"On the Representation of Character in Music": Christian Gottfried Krner's Aesthetics of

Instrumental Music
Author(s): Robert Riggs
Source: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 81, No. 4 (Winter, 1997), pp. 599-631
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/742287 .
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Primary Sources

Representation
of Character in
Music":
Christian Gottfried Korner's
Aesthetics of InstrumentalMusic
"On

the

RobertRiggs

The formulationof a definitive, historicallybased aesthetic theory of

Viennese Classical instrumentalmusic has proven to be an elusive topic.
Perhapsthe most obvious problemis the transitionalstate of aesthetic
attitudes in the late-eighteenth century;transitional,that is, between
the more fully developed and establishedBaroqueand Romantic poles at
either end. The most dramaticaspect of this transitionwas the gradual
shift and eventual inversion in the evaluation of instrumentalmusic.
Baroqueaesthetics denigratedinstrumentalmusic, especiallythe new
stylegalant,becauseof its obscureand indeterminatecontent; but
Romantic aesthetics (alreadyin the 1790s) glorifiedinstrumentalmusic
preciselybecauseof its lack of specificityor definite associations.1
In this article, I proposethat ChristianGottfried Karneroffersa
viable approachto establishinga historicallybasedaesthetic of Viennese
instrumentalmusic. In his writingson aesthetics, which have been
noted frequentlyin Germanscholarshipbut only rarelyin Englishstudies, K6rnerattemptedto integratemusic into the broadphilosophical
and aesthetic issuesraisedby his contemporaries,Kant and Schiller.2He
was the firstto attempt this, and although only partiallysuccessful,his
effortcommandsdue respect.
Like Mozart,Kornerwas born in 1756, but he lived until 1831. He
studiedphilosophy and law at the universityin Leipzig,his hometown.
After receiving a doctorate and makingan extended tour of Europe,he
began a long and successfullegal careerwith city administrations:firstin
Leipzigand then, from 1785, in Dresden.He remainedin Dresdenfor
thirty years,until 1815, when he was forced to move to Berlin becauseof
his position in favor of Prussiain regardto the restructuringof Germany
afterthe defeat of Napoleon.3
passion,however,was philosophy and the arts-literary,
Kmrner's
pictorial, and musical-and he eventually developed close friendships

599

600 TheMusicalQuarterly

with many leading figuresin these fields.The most intense of these relationships was with FriedrichSchiller (1759-1805). Schiller had scored
an earlysuccessand attractedconsiderableattention with severalplays,
most notably Die Riuber(premiere,1782), but afterseveraldifficult
yearshe found himself without a steadyposition or income. Kornerand
his fianc6e, as admiringreaders,exchanged letterswith Schiller and
tactfullyinvited him to live with them. In 1785, Schiller moved to Dresden and became their houseguestfor nearly two years,duringwhich
time he completed Don Carlosand wrote "An die Freude."Although
Schiller moved to Weimarin 1787, four largevolumes of correspondence attest to his continued intimate relationshipwith Kornerand to
their fertile exchange of ideas.4Schiller valued Korneras a perceptive
critic and alwayssubmittednew worksto him beforepublication.5
The Kornerhousehold in Dresden,both duringand afterSchiller's
stay,became a literaryand musicalsalon. Playsand essayswere read;
Singspieleand chambermusic were performed;and lectureson art were
given. Guests and participantsincludedJohann Gottfriedvon Herder,
Goethe, Wilhelm von Humboldt,the Schlegel brothers,LudwigTieck,
Novalis, and the musiciansJohann Naumann,Johann Hiller, KarlZelter, Mozart,6and Weber.7While admittedlyonly an amateur,Korner
sang, and played the piano and lute, in the best GermanHausmusiktradition. Perhapsmore significantfor my argumentis his demonstrated
knowledgeof composition. He prepared(although never published)an
essayon music theory for his wife, and he also composedsome thirty
songs and choral works-including, incidentally,the firstsetting of "An
die Freude."These compositionsexhibit solid workmanshipand are stylisticallyclose to the Berlin song traditionof Johann Reichardtand Zelter.8Thus Kornerwas considerablymore knowledgeableabout music
than his literaryfriends,some of whom also wrote about musicalaesthetics but without the prerequisitemusicalexpertise.This solid grounding
in both philosophy and music (rarelyfound in the same individualin
any century) makesKornera valuableand authoritativecontemporary
witness.
Korner'smajorcontribution is an essayentitled "UjberCharakterdarstellungin der Musik"("On the Representationof Characterin
Music"),which was publishedin Schiller'sjournalDie Horenin 1795.9
(My translationof Korner'sessay is providedas an appendixto this article and should be read in conjunction with it. This is the firstpublication of a complete Englishversion. Page referencesafterquotations in
the article referto this translation.)Unfortunately,the logic of Korner's
argumentis not alwaysapparent;he seems to assumethat the readeris

Aesthetics
Music601
KIrner's
of Instrumental

alreadyconversantwith the central issuesand terminologyof his essay.

Its fundamentalphilosophical context is not difficultto find. In 1790,
ImmanuelKant had publishedthe CritiqueofJudgement,in which elements fromhis two previousCritiqueswere fused into a sophisticatedand
widely influentialtheory of aesthetics.10Korner,who was alreadyfamiliar with Kant'searlierwritings,immediatelyread the newest Critiqueand
was active in sparkingSchiller'sinterest in Kant. Another factor in
Schiller'sorientation towardKant was his appointment, in 1790, as professorof history at Jena, which was a strongholdof Kantianthought.
Schiller read the third Critiquein 1791, and the following yearhe began
a seriousstudyof all three Critiques,determinedto masterthem, even, as
he wrote to Korner (1 January 1792), if it should take three years.
Schiller emphaticallyproclaimedhis enthusiasmfor Kant'scritical philosophy (with its emphasison self-determinationand freedomin ethics):
"Certainlyno greaterwordswere ever spoken by mortalman than these
of Kant which representat once the essence of his entire philosophy:
'Determineyourselffrom within.' "11
Schiller became preoccupiedwith the incorporationof Kantian
views into his own writingson aesthetics, and duringthis period he produced On theArt of Tragedy[Oberdie tragischeKunst],1792; the Kallias
Letters[Kalliasoderiiberdie Schdnheit],1793;12On Graceand Dignity
[OberAnmut und Wiirde],1793; Of the Sublime[VomErhabenen],1793;
On TragicPity [UOber
das Pathetische],1793; and the Letterson theAesthetic
Educationof Man [UOber
die isthetischeErziehungdesMenschenin einer
Reihevon Briefen],1794.13 K6rnerhad served as a soundingboardand
critic for Schiller'sthoughts duringthe gestation of these works,and his
own "On the Representationof Characterin Music"from 1794 was
written undertheir immediateinfluence.Thus Kirner's"dialogue"with
Schiller, againstthe backgroundof Kant, formsthe essential philosophical context for understandinghis essay.14
I proposethat Kornerwrote this essay in orderto defend music
against the reservationsthat both Kant and Schiller held about its merit
as an art form.Kant was concerned with broadissuessuch as the nature
of beauty and the sublime, as well as the logical relationshipand status
of the variousarts.Forreasonsdiscussedbelow, Kant assignedmusic (at
least instrumentalmusic) the lowest position in the hierarchyof the arts.
Thus K6rner'sgoal was to counter Kant'snegative evaluations;moreover, as will be shown, he accomplishedthis by a subtle and logically
valid applicationof Kant'sown prescriptionfor artisticvalue. Although
Schiller did not accept all of Kant'sprecepts(the universalsupremacyof
the moral law, for example), he too was skepticalabout the value of
music, becausehe mistrustedits sensuousappealand because, like Kant,

602 TheMusicalQuarterly

he viewed music as something that disappearsin time, and thus, on

account of its transitorynature, as aestheticallydefective. It will become
apparentthat Karneris also utilizing and adaptingkey aspectsof
Schiller'sphilosophy to securea more respectedposition for music
within the latter'saesthetics.
Karnerbegins by rejecting music that is merely"pleasurable,"
by
which he means music that only seeks to entertain and thus is dependent on an audience and its tastes and fashions.Rather,if the composer
wants to enter the realmof beauty,he must create autonomousworks
that are free fromexternal control.15To develop his theory of beauty,
Kornerdispatchesthe outdated,but still frequentlycited, concept of art
as imitation, either of nature, language,or affects.16He justifiesthis
rejection by evoking the familiareighteenth-centurymaxim concerning
the demandfor both variety and unity in any work of art. Korner,however, employsnew analogiesto expressthe function and relationshipof
these two qualities.Forhim, the primaryrequirementof a workof art is
that it distinguishitself as a human creation, ratherthan the productof
chance, throughits order,that is, unity. Variety,while desirable,is only
effective if displayedagainstthe backgroundof an overridingunity.
Kornerdisplayshis modern,post-Baroqueunderstandingof psychology
by emphasizingthat affects (or passions)are highly transientconditions.
Thus, while music can and does stimulate them, they must be equated
with the element of variety,which indeed is a highly prominentfeature
of the Classicalstyle. It follows, however, that if music only representsa
series of passionatestates, the resultwill be too much variety and even
chaos. In K6rner'sparadigm,the essential unity is suppliedby expanding
the analogy.If the transientpassionsare equatedwith variety,then
human character,which ideally is constant in spite of affective swings,
must representunity.The artist'sprincipalconcern, therefore,should be
the representation,not of affect, but of character.
Korner'sdivision of art into two categories-the pleasurableand
the beautiful-is taken directlyfromKant. Korneragreesthat, in order
to be beautiful,art must representan object and not merelybe pleasurable to the subject.According to Kant, the passions,becauseof their
subjectiveessence, do not have an existence independentfrom a person
that is adequateto an idea. Hence, they cannot serve as objects of representation, nor can they be idealized.Kant clearlyrecognizesmusic's
power to move the emotions, but he rejects this capacityas a sourceof
beauty,becauseaesthetic art must take its standardsnot from the emotions of the senses, but from the reflectivepowerof judgment.He states
that music "speaksby means of mere sensationswithout concepts, and so

Aesthetics
Music603
of Instrumental
Kdrner's

does not, like poetry,leave behind it any food for reflection,still it

moves the mind more diversely,and, although with transient,still with
intenser effect. It is certainly,however, more a matterof enjoyment than
of culture-the play of thought incidentally excited by it being merely
the effect of a more or less mechanical association-and it possessesless
worth in the eyes of reason than any other of the fine arts."17Simply
stated, Kant finds instrumentalmusic pleasurableand entertaining,but
he is put off by its indeterminatecontent. It does not engendersufficiently precise ideas.18
Komer, as we have seen, also accordsmusic full affective powers,
but unlike Kant, he discoversa much broaderparameterand purpose
within which this affective varietyoperates.Nevertheless, K6rner'sassociation of characterwith musicalunity was probablypromptedby Kant's
insistence that the ideal of the beautifulcan only be sought in the
human form, in which case the ideal consists in the expressionof the
moral ideas that govern men inwardly,that is, their character.19This
concept originatedin Pythagoreanand Platonic aesthetics, in which it
was arguedthat the beautifulis a symbolof human character,and more
specifically,that music is an embodiment of ethical character.20Korner
thus capitalizeson the central position of man in this schema. The association of emotions (whether Baroque,static and specific,or Romantic,
fluctuatingand vague) with music was never called into question in the
eighteenth century.Why not associatehuman characterwith music as
well? The concept of characterwas perfectlysuited to serve as the object
of representation(i.e., the aesthetic idea) that Kant requiredbut did not
find in instrumentalmusic.
While the analogybetween affectand variety,and between character
and unity is readilyapparent,other aspectsof K6mer'stheses are less
accessible.Forexample,he assertsthat the artistshouldnot copy the real
world,but should"completethat which we fail to see in the realityof an
individualphenomenon;he shouldidealizehis material..,. and intuitively
. In human naturethere is nothing infiniteexcept
representthe infinite. ...
freedom.The power,which assertsits independencefromall influenceof
the exteriorworldand againstall inner stormsof passion,exceeds every
known dimension.It is this freedomthat is madesensibleto us through
the representationof character"(613-4). ForKant,freedomis the ability
to be governedby reason.This abilityis also called the autonomyof the
will and is contrastedwith the heteronomyof the agent whose will is subject to externalcausessuch as desire,emotion, or interest.Freedomand
autonomyare thus key concepts at the veryfoundationof Kant'smetaphysicsand ethics. The firstformulationof the categoricalimperative,for
example,can be restatedas "the constrainton ourfreedomis that we must

604 TheMusicalQuarterly

respectthe freedomof all."21The transferof freedomfromethics to aesthetics is explicit in Kant'sprescriptionthat "thefine artsmustbe brought
into combinationwith moralideas,which alone are attendedwith a selfsufficingdelight,"22and that "thebeautifulis the symbolof the morally
good."23ForKant,freedomis an essentialaspectof man'smorallife, that
is, of his inner character.Therefore,the representationof characterand
freedomare logicallyand intimatelyboundtogether.
The specificassociationof freedomwith beautyis the centraltheme
of Schiller'sKalliasLetters.Unlike Kant,who held that judgmentof what
is beautifulis ultimatelysubjective,Schillerwas convinced that there are
objective laws,and he attemptedto prove an a prioritheorythat "freedom
He understood"free"in the Kantin appearanceis the same as beauty."24
ian sense of disinterested,not influencedby externalcauses,or, to use his
He faceda majordifficulty,however,in meeting
term,"self-determined."
an objectivepropertythat could be locatedand
to
find
challenge
Kmrner's
could ensurethat freedomin appearancewas indeedpresent.In On Grace
andDignityhe proposedthat "movement"might be this objective
He arguedthat movement is an indispensablepropertyof freeproperty.25
dom in appearance,becauseit is this qualitythat preventsit frombeing
lifelessor machinelike.Presumably,Schillerultimatelydroppedthis
approach,becausemovement is actuallybeing usedas a metaphorand
thus cannot be identifiedin such a positive manner.Forexample,one
mustask:which movementsare trulyfree and thus resultfromthe inner
determinationof the object?This questionrenewsthe searchfor additional criteria,which meansthat the thesis has not been proven.Moreover,Schillerneeded an a prioriargumentthat did not appealto experience. The concept of movementdoes not satisfythis condition. It simply
cannot be provenfromfirstprinciplesthat beautyresidesin movement.26
Nevertheless, Kornmer
exploits the concept of movement in his
attempt to demonstratethat there is a musicalanalogueto freedom,and
thus that characterrepresentationin music is possible. Kornerexplains
that "throughself-awareness,we distinguishin ourselvesbetween dependenceon, or independence
from, the external world.What is independent
within us we call ability.This is expressedpartiallythroughreceptivity,
by interpretingwhat is specific in the external world, and partially
throughactivity, by determiningthe given materialin the external
world accordingto one's own will. Through this becoming specific and
this determiningwe experience that relationshipwith the external
worldwhich is called our condition" (618). He then explains that life is
nothing more than a seriesof such conditions, and that since the extent
and limitations of our active and passive interactionsare not a matterof

Aesthetics
Music605
of Instrumental
Karner's

indifference,their perception is accompaniedby affective responses.In

orderto perceive such symptomsof a condition in others we require
outer signs, and we find such outer signs in movement.
Komer then devotes considerableattention to the role of movement in the arts.The significanceof movement in dance and theater is
obvious because the nature and goals of motion in the "bodylanguage"
of these arts is crucial to our understandingand interpretationof them.
He then suggeststhat in sculptureand painting, "the position of the
movable body partsbecomes indicative of a condition, only if it reveals
the trace of a previousmovement"(619). And he claims that our speech
contains movement-melodic movement that is determinedby our own
activity and is thus an expressionof our freedom.This claim leads
Kmrnerto the assertionthat musicalmovement also contains signs that
are indicative of condition. His explanation amountsto a theory of isomorphicrelationshipsbetween musicalmotion (rhythmic, melodic, and
harmonic) and physical motion. (He assumesthat physical motion is a
mirrorof internal condition.) Majorconsiderationsinclude the degreeof
activity and passivity,as well as the tension and release inherent in the
goal orientation of the tonal system.The mimetic aspectsof this
approachare clearlyreminiscentof Baroqueaesthetics.
Karnercounters the objection that these musicalgesturescannot
be interpretedwith sufficientprecisionby invoking the Kantiandoctrine
of free play.According to Kant, the object should not be represented
with too much detail or distinctnessbecause this would leave nothing
for the imaginationto complete. Moreover,duringthe aesthetic experience, the imaginationmust be active ratherthan passive,because it is
this active contemplation (or free play) that makes it possiblefor art to
bridgethe gap between the facultiesof understandingand reason.
Kant and, following him, Schiller subscribedto the widely accepted
eighteenth-centuryprinciple of dividing human cognition into the "faculties"of understandingand reason.The a priorilaws of nature are supplied by understanding,and they in turn make knowledgeof the empirical worldpossible. Reason, on the other hand, is concerned with desire
and the freedomof the moral agent. Kant arguesthat there is a "supersensible substrate"behind both realmsand that this substratecan be
uncovered by input from a third faculty:judgment.Judgmentis conwith the feeling of pleasureor displeasure,and when aesthetic
cemrned
judgment is informedby taste it can mediate between understandingand
reason,as well as provide insight into the realmof the supersensible.27
(Figure1 providesa visual aid to this proposedsynthesis.)28
In orderto describehis view of basic human tendencies, Schiller
coined three termsthat roughlycorrespondto Kant'sthree faculties:

606 TheMusicalQuarterly

judgment

understanding
reason
understanding reason

Spieltrieb

Stofftrieb
Stofftrieb

Formtrieb
Formtrieb

lebendeGestalt

Leben
Leben

Gestalt
G~estalt

Figure1

Stofftrieb,Formtrieb,and Spieltrieb(see Fig. 1). The Stofftriebis the desire

to assimilateand experience the worldof senses;the Formtriebis the
urge to mentally "form"experience and hence to subjectthe world to
morallaw.The Spieltrieb,or urgefor free aesthetic activity,functions as a
bridgeor mediatorbetween the firsttwo.29In explaining the objects of
these "drives,"Schiller extends the analogyto aesthetics.The object of
the Stofftriebis life (Leben):"a concept designatingall materialbeing and
all that is immediatelypresent to the senses";the object of the Formtrieb
is form (Gestalt):"aconcept which includes all the formalqualitiesof
things and all the relationsof these to our thinking faculties";and the
object of the Spieltriebis living form (lebendeGestalt):"aconcept serving
to designateall the aesthetic qualitiesof phenomena and, in a word,
what in the widest sense of the term we call beauty."30
While Kanthad not employedthe term"character,"
it playsa very
prominentrole in Schiller'simpassionedplea forthe necessityof bridging
the gapbetweenthe facultiesand Triebe.In yet anothervariationon the tripartitedivisionof humannature,Schillerpostulatesthat therearetwo basic
components:the physical(natural)characterand the moralcharacter(see
Fig.2). The physicalis empiricalor sense-oriented,is often selfishand violent, and can be a dangerto society.The moralis rationalandfree,but at
the sametime only latent and underdevelopedbecauseof the dominanceof
the physical.Schiller'sgoal is to promotethe developmentof a thirdcharacter:the aesthetic.By servingas a stimulusforthe activefreeplayof the
artcan promotethe genesisanddevelopmentof
imagination(Spieltrieb),
aestheticcharacter.At the sametime, however,it is artand aestheticcharacterthat both synthesizethe physicaland the moral,as well as liberate,culTherefore,
tivate,and makepossiblethe ultimatetriumphof the moral.31
artisticactivity(eitheractive creationor passiveenjoyment)freesus from
both the dictatesof naturallawsand reason(even Kant'scategoricalimperative) and allowsus to becomefullyhuman.Art thus assumesa civilizingrole
becauseof its powerto coordinatethe faculties.These theoriesaresometimesreferredto as Schiller'saestheticutopianism,becausethey culminate
in his assertionthat throughaestheticeducationwe can developthe powers
forpoliticalorder.32
of intellectand reasonthat areprerequisites

Aesthetics
Music607
of Instrumental
Korner's
aesthetic character

art (stimulatesSpieltrieb)

physical character
(empirical,sense oriented)

moralcharacter
(rational,free)

Figure2
Schiller's use of the term "character" must certainly have been
another factor in Kdrner'spostulation of this concept as the object of
musical representation.33 But which of Schiller's three characters did
K6rner intend? Schiller emphasized the element of freedom and thus the
association with moral character. It is obvious, however, that K6mer, in
pleading music's capability for character representation, is also including
the physical and the aesthetic. For K6rner it is a given that music has a
strong empirical component; he does not doubt that it can stimulate the
senses. His goal is to counter Schiller by proving that the power and
value of music extends beyond the sensual. He attempts to demonstrate
that music's rational content is sufficiently determinate to permit and
activate the free play of the subject's imagination, which, in turn, leads
to the development of aesthetic character.
In the fourth letter from On the Aesthetic Education of Man, Schiller
states:
The man of Culturemakes a friendof Nature, and honoursher freedom
whilst curbingonly her caprice.Consequently,whenever Reason startsto
introducethe unity of morallaw into any actuallyexisting society, she must
bewareof damagingthe varietyof Nature. And whenever Nature endeavours to maintain her varietywithin the moralframeworkof society, moral
unity must not sufferany infringementthereby.Removed alike from uniformity and from confusion, there abidesthe triumphof form.Wholeness of
charactermust thereforebe present in any people capable, and worthy,of
exchanging a State of compulsionfor a State of freedom.34
Wholeness of character is only possible if all three components-moral,
physical, and aesthetic-are present. Karner implies that music embodies, and can stimulate the development of, wholeness of character.
Moreover, he believes that it is a viable artistic medium (and symbol) for
Schiller's paradigm of the individual psyche and, by extension, of human

608 TheMusicalQuarterly

society. Music, therefore,is fully capableof contributingto man'saesthetic education. (Figure3 providesa compendiumof the many pairsof
dialectical termsthat have been discussedand illustratesthe mediating
role of free play,or Spieltrieb.)
The largecentral portion of Kdrner'sessay (summarizedabove) is
devoted to the deductive proof that characterrepresentationin music is
possible,because,via movement, music can illustratea seriesof affective
conditions, which in turn symbolizefreedom.Kdrner'slogic is problematic, however:given that the composercan only illustratea successionof
affects,how can the listener discoverthe common or constant element,
Kornerseems to realizethat, in spite of his involved
the character?35
he
has
not
exegesis,
sufficientlyproven his point, becausehe admitsthat
"thatwhich we call charactercannot be perceiveddirectlyeither in the
real worldor in any workof art. Rather,we can only deduce it from that
which is contained in the featuresof individualconditions. It must be
askedthen, whether, in the seriesof conditions that music represents,
sufficientmaterialis present to form a definite presentationof a character?"(621). This launcheshim into the final section of the essay and
into a renewedattempt to substantiatemusic'scapacityfor character
representation.He again takes up the issue of movement and investigates whether definite goals, or types, of musicalmovement can be perceived. He concludes that only types of "movement"can be identified,
and (with a quick terminologicalsleight of hand) he declaresthat all
"drives"can be divided into two classes:active or passive,which he further equateswith masculineand feminine ideals. "Neitherof these two
opposingcategoriesof drivescompletely loses its effectivenessas long as
life itself continues, but they restricteach other, and at one moment the
active drive dominates,while at another the passivedrive dominates. If
a specific and permanentrelationshipbetween the two is perceived,
then this pertainsto the character'sfeatures,and hence to the masculine
and feminineideal,and the infinite varietyof shadingbetween them"
(622).
There is, therefore,a breakin sequence between the main body of
Korner'sargument(which is basedon perceivingsigns of condition) and
the concluding segment (which focuseson the masculine-feminineduality). The outdatedovertones of this approachneed not cause any embarrassment;a strongbelief in distinctions between masculineand feminine
traitswas fundamentalto much eighteenth-centurythought and scholarship.36Nevertheless, Kdrner'sexplication of how this dualitycan aid in
characterrepresentationis not convincing. It is clearlya weak point in
the essay,because,even if he had been able to demonstratethe necessary
connections (which he was not), the metaphoricaluse of the terms

Kbrner's
Aesthetics
Music609
of Instrumental

aestheticworkof art
lebendeGestalt= characterrepresentation

variety
affect
pathos
transient
Stoff
Leben

I
(artist)

+ (audience)
free play
Spieltrieb

sensual
empirical
necessity

unity

character
ethos
constant
Form
Gestalt

moral
rational
freedom
aestheticcharacter
wholeness of character

of dialecticalterms
Figure3. Compendium

"masculine"and "feminine"separatesthe theory of characterrepresentation from its classical,humanisticfoundation.37

Although most of his essay is kept on an abstract,philosophical
plane, Komer does devote some attention to the relationshipbetween
actual musical techniques and characterrepresentation.Unfortunately,
this section also exhibits severalweaknesses:it is too brief, there are no
concrete examples,and certain terms (e.g., Klang,Schall,Harmonie)are
not clearlydefinedor used with a systematicprecision that would allow a
positive contextual inference of their meaning. Nevertheless, Karner
does provide some explanation of how timbre,rhythm (meter), melody,
and harmony(counterpoint) contributeto the goal of characterrepresentation.
In regardto timbre,K6mer equates the differenceon the continuum between "roughand soft"with the masculine-feminineduality and
thus links it to this aspect of character.Rhythm is viewed as the main
source of unity (character).He refersto "regularityin the change of note
values"but it is not clear whether he means a dominatingrhythmic configuration,or (as his example of two strophesfrompoems by Klopstock
would suggest) the recurringmetric pattern of stressedand unstressed
beats;perhapshe intends both aspects.38Melody is primarilyresponsible
for variety (pathos), although if it observescertain limitations in its
range and regularityin its progression,it can also contributeto the
ethos. Kornerfinds that in Harmonie"the combination of simultaneously
soundingpartsmakes it possible to distributethe melody and rhythm

610 TheMusicalQuarterly

among these parts.Passionand character,each differentiatedby various

movements, can be illustratedwith more life and definition without disturbingthe balance between them, which is necessaryfor the most complete effect of the whole" (624). Perhapshe is referringto a homophonic
texture in which the melody communicatesthe transientaffect while
simultaneouslythe accompaniment,with its regularrhythmicmovement, transmitsthe constant character.39But the final sentence of the
essaysuggeststhat K6mer'suse of the term Harmonierefersinstead to
true contrapuntalcomplexity:"Tothis extent and degree, there exists
perhapsno other representationin music for the sublimein character."
This last-momentmention of the sublime is his bow to the familiareighteenth-centurydistinction between the beautifuland the sublime.Only
the beautifulhad been underconsiderationup to this point, but K6orner
obviouslywanted, with this final salvo, to insist on music'scapacityfor
the sublimeas well.40
How does Korner'sconcept of characterrelate to the musicalpractice of his contemporaries?The term "character"plays a prominentrole
in discussionsof musicalcontent and expressionby many theoristswho
proposethe existence of basic verballyidentifiablecharacters.They frequently reducethe affective spectrumto a four-folddivision, for example: love, sadness,joy, and anger.Such systemsof fourbasic categoriesof
characterare proposedby CasparReutz, KarlJunker,Michel-Paul-Guy
de Chabanon,Johann Hiller, et al.41However,they are using "character"to referto a groupingof relatedaffects,which, in principle, is an
awkwardcompromisebetween the specificityof Baroqueaffect theory
and the Romantic view that musicalcontent cannot be translatedinto
language."Character"is also prominent in the pedagogicaland performance literature.Daniel Tiurkand Carl Czerny,for example, emphasize
the necessity of perceivinga work'sintended character,and then selecting nuances of tempo, dynamics,and articulationto heighten and communicate it.42 But it is also clear that affect or expressionis the overriding concern in their understandingof the term.
Although the composersthemselves were generallyreluctantto discuss the content or meaning of their instrumentalmusic, there are several well-known occasions when they employedthe term "character."
According to G. A. Griesinger,Haydn said "thathe oftentimes had porUnfortunately,Haydn was
trayedmoralcharactersin his symphonies."43
not willing to provideeither Griesingeror A. C. Dies with sufficient
details for us to determinehow he might have understoodthis process.
While it is tempting to suggestthat he might have used "character"in
Korner'ssense, we must rememberthat Kantian ideas enjoyed a wide-

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spreadpopularityin the 1790s.44Haydn may simplyhave been ensuring

the value of his symphoniesin the face of Kant'schallenge that worksof
art must be broughtinto conjunction with moral ideas if they are to be
consideredbeautiful.45
Beethoven, in a letter of 1817, announced his intention to abandon
the traditionalItalian tempo indicationsbecause of their imprecision
and to adopt Malzel'smetronomenumbers.He added,however, that
of a composition are a dif"the wordsdescribingthe character[Karakter]
ferent matter.We cannot give these up. Indeed the tempo is more like
the body,but these certainlyreferto the spiritof a composition."46
Beethoven presumablyhad in mind expressionssuch as neue Kraftfuihlend,mit innigsterEmpfindung,and beklemmt(from the String Quartets
Op. 130 and Op. 132), which he began using with greaterfrequencyin
his late works.These highly evocative and innovative expressionsreveal
that Beethoven'sconception of characterwas affect-oriented.In general,
however, it must be rememberedthat Beethoven also avoided discussing
the content or meaning of his instrumentalworks.
Thus, many theoristsand performers,perhapsunder the pedagogical constraint of providingpracticalhands-on advice for students,subdivide and translatetheir concept of characterinto more or less specific
categoriesof affect. The composers,on the other hand, were obviously
reticent about translatingthe content of their works.This reticence
aligns them with a crucial aspect of Korner'saesthetics. K6mer never
discussesdifferentcharactersor specifieshow the characterof one work
might distinguishit from that of another.His use of the term remains
abstract,and indeed it must, becausehe defines it as an idealizationof
inner human qualities.Although he does not explicitly state it, Karner
must have been building on the dichotomy that Kant establishes
between phenomena and noumena. Phenomena are real empirical
objects. Noumena are transcendentobjects, that is, they are not perceivable and do not belong to the worldof space, time, and causality.Only
noumena can be idealized.Art createsa link or bridgebetween the phenomenal and noumenal by means of "aestheticideas,"which Kant
defines as "thatrepresentationof the imaginationwhich induces much
thought, yet without the possibilityof any definite thought whatever,
i.e., concept, being adequateto it, and which language,consequently,
can never get quite on level termswith or rendercompletely intelligible."47ForKorner,characterrepresentationis an aesthetic idea.
Korner'sachievement consists in his applicationand subtle modification of Kant'sand Schiller'saesthetics.48In doing so he defended
instrumentalmusic againsttheir reservationsand exhibited an appreciation of it that had eluded them. Korneris one of the few writersfrom

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this periodwho rejectsart as imitation but does not accept many tenets
of earlyRomanticism.Perhapsit is in this narrowzone that we can discover an aesthetic that laysvalid claim to the label "Classical."49
When
listening to the great worksof this period,do we not sense movement,
freedom,living form,and (perhapssubliminally)human character,as
well as utopian striving?Are these concerns not central to our experience of beautyand sublimity?I submitthat they are, and that Komer's
aesthetics providesa sophisticatedlate-eighteenth-centuryvantage
point that can sharpenand illuminateour perceptions.

Appendix: "On the Representation of Character in

Music," by Christian Gottfried Kmrner
(Englishtranslationby RobertRiggs)
As long as the composerknows no higher goal than the entertainment
of his audience, then it will merelybe the traitsof this audience that will
guide him in the selection and treatmentof his material.Sometimes he
will shock with crashingnoise, sometimesstimulatemore tender nerves
with sentimental tunes, and sometimesoccupy a listener,who thinks
more than feels, with artificialjuxtapositionsand bold transitions.For
art;he has no conception that it could
him, music is merelya pleasurable
be something more.
On the other hand, when entering into the realmof beauty,the
composersubjectshimself to quite differentlaws. Freedfromall external
influence of the prejudices,fashions,and capricesof his time, he
becomes all the more strict with himself, and his only goal is to endow
his workswith an independent,self-sufficientvalue.
What a great advantageit would be if, in a complete theory of
beauty,he could find specific instructionsconcerning the prerequisites
for such an independentvalue, and then merelyneeded to applythem to
the specificsof his art. But we do not yet have such a theory,and there
are some outstandingminds who even doubt that one is possible.Meanwhile, beforewe can demonstrate,from the natureof beauty,a satisfactory development of the necessaryand general laws of art, it will be
helpful to identify the individualfeaturesof that which (in and of itself)
is worth representingin every art, especiallywithout regardto the receptivity of a specific audience. At the present time, there are still fewer
preliminarystudiesof this type in music than in the other arts,and perhaps it has been undervaluedmore frequentlyfor that very reason.

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For a long period strangeprejudicesprevailedconcerning what was

worthyof representationin music. In this context the axiom that imitation of nature is the purposeof art was misunderstood;and many considered the re-creationof everythingaudible,from the rolling of thunderto
the crowingof the cock, to be the properbusinessof the composer.A
better taste is beginning to gain ground.Expressionof human feeling is
replacingsoullessnoise. But is this the point where the composershould
stop, or is there a still higher goal for him?
In that which we call the soul, we distinguishbetween constant and
temporaryfactors:the spirit [Gemith], characteror Ethos;and the emotions [Gemiithsbewegungen],
passionatestate or Pathos.Is it inconsequential which of these two the musicianattemptsto represent?
The firstrequirementof an artworkis indisputable;throughsigns of
an orderingpower,it must distinguishitself as a human product,in contrastto the outcome of blind coincidence; thus the law of unity. The
superiorcomposerstrivesto give this quality to his works,but not always
with equal success.
Poets and representationalartists,becauseof their medium,can
never representa condition without a person.The musician,however,
can easily develop the delusion that it is possible to illustratethe emotions as something independent. If he is satisfiedin providinga chaos of
sounds,which expressesan incoherent mixtureof passions,then he
indeed has an easy time of it, but he must not claim to be an artist.On
the other hand, if he recognizesthe need for unity, then he will search in
vain for it in a seriesof passionatestates. They are nothing more than
variety,constant change, growth, and decline. If he wants to maintain a
single state, then he becomes monotonous, dull, and tedious. If he wants
to representchange, then this presupposessomething constant against
which it appears;and often such a constant arisesindependently,without the artistconsciously makinga choice. But just becausehe disregards
this choice, he will, in most cases, sink to the crudestlevel. He is
deceived by the effect of his misusedtalent, because it is preciselythe
lowest expressionthat is the most commonly understood.He will often
reap the loudest applausefor committing the worstsins againstart;and
this increasinglyalienates him fromhis mission. He becomes the slave,
ratherthan the master,of his audience.
Moreover,there is certainlyno proofrequiredthat artstandsat a
very low level if it is content to repeatunchangedthat which the real
worldoffers.Such repetitioncan have value in anotherrespect-as
renewalof a sensualimpression.But if we expect aesthetic enjoyment,we
demandmore.The artistshould complete that which we fail to see in the
realityof an individualphenomenon;he shouldidealizehis material.The

614 TheMusicalQuarterly

dignity of human natureshould appearin the creationsof his fantasy.He

should raiseus fromour low sphereof dependence and limitation to his
level, and intuitively representthe infinite, which outside of art can only
be imagined.
But the passionatestate is limited by its own nature. In orderto
aspireto a definite goal, all power is concentrated,so to speak,on a single point. Here, fantasycannot enrich the subjectmatterwith new elements, but rathercan only intensify the degreeof striving.
Attempts have often been made to idealizesorrow,joy, desire, and
horror.But what was genuinely ideal in that case?Was it the emotion
itself as an independentlyexisting object, or was it the person in whom
we observedthe emotion? If we imagine this personwithout anything
that representsmasculinepoweror graciousfemininity,how much
remainsof the ideal?
In human nature there is nothing infinite except freedom.The
power,which assertsits independencefromall influencesof the external
worldand from all inner stormsof passion,exceeds every known dimension. It is this freedomthat is made sensible to us throughthe representation of character.
If music is to renounce everythingthat other artsgain throughrepresentationof character,then a reasonfor this must be found in the
peculiaritiesof this art. This calls for a special investigation.
Music would not be able to representthe ideal of character,or any
other object, if there was a basisfor the objection that, by itself, it does
not give us something definite to think about. This is still a prevailing
opinion with a largepart of the public. Poetry,theater,or dance are considerednecessaryin orderto supplementthis lack of definiteness,and
where music is presentedas an independent art, it is misunderstood
because its meaning cannot be translatedinto wordsand shapes.
Given the povertyof the aesthetic enjoyment allotted to us in the
present age, it is fruitfulto investigatewhat each specificart can represent by itself. We no longerhave festivalswhere human natureappeared
in full displayand opened its treasuressimultaneouslyfor the eye, ear,
and fantasy.Out of necessity we have learnedto celebratewith moderation the little that still remainsof these festivals.If, in our age, a rare
coincidence of conditions is necessaryin orderfor outstandingartistic
talents fromvariousgenres to unite for a common purpose,then there is
no choice other than to expand the rangeof each art as much as possible, so that its works(even without the admixtureof heterogeneouselements) do not lack in inner richness.
There was a time when, in dance, music, and poetry,the representation of a specificobject was not at all intended. Doubtless,it was the

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drive to announce his existence that firstpromptedman to develop

these artisticabilities. This drive, which indeed is alwayspresent in
healthy conditions, expressesitself only in those moments when it is not
inhibited by pressurefrom external relationships.Hence the strivingto
make these extant powerssensible in any convenient object, and the
independent enjoyment of the activity itself, regardlessof its effect. The
closest things to man are his body and the air that he breathesin and
out. The drive for independent activity found its firstvehicle in both of
these. In the free movement of the body,without being restrictedby
gravity,the mind also feels as though relieved of its bonds. The earthly
sphere,which is its constant reminderof dependence on the external
world, seems to become ennobled, and the limits of its existence are
expanded.Thus man also perceives, in the sound of his voice, a sensual
effect of his activity,without visible limits; the free play of his fantasy
opens a realm of immeasurabledimensions, and his song communicates
with all of nature. Song requireswords,but only those that are worthyof
being sung. The mind and the ear both expect enjoyment from language
if it is to serve, not as a usefulmeans of satisfyingthe daily needs of society, but ratheras an instrumentfor expressinga particularstate of inspiration. The imaginationfeels freedfrom the limitationsof time and
place. It revels in imagesof what is absent, past, and future.But it does
not want to revel alone. Its fictions should also appearin a refinedway
for others, and this is achieved by the selection and position of words.
Dance, music, and poetry (in this period in the historyof art) are
not means to an end, but ratherare ends in themselves. They are free
productsof human nature in moments of a higher life. What appearsin
them is solely what is personalabout the artist.One step furtherand he
also feels called upon to go beyond his own personand to create a work
existing in itself. Inspirationgave birth to an idea that he wishes to realize outside of his own fantasy.He is not satisfiedjust to disseminatethe
festive mood that he perceives in himself, but wishes that his creations
should also enrich the conceptual worldof his public. This is the period
of representation.
But dance, music, and poetry (even as representationalarts) do not
completely change their originalnature.The physicalform in which the
artist'sthought appearsis not dead but animated.The elements of free
life often resist the force of this thought. Therefore,in a seriesof
motions, tones, and words,there is much that does not representa specific object, but rathermerely illustratesthe personalmood of the artist.
If the drive to representis unbounded,the materialwould eventually
even destroythe form.The greatestpassion is motionless and speechless.

616 TheMusicalQuarterly

If dance, song, and poetryare still to endure,then something of reality

must be sacrificed,and the artist'sindividualitymust counterbalancethe
rule of the object.
Therefore,in music, just as in dance and literature,definiteness
must not be demandedfromany aspect that does not belong to representation. The feeling of enthusiasm,which the artistarousesby spreading
his mood throughouthis domain, is darkand indefiniteby nature.And
the imaginationwelcomes even this indefiniteness,because it is less
restrictiveto its free play.It is only when music intends to representthat
its signs must have a specificmeaning, and, in orderto determine
whether signs of this natureexist, we want to attempt an applicationto
music of that which the general laws of representationdemand in regard
to definiteness.
A representedobject can appearto the fantasyas a phenomenon,
only when if it is given definite limitations.The infinite, in its purity,
cannot appear.When the intellect attemptsto think of it, and removes
everythinglimited from its conception, it also eliminates all nourishment from the imagination.Therefore,before it can be represented,the
artist'sidea must alreadybe conceived as it were in a physicalcloak. The
most perfectrepresentationcan achieve no more than the complete
communicationof the artist'sidea to our fantasy.But if there is nothing
concrete in this idea, even for the fantasy,then we miss the genuine aesthetic enjoyment, and the most luxuriouscostume cannot compensate
us for its loss.
Assuming that the artistic ideal has been conceived in a definite
way, it can only be made sensible if we perceive these determinationsin
particularrelationships.Similarly,the natureof a real object can never
be recognizeddirectlythroughexperience, but only by means of its relationships, just as we deduce causesfromeffects. The more comprehensively the relationshipsof the ideal are given in the representation,the
more definite its appearancewill be.
But this completenessis dangerousfor the artist.If the representation of the ideal extends to all adjacentaspectsthat are relevant because
of time, place, and the context of causesand effects, then the appearance approachesreality,and nothing remainsfor the viewer'sfantasyto
complete. Fantasy,however,does not wish to be idly receptive during
the aesthetic enjoyment;rather,it wishes to be summonedto its own
activity.
Therefore,there are artistswho intentionally refrainfromsuch
completenessand who leave unrepresentedthe contextin which their
ideal appears.There are severalexamplesof this type among the works
of the Greek sculptors.An archaeologistfails to see the so-called attrib-

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utes in these works,but for one who loves art for its own sake, this
makes them all the more valuable,because they place fewerrestrictions
on the free play of the fantasy.He imaginesthat the celestial beings created for him by the sculptorbelong to a higher spherebeyond the
boundariesof reality.He organizesthem into essential categoriesthat are
founded in nature, and that are not dependent on the coincidences of
mythologyor the customsof a specificpeople. But only in orderto perceive the distinguishingmarksof these categories,does he demanddefiniteness; otherwisehe can dispensewith it.
The physicalityof the ideal consistsin a single relationship,not to a
specificindividualobject, but to the overallrepresentationof space in general.A particularpartof this space appearsfilledhere. While there is only
a vagueconception concerningthat which fills the space, its bordersare
all the moredistinct, complete,and definite.And merelyby representing
these borders,the artistsucceededin enrapturingus for the creationof his
fantasy.The shape that appearedto us was meaningfuldown to the smallest detailsof its surface.The only featureof the physicalmaterialthat we
could contemplatewas its extension;but never had an appearancein the
real worldsuppliedus, in a single feature,with so much.
In this case we can understandhow the greatestriches can coexist
with apparentpoverty,if we rememberthe conditions on which the contentof an ideal depend. We valuethe phenomenon accordingto that
which does not appearin it, but ratherhas to be thoughtaccordingto the
sum of reality that it presupposes,and accordingto the content of our
concept of that which underliesour representationof the phenomenon.
That which we directlyobservedin the individualphenomenon never
gives us a complete representationof an object; holes remainthat must
be filled in by inferencesand premonitions.The imaginationtakes the
materialfor these completions from its own treasures,but in the selection
of this materialit is dependent on that which was directlyperceivable.
And the greaterthis dependence is when viewing a workof art, and the
more unrestrictedthe artist is in commandingthe connoisseur'sfantasy,
the richer the ideal will be that is made sensible in his representation.
The viewer'simaginationis guidedby the sensible aspect of the
phenomenon, but only to the extent that it is definiteratherthan manifold. The mere outline of a figure,masterfullysketched on paper,is sufficient to provide laws for our fantasy.Everypoint of the delicate line is,
so to speak, animated;each one uttersan unmistakableexpressionof
power or grace. We feel an irresistibleinner drive to complete the picture that has been only suggested;but we also feel the impossibilityof
including anything in our idea that would be incompatiblewith what is
specific to such a phenomenon.

618 TheMusicalQuarterly

The formalcontours in a sculptor'sworkare simultaneouslydefined

in all possibledirections.Thus the fantasywould be warnedeven more
often if it wanted to attempt an inappropriatefiction; but it also receives
even more challenge to engage in its own activity.And an immeasurable
field is opened for this activity with respectto all the featuresthat were
not specifiedby the artist.Everythingthat the object can gain through
color, movement, and external relationshipsis in its power.It is also not
restrictedin time.That which the artistpresentsfor viewing can be contemplatedfor eternity.
Here a single sensible featuregives definitenessand richnessto the
ideal. But is this valid only for the contoursof the form?Or is there
another equallymeaningfulfeaturefor other arts?
One of the relationshipsthat gives definitenessto the presentation
of an object is its speciallyassignedplace in a seriesof causesand effects.
It is primarilythis relationshipthat occupies the poet, and it is here that
he demonstrateshis powerof representationto the broadestextent. He
goes back to the most remote causesof events, and follows their progress
throughthe smallestadvancesto the final denouement.
If the poet is satisfiedin representinga seriesof phenomena that are
joined by general laws of nature,he can thus provide us with a very
instructivework,but certainlynot an inspiringone. In orderto leave the
realmof limited realityand crossover into the realmof the ideal, he
requiresfreedom.This is the soul of his poetry.By presupposingbelief in
freedom,an independentvitality spreadsover the elements of his work,
and in place of a puppetshow, which is moved with invisible stringsby
an unknown power,personsin action appear.Each of these protagonists
is at the center of a special sphereof action, and in this spherethere is a
series of conditions[Zustianden]
that is called life. Everycondition is based
on a specificrelationshipbetween the free independentbeing and the
world that surroundsit. Both are conceived in a context in which the
activity of the formerinvades the receptivityof the latter.
Freedom,personality,condition, and life (when examined as topics
of art) are not metaphysicalconcepts, but rather,featuresthat are perceived in ourselvesby means of inner sense, and which are transferredto
other beings. Throughself-awareness,we distinguishin ourselves
between dependenceon, or independence
from, the external world.What
is independentwithin us we call ability.This is expressedpartially
throughreceptivity,by interpretingwhat is specific in the external
world,and partiallythroughactivity,by determiningthe given material
in the external worldaccordingto one's own will. Throughthis becoming specificand this determiningwe experience that relationshipwith
the external worldwhich is called our condition.In such a condition we

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can perceivespecificfeatureswithout having a clearconception of our

own natureand the state of the externalobjects.We observe,then, the
relationshipof our ability,not to one individualobject,but to the external
worldin general.Similarly,there weredefinitecontoursof the shape,even
though we could not distinctlyrecognizeanythingthat lay either insideor
outsidethese contours.In this case only the extension in spacewas limited, whereas,in a seriesof causesand effects,our abilityis limited.
Given the assumptionthat an inner drive to expand our existence,
and to resistexternal limitation, never completely loses its effectiveness,
the boundariesof our ability are not a matterof indifference.Their perception therefore,is accompaniedby certain feelings, by joy or sorrow
and their diverse intermediategradations.Fromthese feelings inner
sense recognizesthe extent to which the general life force will be satisfied by our extant relationshipto the external world, and this is one of
the specificfeaturesof its condition.
In orderto perceive this featureof a condition, also in other living
beings, we need certain outersignsthat clearly indicate the degreeof
those feelings. We find such signs in movement.Therefore,for all arts
that directly affect the outer senses, movement is the recognizedmeans
for representinga condition. In sculptor'sand painter'sworksas well, the
position of the movable body partsbecomes indicative of a condition,
only if it reveals the trace of a previousmovement. Admittedly, in dance
and theater,movement occurs in connection with figure[Gestalt],but
when genuinely enjoying these artsour attention is focused only on the
former.Figure,as it were, is only the scaffoldingof the artwork.This
raisesthe question of whether or not movement without figureis sufficient for representation,just as it is for figurewithout movement.
Figuredisappearsin a movement that we perceive throughaudible
ratherthan visible features.But linguisticusagealreadydemonstratesthat
we believe such featuresare to be found in a seriesof tones.Are they only
metaphorswhen we speakabout the progressionof a melody and the rise
and fall of the voice, or is there reallya similaritybetween the movement
of a figurein space, and the movement of sound within the scale?
The high and low tones are distinguishedby the ear in a manner
similarto how the eye distinguishescolors. If two tones of differentpitch
are presented,fantasyis induced to imagine still higher and lower tones.
Thus, fantasyarrivesat the conception of a scaleby extending the series
of steps to the two outer extremeswhere the ear can no longer differentiate height and depth.
If, in a seriesof tones (in addition to the varietyof highs and lows),
the unity of a particularsound [Schall]is also audible,then we perceive a
specifictimbre[Klang].This timbre-the constant in the melody-is for

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the ear what, in visible movement, the constant mass is for the eye. Just
as the latter changes its position,the formerchanges its position in the
scale.
We hear this type of sound movement not only in song, but also in
speech. Everysound of our voice has a specificposition on the scale, and
we would also perceive this position when speakingif the sound came to
us just as it is producedby the vocal chords,and not as it is suppressedby
the noise of the other speech organs.A specificheight or depth of the
sound becomes audibleas soon as this noise is filteredout. This can be
experiencedby sustaininga vowel.
Throughour own self-awareness,we know that the movement of
the sound of our voice is determined
by our own activity.This movement
belongs to that which we distinguishin ourselvesas independentfrom
(ratherthan dependent on) the external world,and thus to the expression of our freedom.Therefore,we sense freedomand individualityin
each movement of a specificsound. Forour ear,this sound[Klang]is the
sensible form of a free, living being, and is analogousto what a moving
figureis for our eye.
If, in the movement of a figure,the sensible signs of a specificcondition are unmistakablyrecognized,then it must be askedwhether the
movement of a sound is less meaningful.Most people consider the language of gestureto be more comprehensiblethan the languageof tones.
This distinction deservesa more detailed investigation.
In the languageof gesturea specificgoal is indicated,and this
doubtlesslygives its presentationa claritythat is absentfrom a seriesof
tones. Perceptionof this goal resultsin a specificconception concerning
the object of desire, of horror,of fear,of anger,and of love. In music too,
movement has a goal, the tonic of the melody.To the extent that the
musicalprogressionapproachesor departsfrom this goal, the ear'ssatisfaction increasesor decreases.But this goal of the musicalmovement
indicatesnothing in the visible world. It indicates an unknown something that can be conceived by fantasy,at will, as a single object, or as a
sum of objects, as the external world in general.
Admittedly,musicalrepresentationis less complete in this regard,
and more is left for the imaginationto supplementthan with dance or
mime. We have seen in the precedingexample of sculpture,however,
that the definitenessof a representationdoes not depend on its completeness. In the languageof gesture,even if the goal of the movement is
not indicated, sufficientdefinitenessstill remainsin the typeof movement, and this raisesthe question of whether we can expect, solely from
this definiteness,something analogousto that which we find in the mere
outlines of a figure.

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In the languageof gesture,the floatinggait of joy and the heavy step

of sorroware universallyunderstood,even if we do not have, in either
case, a distinct presentationof the directionof this movement. These
signs are made meaningfulby a certaincorrelationthat we have perceived in ourselvesbetween these variationsof movement and variations
of our condition, and which we transferfromourselvesonto other living
beings. We recognizeourselvesin the movementsof the other'sbody.
This is similarto the distinction between the rejoicingof happiness
and the choked sound of sorrow.We know what this differencesignifies
for a condition, not merelyfromour own experience of how we perceive
these feelings, but also by means of a certain sympathythat is already
manifest in the languageof gesture,although to an imperceptibledegree.
Assuming that, even for the dullest and most inexperiencedminds,
there are clear featuresby which the signs of joy differin gesturesand
soundsfrom the signs of sorrow,then definite signs must also exist for an
infinite numberof gradationsof these opposingfeelings. The more sensitive and experiencedmind comparesthe less understandablegestures
and soundswith the universallyunderstoodones, and discoversmore or
less similaritywith the recognizedsigns of joy and sorrow.In this way,
both the languageof gesturesas well as the languageof sounds is
enriched, providedthat there is opportunityto practicenot only the
sense of vision, but also the sense of hearing. It cannot be claimed in
general that the ear is less capable than the eye of perceivingminute distinctions, but an individualcan be in the position of being called upon
to comparethe visual more often than the audible.In this case dance
and dramawill be more understandablefor him than music. On the
other hand, music will speak more distinctly to someone whose attention is more attractedby soundsthan by figures.
If music does not lack distinct signs for illustratinga specificcondition, then it also has the potential for characterrepresentation.That
which we call charactercannot be perceiveddirectly,either in the real
worldor in any workof art.Rather,we can only deduce it fromthat
which is contained in the featuresof individualconditions. It must be
askedthen, whether,in the seriesof conditions that musicrepresents,sufficient materialis presentto forma definitepresentationof a character?
The concept of characterpresupposesa morallife, a variety in the
use of freedom,and a unity within this variety,i.e., a rule within this
realm of free choice. Such a rule is either directlyperceivedby extracting the common element from a moral life'sseriesof appearances,or it is
inferredby deduction from individualtraits, if they presupposea cause
whose effect, accordingto the law of analogy,cannot be limited to a sintraitsbelong especiallyactions
gle instance. Among these characteristic

622 TheMusicalQuarterly

that are incompatiblewith external circumstances,and for which we are

compelled to look within the personfor a reason. In this manner,the
poet produces,even with a small rangeof events, a rich and lively representation of character.Thus we see Achilles and Priamfacing each other
at an intimate meal; the formerforgetsHector'sfatherand the latterforgets his son'skiller.Each is lost in contemplation of the other, and both
honor what is highest in human nature.
Other artistsproceed in a similarmanner,and the richer their creations are with these meaningfultraitsthe more complete is their representation of character.The example of the dancerand actor teaches us
how much, especiallythroughsigns of motion, can be accomplishedfor
this purpose.Does this also applyto the languageof sounds,or is there a
differencein this respectbetween the movementsof figureand the
movements of sound?
Even here we observe the consequencesof the circumstancethat in
a seriesof tones no definite goal, but ratheronly a definite typeof movement, is perceived.That which the dancerand actor indicate by means
of this goal is absent from the composer'srepresentationof character.
Thereforeeverything is missingfrom it that concerns any continuous
drive towarda specificobject. But the question then is whether or not
definite featuresstill remainfor the presentationof character,even if it
contains nothing definite concerning any specificdirection of the drive.
In addition to the diversityof the particularobjects towardwhich
our drivesare directed,there is also a generaldifferencethat divides all
drives into two basic classes.The purposeof a drive is to expresseither
our activityor our passivity,to determine,or to be determined.Neither of
these two opposingcategoriesof drivescompletely loses its effectiveness
as long as life itself continues, but they restricteach other, and at one
moment the active drive dominates,while at another the passivedrive
dominates. If a specificand permanentrelationshipbetween the two is
perceived,then this pertainsto the character'sfeatures,and hence to the
masculineand feminineideal,and the infinite varietyof shadingbetween
them.
If there are distinct signs in music for a specificrelationship
between masculinepower and feminine tenderness,then a representation of characteris possible that is absolutelyspecific in regardto thisfeature,even if it leaves the completion of the other featuresto the free
play of the imagination.An experiencedeye recognizesthe smallestgradations of masculinityand femininity in the outlines and movementsof
a figure.The fantasy'simage loses none of its definitenessjust because it
cannot be describedby words.What languagewould be rich enough to
be able to indicate this feature'sinfinite varietyof fine distinctions?But

Music623
Aesthetics
of Instrumental
Kdimer's

if the question is whether there are distinct signs for these differencesin
sound[Klang]and its movement,then we must not forgetwhat was already
noted in regardto the audiblesigns of a condition, namely,that the sense
of hearingdoes not lack subtletyjust because, in many instances,it did
not have as much opportunity,as the sense of sight, for practiceand
development.Certainlyno proof is needed that, in a seriesof tones, there
is an expressionfor the most extremedegreeof masculinityand femininity
that is equallyuniversallyunderstandableas that for joy and sorrow.It is
not necessaryto explain these distinctionsto even the most inexperienced ear that hearsside by side the timbre[Klang]of the tromboneand
flute, the marchand countrydance music, the sacredhymn and the adagio of the solo singeror instrumentalist.A languageis graduallydeveloped fromthese signs with recognizedmeaning,just as with the signs for
the condition; the indistinct signs are comparedwith the more distinct
ones, and more or less similaritybetween them is noted.
The most unmistakablesigns of characterare found in the diversity
of timbre [Klang].The variousdegreesof roughand soft that distinguish
human voices and instrumentsare one of the most useful,but not the
only means of representingcharacterin music.
In the movementof sound [Klang]we notice partlythe differencesof
durationand partlythe differencesof quality.The formerare the most
importantfor the representationof character.Regularityin the change
of note values-rhythm-indicates independenceof motion. In this rule
we perceive that which is the constant in the living being, and which
maintains its independence in spite of all external changes. Hence the
high value of rhythm in Greek music, poetry,and dance. These artshave
in common the calm processionof dignity,and the floatingof grace.
"The inexpressible,"accordingto Klopstock,"wandersaroundin a good
poem like the gods in Homer'sbattles, who are only seen by a few."
We have only darkand incomplete informationconcerning the
melodies of the Greeks,but what they achieved with rhythmcan already
be recognizedfrom the single example of two poetic meters:the Alcaic
and the Sapphic. The formeris an exemplaryrepresentationof the masculine,and the latter of the feminineideal. The German-who needs to
be remindedfrom time to time of his treasures-does not need to look so
far for such models. Here are just two examplesfrom the very poet who
recognizedso well the value of rhythm.
Komm!ich bebevorLust!Reichmirden Adler
Und das triefendeSchwert! komm, athme und ruhe

Hierin meinerUmarmung
Aus von derdonnerndenSchlacht.-

624 TheMusicalQuarterly
Come! I tremblewith desire! Hand me the eagle
And the drippingsword!Come, breatheand rest
Here in my embrace

battle.
Fromthe thundering
And opposite this heroine, the fearfulgirl:
Aberin dunklerNachtersteigstduFelsen,
Schwebstin tiuschenderdunklerNachtaufWassern;
Theilt'ich nurmitdirdie Gefahrzusterben;
Wiird'ich Gliicklicheweinen?
Butin darknightyouclimbcliffs,
And in deceptive darknight hover upon waters;

If only I couldsharedeath'sdangerwithyou;
WouldI, the fortunate,cry?
The conditionis directlyrepresentedby the melody,which is transient ratherthan permanent,the degreeof life at a specificmoment. The
movement within the scale consists of a perpetualfluctuationbetween
realityand limitation. In the relationshipbetween the individualnotes
and the tonic, on which the unity of the melody is based, there appearsa
strivingtowarda goal, sometimesapproaching,sometimesmoving away,
and finallyat rest when it has been reached.In addition to these
changes, there can also be something constant in the melody,namely
certain limitationsin the rangeof the melodic motion, a certainsymmetry
in the typeof progression.And in this constant we recognizea definite
poweror tendernessof character.This is perhapsthe reasonfor the
apparentanxiety of the Greek art police concerning these featuresof
character.Hence, the zeal of the Spartancensor who permittedno more
than seven stringson Timotheus'zither.
In the historyof music it is still controversialwhether the music of
the Greekswas limited merelyto rhythmand melody,or whether they
also knew what we call harmony.There have been recent theoristswho,
becauseof this situation, have even doubtedthe value of harmonyaltogether.This is not the place to disprovethis; but only a fleeting glance is
needed to convince oneself about the importanceof harmony,at least
for characterrepresentation.The combination of simultaneouslysounding partsmakes it possible to distributethe melody and the rhythm
among these parts.Passionand character,each differentiatedby various
movements, can be illustratedwith more life and definition without disturbingthe balance between them, which is necessaryfor the most complete effect of the whole. Everythought and feeling that is arousedby a

Music625
Aesthetics
Kiirner's
of Instrumental

condition-and that so to speak announces itself as an individualliving

being by means of the tones of a human voice or an imitative instru-

ment-enriches fantasy'sideal. These thoughts and feelings enhance the

presentation of power, which is not defeated in such an encounter. To

this extent and degree, there exists perhapsno other representationin

music for the sublimein character.
Notes
I wouldliketo thankKarlAmeriks,RonBartlett,andKurtFrederick
fortheirvaluable
adviceconcerningthe translation.
The GraduateSchoolof the Universityof Mississippi
providedtwosummerresearchgrants;andan NEHfellowshipenabledme to participate
in a seminarat Dartmouth
andMusic,"directedby StevenScher,
College,"Literature
whoprovidedmanystimulating
the contentandrefinementof my
suggestions
regarding
A shortversionof the articlewasreadat the 1990nationalmeetingof the
investigation.
AmericanMusicological
Societyin Oakland,California.
1. Fora fulldiscussionof thesefascinating
see BellamyHosler,Changing
developments,
Aesthetic
Viewsof Instrumental
Musicin Eighteenth-Century
(Ann Arbor:UMI,
Germany
Musikasthetik
undWienerKlassik,Archivfur
1981).CarlDahlhaus(in "Romantische
29 [1972]:167-81) alsoprovidesa penetratinginvestigation
of this
Musikwissenschaft
topic.He findsthatin the 1790stherewasthe historicalparadoxof havinga "simultaneityof Classicalmusicwithouta Classicalaestheticsof musicanda Romanticaesthetics
of musicwithoutRomanticmusic"(174).
2. Majorstudiesof Korner's
aestheticsincludeMarieBraeker,
Chr.G. Kdrmers
asthetischeAnschauungen
Got(Hagen:Hinnerwisch,1928);andWolfgangSeifert,Christian
derdeutschen
Bosse,1960).Fora
tfriedKdmer,einMusikaisthetiker
Klassik(Regensburg:
recentstudyin EnglishthatplacesKornerintothe properhistoricalcontext,see Edward
A Historyof Western
MusicalAesthetics
(Lincoln,Nebr.:Universityof Nebraska
Lippman,
Press,1991),134-36.
3. Detailedbiographical
information
is availablein FritzJonas,Christian
Gottfried
Nachrichten
Biographische
Kmrner:
iiberihnundseinHaus.AusdenQuellenrusammengestellt
Gott(Berlin:Weidmannsche
1882);andJosephP.Bauke,"Christian
Buchhandlung,
friedKorner:Portraitof a literaryman"(Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity,1963).
He
son,KarlTheodor(1791-1813),becamea well-knownpoetanddramatist.
Karnmer's
movedto Viennain 1811andwaskilledin battlefightingagainstNapoleon'sforcesin
1813.Manyof his lyrics(especiallythe popularsoldier'ssongs)wereset byJohann
Reichardt,KarlZelter,Schubert,Weber,Friedrich
Himmel,andCarlLoewe;andseveral
of his librettoswereusedforoperas.
undKdrner
4. See Briefwechsel
Schiller
von1784-bis zumTodeSchillers
zwischen
editionof thiscorrespondence
anda valuable
Cotta,1895).Foran abridged
(Stuttgart:
see KlausL. Berghahn,
Schiller
undKmrner
introduction,
ed., Briefwechsel
zwischen
(Munich:Winkler,1973).
5. See AlbertCamigliano,Friedrich
andC. G. Karner:
A CriticalRelationship
Schiller
Akademischer
(Stuttgart:
VerlagHeinz,1976).Schillertrusted,althoughperhapsoverestimated,Korner's
expertisein musicalmatters.ForSchillerandmusicin general,includ-

626 TheMusicalQuarterly
withK6rner,see R. M. Longyear,
Schiller
andMusic(ChapelHill:
inghis relationship
Universityof NorthCarolinaPress,1966).
6. Mozartspentsix daysin Dresdenwhiletravelingto Berlinin 1789.Kornerwitnessed
severalof his performances,
andMozartsatfora portraitby DoraStock,whowas
Thissilverpointdrawinghasfrequently
beenreproduced,
sister-in-law.
Korner's
e.g., in
Otto ErichDeutsch,MozartundseineWeltin zeitgenassischen
(Kassel:Birenreiter,
Bildemrn
1961),21;NeueMozart-Ausgabe,
X/32.
in Dresden
7. AlthoughC. M. von Weberdidnot takeupresidenceas Kapellmeister
until1817,bywhichtimeK6rnerhadmovedto Berlin,it is possiblethattheyhadmet
thereearlier.Kornermadeseveralunsuccessful
attemptsto interestWeberin the libretto
foran opera,Alford,whichhis son Theodorhadwrittenandwhichwasbasedon a scenariobyKornerhimself.
8. Fora discussionof the musicalenvironmentin DresdenandKorner's
knowledgeof
Die
Gottfried
composition,see Seifert,Christian
Kdmer,13-40;andRichardEnglander,
inderZeitderWienerKlassik
Instrumental-Musik
Dresdner
(Uppsala:Lundequistska
bokhandeln,1956).Englander
arguesanddocumentsthe prominenceof Viennese
musicin Dresdenconcertlifeduringthe lastdecadesof the eighteenthceninstrumental
tury.

in 1795,no.
9. DieHorenwaspublishedin TibingenbyCotta.Korner's
essayappeared
5, 97-121. The essaywasthenreprintedin an anthologyof Komrners
writingsentitled
Ansichten
Asthetische
Gdschen,1808),67-118. The anthologyhasbeenpub(Leipzig:
AusAnsichten:
lishedin a modernedition:ChristianGottfriedKorner,Asthetische
P.
Bauke
ed.
Schiller-Nationalmuseum,
1964),
(Marbach:
Joseph
geweihlte
Aufsatze,
ed.
Gesammelte
24-47. The essayis alsofoundin Christian
Schriften,
Gottfried
Kbmers
AdolfStern(Leipzig:
Grunow,1881).Excerptsfromit areincludedin Peterle Hurayand
Centuries
in theEighteenth
andEarly-Nineteenth
JamesDay,eds.,MusicandAesthetics
UniversityPress,1981),235-39.
Cambridge
(Cambridge:
derreinenVemunft[Critique
10. The earlierworksarethe Kritik
of PureReason],1781,
derpraktischen
andthe Kritik
Reason],1786.The thirdwork
of Practical
Vemunft[Critique
andFriedrich,1790);myquotais the Kritik
derUrteilskraft
(BerlinandLibau:Lagarde
TheCritique
tionsarefromthe Englishtranslation,
byJamesCreedMeredofJudgement,
ith (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1952).
11. Letterto Korner,18 Feb.1792.
12. Thisunfinishedtreatiseconsistsof a seriesof letters(writtenbetween25 Jan.and
28 Feb.1793)fromSchillerto Karner.
Theywerefirstpublishedin the 1847editionof
the Schiller/Korner
correspondence.
in DieHoren(1795),nos.
13. The Asthetische
Briefewerefirstpublishedin installments
in no. 5.
1, 2, and6. As notedabove,Kdrner's
essayappeared
14. Fora recentdiscussionof Schiller'saestheticwritings,see LesleySharpe,Friedrich
andPolitics(Cambridge:
Schiller:
Drama,Thought,
UniversityPress,1991).
Cambridge
betweenSchillerandKorneris providedin the
An overviewof the musicaldiscussions
in JohannesMittenmitKmrner"
Briefwechsel
chapterentitled"Schillers'musikalischer'
bisBrecht
vonStrassburg
vonGottfried
inderLiteratur:
zwei,DasMusikalische
EinOberblick
(Halle:VEBVerlag,1962),208-30. ForinterestingspeculationaboutSchiller'sresponse
und
to the lostfirstdraftof Korner's
essay,see HermannFahnrich,Schillers
Musikalitat
(Hildesheim:
Gerstenberg
Verlag,1977),93-95.
Musikanschauung

Kdrner's
Aesthetics
Music627
of Instrumental
neverexplicitlytalksabout"instrumental"
15. AlthoughKmrner
music,his emphasis
andnonfunctional
traitsclearlyimpliesthatinstrumental
on autonomous
ratherthan
on Korneris in agreement
vocalmusicis indeedhis topic.All of the secondaryliterature
on thispoint.
16. Fora broaddiscussionof thistopic,seeJohnNeubauer,TheEmancipation
of Music
in Eighteenth-Century
Aesthetics
(NewHaven:Yale
Departure
fromMimesis
fromLanguage:
Diemusikalische
im
UniversityPress,1986);andWalterSerauky,
Nachahmungsiisthetik
von1700bis1850(Minster:Helios,1929).
Zeitraum
17. Kant,TheCritique
193-94.
ofJudgement,
18. Fora moredetaileddiscussion,see CarlDahlhaus,"ZuKantsMusikisthetik,"
ArchivforMusikwissenschaft
10 (1953):338-47;andCarlDahlhaus,Esthetics
of Music,
trans.WilliamAustin(Cambridge:
UniversityPress,1982),31-38. Philip
Cambridge
andArtCriticism
50 (1992):222,
of Aesthetics
Alperson,in "TheArtsof Music,"
Journal
music."Indeed,as
pointsout that"Kantis actuallyratherambivalentaboutinstrumental
Alpersonargues,someof Kant'sstatements(e.g.,thatmusicis a beautifulplayof sensathe theoreticalpossibility
tionsandthusa fineart)implythathe at leastacknowledges
of a musicthatwouldsatisfyhis philosophical
demands,buthe doesnot appearto be
familiarwithsucha music.
19. Kant,TheCritique
79-80. Kant,however,doesnot actuallyusethe
ofJudgement,
term"character."
20. Theseideashadalreadysurfacedearlierin the eighteenthcenturywithShaftesbury
andHutchesonin England,andLaBruybre
in France.See JaneR.
andLaC~pade
in Eighteenth-Century
in French
Stevens,"TheMeaningsandUsesof Caractere
France,"
MusicalThought
1600-1800,ed. GeorgiaCowart(Ann Arbor:UMIResearchPress,
1989),23-52.
21. Thisinterpretation
is suggestedbyRogerScruton,Kant(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1982),70. Fora recentanddetailedstudyof theseissues,see PaulGuyer,Kant
andtheExperience
andMorality
of Freedom:
EssaysonAesthetics
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
UniversityPress,1993).
22. Kant,TheCritique
191.
ofJudgement,
23. Ibid.,223.
24. Forexcellentstudiesof thistopic,seeJohnMartinEllis,Schiller's
and
Kalliasbriefe
theStudyof hisAesthetic
Theory(The Hague:Mouton,1969);andDieterHenrich,
Schiller'sStrugglewithKant'sAesthetics,"in Essaysin Kant'sAes"BeautyandFreedom:
thetics,ed. TedCohenandPaulGuyer(Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress,1982),
237,57.
25. Schiller'sUberAnmutundWiirdefirstappeared
in twopublications:
simultaneously
in NeueThalia3, no. 2 (1793);andas a separatevolume(Leipzig,1793).
26. Ellis(Schiller's
130-39)convincinglyarguesthatSchillerneverwrote
Kalliasbriefe,
the treatise,forwhichthe Kalliasbriefe
wereonlyintendedto be a preliminary
study,
becausehe recognized
thesedifficulties
andcouldfindno logicalsolution.
27. Spaceprecludesa moredetaileddiscussionof the faculties,althoughI willtouch
brieflyon the relatedconceptof phenomenaversusnoumenaat the endof thisarticle.

628 TheMusicalQuarterly
ForKant'sownpresentation,
see his PrefaceandIntroduction
to the Critique
ofJudgement.Valuablediscussions
arefoundin FrancisX. J. Coleman,TheHarmony
of Reason:
A Studyin Kant'sAesthetics
(Pittsburgh:
Press,1974);andDonUniversityof Pittsburgh
aldW.Crawford,
Kant'sAesthetic
Theory(Madison,Wisc.:Universityof WisconsinPress,
1974).
28. The useof trianglesasvisualaidsin thisfigureis borrowed
fromthe bilingualedition of Friedrich
Education
Schiller,On theAesthetic
of Manina Seriesof Letters,ed. and
trans.ElizabethM. WilkinsonandL.A. Willoughby
(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1967),
349-50.
29. Fora moredetaileddiscussionof thistopicandof Schiller'splacein contemporary
cultureandcriticism,see W.H. Bruford,
CultureandSocietyinClassical
Weimar,
1775-1806(Cambridge:
Cambridge
UniversityPress,1962);andRendWellek,A History
Criticism,
1750-1950,vol. 1, TheLaterEighteenth
of Modern
Century(NewHaven:Yale
UniversityPress,1955).
30. Schiller,Aesthetic
100-101(letterno. 15).
Education,
31. Ibid.,14-15 (letterno. 3).
32. Regarding
the influenceof theseideason Beethoven,see Maynard
Solomon,
"BeethovenandSchiller,"in Beethoven
Harvard
Essays(Cambridge:
UniversityPress,
1988),205-15. Fora broaddiscussionof eighteenth-century
utopianthoughtandstimusee Maynard
latingspeculationaboutits musicalrealization,
Solomon,"Beethoven,
Sonata,andUtopia,"Telos9 (Fall1971):32-47; and"Beethovenandthe Enlightenment,"Telos19 (Spring1974):146-54.Alsosee the responsebyRobertC. Solomon,
"BeethovenandSonataForm,"Telos19 (Spring1974):141-46.
33. Of course,in additionto the EnglishandFrenchsourcescitedabovein conjunctionwithnote 20, "character"
hadalreadyoccupiedan important
positionin earlierGermanwritingson musicandaesthetics(e.g.,MatthesonandSulzer)withwhichKorner
wassurelyconversant.Forimportant
studiesthattracethe developmentandhistoryof
thistermin Germany,
see MarleneSchmidt,ZurTheorie
desmusikalischen
Charakters
inderMusik:Stu(Munich:Katzbicher,
1981);andJacobde Ruiter,DerCharakterbegriff
dienzudeutschen
Asthetik
derInstrumentalmusik
1740-1850(Stuttgart:
Steiner,1989).
20-23.
34. Schiller,Aesthetic
Education,
35. Kornerlateraddressed
this issuein a letterto Goetheof 17 Dec. 1796:"Dassich
michimmerbestrebe,dasGanzeeinesKunstwerks
zufassenhabeich vielleichtmeiner
Liebhaberei
fir Musikzudanken.Die Sinfoniedesgr6sstenMeistersgibteinengar
diirftigenGenuss,wennmanblossleidendsichdabeiverhilt,undsehrvon einzeln
TonendasOhrkitzelnhIsst.Hiermussmanschlechterdings,
wasunseinzelngegebenist,
zusammen
Werkeneine gewisseTitigkeit.Wer
hdren,unddazugeh6rtbei reichhaltigen
sichdiesedurchObungerleichterthat,wirdauchin Kunstwerken
anderArt,selbst,
wennsie von grosserem
Umfangsind,die Einheitfinden."Of course,the "zusammen
horen"of the totalworkis alsoa utopianideal,althoughthe possessionof a scoreand
the advantageof repeatedhearingsmadepossibleby twentieth-century
technologyhave
that"music,at its most
certainlybroughtthisidealcloser.Schiller'sfamousprescription
andaffectuswiththe serenepowerof antiqsublime,mustbecomesheerform[Gestalt]
154-55 [letterno. 22]) is relevanthere,becausea Gestaltcan
Education,
uity"(Aesthetic
be viewedandcomprehended
in its entirety.An overviewof a composition's
formal
structureis not, however,sufficientforfullaestheticappreciation.
The experienceof the

Aesthetics
Music629
of Instrumental
Kmrner's
andlocalemotivecontent)is
gradualunfoldingof a work(withits unknowns,surprises,
alsoan essential,innateaspectof musicalart.Bothperspectives
arenecessary
because,as
summarized
InstrumentalbyCarlDahlhaus,"dieFormist in derklassisch-romantischen
musikzugleichundin einseine Struktur,
die imUberblickerfasstwerdensoil,undein
und
Prozess,zudessenWesendie Spannungaufden Fortgang
gehart."See "Formbegriff
in Schiller'sMusikisthetik,"
in Klassische
undromantische
Ausdrucksprinzip
Musikasthetik
(Laaber:
Laaber,1988),113-24.
36. In thisregard,the anthropological
studiesof Wilhelmvon Humboldtwerethe
immediatesourceof influence.In early1795K6rnerhadreadHumboldt's
twoessays,
"OberdenGeschlechtsunterschied
unddessenEinflussaufdie organische
Natur"and
Humboldthadread,andoffered
Moreover,
"Uberdie mannlicheundweiblicheForm."
criticismon, the firstdraftof Kdrner's
essay.Fora detaileddiscussionof thistopic,see
in derMusik,159-70.
Ruiter,DerCharakterbegriff
37. Friedrich
Nicolaiwasverycriticalof thisaspectof Klrner'sessayin his Beschreibung
einerReisedurchDeutschland
unddieSchweiz
imJahre1781(BerlinandStettin,1796),
11:266.See Ruiter,DerCharakterbegriff
inderMusik,153.
38. Thefrequentreferences
to Greekmusic,poetry,anddancethroughout
thissection
revealthe stronginfluencethatJohannJoachimWinckelmann
exertedon late-eighteenthontheImitation
inPainting
andSculpture
centuryaesthetics.InhisReflections
ofGreekWorks
die
in
der
Werke
der
und
[Gedanken
Nachahmung
Bildhauerkunst,
griechischen
Mahlerei
aiber
not onlyinsistedon the superior
1755],Winckelmann
qualitiesof Greekart,buthe even
maintained
thatmodernartistsshouldstudyandemulateit (ratherthannatureitself)if
HisfamousstatementthatGreekartembodies
theywishto reachthehigheststandards.
"noblesimplicityandquietgrandeur"
is echoedin Kamrner's
phrasethattheGreekarts
"havein commonthecalmprogression
of dignity,andthe floatingof grace"(623).The
humanbodyin Greekart,whichis at thecoreof Winckelmann's
beautyof the idealized
in Kmrner.
aesthetics,is paralleled
bythecentralpositionof humancharacter
39. Ruiter(DerCharakterbegriff
inderMusik,155)suggeststhis interpretation.
Fora
butunconvincing,readingof K6rner's
correlations
betweenmusicaltechstimulating,
see Schmidt,ZurTheorie
desmusikalischen
78. Schmidt
Charakters,
niquesandcharacter,
of Classicalsonata
proposesthathis explicationamountsto a philosophical
paraphrase
form,in whichthe tensionandcontrastbetweenthe firstandsecondgroupsof an expositioncorrespond
to the active/masculine
andpassive/feminine
duality.
40. ElaineSismanhasmadea strongcasethatthe contrapuntal
complexityof a work
suchas the finaleof Mozart's
to the Kantian"mathe"Jupiter"
Symphonycorresponds
maticalsublime,"
withits emphasison immensityandthe infiniteasessentialtraits.See
herMozart:The"Jupiter"
No. 41 in C major,K. 551 (Cambridge:
Symphony
Cambridge
UniversityPress,1993),9-20. Fora discussionof thistopicthatdrawson writingsby
Kant'sdiscipleChristianFriedrich
and
Michaelis,seeJudithL. Schwartz,
"Periodicity
Passionin the FirstMovementof Haydn's'Farewell'
in Studiesin Musical
Symphony,"
Sources
andStyle:Essaysin HonorofJanLaRue,ed. EugeneK.WolfandEdward
H. Roesner(Madison,Wisc.:A-R Editions,1990),293-338.
41. CasparReutz,"Sendschreiben
einesFreundes
an denandernibereinigeAusdriicke
desHerrnBatteuxvon derMusik,"in Friedrich
WilhelmMarpurg's
Historisch-kritische
derMusik(Berlin:J.J.SchCitzens
Witwe,1754-55),1:304;Karl
Beitriige
zurAufnahme
(Bern:Typographische
Gesellschaft,1777),12-13;MichelLudwigJunker,Tonkunst
surlamusique
et principalement
surlamitaphysique
Paul-Guyde Chabanon,Observations

630 TheMusicalQuarterly
del'art(Paris:Pissot,1779),118-32;JohannAdamHiller,Oiber
dieMusikundderen
a
book
is
translation
of Cha133-47.
1781),
(Hiller's
Wirkungen
(Leipzig:
Jacobier,
banon.)
oderAnweisung
Klavierschule
und
42. DanielGottlobTuirk,
zumClavierspielen
fir Lehrer
Lernende
der
(LeipzigandHalle:the author,1789);CarlCzerny,DieKunstdesVortrags
undneueren
(Vienna:Diabelli,1842).FordetailedexploraKlavierkompositionen
alteren
tionsof thistopic,see my"Authenticity
andSubjectivity
in MozartPerformance:
Tuirkon
Character
andInterpretation,"
MusicSymposium
36 (1996):33-58;and"Mozart's
College
Notationof StaccatoArticulation:
A NewAppraisal,"
TheJournal
15
ofMusicology
(1997):230-77.
Gentleman
and
43. VernonGotwals,ed. andtrans.,JosephHaydn:Eighteenth-Century
Genius[Biographische
Notizenaiber
andBiographische
JosephHaydnbyG. A. Griesinger
Nachrichten
vonJosephHaydnbyA. C. Dies](Madison:
Universityof WisconsinPress,
1963),62 and155.
of Kantianphilosophy
to music,seeChristian
44. Foran important
popularapplication
mitRiicksicht
Friedrich
derasthetiMichaelis,UeberdenGeistderTonkunst:
aufKantsKritik
schenUrteilskraft
Schaferische
1795;vol. 2, 1800).Fora valuable
Buchhandlung,
(Leipzig:
"OfUnityandPasstudyof Kantianinfluencein concertreviews,see MarySueMorrow,
Ninesion:TheAestheticsof ConcertCriticismin EarlyNineteenth-Century
Vienna,"
Music13 (1990):193-206.Fora recentstudyof the influenceof Enlightenteenth-Century
mentideas,includingthoseof KantandSchiller,on Mozart,
seeNicholasTill,Mozart
and
theEnlightenment:
Truth,Virtue,andBeautyinMozart's
Operas(NewYork:Norton,1993).
inderMusik,80-92)
45. Equallylikelyis the proposalbyRuiter(DerCharakterbegriff
thatHaydnmayhavebeenreferring
to the character
foundin manyof his "theportraits
ater"symphonies,
no. 60 ("I1Distratto").
Forinsightfuldiscussionof this
particularly
andtheIdeaof Classical
Symphony
Style
topic,seeJamesWebster,Haydn's"Farewell"
Cambridge
UniversityPress,1991),234-36.
(Cambridge:
3 vols.(London:Macmillan,1961),
46. EmilyAnderson,ed.,TheLetters
of Beethoven,
is one of the
Beethoven's
no. 845.Thisletter,andspecifically
emphasison character,
of
mostimportant
piecesof evidencecitedbyRudolfKolischin his investigation
in Beethoven's
Beethoven's
Music,"Musical
tempos.See his "TempoandCharacter
29 (1943):169-87and291-312.A revisedversionof thisarticlehasappeared
Quarterly
77 (1993):90-131 and268-342.
in MusicalQuarterly
175-76.
47. Kant,TheCritique
ofJudgement,
andthe sketchytreatmentof actualcomposi48. In spiteof someinternalweaknesses
tionaltechniques,Korner's
aestheticshasprovideda valuablebasisandstimulusfor
HorenderNeuzeit,""Bachals
musicalanalysis.See HeinrichBesseler,"Dasmusikalische
in AufsatzezurMujsikidsthetik
und
and"Mozart
unddie 'DeutscheKlassik,'"
Wegbereiter,"
ed. PeterGilke (Leipzig:
Reclam,1978),104-73,367-419,and442-54;
Musikgeschichte,
CarlDahlhaus,"EthosundPathosin Glucks'IphigenieaufTauris,'
"DieMusikforschung
undseineZeit(Laaber:
Laaber
vanBeethoven
27 (1974):289-300;CarlDahlhaus,Ludwig
inderMusik,175-204;and
Verlag,1987),159-82;Jacobde Ruiter,DerCharakterbegriff
ZudenJosephHaydngewidmeten
Charaktere:
WilhelmSeidel,"Sechsmusikalische
von WolfgangAmadeusMozart,"
Mozart-Jahrbuch
(1984-85), 125-29.
Streichquartetten
thatMozart's
The mostdetailedandsystematicof thesestudiesis Ruiter'sdemonstration
of the aesthetic
K.551, firstmovement,is a compositional
realization
Symphony,

Music631
Aesthetics
of Instrumental
Kiorner's
interacpremiseof unityin diversity,not in anyindividuallayer,but in the coordinated
tion of severalcompositional
elements.As Ruiterpointsout,thisworkillustrates
dictumthatbeautyrequiresa specificrelationship
betweenone dominating
Karner's
force(Form)andthe forcesof the individualelements(Stoff).Namely,thereshouldbe a
"barelyachievedvictory"of the formeroverthe latter,"withthe dangerof beingoverletterto Schillerof 4 Feb.1793.)
(See KLrner's
powered."
MusicalAesthetics,
49. Edward
136)clearlyagreeswith
Lippman(A Historyof Western
thisverdict.He concludesthatKarner's
in
asthe counterpart
"theorycanbe regarded
aestheticsof the matureClassicalstyleof HaydnandMozart... it combines,asClassical
instrumental
musicdoes,an idealandedifyingmoralcharacterwitha unitybasedon
thematicworkmanship
of motives.Thisparticular
andthe integration
discombination,
tinguishedbyhumanfreedomin bothits aspectsandbelongingto purelyinstrumental
musicthatis alsofreein respectof externalfunction,wasachievedforthe firsttimein
VienneseClassicism,
describedforthe firsttimein Kr6mer's
justas it wasadequately
musicalaesthetics."