Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
MECH 4335
THERMODYNAMICS
AND
HEAT TRANSFER
LABORATORY
William S. Janna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Memphis
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Item
Page
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Experiment 6
Experiment 7
Experiment 8
Experiment 9
Experiment 10
Experiment 11
Experiment 12
Experiment 13
Experiment 14
Experiment 15
Experiment 16
Experiment 17
Experiment 18
Experiment 19
Experiment 20
Appendix
........................................................................................................ 83
Experiment TBA
Safety
The layout of the equipment and storage
cabinets in the Heat Transfer Lab involves
resolving a variety of conflicting problems. These
include traffic flow, emergency facilities,
environmental safeguards, exit door locations,
etc. The goal is to implement safety requirements
without impeding egress, but still allowing
adequate work space and necessary informal
communication opportunities.
Distance between adjacent pieces of
equipment is determined by locations of water
supply valves, floor drains, electrical outlets,
and by the need to allow enough space around the
apparatus of interest. Immediate access to the
Safety Cabinet and the Fire Extinguisher is also
considered. We do not work with hazardous
materials and safety facilities such as showers,
eye wash fountains, spill kits, fire blankets, etc.,
are not necessary. However, waste materials are
generated periodically and they should be
disposed of properly.
Not infrequently, specimens under study are
heated by the use of a heat source. The student is
advised to use caution when conducting
experiments that involve heated surfaces,
because usually there is no visual indication that
a specimen is hot.
Safety Procedures. There is unmistakably
only one, clearly marked exit in this laboratory.
It has a single door and leads directly to the
hallway on the third floor of the Engineering
Building. In case of fire, exit the lab to the
hallway. After closing the door, take the stairs
down to first floor, and leave the building.
There is a safety cabinet attached to the
wall of lab adjacent to the door. In case of
personal injury, the appropriate item should be
taken from the supply cabinet and used in the
recommended fashion. If the injury is serious
enough to require professional medical attention,
the student(s) should contact the Mechanical
Engineering Department in EN 312, Extension
2173.
Every effort has been made to create a
positive, clean, safety conscious atmosphere.
Students are encouraged to handle equipment
safely and to be aware of, and avoid being
victims of, hazardous situations.
Cleanliness
There are housekeeping rules that the user
of the laboratory should be aware of and abide
by. Equipment in the lab is delicate and each
piece is used extensively for 2 or 3 weeks per
semester. During the remaining time, each
apparatus just sits there, literally collecting dust.
University housekeeping staff are not required to
clean and maintain the equipment. Instead, there
are college technicians who will work on the
equipment when it needs repair, and when they
are notified that a piece of equipment needs
attention. It is important, however, that the
equipment stay clean, so that dust will not
accumulate too heavily.
The Heat Transfer Laboratory contains
equipment that uses water or air as the working
fluid. In some cases, performing an experiment
will inevitably allow water to get on the
equipment and/or the floor. If no one cleaned up
their working area after performing an
experiment, the lab would not be a comfortable or
safe place to work in. No student appreciates
walking up to and working with a piece of
equipment that another student or group of
students has left in a mess.
Consequently, students are required to clean
up their area at the conclusion of the performance
of an experiment. Cleanup will include removal
of spilled water (or any liquid), and wiping the
table top on which the equipment is mounted (if
appropriate). The lab should always be as clean
4
c.
f.
g.
e.
Course Policy
Academic misconduct (acts of cheating and of
plagiarism) will not be tolerated. The Student
Handbook is quite specific regarding the course of
action to be taken by an instructor in cases where
academic misconduct may be an issue.
5
Performing experiments
In the course of performing an experiment, we
first would develop a set of questions or a
hypothesis, or put forth the theory. We then
identify the system variables to be measured or
controlled. The apparatus would have to be
developed and the equipment set up in a
particular way. An experimental protocol, or
procedure, is established and data are taken.
Several features of this process are
important. We want accuracy in our
measurements, but increased accuracy generally
corresponds to an increase in cost. We want the
experiments to be reproducible, and we seek to
minimize errors. Of course we want to address all
safety issues and regulations.
After we run the experiment, and obtain data,
we would analyze the results, draw conclusions,
and report the results.
Measurements
There are certain primary desirable
characteristics involved when making these
physical measurements. We wish that our
measurements would be:
a ) Observer-independent,
b) Consistent, and
c) Quantitative
Estimation
In some situations, there is no time to run
formal experiments to answer a question or verify
an equation. In such cases, it is often useful to
make careful estimates. These can help to
determine the ranges of parameters to investigate
in the experiments. Also, estimates are necessary
for partial validation of experimental results.
Consider, for example, that we must obtain a
quick estimate of the density of a rock. We
observe that it sinks in water, so it must be more
dense than water, 1 000 kg/m3. As an upper bound,
we might suggest that it is less dense than steel
at 3 000 kg/m3.
So if we conduct an experiment and obtain a
value outside this range, we would be suspicious
and check the equipment and the experimental
approach.
E = x xi
(1)
0.1 10%
p
50
E = x x
(3)
(2)
p
5%
p
p 0.05 p 0.05 50
or
p 2.5 psi
Classification of errors
Random error. A random error is one that arises
from a random source. Suppose for example that a
measurement is made many thousands of times
using different instruments and/or observers
and/or samples. We would expect to have random
errors affecting the measurement in either
direction () roughly the same number of times.
Such errors can occur in any scenario:
Electrical noise in a circuit generally produces
a voltage error that may be positive or
negative by a small amount.
By counting the total number of pennies in a
large container, one may occasionally pick up
two and count only one (or vice versa).
The question arises as to how can we reduce
random errors? There are no random error free
measurements. So random errors cannot be
eliminated, but their magnitude can be reduced.
On average, random errors tend to cancel out.
(3)
(4)
12
9
14
10
10
16
2
3
12
14
13
11
14
13
11
18
10
16
17
18
10
16
15
2
12
15
17
15
2
17
17
3.
4.
5.
2.
15
7
1.
13
11
14
13
11
18
16
12
18
Uncertainty in units
5.23 cm 0.143 cm
2.5 m/s 0.082 m/s
9.25 in 0.2 in
3.2 N 0.1873 N
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 2. A ruler used to measure the diameter
of a circle.
The ruler depicted in the figure could be any
arbitrary instrument with finite resolution. The
uncertainty due to the resolution of any
instrument is one half of the smallest increment
displayed. This is the most likely single sample
uncertainty. It is also the most optimistic because
reporting this values assumes that all other
sources of uncertainty have been removed.
f =
f =
2 L 2 50.00
g= 2 =
= 10.4 m/s2
t
3.12
gmax =
2 50.01
= 14.8 m/s2
2.6 2
1.
2.
and
2L
t2
3.
2
2 4 50.00
2
.
.
g = 2 0 01 +
0 5
3.1
3.13
n f
2
xi
i =1 xi
(6)
2L
t2
gmin =
n f
2
xi
i =1 xi
g = 3.4 m/s2
(5)
4.
g
L t
11
g
32%
g
f(xi )
g = 10.4 m/s2
and
g
32%
g
xi
FIGURE 3. Gaussian or Normal Distribution.
g = 10 m/s2 32%
This is an example of bad experiment or poor
results.
Uncertainty In Multi-Sample Measurements.
When a set of readings is taken in which the
values vary slightly from each other, the
experimenter is usually concerned with the mean
of all readings. If each reading is denoted by xi
and there are n readings, then the arithmetic
mean value is given by:
f ( x) =
xi
i =1
(7)
(8)
1 n
di = 0
n i =1
( xi x )2
i =1
n 1
(10)
(x x ) 2
e 2 2
x=
(9)
12
1.5
2
3
x 2
Example 3. The manufacturer of a particular
alloy claims a modulus of elasticity of 40 2 kPa.
How is that to be interpreted?
Solution: The general rule of thumb is that 2
kPa would represent a 95% confidence interval.
That is, if we randomly select many samples of
this manufacturers alloy we should find that
95% of the samples meet the stated limit of 40 2
kPa.
Now it is possible that we can find a sample
that has a modulus of elasticity of 37 kPa;
however, it means that it is very unlikely.
Example 4. If we assume that variations in the
product follow a normal distribution, and that
the modulus of elasticity is within the range 40
2 kPa, then what is the standard deviation, ?
Solution: The uncertainty 95% of confidence
interval 2. Thus
2 kPa = 2
So
100 - 99.7
= 0.15%
2
= 1 kPa
13
f(xi )
4.
Probability
1 - 1/(2n)
Reject
data
Reject
data
xi
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
50
100
300
500
1,000
max =
2.
3.
1.38
1.54
1.65
1.73
1.80
1.87
1.91
1.96
2.13
2.24
2.33
2.57
2.81
3.14
3.29
3.48
(11)
1.
dmax
=C
sx
14
reading in g
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.43
2.44
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
4.85
3.
2.
= 2.68 g
m
In column 3, we show the square of the
difference between each reading and the
mean value. Thus in row 1, we calculate
( xi x )2
i =1
n 1
= 0.763
(9)
reading in g
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.43
2.44
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
4.85
26.8
2.68
(x xi)2
0.0729
0.0676
0.0625
0.0625
0.0576
0.0576
0.0529
0.0484
0.0441
4.7089
5.235
0.763
\f(T,x
15
remove #10
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.43
2.44
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
(x xi)2
0.000835
0.000357
0.000079
0.000079
0.000001
0.000001
0.000123
0.000446
0.000968
21.95
2.44
0.002889
0.019
REPORT WRITING
All reports in the Heat Transfer Laboratory
require a formal laboratory report unless
specified otherwise. The report should be written
in such a way that anyone can duplicate the
experiment and obtain the same results as the
originator. The reports should be simple and
clearly written. Reports are due one week after
the experiment was performed, unless specified
otherwise.
The report should communicate several ideas
to the reader. First the report should be neatly
done. The experimenter is in effect trying to
convince the reader that the experiment was
performed in a straightforward manner with
SUMMARY
TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THEORY AND
ANALYSIS
PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND
Describes the equipment used, equipment setup, model and/or serial numbers,
experimental procedure. Past tense.
Summarize your outcome, graphs and tables, sample calculation. Past tense.
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES
16
17
INTRODUCTION
This section tells the reader what the experiment
is about. It begins with a description of the
problem that is being investigated. It includes
the background and provides the reader with a
clear concise statement explaining the purpose of
the experiment. This is one of the most important
parts of the laboratory report because everything
included in the report must somehow relate to the
stated object. The object can be as short as one
sentence and it is usually written in the past
tense.
Velocity
V in m/s
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Heat
transferred
q in W
13.6
16.2
17.5
18.9
Temperature T
in C
74.8
75.5
75.3
74.5
0.2
3
flow rate Q in m /s
Features of note
th
0.15
(1)
PROCEDURE
This section describes the equipment used in the
experiment and the test procedures. The
equipment setup should be shown in a figure. The
test equipment and instrumentation used should
be listed with model and/or serial numbers, and
the expected instrument precision. Figures of
specific components should be provided if
necessary to help the reader to better understand
the test procedure.
Briefly describe the steps of the
experimental procedure in the order in which
they were conducted. Include sufficient detail in
this section such that the reader could repeat the
experiment.
The procedure is written in the past tense.
APPENDICES
The Appendix section contains its own title page,
with a list of what the reader will find inside.
References. This portion of the appendix lists
references used in the preparation of the report.
You must cite the source publication for the work
of all others which you include. This gives them
due credit for their work, and shows the research
effort you put into your report. Do not list the lab
manual as a reference. An example of an
alphabetical Reference list follows:
Bannister, L. (1991). University Style Manual,
Fourth edition, Los Angeles: Loyola
Marymount University, 3639 and 5861.
CONCLUSIONS
This section is a clear and concise qualitative and
quantitative summary of the experiment and
results. It includes conclusions, observations,
trends, and recommendations. Recommendations
are especially valuable if the experiment failed
or was impaired. Do not refer to tables or figures
in this section. Coordinate the material in this
section with the Introduction section. If there was
a clear objective in this experiment, state
whether the objective was reached. Make
recommendations regarding the experiment.
Do not use sentences such as We learned a lot
in this experiment. Remember that your
20
EXPERIMENT 1
THERMOCOUPLES & INSTRUMENTATION
where AB is called the Seebeck coefficient,
whose value depends on the two metals. The
notation indicates that the voltage E AB is a
function of the junction temperature T2. The
variation of the Seebeck coefficient with
temperature is given in Figure 1.3.
metal A
T2
EAB
metal B
Linear region
metal A
T1
T2
i
i
metal B
Temperature in C
q
21
or
voltmeter
T1
T3
metal A
Cu
EAB
Cu
T3
E = AB(T2 Tref)
T2
metal B
T1
voltmeter
T1
T3
E
metal A
Cu
Cu
T3
EAB
metal A
metal B
ANSI
Type
E
J
K
R
S
T
T2
q
T1
thermometer
Chromel
Iron
Chromel
Platinum
Platinum
Copper
Constantan
Constantan
Alumel
Platinum/13% Rhodium
Platinum/10% Rhodium
Constantan
cork
reference junction
flask
Metals
Millivolts
ice bath
(water/crushed
ice mix)
Temperature in C
temperature.
The instructor will use a portable welding
device to make a thermocouple. Carefully
observe the procedure, and note the appearance of
the junction.
1.
Summary
Thermocouples produce a voltage that is
proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot junction and the reference
junction.
2.
3.
4.
Questions
What metals are used in the alloys Constantan,
Chromel, and Alumel? Why are these metals
used? How accurate are the temperature
measurements using thermocouples? What is a
thermistor?
For Your Report
Describe in your own words what a thermocouple
consists of, and how a thermocouple is made.
Experiment
The instructor will demonstrate the making of a
thermocouple, and its use in measuring
Positive
Wire
Negative
Wire
Outside
Temperature
Range F
White
Red
Brown
32 to 1382
CopperConstantan
Blue
Red
Brown
32 to 662
ChromelAlumel
Yellow
Red
Brown
32 to 2282
Thermocouple
IronConstantan
23
EXPERIMENT 2
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL
In order to make accurate predictions of heat
transfer rates through materials, it is necessary
to first know the value of the thermal
conductivity of the material itself. Thermal
conductivity can be measured using standard
methods, devices and techniques. In this
experiment, we will measure thermal
conductivity of a metal, and in addition,
calculate an overall heat transfer coefficient for
three metals in series.
Figure 2.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of three separable
sections. The center section is removable. The left
end section contains a brass rod, and an electrical
heater. The heat input to the heater can be
controlled and measured. The right end section is
also made of brass, and contains a hollowed out
cavity with water tubes attached. Thus heat
flows through from the heater through the left
end section, then through the center section, and
finally through the right end section to the
water.
The entire apparatus is insulated so that one
dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain
instrumentation for measuring temperature. The
rods in the end sections have a diameter of 25 mm
while the distance between adjacent temperature
measurements is 10 mm. The center section is 30
mm long.
Temperature versus length readings can be
obtained with this apparatus. Several
experiments can be performed depending on what
is used in the center section.
Procedure
Install the center section that is not
instrumented for temperature measurement. The
heater control is turned on to some value on the
rheostat. Water is circulated through the cavity.
Once steady state is reached, record temperature
versus distance. The steady state data can be used
to verify the accuracy of Fouriers Law, and to
calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is most
easily verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
section A-A
brass rod
electrical heater
(2.1)
temperature
measurement
25 mm
diameter
T
x
insulation
brass rod water cooling
chamber
center section
water out
water in
A
FIGURE 2.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to verify Fouriers Law of Conduction.
24
T
q = kA
x
(2.2)
q
= U(T1 T6)
A
where
1 xL x xR
= + +
U kL k kR
(2.3)
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the
rods. Determine from your plot the interface
temperatures (see figure below). Using published
thermal conductivity values for brass, and
Equation 2.3, find the thermal conductivity of
stainless steel and compare your results to
published values. Do not include the effects of
contact resistance. Also calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient.
stainless
steel
brass rod
T6
T1
T
(2.5)
brass rod
(2.4)
x
interface
temperature
measurement
TIL
TIR
FIGURE 2.2. Determination of interface temperatures from the measured temperature values.
25
EXPERIMENT 3
EFFECT OF AREA ON ONE DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION
In some geometries, one dimensional heat
conduction occurs through a material with an
area that is not constant. In such cases, it is still
necessary to be able to make accurate predictions
of heat transfer rates through the material. We
will investigate the effect of variable area on one
dimensional conduction in this experiment.
Thermal conductivity of the material will be
known.
Figure 3.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of three separable
sections. The center section is removable. The left
end section contains a brass rod, and an electrical
heater. The heat input to the heater can be
controlled and measured. The right end section is
also made of brass, and contains a hollowed out
cavity with water tubes attached. Thus heat
flows through from the heater through the left
end section, then through the center section, and
finally through the right end section to the
water.
The entire apparatus is insulated so that one
dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain
instrumentation for measuring temperature. The
rods in the end sections have a diameter of 25 mm
while the distance between adjacent temperature
measurements is 10 mm. The center section is 30
mm long.
Temperature versus length readings can be
obtained with this apparatus. Several
experiments can be performed depending on what
is used in the center section.
Procedure
Install the center section which has a smaller
cross sectional diameter than the end sections.
This center section is not instrumented for
temperature measurement. The heater control is
turned on to some value on the rheostat. Water is
circulated through the cavity. Once steady state
is reached, record temperature versus distance.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is easily
verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
section A-A
brass rod
electrical heater
(3.1)
temperature
measurement
25 mm
diameter
T
x
center section
insulation
brass rod water cooling
chamber
water out
water in
A
FIGURE 3.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to measure the effect of area on one dimensional
conduction.
26
q = kA
T
x
(3.2)
T
T
T
= A = AR
x
L
x R
AL
(3.4)
(3.3)
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the rods.
Using published thermal conductivity values for
brass (if you need them), verify whether
Equation 3.4 is correct. Do not include the effects
of thermal contact resistance in your calculations.
27
EXPERIMENT 4
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF AN INSULATOR
In order to make accurate predictions of heat
transfer rates through materials, it is necessary
to first know the value of the thermal
conductivity of the material itself. Thermal
conductivity can be measured using standard
methods, devices and techniques. In this
experiment, we will measure thermal
conductivity of an insulator.
Figure 4.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of two separable
sections, between which is placed the insulator of
interest. The left end section contains a brass rod,
and an electrical heater. The heat input to the
heater can be controlled and measured. The right
end section is also made of brass, and contains a
hollowed out cavity with water tubes attached.
Thus heat flows through from the heater through
the left end section, then through the center
section, and finally through the right end section
to the water.
The entire apparatus is insulated so that one
dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain
instrumentation for measuring temperature. The
rods in the end sections have a diameter of 25 mm
while the distance between adjacent temperature
measurements is 10 mm.
Temperature versus length readings can be
obtained with this apparatus. Several
experiments can be performed depending on what
is used in the center section.
Procedure
Install an insulating material between the
two end sections. The heater control is turned on to
some value on the rheostat (ensure that the
temperature at the hottest point does not exceed
100C). Water is circulated through the cavity.
Once steady state is reached, record temperature
versus distance. The steady state data can be used
to calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is most
easily verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
section A-A
(4.1)
temperature
measurement
25 mm
diameter
T
x
t
A
brass rod
electrical heater
A
insulation
brass rod
water out
water cooling
chamber
water in
insulating
material
T
q = kA
x
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the
rods. Determine from your plot the interface
temperatures. Use them with Equation 4.3 to
determine thermal conductivity. If published
values of the thermal conductivity are available
compare your results to them. Do not include the
effects of thermal contact resistance.
(4.2)
q x
A T
(4.3)
29
EXPERIMENT 5
DETERMINATION OF CONTACT RESISTANCE
Energy in the form of heat travels from a
region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature. When one dimensional flow exists,
the heat transfer rate can be described by
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction. Fouriers Law
is an experimentally observed law which
predicts a linear temperature distribution in one
dimension for a constant heat flux. Its
experimental verification is the subject of this
experiment.
Figure 5.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of three separable
sections. The center section is removable. The left
end section contains a brass rod, and an electrical
heater. The heat input to the heater can be
controlled and measured. The right end section is
also made of brass, and contains a hollowed out
cavity with water tubes attached. Thus heat
flows through from the heater through the left
end section, then through the center section, and
finally through the right end section to the
water.
The entire apparatus is insulated so that one
dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain
instrumentation for measuring temperature. The
rods in the end sections have a diameter of 25 mm
while the distance between adjacent temperature
measurements is 10 mm. The center section is 30
mm long.
Temperature versus length readings can be
obtained with this apparatus. Several
experiments can be performed depending on what
is used in the center section.
Procedure
Install the center section that is instrumented
for temperature measurement. The heater control
is turned on to some value on the rheostat. Water
is circulated through the cavity. Once steady
state is reached, record temperature versus
distance. The steady state data can be used to
verify the accuracy of Fouriers Law, and to
calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is most
easily verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
section A-A
brass rod
electrical heater
(5.1)
temperature
measurement
25 mm
diameter
T
x
insulation
brass rod water cooling
chamber
center section
water out
water in
A
FIGURE 5.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to verify Fouriers Law of Conduction.
30
q = kA
T
x
Results
The apparatus used in this experiment has 3
materials in series, and so there are two
interfaces. Plot temperature versus distance along
the rods. Determine the associated temperatures
for both interfaces, and calculate the contact
resistances. Compare to values found in a
textbook.
(5.2)
extrapolated
profiles
Til
Tir
Analysis
Figure 5.2 is a sketch of temperature versus
distance for two materials touching each other at
a location labeled interface. Data points are
graphed, and a best line is drawn through them
for both materials. The lines are extrapolated to
the interface. Data for the material on the left
indicates that the interface temperature is T i.,
while data for the other material indicates an
interface temperature of Tir. The difference in
these two temperatures is due to what is called
the contact resistance to heat transfer.
The contact resistance Rtc is found from the
one dimensional conduction equation:
q Til - Tir
=
A
Rtc
data point
interface
(5.3)
31
EXPERIMENT 6
RADIAL ONE DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION
Conduction in the radial direction is made to
occur in a number of geometries. In such cases, it is
important to be able to make accurate predictions
of the heat transfer rate. In this experiment, we
will investigate the temperature profile and
heat transfer rate for a radial system.
Figure 6.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of a 55 mm diameter
disk 3 mm in thickness, which has a hole in its
center that is 4 mm in diameter. The disk has an
electrical heater attached to its center, and
contains a circumferential water channel near its
outer edge. With the heater on and cooling water
flowing through the channel, heat flows
radially through the disk. The disk and heater
are well insulated to prevent heat losses in other
directions. Provision is made to measure
temperature at selected, evenly spaced locations
along the disk.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is verified
(or tested) in the radial, one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
T
r
(6.1)
55 mm
4 mm
T2
dT =
disk
temperature
measurement
T1
R2
1 q rd r
2k L r
R1
T2 T1 =
circumferential
water channel
or T1 T2 =
qr
R
ln 2
2k L
R1
qr
R
ln 2
2k L
R1
(6.2)
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the
disk. Use the data with Equation 6.2 to calculate
the rate of radial heat conduction. Compare the
results with the heat input read from the watt
meter. Are you expecting to get a straight line
graph?
Procedure
Turn the heater and the cooling water on and
allow sufficient time to elapse for steady state to
be reached. Take readings of temperature at all
radial locations. Measure the distance between
adjacent thermocouples.
32
EXPERIMENT 7
HEAT TRANSFER FROM A FIN
Conduction is the primary mode of heat
transfer through solids. When a heated solid is
exposed to a lower temperature fluid, heat is
transferred from the solid to the fluid by
convection. The amount of heat transferred at the
surface is calculated by means of a convection
coefficient h. Measuring the convection
coefficient for a fin is the subject of this
experiment.
Figure 7.1 is a sketch of a fin, also known as
an extended surface. Fins are used to increase the
surface area of a solid. When the surface area
A s is increased, the rate of heat transfer q is
increased because q is directly proportional to As.
In the apparatus of this experiment, there
are three fins attached to a chamber into which
steam is admitted. The steam will heat the end
of each fin. Heat will be conducted axially along
each fin and will be transferred by natural
convection to the air. Thermocouples are
embedded at intervals along each fin so that
temperature is known at selected points. It is at
these points where the convection coefficient will
be determined.
Introduction
Fins are usually characterized with a ratio of
parameters denoted as m which is defined as
m=
hP
kA
steam inlet
L
z
fin
steam chest
T
outlet
FIGURE 7.1. Schematic of one of the three fins of the apparatus, and a corresponding steady
state temperature profile.
33
Theory
Consider a pin fin of diameter of D and a
length L as shown in Figure 7.1. The fin is in an
environment where the temperature is T, and
the convection coefficient is h, which is an
average value assumed constant over the entire
fin surface. At the wall, the temperature is Tw.
In this case, the wall temperature is taken to be
equal to that of the thermocouple nearest the
steam chamber. Also shown in the figure is the z
coordinate. The differential equation for
temperature in the fin is modeled with:
d 2 T hP
(T T) = 0
dz 2 k A
qz = kA
(7.1)
z=0
T = Tw
BC 2.
T T
e =
(7.6)
f =
d 2
m2 = 0
dz 2
z=0
=1
d 2 T hP
(T T) = 0
dz 2 k A
(7.2)
(7.1)
BC 1.
z=0
T = Tw
BC 2.
z=L
dT
=0
dz
(7.5)
where
T T
Tw T
m2 =
1
mL
f = (kP/hA)1/2
(7.4)
dT
d z 0
(7.3)
(T T) = 0
dz 2 k A
1.
2.
Calculate values of
3.
4.
5.
6.
(7.1)
BC 1.
z=0
T = Tw
BC 2.
z=L
dT
= h(T T)
dz
T T
, m and using the
Tw T
equations that are appropriate for the fin
used in the experiment. Do not use the Case 3
equations (which will be found in any heat
transfer textbook) unless they indeed do
apply.
Item
Temperature Profile
Symbol
T T
=
Tw T
hP
kA
Case 1
Infinite Fin
Case 2
Insulated Tip
exp( mz)
tanh (mL)
Dimensionless Heat
Transfer Rate
qz
=
kAm(T w T )
Efficiency
e =
1
mL
tanh (mL)
mL
Effectiveness
f
(kP/hA) 1/2
tanh (mL)
35
Questions
What values are expected for the convection
coefficient h? Is the convection coefficient a
constant as is so often assumed? How does the
convection coefficient vary with temperature?
m=
Example
Data were obtained on the system of Figure
7.1 for a copper rod that is 1 cm in diameter and 1
m long. At a distance z of 30 cm, the temperature
was measured to be 50C. The wall and ambient
temperatures were measured to be 95C and 20C,
respectively. Calculate the convection
coefficient, the effectiveness and the efficiency.
hP
= 3.05
kA
kA
399(7.85 x 10-5)
(3.05)2 =
(3.05)2
P
3.14 x 10-2
Assumptions
1. Heat is transferred along the rod by
conduction only.
2. One dimensional conduction exists along the
rod.
3. Heat is transferred only by convection to the
surrounding air; radiation to the surroundings
is neglected.
4. Properties of the copper are constant.
5. The system is at steady state.
e =
e = 0.326
The fin effectiveness is
f =
kP
tanh (mL)
hA
399(3.14 x 10-2)
tanh (3.05(1))
9.29(7.85 x 10-5)
f = 130
The interpretation of these results is left to the
reader.
36
EXPERIMENT 8
DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR
USING THE ANALOG FIELD PLOTTER
In many two dimensional geometries for
which a heat transfer analysis is to be
performed, it is sometimes necessary to use a
technique for solution other than an analytical
one. One such method involves the use of the
conduction shape factor, which is generated from
a field plot for the geometry. An analog field
plotter is an electronic aid used to help generate a
field plot, which is the subject of this
experiment.
Theory
For heat transfer in a two dimensional
material having constant properties, the
applicable differential equation for temperature
is
2T 2T
+
=0
x 2 y 2
Insulated
boundary or
line of symmetry
E2 or T2
Stylus or
probe
(8.1)
Wired and
painted boundary
(isothermal)
E1 or T1
2E 2E
+
=0
x 2 y 2
E1 - E2 = T1 - T 2
E=E-E2
Null detector
Procedure
The procedure involved in using a field
plotter first requires construction of the two
dimensional geometry with a sheet of paper that
conducts electricity (several makes are
available). The conductive paper is held down on
a drawing board with thumbtacks at the corners.
Metal wire is attached to thumbtacks
appropriately so that the wire is in contact with
the paper along the necessary boundaries. Silver
conducting paint is then brushed on over the wires
and the paper. Generally, isothermal boundaries
in the geometry are wired and painted; insulated
boundaries are left alone. As shown in Figure 8.1,
a voltage potential is imposed on the region
across which a temperature difference exists. A
(8.2)
ML
N
(8.3)
(b)
Example
Consider that we have a two dimensional
geometry, illustrated isometrically in Figure 8.3,
for which we are to find the heat transfer rate.
Heat will be transferred from the surface at
temperature T1 to the surface at T2 in an amount
given by Equation 8.4. It is assumed that the
temperatures and the thermal conductivity are
known. All we need in order to calculate the heat
transferred is the conduction shape factor for the
geometry. This particular geometry was selected
because its shape factor is known from analytical
methods to be
Results
When the adiabats and isotherms are known,
they are combined into one drawing which is used
to help generate a field plot. The field plot
consists of isotherms and adiabats drawn in
freehand in the geometry of interest. The actual
sketching is aided by paying strict attention to
some key concepts, namely:
(8.4)
S=
2L
ln (0.54W/R)
(8.5)
S
2
2
=
=
L ln (0.54W/R) ln (0.54(8.4)/1.3)
or
S
= 5.02
L
The % error between 5.02 and 5.71 is 14%.
Experiment
For the cross section assigned, use the analog
field plotter to obtain isotherms and adiabats.
Superimpose the graphs to obtain a rough plot.
Use the rough plot to generate a sketched and
refined flux plot. The final plot is to be done
freehand. Determine the number of heat flow
39
EXPERIMENT 9
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS TO UNSTEADY
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS
Prior to the existence of computers and
calculators, graphical methods were used
extensively to solve engineering problems. In some
cases, a graphical solution was the only way to
solve the problem. Graphical methods in heat
transfer require little mathematics and can
afford acceptable accuracy. They permit the
designer the luxury of having an overall view of
how temperature varies with time through an
object for unsteady problems. In addition,
mistakes can easily be found and corrected. The
Schmidt Plot was one of the very first graphical
solution methods devised. A modernized
graphical solution method known as the Saulev
Method will be used in this experiment.
The one dimensional unsteady conduction
equation in heat transfer can be solved
graphically in a step-by-step manner. The
procedure involves:
1. Describing the problem with the
differential equation and appropriate boundary
conditions.
2. Rewriting the differential equation in an
algebraic form.
3. Solving the problem by graphically
following the algebraic equation.
The method is easier to illustrate than to explain
and so an example problem will be solved.
T
2T
=
t
x 2
k
Cp
(9.1)
Example Problem
A brick wall 5 cm thick is part of the chimney
section of an incinerator. When in operation, the
temperature of the exhaust gases inside the
chimney are 460C, and the outside wall surface
of the chimney is not to exceed 100C. Initially,
the entire chimney is at 20C. Determine the time
required to meet this condition if the brick
properties are:
t<0
Tw = 20C
t >0
T = 460C
C p = 840 J/(kgK)
sp. gr. = 1.8
k = 0.5 W/(mK)
Tmp+1 Tmp
T p
= m+1
t
t
p
(Tm+1
( x) 2
p+1
Tmp Tmp+1 + Tm-1
Tmp )
(9.3)
Many finite difference equations like the one
above depend heavily on the value of the Fourier
Number t/( x)2 for their stability.
Fortunately Equation 9.3 is unconditionally stable
so we can select virtually any reasonable value
and obtain good results. Equation 3 simplifies
greatly if we use t/( x)2 = 1, yielding
Tmp+1 =
Tm+1p + Tm-1p+1
2
(9.4)
t
=1
( x) 2
x=0
By substitution
T p
h
(T p Twp)
= c (Tp Twp) =
x m
k
k/hc
k
t
0.5
t
=
=1
Cp ( x) 2 1 800(840) (0.01) 2
Solving gives
(9.5)
t = 302.4 s = 5 min
T
= 0
x
(9.6)
41
400
4.
300
200
100
t =0
0
x
0
5= m
5.
1 cm
T
400
300
4
3
2
0=t
200
100
6.
x
0
5= m
7.
8.
42
EXPERIMENT 10
PREDICTING TEMPERATURE AT THE CENTER OF A CYLINDER
USING TRANSIENT CONDUCTION WITH CONVECTION
When a heated (or cooled) substance is
immersed in a bath having a different
temperature, heat transfer takes place. Heat is
conducted throughout the substance, and
convection occurs at the surface. There are
different ways to model this unsteady problem,
depending on the relative magnitudes of the
convection coefficient and the thermal
conductivity of the material. In this experiment,
unsteady temperature versus time is measured for
a material, and the convection coefficient is
calculated. The results are then used with
Heisler charts in order to predict the expected
temperature, and the results are compared.
= exp
Ti T
V
c
Bi =
Support
hL c
k
Valve
Support
Water
Return
Motor
Motor
Shaft
Immersion
Heater
Test
Cylinder
Insulated
Tank
(10.1)
Inner
Cylinder
Calculations
The objective in this experiment is to use the
Heisler chart for an infinite cylinder and that for
a semi-infinite plate to predict the temperature
obtained by experiment. We could assume the
cylinder has an infinite length to diameter ratio,
but this would introduce some error into the
calculations.
At any recorded time, use the data to
calculate the value of dimensionless temperature,
(Tc T)/(Ti T), in which Tc is the temperature
at the cylinder center. With the lumped analysis
assumption, we assume that the center
temperature Tc is equal to the temperature T
anywhere within the cylinder. Use Equation 10.1
to find the value of the convection coefficient. We
Pump
Water
Flow
t
R2
Sample Calculation
Data obtained on a steel cylinder (D = 2 in., L
= 8 in.) yielded the following data:
Ti = 79F
T = 149F
at t = 100 s, Tc = 138F
What temperature does the Heisler charts
predict? What is the % error?
Solution: We apply Equation 10.1, which is
T T
h A st
= exp
Ti T
V
c
Calculations are:
t
L2
T T 138 - 149
=
= 0.157
Ti T 79 - 149
As = 0.3927 ft2
R
2L
finite cylinder
V = 0.01454 ft3
2L
infinite cylinder
semi-infinite plate
FIGURE 10.2. Finite cylinder solution as product of infinite cylinder and semi-infinite plate solutions.
44
and
Lc =
0.01454
= 0.037 ft
0.3927
Tc T
0.85
Ti T
h = 135.8 BTU/(hrft2R)
hL 135.8(0.037)
Bi = c =
= 0.203
k
24.8
The % error is
Fo =
% error = 100 x
Experiment
For this experiment, obtain temperature versus
time for an object submerged in a water bath.
Determine a value for the convection coefficient
for all instants in time. Select 2 data points and
use the Heisler charts to determine how well
they predict the temperature of the cylinder.
k t
= 1.8
c R 2
Questions
1. Is the convection coefficient a constant? Is it
within an acceptable range for the
conditions of the experiment?
2. For the 2 data points you selected, what is
the error if we use only the infinite cylinder
solution without correction from the semiinfinite plate solution?
2. What is the difference between the Biot
number for the lumped capacitance method
and the Biot number used in the Heisler
charts?
3. Reading the Heisler charts with a great deal
of accuracy is very difficult. What is your
estimate of the error involved in using the
graphs?
4. Radiation was not accounted for in the
analysis associated with this experiment.
Why not?
Fo =
138 - 137
= 1.1%
138
k
24.8
=
= 2.2
h R 135.8(0.0833)
Tc T
0.21
Ti T
(semi-infinite plate)
k
24.8
=
= 0.55
h L 135.8(4/12)
k t
= 0.113
c L 2
45
1
0.8
Infinite Cylinder
0.6
0.4
25 = 1/Bi = k/hR
(T - T )/(T - T )
i
0.2
0.1
0.08
10
2.5
12
14
18
16
20
0.06
6
0.04
0.02
0.2
0
0.01
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.8
1.6
1.2
1.4
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
28 30
Fourier Number t / R2
1
0.8
0.6
Semi-infinite Plate
0.4
(T - T )/(T - T )
i
0.2
10.0
0.08
0.1
0.06
8.0
1.0
6.0
4.0
0.8
3.0
0.6
0.04
2.0
1.5
0.4
0.2
0.02
1/Bi = k/hL
0.01
=0
Fourier Number
46
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
t / L2
28 30
EXPERIMENT 11
NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER:
FLAT PLATE, FINNED PLATE, AND PIN FINS
Heat transfer by natural convection occurs in
many situations, and so it is important to
understand it and be able to successfully model it.
Studying natural convection for various
geometries is the subject of this experiment.
fan and
motor
within
heated
model
Apparatus
Consider a heated flat plate oriented
vertically and transferring heat by only one of its
surfaces to the surrounding air. Air near the plate
becomes warm and its density decreases. Buoyant
forces within the air act to move this less dense
air upward, and it is replaced with cooler air.
The motion of the air is due to the presence of the
heated plate, and so we call this a natural
convection problem.
Figure 11.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used
in this experiment. It consists of a rectangular
duct that is held in the vertical direction. Flow
straighteners are at the bottom of the duct, and
an electrically operated fan is located at the top.
Air flow is upward through the system. Along
the front of the duct is a viewing window made of
clear plastic. Behind the viewing window is an
opening into which a
air flow
heated model can be
direction
placed, as indicated in
Figure 11.2.
In this experiment,
the heated model is a
duct
flat plate. When
installed, the flat plate
viewing
is heated by an internal
window
resistance heater, and
the energy to the heater
is controlled by a
support
rheostat. The back and
stand
sides surrounding the
heated flat plate are
well insulated so that
all energy from the
rheostat is transferred to
the air by the front face
of the plate. Other
base
models that could be
plate
used are a finned plate,
or a plate that has pin
fins attached.
viewing
window
flow
straighteners
within
base
plate
h cL
k
g(T T)L 3
Ra =
Pr =
Nu =
Other Geometries
This experiment can be repeated with a flat
plate that has longitudinal fins attached, as
shown in Figure 11.2, or with a flat plate that
has pin fins attached. Perform this experiment
for the heated model assigned. (Note: For these
shapes, a comparison of results with an equation
like 12.1 is not possible, because such equations
are unavailable for plate fins and pin fins.)
48
EXPERIMENT 12
FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
FROM A FLAT PLATE TO AIR
Heat transfer by forced convection is a
common problem, and so it is important to be able
to successfully model it. Modeling forced
convection for a flat plate transferring heat to air
is the subject of this experiment.
fan and
motor
within
heated
model
Apparatus
Consider a heated flat plate oriented
vertically and transferring heat by only one of its
surfaces to the surrounding air, which is being
forced past the plate by a fan. Air near the plate
receives energy and is moved away.
Figure 12.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used
in this experiment. It consists of a rectangular
duct that is held in the vertical direction. Flow
straighteners are at the bottom of the duct, and
an electrically operated fan is located at the top.
Air flow is upward
air flow
through the system.
direction
Along the front of the
duct is a viewing
window made of clear
plastic. Behind the
duct
viewing window is an
opening into which a
viewing
heated flat plate model
window
can be placed, as
indicated in Figure 12.2.
In this experiment,
support
the flat plate is heated
stand
by an internal resistance
heater, and the energy
to the heater is
controlled by a rheostat.
The back and sides of
the flat plate housing
are well insulated so
base
that all energy from the
plate
rheostat is transferred to
the air by the front of
the plate.
viewing
window
flow
straighteners
within
base
plate
q = hcA(Tw - T)
where A is the area of the plate in contact with
49
=
=
=
=
air velocity
absolute viscosity of air
thermal diffusivity of air = k/ c
kinematic viscosity of air
h cL
k
VL
Re =
gc
Pr =
Other Geometries
This experiment can be repeated with a flat
plate that has longitudinal fins attached, or
with a flat plate that has pin fins attached.
Perform this experiment for the heated model
assigned. (Note: For these other shapes, a
comparison of results with a textbook equation
might not possible, because such equations are
unavailable for fins and pin fins.)
Nu =
50
EXPERIMENT 13
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER I
Conduction and convection are heat transfer
mechanisms involving a material medium
through which energy travels. However, energy
can also be transferred through a region in which
a perfect vacuum exists. This mechanism or mode
of energy transfer is commonly called
electromagnetic radiation. All radiation is
propagated at the speed of light in a vacuum.
The many types of electromagnetic radiation
include X rays, gamma rays, the visible spectrum,
radio waves, thermal radiation, and
microwaves. Our concern is solely with the
thermal component. Net heat transfer by
radiation is a result of a temperature difference,
but it should be remembered that radiation
heater
transformer
light source
heat source
instrument console
and controller
track and scale
Radiometer
Figure 13.2 shows the same apparatus with a
radiometer in place. A radiometer is used to
measure radiant energy emitted from a heated
surface. A device such as this can made of an
array of thermocouples connected in series to give
a high voltage output, compared to the output of
only one thermocouple. (The thermocouples could
also be connected in parallel to give a higher
current output.) A radiometer is any of a broad
class of temperature measuring devices, including
thermocouples (as used here), thermistors, and
resistance pyrometers.
heat source
radiometer
dA1
A
reading F d12
(13.1)
dA1
Fd12 =
1
2
x
1 + x2
y
x
+
tan-1
2
2
2
1
+
x
1
+
y
1
+
y
tan-1
A2
a
52
1
L2
(13.2)
53
EXPERIMENT 14
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER II
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In order to model radiation heat transfer, it is
useful to define a surface or substance that emits
radiation ideally. An ideal radiator is known as
a black body, and it will emit energy at a rate
that is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature:
q
T4
A
(14.3)
= 5.67 x
= 0.1714 x 10-8 BTU/(hrft2R4)
10-8
W/(m2K4)
heat source
L1
black
plate
radiometer
L2
q = A T 4
The emissivity is 1 for an ideal radiator, and less
than 1 for a gray surface. This equation is known
as the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
When a real body exchanges heat by
radiation only with a black body, the net heat
exchanged is proportional to the difference in T4.
For such a system, the net heat exchanged is
q = A 11(T14 T24)
q
= (T14 T24)
A
(14.5)
(14.4)
(14.6)
55
EXPERIMENT 15
EMISSIVITY OF BLACK AND GRAY SURFACES
Conduction and convection are heat transfer
mechanisms involving a material medium
through which energy travels. However, energy
can also be transferred through a region in which
a perfect vacuum exists. This mechanism or mode
of energy transfer is commonly called
electromagnetic radiation. All radiation is
propagated at the speed of light in a vacuum.
The many types of electromagnetic radiation
include X rays, gamma rays, the visible spectrum,
radio waves, thermal radiation, and
microwaves. Our concern is solely with the
thermal component. Net heat transfer by
radiation is a result of a temperature difference,
but it should be remembered that radiation
heater
transformer
light source
heat source
instrument console
and controller
track and scale
Radiometer
Figure 15.2 shows the same apparatus with a
radiometer in place. A radiometer is used to
measure radiant energy emitted from a heated
surface. A device such as this can made of an
array of thermocouples connected in series to give
a high voltage output, compared to the output of
only one thermocouple. (The thermocouples could
also be connected in parallel to give a higher
current output.) A radiometer is any of a broad
class of temperature measuring devices, including
thermocouples (as used here), thermistors,
resistance pyrometers, and radiation pyrometers.
heat source
radiometer
dA1
A
reading F d12
(15.1)
dA1
Fd12 =
1
2
x
1+
x2
y
x
+
tan-1
2
1+
1+y
1 + y 2
tan-1
x2
A2
a
57
Radiative Properties
The surface of a substance highly influences
its radiation characteristics, and the amount of
radiant energy the surface emits, absorbs,
reflects, and transmits. Polished gold, for
example, has an emissivity of (measured normal
to the surface) of 0.025. An unpolished gold
surface, on the other hand, has a normal
emissivity of 0.47. It is important to realize that
such differences exist, and that surface treatment
is a significant factor in how the material
behaves in radiative heat transfer studies.
Emissivity is a property that describes how
radiant energy interacts with the surface of a
material. Other properties that are important
are reflectivity, absorptivity, and
transmissivity. As implied by these names,
reflectivity is the fraction of incident radiant
energy reflected by the surface; absorptivity is
the fraction of incident radiant energy absorbed
by the surface; and, transmissivity is the fraction
of incident radiant energy transmitted through a
layer of the material.
The radiative properties discussed in the
preceding paragraphs are in general functions of
wavelength. Properties that describe surface
behavior as a function of wavelength are called
monochromatic or spectral properties. In
addition, radiative properties can be a function of
direction. Such properties are referred to as
directional properties. In the analysis of
radiation heat transfer, accounting for the exact
behavior of a surface or material can be complex
enough to make a solution elusive. A simplified
approach must therefore be formulated. This
involves the use of radiative properties that are
averages over all wavelengths and all directions.
These properties are called total or
hemispherical properties. Use of total properties
is accurate enough in a majority of cases for most
engineering problems.
heat source
L1
radiometer
L2
1 =
q/A
(T 14 T 24)
(15.3)
Measurement of Emissivity
For a system in which radiation is being
accounted for, the net heat exchanged is given by
q = A 11(T14 T24)
black
plate
(15.2)
58
EXPERIMENT 16
RADIATION VIEW FACTOR
Conduction and convection are heat transfer
mechanisms involving a material medium
through which energy travels. However, energy
can also be transferred through a region in which
a perfect vacuum exists. This mechanism or mode
of energy transfer is commonly called
electromagnetic radiation. All radiation is
propagated at the speed of light in a vacuum.
The many types of electromagnetic radiation
include X rays, gamma rays, the visible spectrum,
radio waves, thermal radiation, and
microwaves. Our concern is solely with the
thermal component. Net heat transfer by
radiation is a result of a temperature difference,
but it should be remembered that radiation
energy propagates from a body (a source) with or
without the presence of a second body (or
receiver).
q = A T 4
The emissivity is 1 for an ideal radiator, and less
than 1 for a gray surface. This equation is known
as the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
When a real body exchanges heat by
radiation only with a black body, the net heat
exchanged is proportional to the difference in T4.
For such a system, the net heat exchanged is
q = A 11(T14 T24)
where the 1 subscript refers to the source, and
2 refers to the receiver.
View Factor
The view factor (also called the
configuration factor, the shape factor, or the
geometry factor) is a geometry term for a system
in which two surfaces exchange energy by
radiation. Radiation waves travel in straight
lines, and if one surface cannot see another,
then there is no direct radiation from the first
surface to the second. Thus position (or the
geometry) between source and receiver is
important in determining the radiative energy
transfer rate. The view factor expresses the
geometry of position that exists between source
and receiver. For a net heat exchange in which
we must account for geometry, the heat
transferred becomes
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In order to model radiation heat transfer, it is
useful to define a surface or substance that emits
radiation ideally. An ideal radiator is known as
a black body, and it will emit energy at a rate
that is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature:
q
T4
A
With a proportionality constant, the preceding
equation becomes
q = A 11F1-2(T 14 T 24)
q = AT4
where is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
and has the value of
Theory
Consider that we are trying to obtain the
configuration factor between a differential area
dA1 and the finite area A2, as shown in Figure
16.1. Initially, we identify a differential area
dA2 on A2, and draw lines normal to both
differential areas. We also draw a line from dA 1
to dA2, and this line has a length S. The angles 1
59
dA s = r 2 d 1
from the definition of solid angle. Combining
with Equation 16.3b gives
FdA1-A2 =
1
cos 1 dAs
r 2 As
(16.4)
Normal to dA2
A2
dA2
S
dAs
As
1
r
d 1
FdA1-A2 =
Ab
r2
(16.5)
Ab
dA1
dAs cos 1
d 1 =
dA 2 cos 2
S2
FdA1-A2 =
(16.1)
Graphical Solution to a
Specific Problem
The sphere method has a graphical
equivalent, as described here. The sphere method
can also be used with a photographic technique,
which is described later. Both methods are used
in this experiment. In some geometries, there are
theoretical solutions which have been developed
and catalogued. One such case is described here.
It has been investigated with the sphere method,
and the experimental results are to be compared
to those obtained by equation.
Figure 16.2 shows the plan and profile views
of a differential area located at the origin, and a
plane, selected to illustrate the method. We
will use results obtained from the sphere method
to obtain a graphical solution for the
configuration factor between the differential
area dA and the plane.
The graphical solution method first involves
drawing a hemisphere of radius r in both views.
The hemisphere is constructed with its center at
the area dA, and the radius of the hemisphere is
selected arbitrarily. The hemisphere can
encompass the entire plane, or pass through it or
(16.2)
FdA1-A2 =
A2
(16.3a)
1
cos 1 d1
A2
(16.3b)
plane
Plan
Profile
plane
dA
dA
3
1
2
0
plane
Plan
Profile
1
dA
0
Photographic Method
The photographic method is based on the
concepts discussed in the theory section.
Regarding the problem solved graphically in the
preceding section, we can use a reflecting
hemisphere which is placed over the area dA,
and view directly above dA. The reflection of the
plane in the surface of the hemisphere will
appear like that shown in Figure 16.4. So a
photograph taken in this way can be used to
obtain the areas, and the configuration factor can
then be calculated.
Figure 16.6 is a sketch of the apparatus used
here. Shown is the relative mounting of all
pieces. The plane area is mounted on the frame,
and a camera is used to take a photograph in the
viewing direction.
truncated
hemisphere
r
d2
r
d1
ra
Viewing
direction
d1 + d2 = r
The preceding two equations contain two
unknowns (d1 and r). Solving simultaneously, we
get
Plane area
r=
ra2 + d 22
2d 2
(16.6)
FdA1-A2 =
A
1 + B2 + A2
1
2
(1 + B 2 + A 2)2 4B 2
(16.7)
Correction Factor
As mentioned earlier, the hemisphere used is
not quite a true hemisphere; it has been
truncated, as shown in Figure 16.7. The actual
known dimensions, referring to the figure, are
radius ra and height d2. In order to make
appropriate calculations, it is necessary to
determine the true radius r. For the dimensions of
Figure 16.7, we can write:
0.5
1.0
0.4
b/c = 0.975
F dA -A
1
2
0.95
0.3
A2
0.9
0.8
0.2
b
0.7
dA1
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.2
0
0.01
0.02
0.04 0.06
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
a/c
FIGURE 16.8. A graph of Equation 16.7 for the view factor between a differential area and a disk.
63
EXPERIMENT 17
ANALYSIS OF A DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
temperatures involves an in depth analysis if
those parameters above are all that are known.
Presenting an entire analysis here is too lengthy.
Consequently in this experiment, the equations
are given but not derived.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. There are two flow
circuits with water as the fluid in both of them.
One fluid circuit is for warm water and one for
cold water. The warm water is heated in a
heating tank by submersible heating elements. A
pump moves the heated water from the tank
through some piping to three double pipe heat
exchangers connected in series. From there, the
water returns through a valve and a flow meter to
the heating tank.
The cold water enters the apparatus and goes
through a flow meter to two directional control
valves. These valves operate with two
independent handles which are to be turned
simultaneously. In Figure 1, the valves direct the
flow toward the center of the apparatus to the
double pipe heat exchangers. From there, the
cold water is directed to a drain.
With the arrangement shown in Figure 17.3,
the cold water and the warm water are both
traveling in the opposite direction through all
three heat exchangers (counterflow).
annulus
fluid outlet
t2
inlet
T1
temperature
outlet
t1
T1
tube fluid
T1
inlet
tube fluid
annulus
fluid inlet
t2
T2
t1
length or distance
annulus
fluid outlet
t2
t1
annulus
fluid inlet
T2
temperature
tube fluid
tube fluid
outlet
T2
T1
T2
t1
t2
length or distance
64
directional
control
valves
sight glass
heaters
to drain
heating tank
flowmeter
t7
T3
valve
T5
tm1
t9
valve
t8
tm2
T6
T4
pump
t10
counterflow
valve
tank
drain
water flow
transducer
cold water
inlet
heat
exchangers
valve
hot water
drain
FIGURE 17.3. Apparatus used in the double pipe heat exchanger experiment; counter flow.
at 85F with a mass flow rate of 12,000 lbm/hr. A
double pipe heat exchanger consisting of a 11/4
standard type M copper tubing inside of 2
standard type M copper tubing. The exchanger is 6
ft long. Determine the outlet temperature of both
fluids using counterflow and again using parallel
flow.
directional
control
valves
sight glass
heaters
to drain
heating tank
flowmeter
t7
T3
valve
T5
tm1
t9
valve
t8
tm2
pump
t10
valve
T6
T4
tank
drain
parallel flow
water flow
transducer
cold water
inlet
heat
exchangers
valve
hot water
drain
FIGURE 17.4 . Apparatus used in the double pipe heat exchanger experiment; parallel flow.
Assumptions
Water
m
140F
kf
= 5000 lbm/hr
= 0.985(62.4) lbm/ft3
= 0.376 BTU/hrftR
= 0.514 x 10-5 ft2/s
T1
Cp
Pr
= 195F
= 0.9994 BTU/lbmR
= 6.02 x 10-3 ft2/hr
= 3.02
66
Ethylene
Glycol
140F
m
c
kf
= 12,000 lbm/hr
= 1.087(62.4) lbm/ft3
= 0.150 BTU/hrftR
= 5.11 x 10-5 ft2/s
t1
Cp
Pr
= 85F
= 0.612 BTU/lbmR
= 3.61 x 10-3 ft2/hr
= 51
Fluid Velocities [Because A a > A p, we route the ethylene glycol (the fluid with the higher flow rate)
through the annulus.]
/A = 2.48 ft/s
Water
V =m
p
Ethylene
Glycol
/A = 4.20 ft/s
Va = m
c
a
IDp/2
ODt = 9.5 mm
IDt = 7.9 mm
L = 3 x 350 mm
IDa = 11.1 mm
IDa/2
r
T
t
R12
R23
R34
Convection Coefficients
Water
hp = Nup kf/OD p = 623 BTU/hrft2R
Ethylene
Glycol
67
Exchanger Coefficient
1
1
1
=
+
Uo h p h a
Uo = 159 BTU/hrft2R
T2 =
C )]
T1(R 1) Rt1[1 exp(U oA o(R 1)/m
c pc
t2 = t1 +
Parallel Flow T2 =
T 1 T2
R
(R + 1)exp[U A (R + 1)/m C ]
o
t2 = t1 +
pc
T 1 T2
R
Water
Ethylene
Glycol
T2 = 188F
Counterflow
t2 = 90F
Counterflow
Water
Ethylene
Glycol
T2 = 188F
Parallel Flow
t2 = 90F
Parallel Flow
c pc 2
Re =
hD
D Re Pr 1/3
= 1.86
kf
L
VD
< 2 200
< 16 700
Re =
0.7 Pr = 160
L/D 60
VD
10 000
hD
= 0.023(Re)4/5 Prn
kf
69
EXPERIMENT 18
PLATE AND FRAME HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger is a device used to
transfer heat from one fluid to another. There
are many different types of heat exchangers
including shell-and-tube, cross flow, and double
pipe. The analysis of a shell and tube heat
exchanger, and of a plate and frame heat
exchanger, is the subject of this experiment.
Figure 18.1 shows the apparatus used in
this experiment. The device contains a water
supply tank, a pump-motor combination, two
rotameters, two heat exchangers, and the
rotameter
steam in
tap water in
E
tap water out
(to drain)
return line
C
D
A
condensate out
motor
pump inlet line
supply tank
pump
70
Tap Water
Water (recirculating)
From steam generator
Thermocouple
herringbone
pattern
warmer
fluid
gasket
material
cooler
fluid
Procedure
Turn the steam generator on to its maximum
setting. The valve at B should be fully open.
The valve at D should be closed and the
valve at C should be open.
Turn the pump on and adjust the valve at A so
that the flow rate reading on the manometer
does not exceed the maximum reading. The
valve at F should be closed.
Turn the floor valve on to allow tap water to
circulate through the plate and frame heat
exchanger. The flow rate of tap water should
not exceed the maximum on the rotameter.
The valve at E should be fully open. The flow
rate of tap water is to be controlled by the
floor valve.
Allow the system to reach steady state.
Monitor the progress toward steady state by
observing the temperature of any
thermocouple.
When steady state is achieved, record all
fluid temperatures, and both flow rate
readings.
profile view of
several plates
frontal view
end plate
is sealed
warmer
liquid
inlet
cooler
liquid
inlet
warmer
liquid
outlet
cooler
liquid
outlet
Gaskets
There are at least two gaskets that separate
the fluids. If there is a gasket failure, the
leaking fluid is discharged to the atmosphere
and the two fluids seldom mix. Gasket materials
include natural rubber styrene, resin cured nitrile,
and silicone and butyl rubbers. Neoprene and
compressed asbestos are also used.
Assumptions
1. Steady state conditions exist.
2. Fluid properties remain constant and are
evaluated at the average of inlet and outlet
temperatures for both fluid streams.
Nomenclature
1. T refers to the temperature of the warmer
fluid.
2. t refers to the temperature of the cooler fluid.
3. w subscript refers to the warmer fluid.
4. h subscript refers to hydraulic diameter.
5. c subscript refers to the cooler fluid.
6. 1 subscript refers to an inlet condition.
7. 2 subscript refers to an outlet condition.
Frames
The sheet metal plates are clamped together
with nuts and long bolts in a frame that contains
pipe connections for both fluids. Frames are
usually free standing, and because of the way
they are constructed, the entire heat exchanger
can be taken apart in a very short time. Frames
are usually made of carbon steel, painted or
coated to protect against corrosion. Connections
72
t2
T1
Tap Water
Water (recirculating)
Thermocouple
T2
return line
FIGURE 18.4. Schematic of flow parallel flow through a plate & frame heat exchanger.
A. Fluid Properties
m
w =
=
kf =
m
c
kf
=
=
=
=
T1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
t1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
A
m/
(N s + 1)/2
Vw =
Vc =
D. Reynolds Numbers
Rew = V wD h/ =
Rec = V c Dh/ =
73
E. Nusselt Numbers
Modified Sieder-Tate Equation for laminar flow:
Nu =
hDh
D Re Pr 1/3
= 1.86 h
kf
L
0.48 < Pr = / < 16 700
Re < 100
hDh
= 0.374 Re0.668 Pr1/3
kf
Pr = / > 0;
Re > 100;
Conditions:
changes moderately with temperature
Properties evaluated at the average fluid
temperature [= (inlet + outlet)/2]
Nuw =
Nuc =
F. Convection Coefficients
h i = Nuw kf/D h =
h o = Nuck f/D h =
G. Exchanger Coefficient
1
1
t
1
=
+ +
Uo h i k h o
Uo =
H. Capacitances
C )
(m
p w
C )
(m
p c
C)
(m
p min =
I. Number of Transfer Units, NTU, and Correction Factor
U oA oN s
=
C)
(m
N=
F =1 - 0.016 6 N =
p min
R=
C
m
c pc
=
m C
w
T2 =
C ] =
Ecounter = exp[UoAoNsF(R - 1)/m
c pc
pw
t2 = (T1 - T2)/R + t1 =
K. Log Mean Temperature Difference
Counterflow
LMTD =
(T 1 - t 2 ) - (T 2 - t 1 )
=
ln [(T 1 - t2 )/(T 2 - t 1 )]
w pw
C (t - t ) =
qc = m
c pc 2
1
q = UoAoNsF LMTD =
M. Pressure Drop Calculations
Reynolds number range
Darcy-Weisbach
Friction factor
280
Re
100
f = 0.589
Re
12
f = 0.183
Re
110
f=
10100
> 100
fw =
fc =
pw =
fwL Vw2
V2
+ 1.3 w p =
D h 2gc
2gc
pc =
fcL cVc2
V2
+ 1.3 c p =
D h 2gc
2gc
Calculated
% Error
T2 =
t2 =
Experimental Method
A plate and frame heat exchanger is
mounted on a support system containing a tank
of water with immersion heaters and a pump.
The pump moves heated water through the
heat exchanger. (There are controls for the
heaters.) Cold tap water is also routed through
the exchanger. Thermocouples are located at
the inlet and outlet of each fluid stream.
Variable area meters are located in each flow
line also. Valves are present in the system in
order to control the flow rates
For one predetermined flow rate of the
warmer and one of the cooler fluid, establish a
75
EXPERIMENT 19
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Problem
The objective of this experiment is to use derived equations to predict the outlet
temperature of water as it is heated in a condenser, specifically, a shell and tube heat
exchanger. The water is heated by steam condensing on the outside of the tubes. The
heat exchanger is set up with the tube fluid (water to be heated) passing through
twice. Measured tube and shell data are provided in the appropriate places below.
Discussion
Assumptions
kf
m
c
kf
=
=
=
=
T1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
t1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
B. Tubing Sizes
IDt = 0.225 in.
N t = no. of tubes = 56
C. Shell Data
Ds
B
Nb
PT
C
= 3 in.
= unknown (and not needed)
= unknown
= 5/16 in.
) =P
76
shell
tubes
Tube layout
pattern. Adjacent
tubes near the
center form a
square pitch
layout. Near the
shell, the pitch is
altered slightly
from being square.
ODt
PT
IDt
Square pitch
layout.
Gt = m/A
=
Gs = m/A =
( square
pitch )
De =
4PT 2 ODt2
=
ODt
G. Reynolds Numbers
Ret = VtIDt/ =
Re s = V sD e/ =
H. Nusselt Numbers
Tube Side
Modified Sieder-Tate equation for Laminar Flow:
Nut =
hiIDt
ID Re Pr 1/3
= 1.86 t t
kf
L
valid for
hiIDt
= 0.023Ret4/5 Prn
kf
valid for
where
L/D > 60
hoDe
= 0.36Res0.55 Pr1/3
kf
valid for
Nut =
Nus =
I. Convection Coefficients
h i = Nutkf/IDt =
h t = h iID t/OD t =
h o = Nuskf/D e =
J. Exchanger Coefficient
1
1 t
1
=
+ +
Uo h t k
ho
Uo =
J. Effectiveness
E = 2 1 + C +
1
1 + exp [N(1 + C 2)1/2]
2 ) 1/2
(1
+
C
(Graphed below)
C= 0
0.2
0.8
0.4
Effectiveness
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
1 shell pass
Any multiple of 2 tube passes
0.2
0
0
T1 = T2
2
3
4
5
Number of Transfer Units N
( mC
p ) max
N=
UA
( mC
p)min
and
E=
t2 t1
=
T 1 t1
78
S=E=
pc
t2 = S(T1 t1) + t1 =
T2 = T1 R(t2 t1) = T1 =
because R = C = 0
1
1 shell pass
Any multiple of 2 tube passes
0.95
0.9
0.85
F
0.8
0.75
2.5
R = 4.0
3.0
2.0 1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.7
0
0.2
0.4
0.5 0.4
0.6
F=
(figure above)
LMTD =
(T 1 t 2 ) (T 2 t 1 )
=
ln [(T 1 t2)/(T 2 t1)]
t2 =
Measured
t2 =
0.2
0.8
0.3
% Error =
79
Correction Factor
graph for a shell
and tube heat
exchanger.
EXPERIMENT 20
THE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is
used in what is commonly known as an air
conditioner. Such devices are thought of
primarily as something needed to cool a room.
The air conditioner circulates a fluid called a
refrigerant through heat exchangers. The
refrigerant absorbs heat at a low temperature at
one of the exchangers and discharges heat at a
high temperature at the other exchanger.
Evaluation of the vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is the subject of this
experiment.
Experimental Procedure
The unit used in the laboratory contains
several pressure and temperature gages at various
locations throughout the piping system. A number
of valves are also in the circuit for flow control.
Operation of the unit will be shown by the
instructor. For the experiment, start and operate
the unit as per directions given. Identify the
compressor, condenser, receiving tank, throttling
device, evaporator and the accumulator tank.
Begin at the compressor and follow the closed
loop made by the refrigerant. Observe the process
of condensation and vaporization in the heat
exchangers.
Fans are used to move air past the cross flow
heat exchanger tubes. Set the fans at a desired
setting and with the compressor operating, allow
the system to reach steady state. Use either the
capillary tube or the expansion valve. Once
steady state is reached, take temperature and
pressure readings at all the gage locations.
80
condenser
receiver
tank
filter/dryer
sight
glass
1
3
expansion
valve
capillary
tube
accumulator
tank
compressor
evaporator
valve
Sample Calculations
Data taken on an air conditioner yielded the
pressures and temperatures provided in Table
20.1. A sketch of the cycle was made on a
pressureenthalpy diagram which is given in
Figure 20.2. Readings from a (more detailed)
pressureenthalpy diagram and from a table of
properties of Freon-12 yielded the enthalpies
shown in column 4 of Table 20.1. Also shown in
Table 11.1 are the entropy and specific volume
values for each point in the cycle. Using those
data gives the following results:
Analysis
A pressureenthalpy diagram will be
provided for the refrigerant. Identify and label
all points in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a
separate graph. For the calculations involved,
take readings of properties directly from the
pressureenthalpy diagram. By applying the
energy equation to a compressor, we get the
following equation assuming that the process is
adiabatic
Compressor Work:
= h4 h 1
4w1
(20.1)
1q2
= h1 h 2
h2 = h3 = 31 BTU/lbm
= h3 h4 = 31 84 = 53 BTU/lbm
= h1 h2 = 90 31 = 59 BTU/lbm
Throttle:
(20.2)
h2 = h3
= h4 h1 = 84 90 = 6 BTU/lbm
(20.4)
81
Questions
What is the relationship between 4w 1, 1q 2
and 3q4? Why? On the Ts diagram for the
TABLE 20.1. Refrigerant properties for each point in the cycle of the example.
Point
1
2
3
4
Pressure
psia
Temperature
F
enthalpy
BTU/lbm
136
136
56
48
116
96
42
64
90
31
31
84
entropy
BTU/lbmR
specific volume
ft3/lbm
0.169
0.078
0.08
0.175
0.25
0.014
0.013
0.85
pressure
psia
2
ted
vap
or
ura
sat
ura
ted
liqu
id
sat
enthalpy
BTU/lbm
82
Appendix
83
Assumptions
m
w =
=
kf =
=
m
c
kf
=
=
=
=
T1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
t1
Cp
Pr
=
=
=
=
B. Tubing Sizes
IDa =
IDp =
ODp =
/A =
Va = m
/A =
Ga = m
84
ODp
IDp
IDa
De = (IDa2 - ODp2)/ODp =
F. Reynolds Numbers
Re p = V pID p/ =
Rea = V aD e/ =
G. Nusselt Numbers
Modified Seider-Tate equation for laminar flow:
Nu =
Re =
hD
D Re Pr 1/3
= 1.86
kf
L
VD
< 2 200
85
hD
= 0.023(Re)4/5 Prn
kf
VD
10 000
0.7 Pr = 160
L/D 60
Properties evaluated at the average fluid
temperature [ = (inlet + outlet)/2]
Nup =
Nua =
H. Convection Coefficients
h p = Nup kf/OD p =
ha = Nua kf/De =
I. Exchanger Coefficient
1
1
1
=
+
Uo h p h a
Uo =
C ] =
Ecounter = exp[UoAo(R - 1)/m
c pc
T 1(R - 1) - Rt 1(1 - E counter)
RE counter - 1
t2 = t1 +
T 1 - T2
R
86
C ] =
Parallel Flow Epara = exp[UoAo(R + 1)/m
c pc
T2 =
t2 = t1 +
T 1 - T2
R
T2 =
t2 =
K. Log Mean Temperature Difference
Counterflow
LMTD =
(T 1 - t 2 ) - (T 2 - t 1 )
=
ln [(T 1 - t 2 ) /(T 2 - t 1 )]
Parallel Flow
LMTD =
(T 1 - t 1 ) - (T 2 - t 2 )
=
ln [(T 1 - t 1 ) /(T 2 - t 2 )]
L. Heat Balance
C (T - T ) =
qw = m
w pw 1
2
C (t - t )
qc = m
c pc 2
1
q = UoAoLMTD
(clean)
Rdo =
1
1
=
+ Rdi + Rdo
U
Uo
U =
q
=
U (LMTD)
Ao
=
(OD p )
87
O. Friction Factors
Re p = V p ID p / =
=
ID p
Re a = V a D h / =
fp =
=
Dh
fa =
fp =
64
Re p
Rep =
ODp
ID a
V pIDp
2 200
Rea =
VaDh
10 000
1
Rea 1 + 2
1+
=
+
fa
64 1 -
ln( )
Turbulent Flow Equations
5.0452
1
= - 2.0 log
log
3.7065D
Re
2.8257
D
()
1.1098
5.8506
Re 0.8981
Churchill Equation
f = 8
8 12
1
1/12
+
1.5
(B + C)
Re
where B = 2.457ln
C =
37 530
Re
(7/Re) 0.9
1
1 6
+ (0.27 /D)
16
88
pp =
f p L pVp2
=
ID p 2gc
faL
aVa2
+ 1
=
Dh
2gc
pa =
89