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1. Introduction
The first four articles of the Fractal Physics Theory series provide essential
background information [1-4]. Fractal Physics Theory (FPT) proposes that most stars
are cosmic scale nuclei undergoing cosmic scale beta decay. This cosmic scale
nuclear beta decay is argued to occur exactly as nuclear beta decay occurs, the
appearance of which differs because of the direction humans look up to larger
scales or down to smaller scales of the Fractal Universe. Neutrinos and
antineutrinos both arise during quantum scale nuclear fusion and as such are
considered to be similar. The totality of a stars radiated energy (electromagnetic
Keywords and phrases : fractal physics, neutrinos, starlight, subquantum.
Received April 4, 2011
2011 Fundamental Research and Development International
74
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
radiation plus neutrinos) over its nuclear burning lifetime comprises one cosmic scale
antineutrino. The vast majority of electromagnetic radiations are part of cosmic scale
antineutrinos. Familiar antineutrino energy is observed by the lilliputian scale (ls) as
electromagnetic radiation and neutrinos. The Suns energy that constantly bathes the
Earth is part of a single cosmic scale antineutrino. It is not so much a matter of
seeing an antineutrino as to see with fractal antineutrino energy. Likewise, an
antineutrino is the result of an ever spreading sphere of subquantum scale (sqs)
photons, which are not in phase, and include a wide range of sqs-frequencies.
Antineutrinos in FPT continuously delocalize as they propagate; this differs markedly
from antineutrinos described by Modern Physics.
A typical star like the Sun is expected to shine in its current state for about 9
billion years (Figure 1), which the titanic scale (ts) measures as 750 ns [1]. A
fractally self-similar qs-Sun radiates for 750 ns relative to the human scale and
75
distances, of redirecting about half the number of sqs-photons absorbed from the
antineutrino expanding shells initial path. The energy of the antineutrino is initially
and continually reduced as it travels short distances (< 10 cm ) through matter. This
is similar to Beers law in analytical chemistry which relates the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation traveling through a dilute solution to properties of the
solution. However, antineutrino energy is not expected to be reduced when traveling
through relatively large volumes of matter. The net effect of continued absorption
and emission of antineutrino energy by large volumes of stable matter enables all the
transformed antineutrino energy (sqs-photons of lowered sqs-frequencies and
increased numbers) to escape the matter.
Antineutrino absorption: A = abc,
(1)
d = matter density ( kg m 3 ) ,
a = ( Z ) ( 2Re 2 ) + 2(1.2fm A1 3 )2 ,
Z = atomic number of the neutral atom,
A = atomic mass,
(2)
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LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
= 3.4761736 10 28 m 2 = 3.4762 b,
aO16 = 8* 2( 7.2314 10 17 m )2 + 2[ (1.2 10 15 m ) ( 15.994915 )1 3 ]2
= 2.6285402 10 31 m 2 + 5.7437693 10 29 m 2
= 5.7700547 10 29 m 2 = 0.5770 b,
MW = 267.033760.
When the initial antineutrino energy is completely absorbed, A = 1.000, and
the path length b, can be calculated.
b = 1 ( a UO 2 c UO 2 ) = 1 [ ( 4.6302 10 28 m 2 ) (1.097 10 7 g m 3
*N A 267.033760 ) ] = 0.08730 m.
A single nucleus emitting an antineutrino during beta decay within a solid mass
of Uranium 235 dioxide will have its initial antineutrino energy completely absorbed
by ambient atomic surfaces within a sphere of radius 8.73 cm centered on the
decaying nucleus. The nuclear and electron surfaces that absorb the initial
antineutrino energy as relatively high sqs-frequency photons immediately reradiate
this antineutrino energy as relatively low sqs-frequency photons in increased
numbers. A beta decaying process lasting 750 ns continuously emits antineutrino
energy at a constant rate. At the end of 750 ns, the antineutrino will be a spherical
shell 225 m constant thickness increasing in size at the speed of light. As long as the
decaying nucleus is within a large and dense enough mass, the resultant ever
expanding antineutrino shell will be composed of the relatively lower sqs-frequency
photons.
77
(3)
(4)
78
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
[] 3, 0 = ( 5.6704 10 8 Wm 2 K 4 ) ( = 9.553091 10 40 )
= 5.935670 10 49 Wm 2 K 4 ,
= 1,
[R ]1, 0 = 7.2314 10 17 m,
[ A]1, 0 = 6.5714 10 32 m 2 ,
[T ] 2, 0 = (2.725 K ) ( T = 2.187520 10 14 ) = 1.246 1014 K.
79
Stable nuclei and atomic electrons constantly exchange antineutrino energy with the
vacuum. The self-similar local cosmic microwave background radiation is essentially
the Suns reflection off of many ambient liquid Helium mirrors.
i ai = L [ 4(1AU )2 ].
(5)
Table 1 lists the important solar fusion reactions producing the significant portion of
electron neutrinos. Included are the average neutrino energies and the amount of
reaction energies produced per reaction.
Flux ( i )
Reaction a
(pp )
p + p 2H + e+ + e
0.2668
13.0987
(pep )
p + e + p 2H + e
1.445
11.9193
(hep )
He + p 4 He + e + + e
9.628
3.7370
( 7 Be )
Be + e 7 Li + e
0.814 c
12.6008
( 8 B )
B 8 Be + e + + e
6.735
6.6305
( 13 N )
13
N 13C + e + + e
0.706
3.4577
( 15O )
15
O 15 N + e + + e
0.996
21.5706
E ( MeV )
ai (MeV )b
Recognized since Hans Bethes work on fusion reactions that power the sun.
ai - amount of energy provided to the star by the nuclear fusion reactions associated
Table 2 lists important solar neutrino fluxes at the Earth predicted from seven
solar models.
80
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
Table 2. Predicted solar neutrino fluxes from seven solar models [7]
Model
pp
pep
hep
BP04(Yale)
5.94
1.40
7.88
BP04(Garching)
5.94
1.41
BS04
5.94
BS05 ( 14 N )
8B
13
4.86
5.79
7.88
4.84
1.40
7.86
5.99
1.42
BS05(OP)
5.99
BS05(AGS, OP)
15
17 F
5.71
5.03
5.91
5.74
5.70
4.98
5.87
4.88
5.87
5.62
4.90
6.01
7.91
4.89
5.83
3.11
2.38
5.97
1.42
7.93
4.84
5.69
3.07
2.33
5.84
6.06
1.45
8.25
4.34
4.51
2.01
1.45
3.25
BS05(AGS,
OPAL)
6.05
1.45
8.23
4.38
4.59
2.03
1.47
3.31
( cm 2s 1 )
1010
108
103
109
106
108
108
106
Be
Table 3 calculates the average neutrino power radiating from the Sun using the
average neutrino energies from Table 1 and the BP04(Yale) Solar Model neutrino
fluxes from Table 2.
i at 1AU
# of e second
( cm 2s 1 )a
E (MeV )c
Average e power
radiated
from
Sun
(J s )
0.2668
7.140742 10 24
( pp )
5.94 10
1.670503 10
( pep )
1.40 108
3.937211 1035
1.445
9.115215 10 22
( hep )
7.88 103
2.216088 1031
9.628
3.418482 1019
( 7 Be )
4.86 109
1.366775 1037
0.814
1.782509 10 24
( 8 B )
5.79 106
1.628318 1034
6.735
1.757063 10 22
( 13 N )
5.71 108
1.605820 1036
0.706
1.816402 1023
( 15O )
5.03 108
1.414584 1036
0.996
2.257347 10 23
10
38
b
c
81
The right side of the luminosity constraint, equation (5), is the solar constant.
Solar constant = L [ 4(1AU )2 ] = 1366.07 W m 2 ,
ai (MeV )a
i at 1 AU( m 2s 1 )b
ai i ( W m 2 ) c
(pp )
13.0987
5.94 1014
1246.594
(pep )
11.9193
1.40 1012
2.674
( hep )
3.7370
7.88 10 7
0.000
( 7 Be )
12.6008
4.86 1013
98.117
( 8 B )
6.6305
5.79 1010
0.062
( 13 N )
3.4577
5.71 1012
3.163
( 15 O )
21.5706
5.03 1012
17.384
ai i =
1367.994
b
c
Flux i
It is concluded that the luminosity constraint is met because the solar constant
compares with the sum in Table 4. Therefore, the fusion reactions, neutrino fluxes,
and neutrino energies listed in the above Tables are accurate representations of solar
energy production. Table 5 lists the cs-antineutrino solar lifetime energy.
82
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
Power (W)
Energy (J)
% Energy
Photons
3.8418 10
Neutrinos
9.4394 10 24
2.6810 10 42
2.40
Total
3.9362 10 26
1.1179 10 44
100.00
26
1.0911 10
44
97.60
The titanic scale identifies this total solar energy radiated as 0.587 MeV of a
single antineutrino.
In Fractal Physics Theory, an antineutrino located in the cosmic scale is
measured by the human scale as mostly quantum scale electromagnetic radiation and
a few percent quantum scale neutrinos:
(6)
83
[ m ] 3, 0 = [b] 2, 0 [T ] 2, 0 = 1.323 10 30 m,
[b] 2, 0 = ( 2.8977685 10 3 mK ) ( Wie = 8.287564 109 ) = 3.496526 10 13 mK,
[ ]m, n [ f ]m, n = c,
(7)
(8)
84
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
85
their energies transformed by interactions with stable atomic surfaces that reduce the
initial individual sqs-photon energies to 1.570 10 79 J, and increase the # of initial
sqs-photons by a factor proportional to
[ I (, T ) ]m n = A[]m, n 5 ( e x 1 )1 ,
(9)
[ I (, T ) ] 2, 0 = A[ ] 3, 0 5 ( e x 1)1 ,
[ I (, T ) ] 2, 0 = ls-intensity radiated per unit at a given T,
A = 2c 2 [h ] 3, 0 ,
x = [h] 3, 0 c ( [ ] 3, 0 [k ] 3, 0 [T ] 2, 0 ) ,
(10)
86
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
[ ] 3, 0 = sqs-wavelength,
[k ] 3, 0 = 2.5389796 10 94 J K ,
[T ] 2, 0 = ls-temperature,
c = 299792458 m s ,
e = 2.718281828.
Equation 10 is used to generate data in Tables 6 and 7 at the lilliputian scale
temperatures self-similar to 2.725 K and 5780 K. Figures 2 and 3 plot the data from
Tables 6 and 7, respectively, for sqs-wavelengths versus intensity radiated per sqswavelength. At first glance the power densities listed in Tables 6 and 7 may appear
startling high. However, this just reflects the minute scales of sqs-wavelengths,
nuclear surface areas, and emission times involved. Consider:
A[ ] 3, 0 5 ( m 5 )
( e x 1 )1
[ I (, T ) ] 2, 0 ( W m3 )
0.80
2.5338 1039
0.00000
6.888 1031
1.20
3.3367 1038
0.00001
3.017 1033
1.50
1.0934 1038
0.00009
1.009 1034
1.70
5.8476 10
37
0.00028
1.610 1034
2.00
2.5946 1037
0.00094
2.445 1034
2.81
4.7391 1036
0.00707
3.348 1034
4.15
6.7451 1035
0.03605
2.432 1034
5.00
2.6569 10
35
0.06563
1.744 1034
6.00
1.0678 1035
0.10865
1.160 1034
7.00
4.9401 1034
0.15817
7.814 1033
9.00
1.4061 1034
0.26995
3.796 1033
12.50
2.7207 10
33
0.48797
1.328 1033
17.50
5.0587 1032
0.82137
4.155 1032
23.00
1.2900 1032
1.20054
1.549 1032
30.00
31
1.69120
5.778 1031
3.4168 10
87
Figure 2. Single neutrino lilliputian scale radiation spectrum from Table 6 data;
Neutrino lilliputian scale radiation [T = 2.725 K ] 2, 0 = 1.246 1014 K.
A[ ]1, 0 5 ( m 5 )
( e x 1 )1
[ I (, T ) ]1, 0 ( W m 3 )
0.50
2.6569 1055
0.00000
5.218 10 49
0.62
9.0629 10
54
0.00002
2.264 1050
0.96
1.0183 1054
0.00107
1.086 1051
1.10
5.1554 10
53
0.00255
1.316 1051
1.32
2.0461 1053
0.00703
1.438 1051
1.61
7.6634 10
52
0.01720
1.318 1051
1.90
3.3532 1052
0.03252
1.090 1051
2.40
1.0427 10
52
0.06920
7.216 1050
3.00
3.4168 1051
0.12601
4.305 1050
4.00
8.1082 10
50
0.23990
1.945 1050
5.00
2.6569 1050
0.36748
9.764 10 49
7.00
4.9401 10
49
0.64250
3.174 10 49
9.00
1.4061 10 49
0.93011
1.308 10 49
11.00
5.1554 10
48
1.22369
6.309 10 48
13.00
2.2362 10 48
1.52055
3.400 10 48
88
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
Figure 3. Single neutrino lilliputian scale radiation spectrum from Table 7 data;
Neutrino quantum scale radiation [T = 5780 K ] 2, 0 = 2.642 1017 K.
7. Conclusion
This fifth article of the series applies Fractal Physics Theory to neutrinos and
stars. Several human scale radiation equations are generalized to scale, while the
lilliputian scale radiation equations are used to model neutrino emission. The
subquantum scale electromagnetic radiation portion of solar core produced neutrinos
should arrive at the Earth similar to the plots in Figure 2.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
D. R. Lide, editor, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2006.
[6]
John N. Bahcall, The luminosity constraint on solar neutrino fluxes, Physical Review
C, Volume 65, 025801.
[7]
John N. Bahcall et al., New solar opacities, abundances, helioseismology, and neutrino
fluxes, Astrophys. J. 621 (2005), L85-L88.