PHONOLOGY: CONSONANTS

All consonants may be classified as either voiced or voiceless. In articulating a voiced

consonant, the vocal cords are vibrating. (The vibration may easily be felt by gripping
the larynx--the "Adam's apple"--between the fingers and the thumb while articulating the
consonant.) In articulating an unvoiced consonant, the vocal cords are not vibrating.
Present-Day English has several consonant pairs that are articulated alike except that one
is voiced and the other is unvoiced. Some examples are the phoneme spelled b in bat
(voiced) and the phoneme spelled p in pat (unvoiced); the phoneme spelled d in dab
(voiced) and the phoneme spelled t in tab (unvoiced); the phoneme spelled th in this
(voiced) and the phoneme spelled th in thistle (unvoiced).
Consonants may also be classified according to the manner of articulation and the point
of articulation: that is, how and where the flow of air is stopped or impeded when the
consonant is articulated. Thus, we get the following systems of classification. Click on
the terms for further information.

MANNER OF
ARTICULATION
Stop
Affricate
Fricative
Nasal
Lateral
Retroflex
Semivowel

Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in
the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. Since the sudden release of the pent-up
air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called plosives. Stops may be voiced
(vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not
vibrating during the articulation of the stop). Here is a list of the stops in Present-Day
English.
1. /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop.
2. /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop.
3. /t/ (the phoneme spelled t in tot): voiceless alveolar stop.
4. /d/ (the phoneme spelled d in dot): voiced alveolar stop.
5. /k/ (the phoneme spelled c in cap): voiceless velar stop.
6. /g/ (the phoneme spelled g in gap): voiced velar stop.

Affricates are consonants that are formed by stopping the flow of air somewhere
in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air relatively slowly so that a frictionsound is produced. Present-Day English has only two affricates, one of which is voiced
(vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the affricate) and one of which is
voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the affricate).
1. /c</ (the phoneme spelled ch in chip): voiceless alveopalatal affricate.
2. /j</ (the phoneme spelled g in gyp): voiced alveopalatal affricate.

Fricatives are consonants that are formed by impeding the flow of air
somewhere in the vocal apparatus so that a friction-sound is produced. Because of
the way the flow of breath is heard in producing fricatives, fricatives are also called
spirants. Fricatives may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the
fricative) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the fricative).
Here is a list of the fricatives in Present-Day English.
1. /f/ (the phoneme spelled f in fine): voiceless labiodental fricative.
2. /v/ (the phoneme spelled v in vine): voiced labiodental fricative.
3. // (the phoneme spelled th in thistle): voiceless interdental fricative.
4. // (the phoneme spelled th in this): voiced interdental fricative.
5. /s/ (the phoneme spelled s in sue): voiceless alveolar fricative.
6. /z/ (the phoneme spelled z in zoo): voiced alveolar fricative.
7. /s</ (the phoneme spelled sh in shore): voiceless alveopalatal fricative.
8. /z</ (the phoneme spelled z in azure): voiced alveopalatal fricative.
9. /h/ (the phoneme spelled h in hot): voiceless fricative, produced at various points
depending upon the vowels in the vicinity. For example, in hot, /h/ is velar, whereas in
heat, /h/ is alveopalatal.

Nasals are consonants that are formed by blocking the oral passage and allowing
the air to escape through the nose. Present-Day English has three nasals, all of which
are voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the nasal). (The nasals, the

lateral /l/, the retroflex /r/, and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are sometimes called the
resonants.)
1. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.
2. /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.
3. // (the phoneme spelled ng in sing): (voiced) velar nasal.

Laterals are consonants formed by allowing the air to escape around the sides
of the tongue. Present-Day English has only one lateral, which is voiced (vocal cords
vibrating during the articulation of the lateral). (The lateral, the nasals, the retroflex /r/,
and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are sometimes called the resonants.)
1. /l/ (the phoneme spelled l in let): (voiced) alveolar lateral.

retroflex

A
is a consonant formed when the tongue rises toward the roof of the
mouth and then retracts toward the back of the oral cavity. Present-Day English has
one retroflex, which is voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the
retroflex). (The retroflex, the lateral /l/, the nasals, and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are
sometimes called the resonants.)
1. /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex.

Semivowels are vowel-like consonants: that is, the air-flow is not stopped or
impeded so as to cause a friction-sound, but the aperture through which the air
passes is smaller than the aperture of any vowel. Also, in forming words, semivowels
appear in positions where consonants normally appear. Present-Day English has two
semivowels, both of which are voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the
nasal). (The semivowels, the lateral /l/, the retroflex /r/, and the nasals are sometimes
called the resonants.)
1. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial velar semivowel. (This phoneme
is bilabial because it requires rounding of both lips; it is velar because the back of the
tongue rises toward the velum when the phoneme is articulated.)
2. /j/ (the phoneme spelled y in yard): (voiced) alveopalatal semivowel.

POINT OF
ARTICULATION

Bilabial
Labiodental
Interdental
Alveolar
Alveopalatal
Velar

Bilabials are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the
two lips. Bilabials may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the
consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the
consonant). Here is a list of the bilabials in Present-Day English.
1. /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop.
2. /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop.
3. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.
4. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial semivowel.

Labiodentals are consonants for which the flow of air is restricted by the lips
and teeth. Labiodentals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of
the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the
consonant). There are two labiodentals in Present-Day English.
1. /f/ (the phoneme spelled f in fine): voiceless labiodental fricative.
2. /v/ (the phoneme spelled v in vine): voiced labiodental fricative.

Interdentals are consonants for which the flow of air is restricted by catching
the tongue between the teeth. Interdentals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during
the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the
articulation of the consonant). There are two interdentals in Present-Day English.
1. // (the phoneme spelled th in thistle): voiceless interdental fricative.
2. // (the phoneme spelled th in this): voiced interdental fricative.

Alveolars are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by
creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the alveolar ridge.
Alveolars may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant)
or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a
list of the alveolars in Present-Day English.
1. /t/ (the phoneme spelled t in tot): voiceless alveolar stop.
2. /d/ (the phoneme spelled d in dot): voiced alveolar stop.
3. /s/ (the phoneme spelled s in sue): voiceless alveolar fricative.

4. /z/ (the phoneme spelled z in zoo): voiced alveolar fricative.

5. /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.
6. /l/ (the phoneme spelled l in let): (voiced) alveolar lateral.
7. /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex.

Alveopalatals are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded
by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the region of the
hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. Alveopalatals may be voiced (vocal cords
vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating
during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the alveopalatals in PresentDay English.
1. /c</ (the phoneme spelled ch in chip): voiceless alveopalatal affricate.
2. /j</ (the phoneme spelled g in gyp): voiced alveopalatal affricate.
3. /s</ (the phoneme spelled sh in shore): voiceless alveopalatal fricative.
4. /z</ (the phoneme spelled z in azure): voiced alveopalatal fricative.
5. /j/ (the phoneme spelled y in yard): (voiced) alveopalatal semivowel.

Velars are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by creating
a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the velum ("soft palate"). Velars
may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or
voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a
list of the velars in Present-Day English.
1. /k/ (the phoneme spelled c in cap): voiceless velar stop.
2. /g/ (the phoneme spelled g in gap): voiced velar stop.
3. /h/ (the phoneme spelled h in hot): voiceless velar fricative (in vicinity of back vowel).
4. // (the phoneme spelled ng in sing): (voiced) velar nasal.
5. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) velar (and bilabial) semivowel.

PHONOLOGY: VOWELS

Vowels may be classified as either rounded or unrounded, as either lax or tense, and as
either long or short.
In articulating a rounded vowel, the lips are rounded. The rounded vowels of PresentDay English are
1. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food);
2. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put);
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat);
4. // (the phoneme spelled au in caught).
Note that there are different degrees of rounding in these different vowels. The other
vowels of Present-Day English are unrounded.
In articulating a tense vowel, the tongue and other parts of the vocal apparatus are
relatively tense. With a lax vowel, on the other hand, the muscles of the vocal apparatus
are relatively loose. The lax vowels in Present-Day English are
1. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit);
2. // (the phoneme spelled e in bet);
3. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put);
4. // (the phoneme spelled au in caught).
Note that the degree of tenseness varies considerably in these different vowels. The other
vowels of Present-Day English are relatively tense (also in different degrees).
The distinction between long and short vowels cannot be illustrated in Present-Day
English, because vowel-length is no longer "phonemic" for speakers of English. That is,

there are no "minimal pairs" of words that differ only with respect to the length of a
vowel, and so speakers of PDE typically do not "hear" differences in vowel length. The
distinction between long and short vowels was presumably phonemic in Old English
and Middle English. Vowel length is presumably a matter of duration: that is, how long
the vowel-sound is sustained in its articulation.
Apart from the above distinctions, vowels may be classified according to the how far the
tongue is from the roof of the mouth during articulation, and how far back in the
oral cavity the vowel is articulated.
If the lower jaw is relatively low (that is, if the mouth is relatively widely open), the
tongue will be relatively far from the roof of the mouth. Vowels for which the jaw is
relatively low during articulation are called, unsurprisingly, low vowels; and vowels for
which the jaw is relatively high (the mouth is more nearly closed) are called high vowels.
This distinction can be appreciated, for example, by gripping the chin and successively
articulating "ha-ha, hee-hee, ha-ha, hee-hee." The phoneme spelled a in ha is a low
vowel, and the phoneme spelled ee in hee is a high vowel. The jaw can be felt to move up
and down correspondingly.
A vibration is felt in the oral cavity when a vowel is articulated. If this vibration is felt
toward the front of the cavity, say in the area of the alveolar ridge, the vowel is described
as a front vowel. If the vibration is felt toward the back of the cavity, say in the area of
the velum, the vowel is described as a back vowel. This distinction can be appreciated by
successively articulating "ho-ho, hee-hee, ho-ho, hee-hee," and paying attention to where
the vibration is felt most strongly in the oral cavity. The phoneme spelled o in ho is a
back vowel, and the phoneme spelled ee in hee is a front vowel.
Thus, we get the following system of classification for vowels. Click on the terms for
further information.

POSITION OF
JAW
High
Mid
Low

high vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated
with the jaw relatively high--that is, with the mouth nearly closed.
1. /i/ (the phoneme spelled ee in beet): high front vowel.
2. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit): high front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly
lower and slightly further back than is the preceding vowel /i/.
3. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food): high back vowel.
4. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put): high back vowel. This vowel is articulated slighter
lower and slightly further forward than is the preceding vowel /u/.

mid vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with
the jaw approximately in the middle of its range of vertical motion--that is, with the
mouth about half open.
1. /e/ (the phoneme spelled ai in bait): mid front vowel.
2. // (the phoneme spelled e in bet): mid front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly
lower and slightly further back than is the preceding vowel /e/.
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat): mid back vowel.
4. // (the phoneme spelled au in caught): mid back vowel. This vowel is articulated
slighter lower and slightly further forward than is the preceding vowel /o/.
5. // (the phoneme spelled u in but): mid central vowel.

low vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with
the jaw relatively low --that is, with the mouth fully or almost fully open.
1. // (the phoneme spelled a in bat): low front vowel.
2. /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father): low central vowel.

POINT OF
ARTICULATION
Front
Central
Back

front vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated
near the front of the oral cavity.
1. /i/ (the phoneme spelled ee in beet): high front vowel.
2. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit): high front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly
further back and slightly lower than the preceding vowel /i/.
3. /e/ (the phoneme spelled ai in bait): mid front vowel.
4. // (the phoneme spelled e in bet): mid front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly
further back and slightly lower than the preceding vowel /e/.
5. // (the phoneme spelled a in bat): low front vowel.

central vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated
near the center of the vocal cavity.
1. // (the phoneme spelled u in but): mid central vowel.
2. /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father): low central vowel.

back vowels

The
of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated
near the rear of the vocal cavity.
1. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food): high back vowel.
2. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put): high back vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly
further forward and slightly lower than is the preceding vowel /u/.
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat): mid back vowel.
4. // (the phoneme spelled au in caught): mid back vowel. This vowel is articulated
slighter further forward and slightly lower than is the preceding vowel /o/.

Diphthongs are vowel-phonemes articulated with a glide from one vowel to

another. There are three diphthongs in Present-Day English.
1. /aI/ (the phoneme spelled i in bite). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins by
articulating /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father), and glides to /I/ (the phoneme spelled i
in bit).
2. /aU/ (the phoneme spelled ou in house). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins
by articulating /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father), and glides to /U/ (the phoneme
spelled u in put).
3. /I/ (the phoneme spelled oy in boy). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins by
articulating // (the phoneme spelled au in caught), and glides to /I/ (the phoneme spelled
i in bit).

The Phonetic Consonant Chart

The English language has roughly 44 sounds, our alphabet has only 26 letters. How can we represent all of the
sounds that humans use to speak? We can use phonetic symbols, standardized by the International Phonetic
Association (IPA). Written phonetically, the word 'shingle' looks like: [s&iNg].
Sounds are classified by three characteristics: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and airstream
mechanism.
Places of Articulation
To produce a noise, two areas of the vocal tract (such as the tongue and the roof of the mouth) meet briefly to
block the flow of air out of the lungs. Feel the different positions of your tongue as you say 'puh,' 'tuh,' and 'kuh.' On
the table above, places of articulation make up the columns. From left to right, these are: bilabial (as in "puh"),
labiodental, dental, alveolar (as in "tuh"), alveo-palatal, palatal, velar (as in "kuh"), and glottal. These names
describe locations in the vocal tract. As you can see in the diagram below, the tongue is quite flexible!

Manners of Articulation
Pronounce 'hit' and 'hiss.' The [t] at the end of 'hit' is a stop (S); the airflow from the lungs through the mouth is
completely stopped when the tongue touches the roof of the mouth. On the other hand, the [s] in 'hiss' is an
fricative (Fric.). The tongue and the roof of the mouth are not touching, but are close enough that the airflow

becomes turbulant and produces a sound. Note that you can say 'hisssssss' until you run out of air, but that you
cannot hold on to a stop. Affricates (A) begin as stops but finish as fricatives. An example is the 'ch' sound in
'church'; it begins with a [t] and ends in 'sh' [ s&].
Finally, sounds are either voiced (Vd.) or voiceless (Vls.), depending on the state of the vocal chords during
production. If the vocal chords are vibrating, the sound is voiced; if they are loosely held open, the sound will be
voiceless. Try saying 'puh, buh'; 'tuh, duh'; and; 'kuh, guh.' The first of each pair begins with a voiceless consonant;
the latter words begin with voiced consonants. All English vowels are voiced.
Airstream Mechanisms
All sounds in the Enlish language are pulmonic egressive. That is, they are created by pushing air out with the
lungs. Some languages also use other airstream mechanisms, such as velaric ingressive (sucking air in with by
creating a vacuum with the tongue and the velum). Some southern African languages have clicks, which are velaric
ingressive. Try one by saying "tsk, tsk."
The chart above is not a complete list IPA consonant symbols, nor is it limited to English sounds. I've included
some sounds on the chart that, although they are not used in English, are easy for an English speaker to
pronounce. For example, I have not included retroflex or uvular categories in the chart above because these types
of noises are not used in English. For more information about phonetics and the phonetic chart, please visit: