Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Part
Part
Part
Part
1
2
3
4
To ensure that there is a consistency in composition and properties between wires from a
variety of manufacturers, specifications have been produced that enable a wire to be easily
and uniquely identified by assigning the consumable a 'classification', a unique
identification that is universally recognised.
The two schemes that are dealt with in this article are the EN/ISO method and the AWS
scheme. There are such a large number of specifications covering the whole range of
ferrous and non-ferrous filler metals, both solid wire and cored, that it will not be possible
to describe all of these here. This article therefore reviews just the carbon steel
specifications.
The identification of the solid wires is relatively simple, as the chemical composition is the
major variable although both the EN/ISO and the AWS specifications detail the strength
that may be expected from an all-weld deposit carried out using parameters given in the
specification. It should be remembered, however, that most welds will contain some parent
metal and that the welding parameters to be used in production may be different from
those used in the test. The result is that the mechanical properties of a weld can be
significantly different from those quoted by the wire supplier, hence the need to always
perform a procedure qualification test when strength is important. In addition, the
mechanical properties specified in the full designation include the yield strength. (In the
EN/ISO specifications, the classification may indicate either yield or ultimate tensile
strength).
When selecting a wire remember that the yield and ultimate tensile strengths are very
close together in weld metal but can be widely separated in parent metal. A filler metal
that is selected because its yield strength matches that of the parent metal may not,
therefore, match the parent metal on ultimate tensile strength. This may cause the cross
joint tensile specimens to fail during procedure qualification testing or perhaps in service.
The EN/ISO specification for non-alloyed steel solid wires is BS EN ISO 14341. This
specification classifies wire electrodes in the as-welded condition and in the post weld
heat-treated condition, based on classification system, strength, Charpy-V impact
strength, shielding gas and composition. The classification utilises two systems based
either on the yield strength (System A) or the tensile strength (System B):
System A - based on the yield strength and average impact energy of 47J of all-weld
metal.
System B - based on the tensile strength and the average impact energy of 27J of allweld metal.
In most cases, a given commercial product can be classified to both systems. Then either
or both classification designations can be used for the product.
The symbolisation for mechanical properties is summarised in Table 1A for classification
system A and Table 1B for classification system B. For classification system B, the 'X' can
be either 'A' or 'P', where 'A' indicates testing in the as-welded condition and 'P' indicates
testing in the post weld heat-treated condition. The symbol for chemical composition is
summarised in Table 3A and 3B of BS EN ISO 14341 based on each classification system.
For classification system A, the standard lists eleven compositions, too many to describe
completely here. Six of the wires are carbon steel with varying amounts of deoxidants, two
wires contain approximately 1% or 2.5% nickel and an additional two wires contain around
0.5% molybdenum. The designation of these wires is for example G3Si1, 'G' identifying it
as a solid wire, '3' as containing some 1.5% manganese and Si1 as containing around
0.8% silicon; G3Ni1 is a wire with approximately 1.5% manganese and 1% nickel.
Table 1A Symbols for mechanical properties based on classification system A
Symbol
Min Yield
Strength
N/mm2
35
355
38
380
42
420
46
460
50
500
UTS
N/mm
440 to
570
470 to
600
500 to
640
530 to
680
560 to
720
Min
Charpy-V Test 47 J at
Elongation Symbol
Temp C
%
22
No requirements
20
+20
20
20
-20
18
-30
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
Symbol
Min Yield
Strength
N/mm2
43X
330
49X
390
55x
460
57x
490
UTS
N/mm
430 to
600
490 to
670
550 to
740
570 to
770
Min
Charpy-V Test 27 J at
Elongation Symbol
Temp C
%
20
No requirements
18
+20
17
17
-20
-30
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
A full designation could therefore be ISO 14341-A-G 46 5 M G3Si1 where the '-A'
designates the classification system A, the '-G' designates solid wire electrode/or deposits,
and the 'M' designates a mixed gas. An example of a System B designation could be ISO
14341-B-G 49A 6 M G3, where 'A' indicates testing in the as-welded condition.
The AWS specification AWS A5.18 covers both solid, composite stranded and cored wires
comprising six carbon steel filler metals for MAG, TIG and plasma welding in both US and
metric units.
The classification commences with the letters 'E' or 'ER'. 'E' designates an electrode. 'ER'
indicates that the filler metal may be used either as an electrode or a rod. The next two
digits designates the tensile strength in either 1000s of psi.(ksi) or N/mm 2 eg ER70 (70ksi
UTS) or ER48 (480N/mm2 UTS). However, note that there is only one strength level in the
specification.
The next two characters identify the composition, essentially small variations in carbon,
manganese and silicon contents, the wire type (solid wire (S) or metal cored or composite
wire (C)) and the Charpy-V impact values.
With one exception, the solid wires are tested using 100% CO2, the cored wires with
argon/CO2 or as agreed between customer and supplier, in which case there is a final
letter 'C' designating CO2 or 'M', a mixed gas.
The permutations in these identifiers are too many and too complicated to be able to
describe them all in sufficient detail but as an illustration, a typical designation would be
ER70S-3, a 70ksi filler metal, CO2 gas shielded and with minimum Charpy-V energy of 27J
at -20C. E70C-3M identifies the wire as a solid wire 70ksi UTS metal cored filler metal,
27J at -20C and tested with an argon/CO2 shielding gas.
The EN/ISO specification for non-alloy steel flux and metal cored wires is BS EN ISO
17632. This covers gas shielded as well as self-shielded wires. The standard identifies
electrode based on two systems in a similar way as BS EN ISO 14341, indicating the
tensile properties and the impact properties of the all-weld metal obtained with a given
electrode. Although the specification claims that the wires are all non-alloy, they can
contain molybdenum up to 0.6% and/or nickel up to 3.85%. The classification commences
with the letter 'T', identifying the consumable as a cored wire.
The classification uses the same symbols for mechanical properties as shown in Table
1A&B and a somewhat similar method to describe the composition as BS EN ISO 14341.
Thus MnMo contains approximately 1.7% manganese and 0.5% molybdenum; 1.5Ni
contains 1% manganese and 1.5% nickel. In addition to the symbols for properties and
composition, there are symbols for electrode core composition. Table 2 summarises the
symbols for electrode core type and welding position in accordance with classification
system A. Classification system B uses Usability Indicators as oppose to a one-letter
symbol for electrode core type, which can be found in Table 5B of BS EN ISO 17632.
Table 2 Symbols for electrode core type and position based on classification
system A
Flux Core
Symbol
Welding Position
Shielding
Gas
Symbol
Welding position
R
P
Required
Required
1
2
Basic
Required
M
V
Metal powder
Rutile or basic/fluoride
Basic/fluoride, slow freezing
slag
Basic/fluoride, fast freezing
slag
Other types
Required
4
Not required 5
W
Y
Z
All
All except V-down
Flat butt, flat and HV
fillet
Flat butt and fillet
V-down and (3)
Not required
Not required
In addition, there are symbols for gas type. These are 'M' for mixed gases, 'C' for 100%
CO2 and 'N' for self-shielded wires and 'H' for hydrogen controlled wires. A full designation
may therefore be ISO 17632-A -T46 3 1Ni B M 1 H5 in accordance with classification
system A. For classification system B, an example may be ISO 17632-B -T55 4 T5-1MAN2-UH5, where 'T5' is the usability designator, 'A' indicates test in the as-welded
condition, 'N2' is the chemical composition symbol, and 'U' is an optional designator.
The American Welding Society classification scheme for carbon steel flux cored wires is
detailed in the specification AWS A5.36. This also contains information from A5.18, but
does not officially supercede it. The full designation is ten characters in length beginning
'E' for an electrode then designators for strength, welding position, cored wire, usability,
shielding gas, toughness, heat input limits and diffusible hydrogen, the last four
designators being optional.
There are two strength levels - E7 (70ksi UTS) and E6 (60ksi UTS) followed by a
designator for welding position,'0' for flat and horizontal and '1' for all positions, including
vertical-up and vertical-down.
The next symbol 'T' identifies the wire as being flux cored and this is followed by either a
number between 1 and 14 or the letter 'G' that identifies the usability. This number refers
to the recommended polarity, requirements for external shielding, and whether the wire
can be used to deposit single or multi-pass welds. 'G' means that the operating
characteristics are not specified. The sixth letter identifies the shielding gas used for the
classification, 'C' being 100% CO2, 'M' for argon/CO2, no letter indicating a self-shielded
wire.
The non-compulsory part of the designation may include the letter 'J', confirming that the
all-weld metal test can give Charpy-V values of 27J at -40C; the next designator may be
either 'D' or 'Q'. These indicate that the weld metal will achieve supplementary mechanical
properties at various heat inputs and cooling rates. The final two designators identify the
hydrogen potential of the wire.
A full AWS A5.36 designation could therefore be E71T-2M-JQH5. This identifies the wire as
a cored, all positional wire to be used with argon/CO2 shielding gas on electrode positive
polarity. The weld metal should achieve 70ksi tensile strength, 27J at -40C, 58 to 80ksi
yield strength at high heat input, a maximum 90ksi at low heat input, and a diffusible
hydrogen content of less than 5ml of H2/100g of deposited weld metal.
This article was written by Gene Mathers, reviewed and modified by Runlin Zhou.
SUMMARY
This lecture commences with a discussion of the need for civil and structural
engineers to have a basic knowledge of the metallurgy of steel. Then the
crystalline nature of irons and steels is described together with the influence
of grain size and composition on properties. The ability of iron to have more
than one crystalline structure (its allotropy) and the properties of the
principal crystalline forms of alloys of iron and carbon are discussed.
The metallurgy and properties of slowly cooled steels are reviewed,
including the influence of grain size, rolling, subsequent heat treatment and
inclusion shape and distribution. Rapidly cooled steels are treated
separately; a brief description of quenching and tempering is followed by a
discussion of the influence of welding on the local thermal history.
Hardenability, weldability and control of cracking are briefly discussed.
Finally the importance of manganese as an alloying element is introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 2.3 describes steelmaking and the forming of steel into plates and
sections. The various processes for controlling the chemical composition
and the different temperature-deformation treatments are discussed. Most of
the underlying principles described in Lecture 2.1 are applied.
Steels are available in various grades and qualities. The grade designates the
strength properties (yield strength and ultimate strength), while the quality is
mainly related to resistance against brittle fracture. Grades and qualities are
explained in Lecture 2.4. A system for choosing the right quality according
to Eurocode 3 (Annex C) [1] is presented. Some guidelines for the selection
of steel grade are given.
2. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF STEEL
2.1 Introduction
To get an impression of the metallurgical structure of steel, a piece of steel
bar can be cut to expose a longitudinal section, the exposed surface ground
and polished and examined under a microscope.
At modest magnifications, a few particles are seen which are extended in the
direction of rolling of the bar, see Slide 1. These particles are inclusions.
They are non-metallic substances which have become entrained within the
metal during its manufacture, mostly by accident but sometimes by design.
Their presence does not affect the strength but has an adverse effect on
ductility and toughness. Particular types of inclusion can greatly enhance the
machinability of steels and may therefore be introduced deliberately.
(b) The surface is polished and etched. Different reflections of the light
indicate different orientation of crystals (polycrystalline structure).
(c) Some etchants affect only the grain boundaries. These etchants are used
when it is required to investigate the grain structure, e.g. to estimate the
grain size.
(d) The appearance of etched grain boundaries of Figure 1c.
(e) The appearance of a steel with 0,15% carbon (enlargement 100x). The
dark areas are pearlite. The grain boundaries are clearly indicated. The dark
areas indicate the presence of carbon.
By adjusting the history of rolling and heating treatment experienced by the
steel during its production, the grain size can be altered. This technique is
useful because the grain size affects the properties. In particular, the yield
strength is determined by the grain size, according to the so-called Petch
equation:
y = o + kd-1/2
where y is the yield strength
o is effectively the yield strength of a very large isolated crystal: for mild
steel this is 50N/mm2
d is the grain size in mm
k is a material constant, which for mild steel is about 20N/mm-3/2
Thus, if the grain size is 0.01 mm, y 250N/mm2.
2.3 The Crystal Structure
The internal structure of the crystal grains is composed of iron atoms
arranged according to a regular three-dimensional pattern. The pattern is
illustrated in Figure 2. This pattern is the body-centred cubic crystal
structure; atoms are found at the corners of the cube and at its centre. The
unit cell is only 0,28nm along its edges. A typical grain is composed of
about 1015 repetitions of this unit.
A given number of atoms occupy slightly less volume when arranged as fcc
crystals than when arranged as bcc crystals. Thus the change of the crystal
structure is accompanied by a volume change. This change is illustrated in
Figure 4. When a piece of pure iron is heated, expansion occurs in the
normal way until the temperature of 910 C is reached. At this temperature
there is a step contraction of about % in volume associated with the
transformation from the bcc to fcc crystal structure. Further heating gives
further thermal expansion until, at about 1400C the fcc structure reverts to
the bcc form and there is a step expansion which restores the volume lost at
910C. Heating beyond 1400C gives thermal expansion until melting
occurs at 1540C. The curve is reversible on cooling slowly.
The property that metals may have different crystal structures, depending on
temperature, is called allotropy.
3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals
When the atoms of two materials A and B have about the same size, crystal
structures may be formed where a number of the A atoms are replaced by B
atoms. Such a solution is called substitutional because one atom substitutes
for the other. An example is nickel in steel.
When the atoms of two materials have a different size, the smaller atom may
be able to fit between the bigger atoms. Such a solution is called interstitial.
The most familiar example is the solution of carbon in iron. In this way the
high temperature fcc crystals can contain up to 2% solid solution carbon at
1130C, while in the low temperature bcc crystals, the maximum amount of
carbon which can be held in solution is 0,02% at 723C and about 0,002% at
ambient temperature.
Thus a steel containing 0,5% carbon, for example, can dissolve all the
carbon in the higher temperature fcc crystals but on cooling cannot maintain
all the carbon in solution in the bcc crystals. The surplus of carbon reacts
with iron to form iron carbide (Fe3C), usually called cementite. Cementite is
hard and brittle compared to pure iron.
The amount of cementite and the distribution of cementite particles in the
microstructure is important for the engineering properties of steel.
The distribution of cementite is highly dependent on the cooling rate. The
distribution may be explained by considering the so-called iron-carbon
phase diagram, see Section 3.4.
3.3 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist:
Ferrite or -Fe
Cementite
Pearlite
The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite described earlier. The ove
Austenite or -Fe
The fcc form of iron which exists at high temperatures and which can c
Steel
Cast Iron
All the constituents of the microstructure are at the same temperature. A line
of constant temperature may be drawn through X. It cuts the boundaries of
the austenite and ferrite field at F and A. These intercepts give the carbon
contents of ferrite and austenite respectively at the particular temperature.
If, now, the line FA is envisaged as a rigid beam which can rotate about a
fulcrum at X, the 'weight' of austenite hanging at A must balance the
'weight' of ferrite hanging at F. This is the so-called Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite FX = Weight of austenite AX
The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:
Thus, as the steel cools, the proportion of ferrite increases and the carbon
content of the remaining austenite increases, until cooling reaches 723C. At
this temperature the carbon content of the austenite is 0,8% and it can take
no more. Cooling to just below this temperature causes the austenite to
decompose. It decomposes into the lamellar mixture of ferrite and Fe3C
identified earlier as pearlite.
The proportions of ferrite and pearlite in the microstructure, say at 722C,
are virtually the same as the proportions of ferrite and austenite immediately
before the decomposition at 723C. Thus, referring to Figure 7 and using the
Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite F X = Weight of pearlite F P
In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.
For other steels containing less than 0,8%C, the explanation is identical
except for the proportions of pearlite in the microstructure below 723C.
This varies approximately linearly with carbon content between zero at
0,02%C and 100% at 0,8%C. A typical mild steel containing 0,2%C would
contain about 25% pearlite.
For steels containing a greater percentage of carbon than 0,8%, the structure
is fully austenitic on cooling from high temperatures. The first change to
occur is the formation of particles of Fe3C from the austenite. This change
reduces the carbon content of the residual austenite. On further cooling, the
carbon content of the austenite follows the line of the boundary between
the field and + Fe3C field. Once again, on reaching 723C the carbon
The lowest carbon content that can be achieved easily on a large scale is
about 0,04%. This content is characteristic of sheet or strip steels intended to
be shaped by extensive cold deformation, as in deep drawing.
Carbon contents of more than 0,25% are used in the wider range of general
engineering steels. These steels are usually put into service in the quenched
and tempered state (see below) for a great multiplicity of purposes in
mechanical engineering. High strength bolts for some structural applications
would also be steels of this type.
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
The mechanical properties of steel are affected by grain size. Slides 8 and 9
show microstructures of two samples of the same batch of mild steel which
have been treated, by methods outlined in Section 4.2.3, to give different
grain sizes. Reduction in grain size improves yield strength but also has a
profound effect on the ductile/brittle transition temperature, see Figure 11.
Thus, there are several benefits from the same microstructural charge. This
is an unusual circumstance in metallurgy where adjustments to improve one
property often mean a worsening of another and a compromise is necessary.
An example of such compromise relates to carbon content, already
discussed above.
Slide 11 : Macrosection through a butt weld on hot rolled steel plate, typical
of line pipe weld.
If rolling is done at ambient temperature, the pearlite is broken up in the
same way, but the ferrite can not recrystallise. It work-hardens, i.e. the yield
and ultimate tensile strength of the steel increase, and the ductility
decreases, see Figure 13. As cold rolling continues, the force required to
continue deformation increases because of the increasing yield strength.
Furthermore, the steel becomes less ductile and may begin to split. The
amount of cold rolling that can be done is therefore very much smaller than
that which can be achieved when the steel is hot.
C.E. =
If the CE is lower than about 0,4%, the steel can be welded with little or no
trouble from martensite and HAZ hydrogen cracking. As indicated before,
the cooling rate is also an important factor, which means that during
welding, thick plates are more susceptible to hydrogen cracking than thin
plates. To reduce susceptibility to martensite formation, the cooling rate
(between 800C and 500C) can be reduced by preheating the plates before
welding.
5. INCLUSIONS
Diagram. The diagram shown below is based on the transformation that occurs as a result
of slow heating. Slow cooling will reduce the transformation temperatures; for example:
the A1 point would be reduced from 723C to 690 C. However the fast heating and
cooling rates encountered in welding will have a significant influence on these
temperatures, making the accurate prediction of weld metallurgy using this diagram
difficult.
Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high temperature. It has
a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure which can contain up to 2% carbon
in solution.
Ferrite This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which can hold
very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature. It can exist as either:
alpha or delta ferrite.
Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters of iron
atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden by heat treatment. It
also causes major problems for welding , particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it
creates a hard microstructure that is susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Carbon
forms compounds with other elements called carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome
Carbide etc.
Pearlite A mixture of
alternate strips of ferrite and
cementite in a single
grain. The distance between
the plates and their thickness is
dependant on the cooling rate
of the material; fast cooling
creates thin plates that are
close together and slow
cooling creates a much coarser
structure possessing less
toughness. The name for this
structure is derived from its
mother of pearl appearance
under a microscope. A fully
pearlitic structure occurs at
0.8% Carbon. Further
increases in carbon will create
cementite at the grain
boundaries, which will start to
weaken the steel.
Martensite If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C structure rapidly changes to
B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the carbon to form pearlite. This results in a distorted
structure that has the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation
associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesnt. However, only the parts of a section
that cool fast enough will form martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain
depth, and if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The hardness of
martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is normally very high, unless the carbon
content is exceptionally low.
Tempering The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can be released by heating
the steel below the A1 transformation temperature. This release of carbon from nucleated
areas allows the structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal stresses. This
reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also tends to reduce tensile strength. The
degree of tempering is dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the greatest
influence.
Annealing This term is often used to define a heat treatment process that produces some
softening of the structure. True annealing involves heating the steel to austenite and holding
for some time to create a stable structure. The steel is then cooled very slowly to room
temperature. This produces a very soft structure, but also creates very large grains, which are
seldom desirable because of poor toughness.
Normalising Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is heated until it just starts to
form austenite; it is then cooled in air. This moderately rapid transformation creates
relatively fine grains with uniform pearlite.
Welding If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted against the carbon
equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of transformation and heat treatments will be observed.
Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in reality it will be heavily
distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling rates involved in the welding process.
a) Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1, therefore microstructure
not significantly affected.
b) Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature available to exceed
the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains transform to Austenite. On cooling, only
the transformed grains will be normalised.
c) Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation. On cooling all
grains will be normalised
d) Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. On cooling,
ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a course pearlite will form inside the
grains. A course grain structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if
the cooling rate between 800C to 500C is rapid, a hard microstructure will be
formed. This is why a brittle fracture is most likely to propagate in this region.
form exists below 1625oF (885oC) while -iron is stable above 2540oF (
1395oC). Gamma iron exists at the temperatures between these two
ranges. It is the allotropy of iron that allows for these crystal structures to
change with temperature.
At room temperature, the -iron crystal structure has its atoms arranged in a
geometric pattern known as body-centered cubic or bcc (figure 2) . This
atomic arrangement of iron atoms is magnetic up to 1420oF (770oC), called
the curie temperature. This temperature was of practical importance to the
early blacksmiths who used an iron horseshoe magnet with a steel bar across
the two ends for temperature measurement. When the steel bar fell from
the magnet, the blacksmith knew the approximate temperature of the hearth
and was able to adjust the heat treat schedule accordingly. Above the curie
temperature is still bcc but is no longer magnetic. Slow heating of -iron to
1625oF (885oC) produces an allotropic change to gamma () iron, a facecentered cubic (fcc) crystal structure which is non-magnetic (figure 2). A
allotrope of iron, lower energy levels exist, so more time is required for
crystal structure transformation to occur. The interaction of time and
temperature to achieve the allotropic transformations shown in figure 1 is
called equilibrium.
Equilibrium allows metals to achieve their lowest energy state and to do so
requires a specific balance of time and temperature. When a metal is heated
or cooled very slowly, as in a controlled laboratory experiment, equilibrium
can be attained. Because equilibrium provides a metal its lowest energy
state, it is sometimes called the "Happy State", since the atoms are "happy"
at this energy level and require a change in energy to displace
them.
[ Go to Top ]
Note in figure 1 that the heating/cooling curve flattens at the allotropic
transformation temperatures. This pause in the heating/cooling cycle is
necessary for equilibrium allotropic change in the crystal structures to
occur. This form of graphical presentation was made popular by French
scientists, and consequently, the transformation temperatures are designated
by the letter A (from the French word arreter - meaning to stop), or r (from
refroidir - meaning to cool). For example, Ac3 is transformation
temperature of -iron to -iron upon heating and Ar4 is the transformation
temperature of -iron to -iron upon cooling.
The allotropic transformations illustrated in figure 1 are reversible, such taht
the transformations can occur upon slow heating or slow cooling. It is this
powerful flexibility of iron that provides the opportunity to heat treat steels
to many metallurgical conditions and associated mechanical and physical
properties.
It becomes apparent that a clear understanding of the behaviour of iron is
imperative in discussing steels and their many alloys. In this light, let's
continue this discussion by alloying the iron with carbon to make steel.
THE IRON-IRON CARBIDE SYSTEM - SLOW COOLING
Ferrite
Carbon is the most significant alloying element in steel. One of its most
pronounced effects is on the transformation temperatures as shown in figure
The term ferrite was first used by the American metallurgist Professor
Henry M. Howe, and was almost certainly derived from the Latin
word ferrum, meaning iron. Since the ferrite phase at room temperature is
essentially pure iron, only containing 0.008% C, it has little commercial use
because of its extreme softness and low
strength.
[ Go to Top ]
Likewise, when discussing the elevated temperature ferrite, one must use the
term delta ferrite.
As a rule of thumb, steels with < 0.25% C are called low carbon or mild
steels; steels with 0.25 - 0.50% C are called medium carbon steels; and
steels with > 0.50% C are called high carbon steels.
Austenite
The area in figure 4 enclosed by GJIEHG is a solid solution known
as austenite. Austenite is a non-magnetic, face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure, that can dissolve carbon interstitially to a maximum of 2%
at 2100oF (1150oC) and is exhibited schematically in figure 5. Austenite
was first reported by Floris Osmond, a French steelworks engineer, and
named by him in honour of the eminent English metallurgist, Professor Sir
William C. Roberts-Austens.
When heat treat procedures involve heating steels in the region of Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram, the term used to describe the heat treatment
is austenizing. A steel is said to become austenitized when it has been
heated at a sufficient temperature, for the appropriate time, to achieve 100%
austenite through the thickness of the part.
Cementite
At 6.67% carbon and room temperature, ferrite is no longer stable. Instead,
the iron atoms combine with carbon atoms to form iron carbide (Fe3C),
calledcementite, existing within the boundary DOMD in figure 4. The
crystal structure of cementite is orthorhombic.
The
term
cemen
tite
was
first
applie
d by
Profes
sor
Howe
and
was
proba
bly
derive
d from
cemen
t
carbon, referring to carbon which was introduced into steel at that time by
the cementation process. Like all carbides, cementite is an extremely hard
constituent. When place in a soft matrix of ferrite, its distribution and size
produce the extraordinary range of mechanical properties that steel is noted
for.
Phases
Delta ferrite, austenite, ferrite and cementite are called phases since they are
physically homogeneous and distinct portions of the iro-iron carbide
system. With the ferrite phase occupying the left side and the iron carbide
phase the right side of figure 6, this diagram is given the name Iron-Iron
Carbide (Fe-Fe3C) phase diagram.
The areas between the single phase solid solutions of carbon in iron (i.e.
delta ferrite, austenite, ferrite and cementie) are mixtures of the two single
hpases. For example, with a carbon content of 0.4% C and temperature of
1400oF (760oC), simply draw a horizontal line starting at the intersection of
0.4% C and 1400oF (760oC) and extending in both directions until the
transformation temperatures of each end of the line are crossed. The
mixture of phases at this point will be the two phases at each end of the line,
i.e. ferrite and austenite.
[ Go to Top ]
Therefore, from figure 4: ferrite plus cementite exists within the boundary
QPNOQ; ferrite plus austenite exists within the boundary PGHP; delta
ferrite plus austenite exists within the boundary JKIJ; delta ferrite plus liquid
exists within the boundary KABK; austenite plus liquid exists within the
boundary EIBCE; austenite plus cementite exists within the boundary
HEMNH; and liquid plus cementite exists within the boundary CDMC.
Transformation Temperatures and Lines
The horizontal line PN extending along 1340oF (720oC) represents the lower
critical temperature, and is the first transformation line reached upon
heating steel from room temperature. It is designated as the A1 line.
The line GH defines the temperature at which complete transformation to
austenite is achieved upon heating steel with up to 0.8% C. In steel heat
treating terms, it is referred to as the upper critical temperature and is
designated as A3. The line HE represents the Acm temperature that borders
the lower limit of the austenitic region for steels with greater than 0.8%
C. It becomes the upper critical transformation temperature for these high
carbon steels.
The A4 transformation line (JI) outlines the temperature for the initial
transformation of austenite to delta ferrite. This temperature has little
significance in the industrial heat treatment of steels.
Although the A2 line is not a true phase transformation line, it does represent
the change from magnetic bcc ferrite to non-magnetic bcc ferrite at the
Curie temperature, 1420oF (770oC).
Eutectoid Steel
Point H represents a carbon content of 0.8% C and a temperature of 1340oF
(725oC) and is known as the eutectoid point. Thhis represents the
intersection of the two descending transformation lines, A3 and Acm, with the
horizontal transformation line A1. Steel with this composition (0.8% C) is
known as eutectoid steels.
Steels having a carbon content less than 0.8% C are called hypoeutectoid
steels and those with more than 0.8% C are called hypereutectoid steels. (A
simple reminder to keep track of these two terms is to remember
that hyper rhymes with the word higher and thus hypereutectoid steel has the
higher carbon content, i.e. > 0.8% C. By elimination, the other term,
hypoeutectoid steel, has less than 0.8% C.)
Pearlite
When a eutectoid steel (0.8% C) is cooled slowly from an austenitizing
temperature, say 1500oF (815oC), according to the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram,
is softer and weaker microstructure than pearlite with narrower laths, called
fine pearlite. It is important to remember that pearlite is not a phase of
steel, but rather a microstructure made up of two phases, namely ferrite and
cementite.
Austenite Decomposition
In terms of understanding the heat treatment of steels, the decomposition of
austenite is paramount. Consider austenite in a hypoeutectoid steel of 0.4%
C at 1550oF (843oC) and slow cooling (say 100oF/hr) to room
temperature. The following observations can be made:
1. Above the A3 line, austenite is stable and can easily dissolve the 0.4% C
into its fcc solid solution. Be aware that the higher the austenitizing
temperature reached above the A3 line and/or the longer the time at the
austenitizing temperature, the larger the austenite grain size will become.
This is called grain growth.
2. Upon cooling the fcc austenite from 1550oF (843oC), it begins to
transform to bcc ferrite at the A3 temperature, approximately 1475oF
(802oC). This phase transformation of austenite to ferrite continues as we
cool within PGHP (figure 4) region. Note that as the temperature is
decreased within this region, more ferrite is formed at the expense of losing
austenite. Since ferrite can dissolve no more than a maximum of 0.025% C,
the carbon content of the remaining (untransformed) austenite is increased
as proeutectoid (new) ferrite is formed. This continues until just above
the A1 line where the remaining austenite will contain essentially 0.8% C.
3. At the A1 line, 1340oF (725oC), the remaining austenite begins its
transformation to pearlite. As the A1 line is crossed, the remaining austenite
transform to pearlite and the resultant microstructure is a mixture of ferrite
and pearlite.
4. Cooling from just below the A1 line, where ferrite and pearlite are now
present, produces no further phase changes. The room temperature
microstructure will remain ferrite and pearlite.
Ferrite grain size and pearlite volume fraction are a key factor in
determining low temperature impact toughness. The smaller the final grain
size and the lower the pearlite amount, the higher the low temperature
impact toughness will become.
Consider austenitizing a hypereutectoid steel of 1.0% C at 1550oF (843oC)
followed by slow cooling (say 100oF/hr). The following observations can
be made:
1. Above the Acm line, austenite is stable and can easily dissolve the 1.0%
C. Again, the higher the temperature reached above the Acm line and/or the
longer the time at that temperature, the larger the austenite grain will
become. Also remember that to achieve an austenitizing condition,
sufficient time at the austenitizing temperature is required to produce 100%
austenite through the thickness of the steel part.
2. As the Acm temperature, about 1450oF (787oC), is met upon cooling,
austenite begins to give up (called precipitation) some of its carbon, thus
forming the new phase, cementite (Fe3C). The amount of austenite
decreases as new cementite is formed, with decreasing temperature
approaching the A1 line.
3. At the A1 line, 1340oF (72oC), sufficient carbon has been precipitated
from the austenite solid solution that it now retains only 0.8% C. This is
the eutectoid composition, and hence, the remaining austenite transforms to
pearlite upon further cooling.
4. Once the A1 line has been crossed, the resultant microstructure consists
of cementite and pearlite. Cementite is peresent within the pearlite or as a
network around the pearlite grains (see figure 17c and e). There are no
further phase changes as the steel cools to room temperature.
Eutectic and Eutectoid Reactions
It is important to distinguish between the eutectoid and eutectic reactions in
the iron - carbon system. The eutectoid reaction at 0.8 and 1340oF (725oC)
involves one solid solution phase (austenite) transforming on cooling to a
mixture of two solid solution phases (ferrite + cementite). By comparison,
the eutectic reaction at 4.3% C and 2100oF (1150oC) involves one liquid
phase transforming on cooling into a mixture of two solid solution phases
(ledeburite and cementite).
Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram
Reactions
[ Go to Top ]
Industrial fabrication conditions restrict the application of the iron-iron
carbide phase diagram, since:
1. Commercial additions of other elements (Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Mo, etc.)
shiftnthe position of the transformation lines, i.e. changing the
transformation temperatures, with the extent of the change depending on the
element and the amount added.
Martensite
If austenite is very rapidly cooled, diffusion ocntrolled transformation to
ferrite, pearlite and even bainite may not be possible. Instead, the austenite
changes its crystal structure by a diffusionless shearing mechanism that
moves blocks of a
toms. The carbon originally dissolved in the solid solution of austenite,is
now trapped in a ferrite structure.
Since ferrite has an extremely low solubility of carbon, its crystal structure
becomes distorted to accommodate the presence of the trapped carbon,
resulting in a volume expansion. This new microstructure is
called martensite, named by Osmond in a tribute to Professor Adolf
Martens, a German railway engineer who in 1878 started a center for
metallographic research.
Martensite is no longer a true body-centered cubic phase, but rather a bodycentered tetragonal (bct) structure (figure 9). The extreme distortion
imposed by the carbon atoms is said to account for the substantially higher
hardness and strength of this microstructure. The temperature at which
austenite starts to transform to martensite is termed the Ms temperature a
ling rate (figure 12). In order to produce martensite, one has to initially
start with austenite, making austenite the mother of martensite. Figure 13
shows that martensite formation often initiates at the prior austenitic grain
boundaries.
Martensite starts to form on rapid cooling at the Ms temperature. The
Mstemperature decreases sharply with increasing carbon content in
steels. All other alloying elements, such as Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, lower the Ms,
except for Co which raises the Ms. A significant effect of low
Ms temperature is incomplete austenite to martensite transformation at room
temperature. Therefore, as-quenched martensitic structure may retain
austenite as partnof its room temperature microstructure. If left
result there is a disarray of atoms where the grains meet each other, called
grain boundaries. This disarray of atoms along grain boundaries can be
exposed by etching techniques that allow grains of the metal to be examined
and measured.
Metallographic
Examination
[ Go to Top ]
Etching techniques are used on polished surfaces to reveal the metal grains
and the various phases of the metal. Microscopic observation of this type is
called metallographic examination and the metal images observed are
called microstructures. Metal samples must be specificaaly
prepared for the purpose and the science of sample preparation, examination
and photography of the microstructures is called metallography.
austenite grain, and that the size to which these new grains grows depends
primarily on the new austenitizing temperature. Thus the new austenite
grain size will generally be smaller than the former grain size if the new
austenitizing temperature is lower than the previous
one.
[Go to Top ]
10
16
32
64
128
256
512
The relationship between the Grain Size Number and the number
of Gr
ains/i
n2 is
given
by the
expre
ssion:
n=
(N-1)
wh
ere N
=
AST
M
Grain
Size
Num
ber
n=
numb
er of
Grain
s/in2 a
t the
specif
ied
magn
ificati
on.
In the planimetric (Jeffry's) procedure a known area is inscribed in the
observed field and the grains within this area are counted and multiplied by
the Jefferies' multiplier. The product will be the number of grains per
square millimeter.
The intercept method has two procedures: the lineal (Heyn) procedure and
circular procedure. Both methods involve placing a grid pattern on the field
of observation and counting the number of grains at each intercept within a
selected area.
Effect of Alloying Elements in Steel
[ Go to Top ]
Annealing
The annealing process is intended to optimize the steel's machinability and
formability. In manufacturing steel products, machining and forming are
often employed. Quenched and tempered steel may not machine or bend
very easily and annealing is often necessary to manufacture steel
components economically. Annealing is used after cold forming
operations, since during forming, the deformed areas of the steel may
become work-hardened and susceptible to fracture.
Full
Annealing
[ Go to Top ]
Steel is heated 50 to 100oF (10 to 38oC) above the A3 for hypoeutectoid
steels, and above the Acm for hypereutectoid steels, with slow controlled
cooling, resulting in soft andductile microstructures that have commercially
maximized machinability and formability. In full annealing, cooling must
take place very slowly so that a coarse pearlite is formed. When the term
annealing is applied to steels it is assumed that full annealing was
performed.
Normalizing
The process of normalizing consists of heating to a temperature 50 to 100oF
(10 to 38oC) above the A3 and allowing the part to cool in still room
temperature air. The actual temperature required for this depends on the
composition of the steel, but is usually around 1550 to 1650oF (840 to
900oC) for most low and medium carbon steels. Normalizing can be
described as a homogenizing or grain-refining treatment. Within any piece
of steel, the composition is usually not uniform throughout. That is, one
area may have more carbon than the area adjacent to it. These
compositional differences affect the way in which the steel will respond to
heat treatment. If the steel is austenitized, the carbon can readily diffuse
throughout, and the result is a reasonably uniform composition from one
area to the next. The steel is then more homogeneous and will respond to
the heat treatment is a more uniform way.
The grain-refining effects of normalizing become of prime importance in
designing steel microstructures for low temperature service. By refining
the grain size, more grain boundaries are formed and the energy necessary to
impact fracture is increased in order to "push" the crack across the grain
boundaries. For example, ASTM A 516 grade 70 pressure vessel plate steel
Residual stresses are harmful because they may cause distortion of steel
parts and/or may render the part susceptible to brittle fracture and stress
corrosion cracking mechanisms. To relieve these stresses, plain carbon
steel is typically heated to between9400 to 1100oF (482 to 595oC), assuring
that the entire part is heated uniformly, then slowly cooled back to room
temperature. This procedure is called relief annealing or, more
commonly,stress relieving.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
WELDING METALLURGY OF STEEL
Welding is the joining of two or more pieces of metal by applying heat or
pressure, or both, with or without the addition of filler metal, to produce a
localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface.
[ Go to Top ]
In industrial welding practice, a steel of one composition, such as pipeline
or pressure vessel steel, is likely to be welded with a steel electrode of
different chemical composition, such as AWS A5.1 classification
E7018. The majority of filler metals classified by AWS, CSA, and other
standards are based on providing crack-free welds and mechanical
properties that at least meet the minimum requirements of the base metal.
The chemical composition match, although important, is a secondary
consideration for carbon steels. However, matching filler metal chemistry
to base metal chemistry becomes increasingly important when welding alloy
and stainless steels.
As a result of the chemically nonmatching filler metal, heat distribution, and
electrical arc characteristics, the weld joint is usually a chemically
heterogeneous composite consisting of as many as six metallurgical distinct
regions.
A typical single pass weld is shown in figure 19 and consists of:
1. Composite zone
2. Unmixed zone
3. Weld interface
Composite Zone
The combination of melted filler metal and melted base metal creates a
liquid weld pool that becomes the composite zone upon cooling. Should
the filler metal be of a different chemical composition compared to the base
metal, then the base metal is said to become diluted by the filler
metal. However, due to the electrical sitrring action of the welding arc and
00oF (1350 - 425oC) for carbon steel. With this large temperature gradient
comes varying microstructures in steel that will depend on the peak
temperature reached, time at temperature, and cooling rate. Consequently,
the term "heat affected zone" is really a misnormer when describing it on a
metallurgical basis, since the HAZ is really made up of several distinct
metallurgical zones.
Figure 20 shows a cross section of a single-pass weldment outlining the
weld metal and HAZ. Because of varying thermal conditions as a function
of distance from the weld interface, the HAZ is actually composed of four
distinct regions, namely, the grain-coarsened-HAZ, grain-refined-HAZ,
intercritical_HAZ, and subcritical-HAZ. Each of these regions within the
HAZ possesses microstructures and associated mechanical and physical
properties that make them unique.
To define the four regions of the HAZ in metallurgical terms, the Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram provides an ideal tool. Figure 21 illustrates a single-pass
weldment and compares the HAZ microstructures produced by the heat of
welding and related to peak temperature reached, time at temperature, and
cooling rate.
Grain-Coarsened-HAZ
for crack propagation. Consequently, fracture may occur along the fusion
line.
Welding Metallurgy Summary
Metals Data
The following Chapters/Tables list some of the more practical metals data
contained in today's engineering standards. Many of the various
organizations that issue metal standards and specifications throughout the
world are included. One prominent organization is the Americam Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The following is an excerpt from the
1991 Annual Book of ASTM Standard Volume 00.01, describing the
identification for individual ASTM Standards:
Each ASTM Standard has a unique serial designation. It is comprised of
acapital letter indicating general classification (A, ferrous metals; B, nonferrous metals; C, cementitious, ceramic, concrete, and masonry materials;
D, miscellaneous materials; E, miscellaneous subjects; F, material for
specific applications; G, corrosion, deterioration, and degradation of
materials; ES, emergency standards; P, proposals), a serial number (one to
four digits), a dash, and the year of issue.
In each serial designation, the number following the dash indicates the year
of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last
revision. Thus, standards adopted or revised during the year 1991 have as
their final number, 91. A letter following this number indicates more than
one revision during that year, that is 91a indicates the second revision in
1991, 91b the third revision, etc. Standards that have been reapproved
without change are indicated by the year of last reapproval in parentheses as
part of the designation number, for example, (1991). A superscript epsilon
indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval; 1 for the
first change,2 for the second change, etc.
If a standard is written in acceptable metric units and has a comparison
standard written in inch-pound units (or other units), the metric standard is
identified by a letter M after the serial number; this standard contains "hard
metric" units.
If s standard is written in inch-pound units (or other units) and acceptable
metric units, the document is identified by a dual alphanumeric designation.
When reference is made to a standard, the complete designation should be
given. Best practice is to state the designation and title. The boldface
number(s) following the title refer to the volume(s) of the Annual Book of
ASTM Standards in which the standard appears.
SUMMARY
This lecture commences with a discussion of the need for civil and structural
engineers to have a basic knowledge of the metallurgy of steel. Then the
crystalline nature of irons and steels is described together with the influence
of grain size and composition on properties. The ability of iron to have more
than one crystalline structure (its allotropy) and the properties of the
principal crystalline forms of alloys of iron and carbon are discussed.
The metallurgy and properties of slowly cooled steels are reviewed,
including the influence of grain size, rolling, subsequent heat treatment and
inclusion shape and distribution. Rapidly cooled steels are treated
separately; a brief description of quenching and tempering is followed by a
discussion of the influence of welding on the local thermal history.
Hardenability, weldability and control of cracking are briefly discussed.
Finally the importance of manganese as an alloying element is introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Introduction
To get an impression of the metallurgical structure of steel, a piece of steel
bar can be cut to expose a longitudinal section, the exposed surface ground
and polished and examined under a microscope.
At modest magnifications, a few particles are seen which are extended in the
direction of rolling of the bar, see Slide 1. These particles are inclusions.
They are non-metallic substances which have become entrained within the
metal during its manufacture, mostly by accident but sometimes by design.
Their presence does not affect the strength but has an adverse effect on
ductility and toughness. Particular types of inclusion can greatly enhance the
machinability of steels and may therefore be introduced deliberately.
A given number of atoms occupy slightly less volume when arranged as fcc
crystals than when arranged as bcc crystals. Thus the change of the crystal
structure is accompanied by a volume change. This change is illustrated in
Figure 4. When a piece of pure iron is heated, expansion occurs in the
normal way until the temperature of 910 C is reached. At this temperature
there is a step contraction of about % in volume associated with the
transformation from the bcc to fcc crystal structure. Further heating gives
further thermal expansion until, at about 1400C the fcc structure reverts to
the bcc form and there is a step expansion which restores the volume lost at
910C. Heating beyond 1400C gives thermal expansion until melting
occurs at 1540C. The curve is reversible on cooling slowly.
The property that metals may have different crystal structures, depending on
temperature, is called allotropy.
3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals
When the atoms of two materials A and B have about the same size, crystal
structures may be formed where a number of the A atoms are replaced by B
atoms. Such a solution is called substitutional because one atom substitutes
for the other. An example is nickel in steel.
When the atoms of two materials have a different size, the smaller atom may
be able to fit between the bigger atoms. Such a solution is called interstitial.
The most familiar example is the solution of carbon in iron. In this way the
high temperature fcc crystals can contain up to 2% solid solution carbon at
1130C, while in the low temperature bcc crystals, the maximum amount of
carbon which can be held in solution is 0,02% at 723C and about 0,002% at
ambient temperature.
Thus a steel containing 0,5% carbon, for example, can dissolve all the
carbon in the higher temperature fcc crystals but on cooling cannot maintain
all the carbon in solution in the bcc crystals. The surplus of carbon reacts
with iron to form iron carbide (Fe3C), usually called cementite. Cementite is
hard and brittle compared to pure iron.
The amount of cementite and the distribution of cementite particles in the
microstructure is important for the engineering properties of steel.
The distribution of cementite is highly dependent on the cooling rate. The
distribution may be explained by considering the so-called iron-carbon
phase diagram, see Section 3.4.
3.3 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist:
Ferrite or -Fe
Cementite
Pearlite
The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite described earlier. The ove
Austenite or -Fe
The fcc form of iron which exists at high temperatures and which can c
Steel
Cast Iron
All the constituents of the microstructure are at the same temperature. A line
of constant temperature may be drawn through X. It cuts the boundaries of
the austenite and ferrite field at F and A. These intercepts give the carbon
contents of ferrite and austenite respectively at the particular temperature.
If, now, the line FA is envisaged as a rigid beam which can rotate about a
fulcrum at X, the 'weight' of austenite hanging at A must balance the
'weight' of ferrite hanging at F. This is the so-called Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite FX = Weight of austenite AX
The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:
Thus, as the steel cools, the proportion of ferrite increases and the carbon
content of the remaining austenite increases, until cooling reaches 723C. At
this temperature the carbon content of the austenite is 0,8% and it can take
no more. Cooling to just below this temperature causes the austenite to
decompose. It decomposes into the lamellar mixture of ferrite and Fe3C
identified earlier as pearlite.
The proportions of ferrite and pearlite in the microstructure, say at 722C,
are virtually the same as the proportions of ferrite and austenite immediately
before the decomposition at 723C. Thus, referring to Figure 7 and using the
Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite F X = Weight of pearlite F P
In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.
For other steels containing less than 0,8%C, the explanation is identical
except for the proportions of pearlite in the microstructure below 723C.
This varies approximately linearly with carbon content between zero at
0,02%C and 100% at 0,8%C. A typical mild steel containing 0,2%C would
contain about 25% pearlite.
For steels containing a greater percentage of carbon than 0,8%, the structure
is fully austenitic on cooling from high temperatures. The first change to
occur is the formation of particles of Fe3C from the austenite. This change
reduces the carbon content of the residual austenite. On further cooling, the
carbon content of the austenite follows the line of the boundary between
the field and + Fe3C field. Once again, on reaching 723C the carbon
The lowest carbon content that can be achieved easily on a large scale is
about 0,04%. This content is characteristic of sheet or strip steels intended to
be shaped by extensive cold deformation, as in deep drawing.
Carbon contents of more than 0,25% are used in the wider range of general
engineering steels. These steels are usually put into service in the quenched
and tempered state (see below) for a great multiplicity of purposes in
mechanical engineering. High strength bolts for some structural applications
would also be steels of this type.
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
The mechanical properties of steel are affected by grain size. Slides 8 and 9
show microstructures of two samples of the same batch of mild steel which
have been treated, by methods outlined in Section 4.2.3, to give different
grain sizes. Reduction in grain size improves yield strength but also has a
profound effect on the ductile/brittle transition temperature, see Figure 11.
Thus, there are several benefits from the same microstructural charge. This
is an unusual circumstance in metallurgy where adjustments to improve one
property often mean a worsening of another and a compromise is necessary.
An example of such compromise relates to carbon content, already
discussed above.
Slide 11 : Macrosection through a butt weld on hot rolled steel plate, typical
of line pipe weld.
If rolling is done at ambient temperature, the pearlite is broken up in the
same way, but the ferrite can not recrystallise. It work-hardens, i.e. the yield
and ultimate tensile strength of the steel increase, and the ductility
decreases, see Figure 13. As cold rolling continues, the force required to
continue deformation increases because of the increasing yield strength.
Furthermore, the steel becomes less ductile and may begin to split. The
amount of cold rolling that can be done is therefore very much smaller than
that which can be achieved when the steel is hot.
C.E. =
If the CE is lower than about 0,4%, the steel can be welded with little or no
trouble from martensite and HAZ hydrogen cracking. As indicated before,
the cooling rate is also an important factor, which means that during
welding, thick plates are more susceptible to hydrogen cracking than thin
plates. To reduce susceptibility to martensite formation, the cooling rate
(between 800C and 500C) can be reduced by preheating the plates before
welding.
5. INCLUSIONS
Iron is abundant in the universe, found in the sun and many types of stars in
considerable quantity. The core of the earth is thought to be made up of nickel
and iron, and to be hotter than the Sun's surface. This intense heat from the
inner core causes material in the outer core and mantle to move around
(convection currents).
(Note: Funny how we don't really know eh? - We know it gets hotter as you dig
deeper, but we can only guesstimate how hot it is at the center of the earth. Even
at 12km underground the calculations of scientists were out by more than
100%.)
Carbon Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C), with 0.2 to 2.04%
carbon by weight. Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying
material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used such
as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.
Carbon Steel
ANSI
def'n
General
Def'n
Low carbon
steel
0.05
0.15%
<0.1%
Mild Steel
0.160.29%
Medium
carbon steel
0.30
0.59%
High carbon
steel
0.6
0.99%
Ultra-high
carbon steel
Cast Iron
0.1-0.25%
2.5-4.0%
Slip
When a piece of metal is deformed, it is the grains that are deformed. A grain is a
crystal, an orderly arrangement of atoms in a grid. If atoms are stretched apart
this is elastic deformation because the atoms are held together by electron
attractions - which acts like a spring. However, permanent (or plastic)
deformation means the atoms actually slip past each other in layers or planes.
Real crystals do not slip in a whole plane at once. This would take a very high
force. Instead, the imperfections in the crystal allow slip to travel one atom at a
time. The wider the range of effected atoms, the more ductile (easily slipping) the
grain is. Here is an example of an imperfection called a dislocation which can
travel easily through the crystal.
Here is an actual example of slip. (we are not just making this up!)
Hardening of Steel
There are 2 ways to make the grain stronger. Get rid of
all imperfections (pretty impossible task, although this is why very
fine fibres can give crazy strengths), or stop the slip from travelling
all the way through the grains. Carbon and other elements act as a
hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal
lattice from sliding past one another. Carbon is tiny compared to Fe
- no wonder it messes up the slip so much.
Quenching of steel is not shown on the Fe-C equilibrium diagram, because
quenching is not in equilibrium! (i.e. cooling is too fast for the carbon to get itself
in the right structure - typically pearlite)
After quenching, tempering is used to add toughness to the steel. Tempering
must be at a temperature below recrystallisation. An oven is best for tempering,
but it can be done by flame by judging the colour of the steel. Temper colours
can be used as a guide to temperature. Alloys such as stainless steel form thinner
films than do carbon steels for a given temperature and hence produce a colour
lower in the series. For example, pale straw corresponds to 300C for SS, instead
of 230C for CS. The colours colder than the reds (below 500C) are actually
discolouration of oxides, not the actual radiation glow of the temperature itself.
(Which would be infra-red, and invisible)
Radiation Colour
Celcius
Farenht
Tempering Applicatio
Yellow-White
1539C
2800F
Bright Yellow
1130C
2066F
Yellow
1093C
2000F
Dark yellow
1038C
1900F
Orange yellow
982C
1800F
Orange
927C
1700F
Orange red
871C
1600F
Bright red
816C
1500F
Red
760C
1400F
Medium red
704C
1300F
Dull red
649C
1200F
Slight red
593C
1100F
538C
1000F
Dark grey
427C
0800F
Oxidation Colour
Celcius
Farenht
Blue
302C
0575F
Dark Purple
282C
0540F
Purple
271C
0520F
Tempering Applic
Brown/Purple
260C
0500F
Brown
249C
0480F
Dark Straw
241C
0465F
Light Straw
229C
0445F
Faint Straw
199C
0390F
Quenching:
Speed of quenching: Higher carbon steels can be quenched more slowly, but a
lower C steel will need to be rapidly quenched to have any hardening effect.
Quenching Rate: (FASTEST) Salt water > water > oil > air. (SLOWEST)
For a complex and expensive job, it is better to have a slow quenching alloy
because it is less sensitive to variations of temperature. This is why most tool
steels for things like injection moulding tools are OIL quenched. Water quenching
is fine for simple shapes that can be controlled more easily.
Induction Hardening. Induction Hardening where electric induction (rapid
magnetic changes) heat up the steel which is quickly followed by quenching in
water jet. Alternative to flame or oven.
Alloy Steels
Effects of alloying elements on tool steel properties:
American Steel codes: From Higgins: Materials for Engineers aand Technicians 5th Ed. 2010. p21
The BSA (British Standards Association) uses a 6 digit code. The digits separated
into 3 groups as shown below. For example, a steel with the code 070M20 would
be 070 = carbon or carbon-manganese steel, M = mechanical property
specification, 20 = carbon content 0.20%.
British Steel codes: From Higgins: Materials for Engineers aand Technicians 5th Ed. 2010. p20
The UNS number (short for "Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys") is
a systematic scheme in which each metal is designated by a letter followed by
five numbers. It is a composition-based system of commercial materials and does
not guarantee any performance specifications or exact composition with impurity
limits. Other nomenclature systems have been incorporated into the UNS
numbering system to minimize confusion. For example, Aluminum 6061 (AA6061)
becomes UNS A96061. Below is an overview of the UNS system, with special
emphasis on common commercial alloys. As with any system, there are
ambiguities such as the distinction between a nickel-based superalloy and a highnickel stainless steel.
Axxxxx - Aluminum Alloys
Cxxxxx - Copper Alloys, including Brass and Bronze
Fxxxxx - Iron, including Ductile Irons and Cast Irons
Gxxxxx - Carbon and Alloy Steels
Hxxxxx - Steels - AISI H Steels
Jxxxxx - Steels - Cast
Kxxxxx - Steels, including Maraging, Stainless Steel, HSLA, Iron-Base
Superalloys
L5xxxx - Lead Alloys, including Babbit Alloys and Solder Alloys
M1xxxx - Magnesium Alloys
Nxxxxx - Nickel Alloys
Tool steels
Tool steels are covered in Australian Standard AS1239 and is
virtually the same as the American AISI tool steel
classification.(Similarly with British Standard 4659)
For example: AS 1239 grade H13 hot work tool steel containing
0.35% carbon, 5.0% chromium, 1.5% molybdenum and 1%
vanadium would be written as X40CrMoV51 in DIN (German).
High Speed Steels, for example: AS 1239 grade M2 Containing
0.85% carbon, 4.0% chromium, 5.0% molybdenum, 6.0%
tungsten, 2.0% vanadium would be written as S 6-5-2 in DIN.
Steels Selector
Cast Iron
When too much carbon is added to steel, the carbon cannot dissolve into the
solution and creates a totally different structure. From the Fe-C diagram we saw
earlier, Cast Iron forms in the range of 2% to 7% carbon (by weight).
There are many types of cast iron, but Grey Cast Iron is the most familiar, often
used for machine tool bases. It is useful and popular for several reasons.
Firstly, the melting temperature is lower, which makes it easier to cast. This is
because the eutectic is at 4.3% C, giving a melting point of only 1147oC. This
eutectic produces a new grain called ledeburite, which is a mixture of austenite
and cementite. (Remember Pearlite? It was a eutectoid and made of layers of
ferrite and cementite). But since a eutectoid is a low point in the liquid-solid
transition, it is the melting point.
Secondly, Grey Cast Iron is great for machine bases. Normally, so much carbon
would be a nightmare of brittleness due to extreme martensite. But it turns out
that with the right cooling, excess carbon forms flakes of graphite. This is
completely different to all these Fe-C grains we've been talking about - like
Ferrite and Cementite and Pearlite and Ledeburite. Instead, graphite is like an
inclusion in the metal, and it gives Grey Cast Iron the damping properties suitable
for machine bases. It is a material with low tensile strength however, so GCI is
usually used where it is in compression. GCI is prone to hardening due to excess
heat however, so it is not easy to weld. More often it would be brazed.
Nominal
composi
Name tion [%
by
weight]
Yield
stren
Tensil Elongat Hardn
Form
gth
e
ion [%
ess
and
[ksi
stren
(in
[Brinel
conditi (0.2
gth 2 inche
l
on
%
[ksi]
s)]
scale]
offset
)]
Uses
Cast
50
0.5
260
Engine
cylinder
blocks,
flywheel
s, gears,
machine
-tool
bases
White C 3.4,
cast Si 0.7,
iron Mn 0.6
Cast
(as
cast)
25
450
Bearing
surfaces
Mallea C 2.5,
Cast
33
52
12
130
Axle
Grey
cast
C 3.4,
iron Si 1.8,
(ASTM
Mn 0.5
A48)
ble Si 1.0,
iron Mn 0.55
(ASTM
A47)
C 3.4,
Ductil
P 0.1,
e or
Mn 0.4,
nodula
Ni 1.0,
r iron
Mg 0.06
C 2.7,
Ni- Si 0.6,
hard Mn 0.5,
type 2 Ni 4.5,
Cr 2.0
(anneal
ed)
Cast
Sandcast
bearings
, track
wheels,
automot
ive
cranksh
afts
53
70
55
18
170
Gears,
camshaf
ts,
cranksh
afts
550
High
strength
applicati
ons
Glossary
1.
21.
24.
Solidus Line: On a phase diagram, the locus of points at
which solidification is complete upon equilibrium cooling, or at
which melting begins upon equilibrium heating.
25.
Solubility: The amount of substance that will dissolve in
a given amount of another substance.
DVDs:
Assignment:
Heat Treat