Ceramics

A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and

subsequent cooling. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics.
Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, and strong in compression, weak in shearing and
tension. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures
that range from 1,000C to 1,600C (1,800F to 3,000F).
Ceramics encompass such a vast array of materials that a concise definition is almost
impossible. However, one workable definition of ceramics is a refractory, inorganic, and
nonmetallic material. Ceramics can be divided into two classes: traditional ceramics and
advanced ceramics. Traditional ceramics include clay products, silicate glass and cement.
Advanced ceramics consist of carbides (SiC), pure oxides (Al2O3), nitrides (Si3N4), nonsilicate glasses and many others.
Ceramics are familiar to us as materials that can be formed into objects that have a
range of useful properties: not conducting electricity, resisting corrosion, and being hard,
durable, and waterproof. Traditional ceramics, such as brick, tile, porcelain, and china, are
indispensable for commonplace activities, and newer varieties of ceramics have enabled
dramatic improvements in communications and computer technologies.
Ceramics are one of the most ancient of man-made materials; "keramikos" is the
Greek word for "burnt stuff," and ceramics are made by reacting a mixture of inorganic
elements and compounds at temperatures as high as 2000F. Most ceramics consist of one
or more varieties of a metal oxide. A metal oxide is a compound of a metal and oxygen
when the metal is bonded to the oxygen its properties can change dramatically. For

instance, when it is bonded with oxygen, the metal aluminium, which is valued for its
flexibility and capacity to conduct electricity and heat, becomes a hard, brittle, electrically
and thermally insulating ceramic known as alumina.
In a ceramic, the atoms of metal and oxygen usually form a crystal, where the
positions of the atoms are very regular, producing edges and facets. Small, variously-sized
metal oxide crystals containing alumina and silica (the oxide of silicon) exist in clays, which
are the primary raw ingredients of traditional ceramics. The temperature process of "firing"
a ceramic made from clay is needed to remove the water and to join together the small
crystals, producing a kind of three-dimensional jigsaw puzzle. When the conditions of
composition, heat, and pressure are just right, the crystals can become quite large
sapphire is naturally occurring crystal containing aluminium, oxygen, and trace metals that
can now be made industrially.
Some compositions of metal oxides form a liquid when heated to high
temperaturecooling that liquid does not always produce crystals, but instead freezes the
atoms into positions that are random, like in the liquid, and a glass is formed. Most glasses
(including those used in windows) contain silica, which makes up much of the sand across
the globe and most of the earth's crust and the molten magma below. Remarkably silica is
also at the heart of two technologies that now influence our lives perhaps even more than
the windows that let the light in and keep the rain out: phone calls and cable television
travel over optical fibers made from pure silica glass and we process data in computers that
use thin layers of insulating silica to control the electrical currents in silicon chips.

Important examples:

Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in most glass products

Alumina - aluminium oxide (Al2O3), used in various applications from

abrasives to artificial bones

More

complex

compounds

such

as

hydrous

aluminium

silicate

(Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main ingredient in most clay products

Three Basic Categories of Ceramics

i.

Traditional ceramics - clay products such as pottery and bricks, common abrasives,
and cement

ii.

New ceramics - more recently developed ceramics based on oxides, carbides, etc.,
and generally possessing mechanical or physical properties superior or unique
compared to traditional ceramics

iii.

Glasses - based primarily on silica and distinguished by their noncrystalline structure

In addition, glass ceramics - glasses transformed into a largely crystalline
structure by heat treatment

Traditional Ceramics
Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides found in nature

Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware, brick, and tile), cement, and
natural abrasives such as alumina

Products and the processes to make them date back thousands of years

Glass is also a silicate ceramic material and is sometimes included among traditional
ceramics

Raw Materials for Traditional Ceramics

Mineral silicates, such as clays of various compositions, and silica, such as quartz, are
among the most abundant substances in nature and constitute the principal raw materials
for traditional ceramics. Another important raw material for traditional ceramics is alumina.
These solid crystalline compounds have been formed and mixed in the earths crust over
billions of years by complex geological processes.
Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material

Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicate, most common clays are
based on the mineral kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)

When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic substance that is formable and
moldable

When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing ), clay fuses into a dense,
strong material, thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and then fired to obtain
the final hard product.

Silica as a Ceramic Raw Material

Available naturally in various forms, most important is quartz, the main source of
quartz is sandstone

Low in cost; also hard and chemically stable

Principal component in glass, and an important ingredient in other ceramic products

including whiteware, refractories, and abrasives.

Alumina as a Ceramic Raw Material

Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this mineral, which is an impure mixture of
hydrous aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide plus similar compounds of iron or
manganese: Bauxite is also the principal source of metallic aluminum

Corundum - a more pure but less common form of Al2O3, which contains alumina in
massive amounts

Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding wheels and as a refractory brick in

furnaces

Traditional Ceramic Products

Example of traditional ceramics products,
1. Pottery and Tableware
2. Brick and tile
3. Refractories
4. Abrasives

New Ceramics
Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the last several decades

The term also refers to improvements in processing techniques that provide greater
control over structures and properties of ceramic materials

In general, new ceramics are based on compounds other than variations of

aluminum silicate, which form most of the traditional ceramic materials

New ceramics are usually simpler chemically than traditional ceramics; for example,
oxides, carbides, nitrides, and borides

Oxide Ceramics

Most important oxide new ceramic is alumina

Although also included as a traditional ceramic, alumina is today produced

synthetically from bauxite, using an electric furnace method

Through control of particle size and impurities, refinements in processing methods,

and blending with small amounts of other ceramic ingredients, strength and
toughness of alumina are improved substantially compared to its natural
counterpart

Alumina also has good hot hardness, low thermal conductivity, and good corrosion
resistance

Products of Oxide Ceramics

Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)

Electrical insulators and electronic components

Refractory brick

Cutting tool inserts

Spark plug barrels

Engineering components

Structure and Properties of Ceramics

The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the types of
atoms present, the types of bonding between the atoms, and the way the atoms are packed
together. The type of bonding and structure helps determine what type of properties a
material will have.

Ceramics usually have a combination of stronger bonds called;

Ionic (occurs between a metal and non-metal and

involves the attraction of opposite charges when
electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal). The strength of an ionic bond depends on the
size of the charge on each ion and on the radius of each
ion.

Covalent (occurs between two non-metals and involves

sharing of atoms). The greater the number of electrons
being shared, is the greater the force of attraction, or
the stronger the covalent bond.

These types of bonds result in:

i.

high elastic modulus and hardness,

ii.

high melting points,

iii.

low thermal expansion, and

iv.

good chemical resistance.

On the other hand, ceramics are also hard and often brittle (unless the material is
toughened by reinforcements or other means), which leads to fracture.

Imperfections in Ceramics
Ceramics contain the same imperfections in their crystal structure as metals vacancies, displaced atoms, interstitialcies, and microscopic cracks. Internal flaws tend to
concentrate stresses, especially tensile, bending, or impact. Hence, ceramics fail by brittle
fracture much more readily than metals. Performance is much less predictable due to
random imperfections and processing variations
Imperfections in ceramic crystals include
point defects and impurities like in metals.
However, in ceramics defect formation is strongly
affected by the condition of charge neutrality
because the creation of areas of unbalanced
charges requires an expenditure of a large amount
of energy. In ionic crystals, charge neutrality often
results in defects that come as pairs of ions with opposite charge or several nearby point
defects in which the sum of all charges is zero. Charge neutral defects include the Frenkel
and Schottky defects.

A Frenkel-defect occurs when a host atom moves into a nearby interstitial

position to create a vacancy-interstitial pair of cations.

A Schottky-defect is a pair of nearby cation and anion vacancies. Schottky

defect occurs when a host atom leaves its position and moves to the surface
creating a vacancy-vacancy pair.

Sometimes, the composition may alter slightly to arrive at a more balanced atomic
charge. Solids such as SiO2, which have a well-defined chemical formula, are called
stoichiometric compounds. When the composition of a solid deviates from the standard
chemical formula, the resulting solid is said to be nonstoichiometric. Nonstoichiometric and
the existence of point defects in a solid are often closely related. Anion vacancies are the
source of the nonstoichiometric in SiO2-x
Introduction of impurity atoms in the lattice is likely in conditions where the charge
is maintained. This is the case of electronegative impurities that substitute a lattice anion or
electropositive substitutional impurities. This is more likely for similar ionic radii since this
minimizes the energy required for lattice distortion. Defects will appear if the charge of the
impurities is not balanced.

Compressive Strength of Ceramics

The frailties that limit the tensile strength of ceramic materials are not nearly so
operative when compressive stresses are applied. Ceramics are substantially stronger in
compression than in tension. For engineering and structural applications, designers have
learned to use ceramic components so that they are loaded in compression rather than
tension or bending.

Methods to Strengthen Ceramic Materials

These are several ways to make the ceramics become stronger:

Make starting materials more uniform

Decrease grain size in polycrystalline ceramic products

Minimize porosity

Introduce compressive surface stresses

Use fibre reinforcement

Heat treat

Properties of Ceramics Materials

The properties of the ceramics material are:

High hardness

electrical and thermal insulating

chemical stability

high melting temperatures

Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause problems in both processing and

performance of ceramic products

Some ceramics are translucent example :o window glass (based on silica)

Ceramic Products
There are many products that used ceramics, such as

Clay construction products - bricks, clay pipe, and building tile

Refractory ceramics - ceramics capable of high temperature applications such as

furnace walls, crucibles, and molds

Cement used in concrete - used for construction and roads

Whiteware products - pottery, stoneware, fine china,porcelain, and other tableware,

based on mixtures of clay and other minerals

Glass - bottles, glasses, lenses, window pane, and light bulbs

Glass fibers - thermal insulating wool, reinforced plastics (fiberglass), and fiber optics
communications lines

Abrasives - aluminum oxide and silicon carbide

Cutting tool materials - tungsten carbide, aluminium oxide, and cubic boron nitride

Ceramic insulators - applications include electrical transmission components, spark

plugs, and microelectronic chip substrates

Magnetic ceramics example: computer memories

Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)

Bioceramics - artificial teeth and bones

Physical Properties of Ceramics

Density in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers

Melting temperatures rather than melt

Electrical and thermal conductivities - lower than for metals; but the range of values
is greater, so some ceramics are insulators while others are conductors

Thermal expansion - somewhat less than for metals, but effects are more damaging
because of brittleness

Strength Properties of Ceramics

1. Theoretically, the strength of ceramics should be higher than metals because their
covalent and ionic bonding types are stronger than metallic bonding
2. However, metallic bonding allows for slip, the basic mechanism by which metals
deform plastically when subjected to high stresses
3. Bonding in ceramics is more rigid and does not permit slip under stress
4. The inability to slip makes it much more difficult for ceramics to absorb stresses

Advantages and disadvantages of ceramic

Advantages

Harder than conventional structure

Disadvantages

metals.

Dimensional tolerances difficult to

control during processing.

Low coefficient of friction.

Weak in tension.

Extremely high melting point.

Poor shock resistance.

Corrosion resistance.

Can crack when hit with heavy items.

Low density.

Extreme hardness.

Inexpensive.

Easily available.

Glazed ceramic does not stain.

Reference
1. The Science and Engineering of Materials, Sixth Edition, SI edition
Writer: Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay,Wendelin J. Wright, D.K Bhattacharya
Publisher: Cengage learning

2. Mechanical Properties of Ceramics, 2nd Edition

Writer: John B. Wachtman, W. Roger Cannon, M. John Matthewson
Publisher: Wiley

3. Mechanical Properties of Ceramics and Composites; Grain and Particles Effects

Roy W. Rice

4. Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic