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com

Trackers

Tracking the position of an object is needed in many

applications, not only in VR systems

Tracker is the special-purpose hardware used in VR to measure

the real-time change in objects position and/or orientation

GPS (Global positioning system)

Tracking Systems for VR

SGN-5406 Virtual Reality
Autumn 2009
ismo.rakkolainen@tut.fi

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

3D trackers in VR

Tracking device properties

Highly important for immersion for most VR systems (Caves,

HMDs for example)
Not necessary e.g., in some flight simulators
Contradictory features:
Cost, accuracy, speed, interfering media (metals, opaque),
encumbrance (wires, weight), range

Especially registration (superimposing real and synthetic

objects) in augmented reality requires extremely fast and
accurate tracking
Current accuracy and speed has its limits

Accuracy / precision
Speed of the reported position
Interfering media

Encumbrance

Metals, opaque objects, loudspeakers etc.

Wires
Mechanical linkages

Cost

Tracker etc. links:

The head can turn even 1000 deg./s

Range of operation typically some meters

Prices 1,000 100,000 and up

http://www.visgraf.impa.br/Projects/mcapture/hotlinks.html

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Degrees of freedom (DOF)

Degrees of freedom (DOF)

Degrees of freedom (DOF) are the set of independent

displacements and/or rotations that specify completely the
position and orientation of the body or system
1 DOF system

Most VR trackers
Describes the position of the object in 3D space
3 parameters, axes (x,y,z)

Only one value

Volume control, speed control, sliding along a straight line etc.

2 DOF system

Forward backward
Left right
Up - down

Describes the orientation (rotating angle) of the object

3 parameters, rotational axes

X and Y coordinates
Mouse, joystick, drawing tablet etc.

6 DOF system

3 DOF system

Position in space: X, Y, Z coordinates

Or orientation (x, y, z)

Yaw
Pitch
Roll

More DOFs (more moving parts)

Human hand has 22 possible movements, so tracking it completely
would be 22 DOF

Rotation about the 3 axes

Position, orientation, joints

Humans total over 100 DOF

VR Trackers

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Coordinates of an Object, 6 DOF

Trackers

Tracking in VR applications
Users head
Necessary for e.g., HMD

Limbs
Hands

The purpose of tracking

VR Trackers

View control
Locomotion
Object manipulation
The control of an avatar (the virtual body of the user)

VR Trackers

Tracker accuracy

Tracker accuracy

The

difference between the objects actual

position and that reported by tracker
measurements
Separate for position and rotation
Not the same thing as resolution
Resolution is the minimum change that the sensor can
detect

Typically

degraded with distance from the

origin of the reference system of coordinates
Operating range
VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Tracker jitter

Tracker jitter

The

change in tracker output when the

tracked object is stationary
A tracker with no jitter gives constant value
as output if the object is stationary
Should be minimized
Unwanted effects in graphics
Tremor
Jumpy virtual objects
Can be filtered -> latency
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Tracker drift and latency

Tracker latency

Drift: the steady increase in tracker error with time

As time passes, the tracker inaccuracy grows

The time delay between action and result

With tracker, the time between the change in
position/orientation and the time the sensor
detects the change
Has several negative effects on the
simulation

VR Trackers

Spoils the experience

Can induce simulation sickness
>50 ms: no presence
>10 ms: potential simulator sickness
VR Trackers

Tracker update rate

Tracker update rate

Multiplexing

The

number of measurements that the

tracker reports every second
Larger update rate, better dynamic response
of the simulation
Typically 30-240 datasets/s
If a tracker measures several objects,
sampling rate can suffer

effect

Multiplexing effect

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Registration

VR tracker types

Registration (kohdennus in Finnish):

synchronization of synthetic objects to real world
Especially augmented reality requires fast and
accurate head tracking
Head 50 degrees / s:
system delay <10 ms, angular error <0.5 deg

Visual, sound, haptics registration

Indoors/outdoors
Fiducial markers, reflectors, or tags aid registration
significantly
Static / dynamic error
Registration works mostly in limited, special
environments

Electromechanical
Electromagnetic
Ultrasonic
Optical, videometric
Inertial
(Neural, eye tracking, others )
Hybrid methods

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Electromechanical trackers

Boom

An electromechanical tracker consists of a serial or

parallel kinematic structure composed of links
interconnected using joints with sensors
Quite simple and easy to use
Accuracy fairly constant over the work envelope of
the tracker
Immune to electromagnetic interferences
Very low jitter
Very low latency
Relatively low-cost

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Mechanical trackers in a
motion capture suit

Boom
A

The display is attached to

electromechanically tracked booms

tabletop model

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Electromechanical trackers

Non-contact trackers

Drawbacks

Limited range

Non-contact trackers have largely replaced

mechanical ones
In most cases, 3D measurement technology should not be
intrusive and hinder the users freedom of motion in the
process of tracking him

Due to dimensions of mechanical arms

Restrict the user to a fixed location
If the arm is long, weight, inertia and mechanical
oscillations increase

Reduction in the users freedom of motion due to

the motion interference from the tracker arm itself
Weight of the mechanical tracker

VR Trackers

Electromagnetic trackers
Ultrasound trackers
Optical trackers
Light points, computer vision based, etc.
Accelerometers
Gyroscopes
Etc
VR Trackers

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Electromagnetic trackers

Electromagnetic tracking

A non-contact position measurement device

Uses a magnetic field produced by a stationary
transmitter to determine the real-time position of a
moving receiver element
Transmitter
3 antennas: orthogonal coils wound on a ferromagnetic cube
Produce 3 orthogonal magnetic fields

Fields generate current in receivers

Most prevalent today
Two basic types: AC or DC
Polhemus, Ascension

About 1-5 meters

Accuracy gets worse fast

VR Trackers

AC magnetic trackers

Sensors are triads of orthogonal magnetic

transducers
AC or DC are about the same size
AC magnetic trackers can offer high update rate

Computer calculates position and orientation from

the sensory information
TRANSMITTER

Only one at a time can be energized in order to know precisely

where the field originates

SENSOR

TRANSMITTER
DRIVE
ELECTRONICS

SIGNAL
PROCESSING
ELECTRONICS

All three can be driven simultaneously

Has many advantages but also increases complexity and

cost

COMPUTER

AC magnetic tracker
http://polhemus.com/
STAR*TRAK wireless Motion Capture
Pos. 1 in. / receiver
Or. 2 peak / receiver
65,000 (discontinued)

FASTRAK
4ms latency, 120 Hz (1 receiver)
0.03 in., 0.15, 5800
6000

Frequency multiplexed
Three frequencies are used

VR Trackers

Polhemus (AC)

Alternating magnetic fields, 7-14 kHz

3 orthogonal coils in the receiver
Time multiplexed
Three windings are driven at different times
A single frequency is used on all three (X,Y,Z) of its axes

Up to 240 Hz, at very low latency (3.5 ms)

Latency from the

calculation and filtering

VR Trackers

Electromagnetic tracking

A widely used method

Relatively accurate
Can be wireless
Requires no line-of-sight
Limited range

VR Trackers

Polhemus Liberty

Resolution ~ 0.04 mm, 0.01

Accuracy ~ 0.1 mm RMS, 0.15 rotation
240 Hz
Latency 3.5 ms
Range 1.5 m, extendable
4 -16 sensors: 8 - 18,000

Patriot
Latency 17 ms, 60 Hz/sensor
0.1 in., 0.75, 2300

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DC magnetic trackers

Transmitter unit

Pulsed DC
magnetic fields
Always time
multiplexed
DC signals such
as the earths
field must be
measured and
subtracted from
the sensor
outputs

Receiver unit

Energizing coil
VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Ascension (DC)

Ascension

DC magnetic tracker
http://www.ascension-tech.com/
Flock of Birds, pcBIRD, miniBIRD

3D Guidance

3D Navigator

Miniaturized sensors, e.g. medical apps.

Wireless tracking for head and pointer
33,000

0.07 in., 0.5, 144 Hz, 2-15,000

3D-BIRD (orientation), 1300

MotionStar motion capture

0.3 in., 0.5, 144 Hz,

20,000 (wired) 65,000 (wireless)

MicroBIRD: intrabody 2 mm sensor

SpacePad
Cheap VR gaming mat, 1500
Not accurate, but fast

3D-BIRD

SpacePad

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Environmental magnetic issues

AC/DC

Errors from metallic materials, magnetic fields

E.g., CRT, loudspeakers, building structures
Can be calibrated, but changes are a problem

TRACKERS
COMPARISON

VR Trackers

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Electromagnetic trackers

Acoustic tracking

Calibration is a constant concern

Component drift due to temperature and age while
measuring very small signals must be calibrated out
continuously while the trackers operate
Moving metallic/magnetic objects in the environment?
Wooden structures are often used in CAVEs

Accuracy range of millimeters in position, and

milliradians in orientation
Depending on e.g., speed and accuracy, current
prices range from:

An acoustic tracker is a non-contact position measurement

device that uses an ultrasonic signal produced by a stationary
transmitter to determine the real-time position of the sensor
Brief ultrasonic pulse
Not very accurate
Transmitter, several microphones

Low-cost

Requires line-of-sight

Error-prone

a low at about $2,000 - $3,000

moderate at $6,000 - $10,000
with some special purpose systems of high sensor count
and greater range running more expensive at $15,000 $50,000 and higher

Orientation: several transmitters

A cheaper alternative to magnetic trackers
Not suitable for tracking hands due to frequent occlusions
Environment, noise, reflections

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Acoustic tracking principles

Ultrasound head tracker

Time-of-flight (TOF)

All current commercial systems

Time-of-flight is relative to the distance
Problem: differentiating the pulse from noise
Each transmitter works sequentially
Measurements take time

Phase coherent approach

Sutherland 1968
No pulse, but continuous signal (~50 kHz)
Many transmitters on different frequencies
Sent and received signal phase differences give continuously the
change in distance, no latency
Only relative distance, cumulative & multi-path errors possible

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Ultrasound trackers

Ultrasound trackers

Transmitter, receiver and electronics unit

Transmitter is a set of three ultrasonic speakers
30cm from each other

Receiver is a set of three microphones

Rigid and fixed triangular frame

Placed at the top of the HMD
May be part of 3D mice, stereo glasses, or other interface
devices

Range typically about 1.5 m

Direct line of sight required
Logitech Head Tracker

Measurements are based on triangulation

Minimum distances at transmitter and receiver
Can be a problem if trying to make the receiver very small

Each speaker is activated in cycle and 3 distances

from it to the 3 microphones are calculated

Tracking performance can degrade when operating

in a noisy environment
Update rate about 50 datasets/s
Time multiplexing is possible

9 distances total

With 4 receivers, update rate drops to 12 datasets/s

VR Trackers

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Extended
range

Optical trackers

Certain applications
require larger user
motion volume than a
transmitter can cover
Several transmitters
multiplexed with one
receiver
Only one transmitter
works at a time
The computer
switches the
transmitters

A non-contact measurement device that uses optical sensing

to determine the real-time position/orientation of an object
Works through triangulation
Requires direct line of sight
Immune to metal interference
Update rates much higher and latency smaller than in
ultrasonic trackers
Light travels much faster than sound
Also much larger work envelopes

Sensing component
CCD or CMOS camera
Photodiode
Photosensor

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Optical tracking

Optical trackers

Outside-looking-in
Light sensors or cameras surrounding the tracked
object observe it
Sensing component(s) fixed
Some markers or light beacons are typically
placed on the user
Passive reflectors or fiducial markers
Not always robust identification of markers

Active IR-transmitters (LED)

Robust identification can be coded, but requires some
wires

Outside-in

VR Trackers

Inside-out

Vision-based tracking

Video is processed (computer vision)

Very heavy calculation

Markers, chroma-key helps a lot
OpenCV, http://opencv.willowgarage.com/
Face Recognition, http://www.face-rec.org/

Image filtering, contour finding

Feature extraction, object recognition
Recognition of forms

VR Trackers

Camera tracking

A single camera can do 2D tracking

Typically used in second person VR

Participants watch themselves in the virtual world

The video source is used both for tracking the user and adding
the users image into the virtual world

Usually multiple cameras needed for 3D tracking

Several dots are needed to acquire the orientation
The positions of the light dots in the image give the
directions of the objects as seen from the camera
The operation range can be very large
Requires calculation, can be expensive and slow
Time-of-flight cameras send IR
Image + distance in near range (~3m)
Several products, very interesting novel technology (Natal)

VR Trackers

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Videometric tracking

Videometric tracking

Inside-looking-out
Video camera on the tracked object
The camera watches surroundings
VR system analyzes images

Otherwise calculations get very complex and

probability for errors grow
Landmark color and shape different from
surroundings

Try to locate landmarks

Derive cameras relative position to the landmarks

Often used in augmented reality systems

For example, a camera on the HMD enables to determine the

corners of the room

Can operate in a large area, also outdoors

Reference points

Calculate users position from this information

The location of the landmarks must me

known or be discernible from other data

Using LED lights at certain spots

Using special easily distinguishable patterns

Computational resources needed to do the image analysis

becomes a consideration
A single camera can determine its own 6-DOF position
Multiple reference points needed

VR Trackers

Videometric tracking
Usage

of LED lights
sensitive cameras
Activating the lights
as patterns

VR Trackers

HiBall

UNC -> commercial

http://www.cs.unc.edu/~tracker/
http://www.3rdtech.com/HiBall.htm

Infrared

Accurate, real time

IR transmitters on the ceiling
Expandable
Wide-Area Tracking

Minicamera HiBall

VR Trackers

6 lens, light diodes

Update rate 2000 Hz
Latency < 1ms
Position noise < 0.2mm
Orientation noise < 0.03 deg

VR Trackers

Ascension LaserBird 2

WorldViz PPT

Hy-BIRD

LaserBird

Laser scans the work space

Sensors sense laser beams
1 mm RMS
240 Hz
20,000

Camera-based with IR LEDs

2 or 4 CCD cameras, 10 - 20,000
Upto 8 targets
3 DOF
Precision < 1 mm over 3 x 3 x 3 m volume
Accuracy < 0.5 cm over 3 x 3 x 3 m volume
Upto 10 x 10 x 10 m

VR Trackers

3 minute Calibration process

Update rate 60 Hz
Minimum latency 18 ms
Indoor fluorescent lights only (bulb lights a problem)
Processor: 420 x 370 x 180 mm (10 kg)
Cameras: 160 x 70 x 60 mm (500 g)
Targets: 3 x 3 x 5 mm (2 g)

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Shadowtrack

More Optical Trackers

Developed at TUT Electronics

Prototype
Fast, accurate position

Optical tracker, http://www.iotracker.com/

Absolut technologies BraTrack trackers

Many motion capture systems use optical tracking

Yilmaz, Javed, Shah: Object Tracking: A Survey

http://www.abs-tech.com/produto.php?id_produto=357

0.2 deg., 30 Hz, 6 m

Beacons send coded light

Small receiver
The computer calculates the position
Expandable, speed up possible
Presence Nov. 2000

ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 38, No. 4, Article 13,

December 2006
Computer vision-based tracking survey

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Emerging Consumer Trackers

Motion Capture

Nintendo Wii
A game-changer in gaming markets

Usually humans
The 3D recording & 3D representation of a
live performance

Sony Playstation Eye

3DV Systems + Microsoft = Project Natal

A low-cost 3D webcam for XBOX360 ($99?), image + depth

Coming to market soon

Technique of digitally recording the

movements of real things

Wiimote VR, Johnny Lee,

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~johnny/projects/wii/
Sony PS3 Desktop VR with Playstation EyeToy Mod
FaceAPI desktop VR
Head tracking with a generic webcam, for Mac

A feasible tool for creating animation

Increasingly important as a source of motion
data for computer animation, games,
movies, real-time TV broadcasts
Can be based on any tracking method
Often cameras are used
Reflectors or LEDs used
Facial 1-2 cameras
Full body 4-6 cameras

Often not real time

Applications also in medical and sports

research, military etc.

The movements are recorded and animation

then rendered

http://www.chrisharrison.net/projects/headtracking/index.html

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

MoCap

MoCap Devices
Vicon/Oxford metrics
Motion Analysis
Ascension MotionStar / Wireless
Ascension ReActor 2

Active IR LEDs
900 Hz / nr of LEDs
Sensor bars
~3x3x3 m, 5 sensors each

No cameras to calibrate
80,000
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Vicon Optical Trackers

NaturalPoint OptiTrack

IR-cameras,

Real-time

markers,
software
Up to 24 cameras
www.vicon.com

A low-cost solution
$800, Foundation package $5000
http://www.naturalpoint.com/optitrack/

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Animazoo

Electromagnetic MoCap

Mechanical tracker, several products

Ascension MotionStar motion capture

IGS-190
Gypsy-6
GypsyGyro-18
Exoskeleton tracker
Gypsy 5

Gypsy Torso
GypsyMidi (hands)
Optical Hybrid

http://www.animazoo.com/
Animazoo animates avatars in Second life
VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Other motion analysis systems

Motion analysis

Optical tracking
10 persons real-time
http://www.motionanalysis.com/

Northern Digital

Mikromak

Qualisys motion capture

noDNA

Xsens trackers
Miniature inertial motion sensors, biomechanical models
and sensor fusion algorithms
http://www.xsens.com/
MVN full-body motion capture
MTi, MTx sensors

http://www.character-shop.com/waldo.html
http://www.x-ist.de/

Peak performance

Crossbow Technology

http://www.qualisys.com

The Character shop

The first commercially available marker-less MoCap

system, analyzes the performers actual silhouette

Hispeed cameras, human and technical tracking

http://www.mikromak.com

www.organicmotion.com

Medical tracking
http://www.ndigital.com/

Other motion analysis systems

http://www.peakperform.com

Optical MoCap Trackers

www.phasespace.com

http://www.xbow.com. Inertial MEMS developer

VR Trackers

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Inertial trackers

Inertial trackers

Self-contained sensors that measure the rate of change in an

object orientation, object translation velocity or acceleration
Only changes from previous noticed, not the absolute value
E.g., HMD tracking with orientation only
Solid-state structures that use microelectro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) technology

The rate of change in object orientation or angular velocity is

measured

Self-contained units that require no complementary components

No range limitations
Work relatively quickly

Inclinometer
Measures inclination, level position
Like carpenters level, but giving electrical signal

Doesnt add much lag to the system

Accelerometers
Measure acceleration
Can be used to determine object position, if the starting
point is known

Improving quality, diminishing size and cost

Gyroscopes

Fairly inexpensive
Integrated into Apple iPhone and many other smartphones

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Inertial trackers: gyros

Inertial trackers

The rate of change in object orientation or

angular velocity is measured by coriolistype gyroscopes
Three gyroscopes on orthogonal axes

Measure yaw, pitch and roll angular velocities

Rapidly accumulating errors

Orientation angle determined by integration

over time
Three accelerometers machined coaxially
with the gyroscopes

Needed to measure body-referenced

accelerations

Position: alin => error = t2

Angle: aang => error = t
A significant drawback
Error in position increases with the square of time
Cheap units can get position drift of 4 cm in 2 seconds
Expensive units have same error in 200 seconds

Not good for measuring location

Inertial trackers are often used together with other
types of trackers
Periodically reset the output of inertial ones

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

Motion Sensing: Mobile Phones

MEMS Sensor Brings 2,000-inch Screen to Mobile Phone

Intersense

Acceleration and angular velocity sensors

10,000s of signals processed every second

Superior motion capture, dominant
By 2010, 1/3 mobile phones will include an accelerometer
Major suppliers: STMicroelectronics, Kionix, Freescale, ADI

Camera systems
Low-cost, no extra hardware
Process an image every 1/30 s, or preferably more
May ultimately dominate motion-sensing technology

InertiaCube 3
orientation, inertial sensors
2000 , wireless 3000

http://www.engadget.com/2009/07/22/toshiba-tg01-gets-third-partymotion-sensor-attachment-for-large/

InterTrax2

IS-900

discontinued
6 DOF, inertial sensors + ultrasound
Very accurate and fast
9 - 43,000

IS-1200
For mobile augmented reality
InertiaCam looks for fiducials
Supports over 30,000 fiducials
full building tracking coverage

VR Trackers

InterSense VCam System

VR Trackers

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Improving the Trackers

Each tracking method has its advantages and

limitations
Limitations can often be reduced or avoided
Predictive analysis

Hybrid trackers

A hybrid tracker is a system that utilizes two or more

position/orientation measurement technologies

Tracks objects better than any single technology

alone would allow
One solution: adding solid-state magnetometers with
gyroscopes to determine the local magnetic north

E.g., IS-900

Computational process
Effectively increase precision while reducing latency
Analyzing the motion
Predicting the location

Used to compensate the drift

Calibration

Calibration for a specific environment

Taking care of metals and other interfering things
Create correction table

Other methods needed for compensating the error in

location
Ultrasonic tracking etc.

VR Trackers

VR Trackers

More Tracking Devices

Mobile position tracking

Safework body harness

Telenor body suit
Ascension sensors and harness
DIDI posture tracker
SSE body harness
UCF tracking harness
Virtual Technologies Cybersuit
Vista inertial sensors
Whiteboard trackers, laser scanners (2D)
Etc.

Cell positioning with variations

Satellite position tracking

Hybrid GSM + GPS:

Indoor tracking

VR Trackers

Flight and ship navigation, military systems

Dozens of systems
C.f., robotics, measurement technology, etc.

15 cm, range 15-50 m

Bluetooth, WLAN,
Also VR tracking methods & many others

A method of sensing individual body-part movement

Small sensors attached to fingers or limbs

The sensor measures nerve signals or muscle connections
Electrical skin response

Experiments with EEG reading

Relative to some other part of the body

Compass
Data gloves for hand tracking
Shape Sensor, www.measurand.com/
Smart materials
Other systems for various purposes and
environments

Active, passive tags

Infrared
RF
Indoor GPS
UWB, (Ultra-wideband)
Siemens LPR, http://www.symeo.com/

Monitoring electrical impulses in specific areas of the skin

http://europa.eu.int/information_society/istevent/2006/cf/exhibdetail.cfm?id=775
mind reading, cursor control

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast01mar_1.htm?list150223

Neural tracking

Loran, Decca,

A-GPS

VR Trackers

Other Tracking Methods

GPS, GNSS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou,

Etc

COO, AOA, TOA, E-OTD, IPDL-OTDOA

VR Trackers

EMG, EOG
Emotiv Systems Inc.
NeuroSky Inc.

VR Trackers

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Eye tracking

Eye Tracking

Optical tracking

HiRes camera-based
Infrared lighting

Free movement of head

HMD + EyeTracking!

the eye reflects IR well

(Also EOG, EEG can be used)

Monitoring the area of gaze

Using gaze as selection tool

Remote eye tracking

On monitor, walls, desktop, ...
Unobtrusive

Midas-effect: glance does not always mean selection

Head-mounted eye tracking

Aid for handicapped, tool for research

Could be used as an element for user interfaces
Also used e.g., to select focusing point in some Canon cameras
TUT/SGN has recently bought a good one
A demo on the last lecture

VR Trackers

Eye trackers

ASL, http://www.a-s-l.com/

ASL head-mounted system ~25,000

ASL remote system ~25,000
ASL GazeTracker software 1-11,000
ASL EyeStart ~11,000

Polhemus VisionTrak (by ISCAN Inc.)

iView X, http://www.smi.de/iv/index.html
Research: Gaze-Based Interaction Group

VR Trackers

Eye Trackers

http://www.cs.uta.fi/research/hci/gaze/

EU Cogain-project, coordinated at UTA

Eye Response Technologies: ERICA

EyeTech Digital Systems: Quick Glance 1, Quick Glance 2
(B / S / SH)
H.K. EyeCan: VisionKey (5+, 6V/H, 7)
LC Technologies: The Eyegaze Communication System
Metrovision: VISIOBOARD
Opportunity Foundation of America: EagleEyes
TechnoWorks Co., Ltd.: TE-9100 Nursing System for
enhancing patients' self-support
Tobii Technology: MyTobii
See more:
http://www.cogain.org/eyetrackers/eyetrackers-for-eyemovement-research

http://www.cogain.org/eyetrackers/
VR Trackers

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