hydrogen, Helium, Ammonium, Methane)
Shape and motion of the solar system
o Nearly circular
o All in same plane (except Pluto which has been demoted!)
o All in same direction (counter clockwise; ccw when looking down at the north pole)
o CCW rotation on axis (except Venus and Uranus)
o Sun rotating ccw
o Each planet relatively isolated
Asteroid belt
o Primitive unevolved composition
Solar nebula condensation theory:
Supernovae explosion shockwave through cloud of gas and dust localized compression of
material
1. Large gas and dust cloud collapses under force of gravity with a slight spin
2. Collapsed cloud flattens and spin increases (conservation of angular momentum).
3. Central part of nebula forms Proto-sun (matter concentrated at the center)
4. Gas molecules and dust grains in circular orbits
5. Nebula cools
6. Coalescing particles (gravity!) form bodies rotating in same direction as revolution with similar rotation rates
(planetesimals)
7. Inner planetismals (hot part of nebula) are rocky (stuff that condenses to solid at high temperatures) and outer
planets (cool part of the nebula) are primarily ices of gas (stuff that only condenses to solid or liquid at lower
temperatures).
8. Sun ignites
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SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

Peach

9. Gases not incorporated into early planets and other planetary debris ejected from solar system

Inner solar nebula: HOT, HIGH temperature [Metal and rocky material, DENSE]
Outer nebula: COOL, LOW temperature [gases like water, ammonia]
Sun ignites, ejects nebular gas and debris into planetismals, planetismals continue to combine to form
large bodies like Earth

PLANETARY ORBITS: NEAR CIRCULAR, ALL IN SAME PLANE, ALL IN SAME

DIRECTION, SUN ROTATING COUNTER CLOCKWISE, EACH PLANET ISOLATED

Gravity is key to the processes that form the solar system and planets. Gravitational attraction between
particles, and eventually larger chunks and planetismals, is what causes the planets to accrete.
The temperature gradient from high temperature near the proto-sun to much lower temperatures away from the
proto-sun accounts for the distribution of rocky versus gaseous planets.
EARTH STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION
Rock Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (Rock and metal composition)

Accretion of the Earth from the solar nebula

Accretion means the assembly of Earth from smaller bits
Rapid formation of kilometer size bodies from dust
Rapid formation of moon sized bodies by runaway accretion
Slow (10 million years; Ma) formation of planetary bodies
Sweeping up of near by material due to gravitational attraction by large mass of early planets (clearing the
neighborhood).
Heating by
o Meteorite impact
o Gravitational compression
o Decay of short-lived radioactive elements
Differentiation of the Earth: Another step in the process of chemically segregating the elements of the
universe into Earth materials that we see today at the surface.
Differentiation means the separation of components within Earth. Most of the differentiation of the
Earth occurred early in Earth history

Segregation of the core in a catastrophic event: Once Fe and Ni metal melted due to heating (see
above), rapid segregation of metal into dense liquid that rapidly settled to center under the force of
gravity (i.e. denser than surrounding rock so settled to the center). Release of gravitational potential
energy resulted in additional heating and continued differentiation of the planet (e.g. formation of early
mantle, crust, atmosphere)
DISASTER: HEATING CAUSED MELTING OF METAL IN THE EARLYH EARTH TO
FORM A DENSE CORE
Earths magnetic field created by circulation in the outer core
Early mantle likely partially molten (magma ocean) with a thin, rapidly recycled crust

Earths layers that formed as a result of differentiation (above):

Core
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SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

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o Inner Core solid

o Outer Core liquid
o Iron (Fe) + Nickel (Ni)
o Light element (S?)
o Density = 10-13 g/cm3
Mantle
o Silicates (Si-O)
o Enriched in Fe, Mg, Ca
o Density = 3.3-5.7 g/cm3
Crust
o Silicates (Si-O)
o Al, K, Na
o Density = 2.7-3.0 g/cm3
Earths surface was initially hot from residual accretion heat and core segregation
Volcanism spread, waterless

LAYERED EARTH:
The earth is layered by density and composition
Segregation of the core develops our crust/ocean/atmosphere on earth

Formation of our Moon

Impact of Mars size planetismal splashes material into Earth orbit
The Moon forms from a disk in perhaps a few hundred years
The Core
Creates the earths magnetic field
Generates the magnetosphere which protects us from the solar wind by deflecting it
Metalic Core solid silicate mantle magma ocean
Solid Inner Core iron/nickel rich metallic core, liquid Outer Core
Relatively thin, light rocky crust
Seismic Evidence:
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Study Guide Midterm I

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Evidence: Earthquake waves propagating through the Earth are bent due to differences in density (result from
compositional differences in layers). P waves move through solid and liquid. S-waves only move through
solid. Analysis of global seismicity (e.g. how the Earthquake waves travel through the Earth to distant seismic
stations) over long periods of time paints picture of Earths interior
Earthquake generate 3 types of waves: P Waves (fast, travel through liquid), S Waves (slightly
slower and cannot travel through liquid)
Waves bend as they pass through layers of different density
S waves do not go near the core because they cant, only P wave passing through
PLATE TECTONICS: The outer layer of earth (crust and a bit of mantle) is composed of several cold,
rigid large plates that move to one another by sliding on a mushy hot layer in the mantle. Oceans and
continents ride on these plates

High temperatures in the earths interior drives convection in outer core

Convection: transport of mass (and heat) by heating a substance, changing its density and causing it to
move
The earths magnetic field: electrically conductive molten iron gives rise to currents in outer core
Doesnt explain observations: the core is too hot to sustain a magnetic field
The north and south pole move over time, poles reverse
Solar wind blasts particles from the sun into the earths Magnetosphere (protects us)
Solar Wind: Stream of high energized charged particles
Aurora: Collision of solar wind with outer layer of Earths atmosphere
Earths magnetic field keeps our atmosphere in place (protective ozone layer absorbing radiation)
vs MARS has a weak magnetosphere and most of it is lost (atmospheric stripping)

Earths Early Ocean

Volcanoes release the most H2O (liquid water was present very early in earth history)
History of the theory
Wegner and Continental Drift
Continental Drift: Present continents assembled into Pangea (= all land)
Breakup started 200 million years ago, but continues to present
EVIDENCE:
A.) Fit of continents: eg Africa and South America
B.) Distribution of Fossil: Fossils common to southern continents (Mesosaurus in both SA and Africa)
C.) Rock sequences: rock sequences on all 5 southern continents (matching mountain ranges)
D.) Coal in high latitudes and glacial striations in low altitudes
Reactions to Wegener:
No mechanism for moving continents, Scientific community did not agree
Harry Hess and seafloor spreading
New crust created at ocean ridges, consumed at trenches by subduction: plate sinking under
1. Oceanic crust spreads apart along the mid ocean ridges
2. Hot magma rises into the rift valley created by seafloor spreading and cools to form new oceanic crust
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SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

Peach

3. Crust moves away from ridge and descends into the mantle at a deep trench
Conveyor belt fashion on hot mushy layer beneath cold rigid surface layer

Additional Supporting Evidence

o Magnetic reversals (magnetic anomalies)
Convection in Earths liquid outer core responsible for the magnetic field
Magnetic field is approximately like a bar magnet in the Earths interior
There are periodic reversals of Earths magnetic field (north and south magnetic pole
flip)
Occurs on time scale of 100s of thousand years
Record of reversals in volcanic rocks on land AND on the seafloor
Symmetrically disposed magnetic anomalies or stripes on either side of mid-ocean
ridges (symmetrical magnetic patterns across oceans)
o Age of the seafloor
Seafloor younger than ~200 million years
Crust youngest at ocean ridges and ages symmetrically on both sides
Continental crust much older (oldest rocks ~ 4BY)
Ocean lithosphere young at the ridge crest and ages away from the ridge crest
o Earthquake and volcano distribution (Action at the edges!)
o Hotspots
Hotspots volcanoes that originate from rising plumes of magma from deep mantle that
are stationary and long-lived
As plate moves over the hotspot plume, a chain of volcanoes forms that increases in age
away from the hotspot.
Hawaii is an excellent example of hotspot volcanism

What is a plate?
o Defined by differences in physical behavior of the rock (as contrasted to differences in
composition that define the crust and mantle)
o Plates are:
Cold, Rigid, Strong
Crust and rigid part of upper most mantle
Defined by the temperature of the rock
o Float on
Hot, Mushy, Weak mantle
o Plates composed of both continental and oceanic crust
o Ocean plate produced at spreading centers (ocean ridges; divergent margins)
o Plate consumed at subduction zones (trenches; convergent margins)
o Overall area of plates doesnt change
Earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building occur primarily at or near the edges of plates (Action at
the edges)
Types of plate boundaries Convergent, Divergent, Transform
Convergent: Plates collide, resulting in subduction and mountain building
Divergent: plates move apart, resulting in new lithosphere produced at mid-oceanic ridge
Transform: two plates slide past one another

Earthquakes, volcanoes, ocean trenches and mountains occur at plate boundaries as a result of the
movements of the plates.
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SIO 12 Fall 2014

Study Guide Midterm I

Peach

Earthquake magnitude and depth distribution

o Largest Earthquakes occur at subduction zones
o Deepest earthquakes occur at subduction zones
Mid-ocean ridges have mostly small, shallow earthquakes