Super heterodyne receiver

Super-hetrodyne Receiver
Downconvert RF signal to lower IF frequency
Main amplification takes place at IF
Communication Receiver
Downconvert RF signal to two IF frequency
The shortcomings of the TRF receiver are overcome by the super heterodyne receiver.
Heterodyne to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to transmit one
frequency to another using nonlinear mixing.
Also known as frequency conversion
High frequency down converted to low frequency.(IF)
A super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming radio frequency (RF) signals to a
lower frequency known as an intermediate frequency (IF). RF IF
DRAWBACKS OVERCOMED
Stability as high frequency is down converted to IF the reactance of stray
capacitances will not decrease as it was at higher frequencies resulting in
increased feedback.
No variation in BW- as IF range is 438 to 465 KHz (in case of AM receivers)
mostly 455KHz, appropriate for Q limit (120).
Better selectivity- as no adjacent channels are picked due to variation in BW.

RF section
Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
Pre-selector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center frequency
used to reject unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise bandwidth.

 RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in

determining the noise figure for the receiver.
Mixer/converter section
Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer.
Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired.
Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequency to intermediate frequencies
(i.e. heterodyning process).
The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained
in the envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies
are translated from RF to IF.
IF section
Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to achieve most of the
receiver gain and selectivity.
The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to
construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts.
Detector section
To convert the IF signals back to the original source information (demodulation).
Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced
demodulator.
Audio amplifier section
Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers
AGC ( Automatic Gain Control )
Adjust the IF amplifier gain according to signal level(to the average amplitude
signal almost constant).
AGC is a system by means of which the overall gain of radio receiver is varied
automatically with the variations in the strength of received signals, to maintain
the output constant.
Advantages of super Heterodyne over TRF
High Sensitivity and Selectivity
High Adjacent Channel Rejection
Improved Stability
High gain per stage Bcoz IF Amps are operated in lower freqs
Uniform bandwidth because of Fixed IF

QPSK System
Introduction:
The two successive bits in a bit stream are combined together to form a message

(symbol) and each message is represented by a distinct value of phase shift of the carrier.
So the signaling rate and bandwidth are reduced

Each symbol or message contains two bits with symbol duration Ts=2Tb

These symbols are transmitted by the same carrier at four (Quadrature) different phase

shifts.
QPSK System
QPSK Transmitter

Figure: QPSK Transmitter

NRZ encoder:
It converts the incoming binary data sequence into polar form.
The symbols 1 and 0 are represented by E b and E b respectively.
The output is a Binary wave
Demultiplexer:
The binary wave divided into two separate binary wave, consisting of the odd
and even numbered input bits which are denoted by a1(t) and a2(t).
Modulator (Multiplier):
The two binary waves a1(t) and a2(t) are used to modulate a pair of quadrature
carriers 1(t) and 2(t).
1(t) = Ps cos( 2f s t )
2(t) = Ps sin( 2f s t )
The result is a pair of binary PSK signals, can be detected independently due to
the orthogonality of 1(t) and 2(t).
Summer (or) Adder:
The pair of binary PSK signals is added to produce the desired QPSK signals.

VQPSK (t) =

Ps a1 cos( c t )

Ps a 2 sin( c t )

Symbol

a1(t)

a2(t)

11
01
00

1
-1
-1

1
1
-1

10

-1

VQPSK
Ps cos( c t )

Quadrant
Ps sin( c t )

I
Ps cos( c t ) Ps sin( c tII
)
Ps cos( c t ) Ps sin( c III
t)
IV
P cos( t ) P sin( t )
s

In QPSK system, there are two bits per sample.

The transmitted signal energy per symbol is twice the signal energy per bit.
E = 2Eb
QPSK Receiver
In a coherent QPSK system, the received signal x(t) is defined by
x(t) = Si(t) + w(t)
Where w(t) sample function of white Gaussian noise process of zero mean and power
density N0/2
Correlators (Integrator + Decision device):
A pair of correlators present, with common input and pair of coherent reference signals
1(t) and 2(t).
The outputs x1 and x2, produced in response to received signal x(t)
x1 and x2 are compared with a threshold of 0
If x1>0 , a decision is made as symbol1, for In-phase channel output; but If x 1<0, a
decision is is made in favor of symbol 0
If x2>0, a decision is made as symbol1, for Quadratute channel output; but If x 2<0, a
decision is made in favor of symbol 0

Figure: QPSK Receiver

Multiplexer:
These two binary sequences at the in-phase and quadrature channel outputs are combined
in a multiplexer to produce the original binary sequence with the minimum probability of
symbol error in an AWGN channel.

Phasor diagram:

Truth Table:
Binary Input
Q

QPSK output phase

0
0
1
1

-1350
1350
-450
450

0
1
0
1

Constellation diagram:

Bandwidth of QPSK:
Bandwidth of QPSK = of the BW of BPSK system
2 fb
BW =
= fb
2
Probability of symbol error:
Eb
The average probability of error in terms of
is
N0
Eb
N0

Pe erfc

Eb
(or )

2
N
0

The BER of QPSK is given

BER

E
1
erfc b
2
N0

Advances of QPSK:
1. Low error probability
2. Very good noise immunity
3. Requires half of the BPSK bandwidth, for a same bit error rate.
4. Because of reduction in BW, Information transmission rate of QPSK is higher.
Disadvantages:
Very complex generation and detection

PCM system
Block diagram:

Operarion of blocks
PCM Transmitter
Basic operations in PCM transmitter: Sampling, Quantizing and Encoding.
Low pass filter:
Used to prevent Aliasing (Aliasing: Mixing of low frequency signals with high
frequency signals) of message signal by attenuating the frequencies greater than fm.
So that proper sampling rate can be achieved at PCM transmitter.
Sampler:
A trian of narrow rectangular puses are used to sample the message signal.
For perfect reconstruction of message signal the sampling frequency must follow nyquist
criterian. (fs 2fm).
Quantizer:
Making the signal discrete in amplitude by approximating the sampled signal to the
nearest predefined or representation level.
Uniform quantization: Step size is same between any two adjacent levels, throughout the
signal range.
Non-uniform quantization: Mostly prefered, because it provides the production for low
level signals which are more precious than large amplitude samples.

Encoder:
Encodes the discrete set of samples.
Process: allocating some digital code to each level is called coding.
The codes are transmitted as a bit stream.
PCM Transmission path:
The path between PCM transmitter and PCM receiver over which the PCM signal travel
Ther will be more than one regenerative repeater ie., chain of regenerative repeaters.
Repeater:
Three basic operations: Equalization, Timing, Decision making.
Equalization: Shapes the receive signal; compensate the effects of amplitude and phase
distortions (produced by non-ideal transmission characteristics of the channel);
Timing circuitry: Provides periodic pulse train, which is obtained from received pulses.
Decision device: makes the decision whether the equalized PCM wave at its input has a
value 0 or 1 at the instant of sampling, by comparing the equalized PCM with the
reference level called Decision threshold.
Uotput: At decision devicde we can get a clean PCM signal without any trace of noise.
PCM Receiver:
Regenerating circuit: rehapes the pulse by removing the noise.
Decoder: noise removed signal is the input. Sample and hold circuit in the decoder is
used to convert the digitized word into its analog value.
LPF: Message signal will be recovered by passing the decoder output through a LPF
reconstructon filter whose cutoff frequency is equal to the message bandwidth fm.

Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes

Cyclic Codes
Cyclic property: Any cyclic shift of a codeword in the code is also a codeword.
Cyclic codes are well suited for error detection. Certain set of polynomials are chosen for this
purpose.
Properties of polynomials:
1. Any polynomial B(x) can be divided by a divisor polynomial C(x) if B(x) is of higher degree
than C(x).
2. Any polynomial B(x) can be divided once by C(x) if both are of same degree.
3. subtraction uses exclusive OR.
Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes
Let M(x) be the original message polynomial of kth degree. The following steps are followed in
getting the codeword in CRC.
1. Multiply the message polynomial M(x) by xnk.
2. Divide xnkM(x) by the generator polynomial G(x), obtaining
the remainder B(x).
3. Add B(x) to xnkM(x), obtaining the code polynomial C(x).
Example:(5,3) cyclic redundancy code with generative polynomial x3 + x2 + 1(1101).
Let the message polynomial be x5 + x4 + x(110010). Message code after multiplying with x3 be
110010000. Now, the encoding and decoding of cyclic redundancy codes is shown in the figure
below.

Step index, Graded index fiber.

Based on the index profile

The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or
gradual, in graded-index fiber
Step Index Fibers
A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index. An outside cladding
that also has a uniform refractive index surrounds the core;
however, the refractive index of the cladding is less than that of the central core.
The refractive index profile may be defined as
n(r) =

n1

r < a (core)

n2

r a (cladding)

Graded-Index

In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between
the axis and the cladding.

This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than
reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary.

multimode step-index fiber

the reflective walls of the fiber move the light pulses to the receiver

multimode graded-index fiber

acts to refract the light toward the center of the fiber by variations in the density

single mode fiber

the light is guided down the center of an extremely narrow core

Figure. Two types of fiber: (Top) step index fiber; (Bottom) Graded index fiber

Frequency division multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands as shown in Figure 2.17.
Each channel ki is now allotted its own frequency band as indicated. Senders using a
certain frequency band can use this band continuously.
Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (also called
adjacent channel interference). This scheme is used for radio stations within the same
region, where each radio station has its own frequency.
This very simple multiplexing scheme does not need complex coordination between
sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the specific sender.

However, this scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a
day, mobile communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario would be a
tremendous waste of (scarce) frequency resources.
Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the scheme very
inflexible and limits the number of senders.

Time division multiplexing

A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Here a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain
amount of time, i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at different points in time (see
Figure 2.18). Again, guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the
different periods when the senders use the medium. In our highway example, this would
refer to the gap between two cars. If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-

channel interference.(In the highway example, interference between two cars results in an
accident.)
To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between different senders is
necessary. This is clearly a disadvantage, as all senders need precise clocks or,
alternatively, a way has to be found to distribute a synchronization signal to all senders.
For a receiver tuning in to a sender this does not just involve adjusting the frequency, but
involves listening at exactly the right point in time. However, this scheme is quite flexible
as one can assign more sending time to senders with a heavy load and less to those with a
light load.

Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel ki can use a
certain frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in Figure.
Now guard spaces are needed both in the time and in the frequency dimension. This
scheme is more robust against frequency selective interference, i.e., interference in a
certain small frequency band.
A channel may use this band only for a short period of time.
Additionally, this scheme provides some (weak) protection against tapping, as in this case
the sequence of frequencies a sender uses has to be known to listen in to a channel.
The mobile phone standard GSM uses this combination of frequency and time division
multiplexing for transmission between a mobile phone and a so-called base station (see
section 4.1).

A disadvantage of this scheme is again the necessary coordination between different

senders. One has to control the sequence of frequencies and the time of changing to
another frequency.
Two senders will interfere as soon as they select the same frequency at the same time.
However, if the frequency change (also called frequency hopping) is fast enough, the
periods of interference may be so small that, depending on the coding of data into signals,
a receiver can still recover the original data.

THE OSI MODEL

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)l as a model for a computer protocol
architecture and as a framework for developing protocol standards. The OSI model consists of
seven layers:
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical

Figure 4.3 illustrates the OSI model and provides a brief definition of the functions performed at
each layer. The intent of the OSI model is that protocols be developed to perform the functions of
each layer.
The designers of OSI assumed that this model and the protocols developed within this model
would come to dominate computer communications, eventually replacing proprietary protocol
implementations and rival multivendor models such as TCP/IP.
This has not happened. Although many useful protocols have been developed in the context of
OSI, the overall seven-layer model has not flourished. Instead, the TCP/IP architecture has come
to dominate. There are a number of rea- sons for this outcome.
Perhaps the most important is that the key TCP/IP protocols were mature and well tested at a
time when similar OSI protocols were in the development stage. When businesses began to
recognize the need for interoperability across networks, only TCP/IP was available and ready to
go. Another reason is that the OSI model is unnecessarily complex, with seven layers to
accomplish what TCP/IP does with fewer layers.

Figure 4.4 illustrates the layers of the TCP/IP and OSI architectures, showing roughly the
correspondence in functionality between the two.