Functions

Structure of Blood vessels

Blood

Heart

Hematopoiesis

Lymphatic System

Blood Circulation

Immune System


The multicellular organisation in animal world has

resulted in the origin and evolution of circulatory system

in animals.

This arrangement facilitates internal transport of various

substances to all organs and organ systems.

Among majority of multicellular animals this system

remains as a closed type.

It has blood running inside closed blood vessels, the blood

being pumped by heart.


Transportation.

All of the substances essential for cellular metabolism are transported by the
circulatory system. These substances can be categorized as follows:

Respiratory. Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, transport oxygen to the cells.

In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air attaches to hemoglobin molecules
within the erythrocytes and is transported to the cells for aerobic respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced by cell respiration is carried by the blood to the
lungs for elimination in the exhaled air.

Nutritive. The digestive system is responsible for the mechanical and

chemical breakdown of food so that it can be absorbed through the intestinal

wall into the blood and lymphatic vessels. The blood then carries these
absorbed products of digestion through the liver and to the cells of the body.

Excretory. Metabolic wastes (such as urea), excess water and ions, and other

molecules not needed by the body are carried by the blood to the kidneys and
excreted in the urine.


Regulation. The circulatory system contributes to both

hormonal and temperature regulation.

Hormonal. The blood carries hormones from their site of

origin to distant target tissues, where they perform a variety

of regulatory functions.

Temperature. Temperature regulation is aided by the

diversion of blood from deeper to more superficial

cutaneous vessels or vice versa. When the ambient
temperature is high, diversion of blood from deep to
superficial vessels helps to cool the body, and when the
ambient temperature is low, the diversion of blood from
superficial to deeper vessels helps to keep the body warm.


Protection. The circulatory system protects against blood

loss from injury and against foreign microbes or toxins

introduced into the body.

Clotting. The clotting mechanism protects against blood

loss when vessels are damaged.

Immune. The immune function of the blood is performed

by the leukocytes (white blood cells) that protect against

many disease-causing agents (pathogens).


The circulatory system consists of two subdivisions:

The cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels

The lymphatic system

The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid
tissues within the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and lymph nodes.


Blood consists of formed elements that are suspended

and carried in a fluid called plasma.

The formed elements are

Erythrocytes oxygen transport

Leukocytes immune defense

Platelets blood clotting

Plasma contains different types of proteins and many

water-soluble molecules.


The total blood volume in the average-sized adult is about 5

liters, constituting about 8% of the total body weight.

Blood leaving the heart is referred to as arterial blood.

Arterial blood, with the exception of that going to the lungs,

is bright red because of a high concentration of

oxyhemoglobin (the combination of oxygen and hemoglobin)
in the red blood cells.

Venous blood is blood returning to the heart.

Except for the venous blood from the lungs, it contains less

oxygen, and is therefore a darker red than the oxygen-rich

arterial blood.


When a blood sample is centrifuged, the heavier formed

elements are packed into the bottom of the tube, leaving

plasma at the top.

Hematocrit - a measurement of total blood volume

Formed elements 45%

Plasma 55%

Plasma

Plasma is a straw-colored liquid consisting of water and

dissolved solutes.

The major solute of the plasma in terms of its

concentration is Na+.

In addition to Na+, plasma contains many other ions, as

well as organic molecules such as metabolites,

hormones, enzymes, antibodies and other proteins.

Plasma Proteins

Plasma proteins constitute 7% to 9% of the plasma.

The three types of proteins are albumins, globulins, and

fibrinogen.

Albumins account for most (60% to 80%) of the plasma

proteins and are the smallest in size.

They are produced by the liver and provide the osmotic
pressure needed to draw water from the surrounding
tissue fluid into the capillaries.

This action is needed to maintain blood volume and
pressure.


Globulins are grouped into three subtypes:

alpha globulins

beta globulins

gamma globulins

The alpha and beta globulins are produced by the liver and

function in transporting lipids and fat-soluble vitamins.

Gamma globulins are antibodies produced by

lymphocytes (one of the formed elements found in blood

and lymphoid tissues) and function in immunity.


Fibrinogen, which accounts for only about 4% of the

total plasma proteins, is an important clotting factor

produced by the liver.

During the process of clot formation, fibrinogen is

converted into insoluble threads of fibrin.

Thus, the fluid from clotted blood, called serum, does not

contain fibrinogen, but it is otherwise identical to plasma.

The Formed Elements of Blood

The formed elements of blood include three types of blood

cells:

Erythrocytes or red blood cells

Leukocytes or white blood cells

Platelets

Erythrocytes are by far the more numerous of the two.

Male: 5.1 million to 5.8 million/mm3 blood

Female:4.3 million to 5.2 million/mm3 blood

The same volume of blood, by contrast, contains only 5,000 to

9,000 leukocytes.

Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes are flattened, biconcave discs, about 7 m in diameter

and 2.2 m thick.

Their unique shape relates to their function of transporting oxygen;

it provides an increased surface area through which gas can

diffuse.

Erythrocytes lack nuclei and mitochondria (they obtain energy

through anaerobic respiration).

Short circulating life span of only about 120 days.

Older erythrocytes are removed from the circulation by phagocytic

cells in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.


Each erythrocyte contains approximately 280 million

hemoglobin molecules, which give blood its red color.

Each hemoglobin molecule consists of four protein chains

called globins, each of which is bound to one heme, a redpigmented molecule that contains iron.

The iron group of heme is able to combine with oxygen in

the lungs and release oxygen in the tissues.

Leukocytes

Leukocytes differ from erythrocytes in several respects.

Leukocytes contain nuclei and mitochondria and can move in

an amoeboid fashion.

Because of their amoeboid ability, leukocytes can squeeze

through pores in capillary walls and move to a site of infection,

whereas erythrocytes usually remain confined within blood
vessels.

The movement of leukocytes through capillary walls is referred

to as diapedesis or extravasation.


White blood cells are almost invisible under the

microscope unless they are stained; therefore, they are

classified according to their staining properties.

Those leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm are

called granular leukocytes.

Those without clearly visible granules are called agranular

(or nongranular) leukocytes.


The stain used to identify white blood

cells is usually a mixture of a pink-to-red

stain called eosin and a blue-to-purple
stain called a basic stain.

Granular leukocytes with pink staining

granules are therefore called eosinophils

Those with blue-staining granules are

called basophils

Those with granules that have little

affinity for either stain are neutrophils


Neutrophils are the most abundant type of leukocyte,

accounting for 50% to 70% of the leukocytes in the

blood.

Immature neutrophils have sausage-shaped nuclei and are

called band cells.

As the band cells mature, their nuclei become lobulated,

with two to five lobes connected by thin strands.

At this stage, the neutrophils are also known as

polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).


There are two types of agranular leukocytes:

Lymphocytes

The second most numerous type of leukocyte

They are small cells with round nuclei and little

cytoplasm.

Monocytes

The largest of the leukocytes

Kidney- or horseshoe-shaped nuclei

In addition to these two cell types, there are smaller

numbers of plasma cells, which are derived from

lymphocytes.

Plasma cells produce and secrete large amounts
of antibodies.

Platelets

Platelets or thrombocytes are the smallest of the

formed elements.

They are actually fragments of large cells called

megakaryocytes which are found in bone marrow.

The fragments that enter the circulation as platelets

lack nuclei but, like leukocytes, are capable of

amoeboid movement.

The platelet count per cubic millimeter of blood ranges

from 130,000 to 400,000 but this count can vary

greatly under different physiological conditions.

Platelets survive for about 5 to 9 days before being

destroyed by the spleen and liver.


Platelets play an important role in blood clotting.

They constitute most of the mass of the clot, and

phospholipids in their cell membranes activate the clotting

factors in plasma that result in threads of fibrin, which
reinforce the platelet plug.

Platelets that attach together in a blood clot release

serotonin, a chemical that stimulates constriction of the

blood vessels, thus reducing the flow of blood to the
injured area.

Platelets also secrete growth factors (autocrine

regulators), which are important in maintaining the

integrity of blood vessels.

Hematopoiesis

Blood cells are constantly formed through a process called

hematopoiesis (also called hemopoiesis).

The term erythropoiesis refers to the formation of

erythrocytes, and leukopoiesis to the formation of

leukocytes.

These processes occur in two classes of tissues:

Myeloid tissue is the red bone marrow of the long bones,

ribs, sternum, pelvis, bodies of the vertebrae, and portions of

the skull.

Lymphoid tissue includes the lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen,

and thymus.

The bone marrow produces all of the different types of

blood cells.

The lymphoid tissue produces lymphocytes derived from
cells that originated in the bone marrow.


Hematopoiesis begins the same way in both myeloid and

lymphoid tissue.

A population of undifferentiated (unspecialized) cells

gradually differentiate (specialize) to become stem cells,

which give rise to the blood cells.

At each step along the way the stem cells can duplicate

themselves by mitosis, thus ensuring that the parent

population will never become depleted.

As the cells become differentiated, they develop membrane

receptors for chemical signals that cause further

development along particular lines.


The earliest cells that can be distinguished under a

microscope are

Erythroblasts (which become erythrocytes)

Myeloblasts (which become granular leukocytes)

Lymphoblasts (which form lymphocytes)

Monoblasts (which form monocytes)

Leukocyte formation.
Leukocytes arise from
ancestral stem cells
called hematopoietic
stem cells.
(ac) Granular
leukocytes develop via
a sequence involving
myeloblasts.
(d) Monocytes, like
granular leukocytes,
are progeny of the
myeloid stem cell and
share a common
precursor with
neutrophils (not
shown).
(e) Only lymphocytes
arise via the lymphoid
stem cell line.

Formation of platelets. The hematopoietic stem cell gives rise to cells that
undergo several mitotic divisions unaccompanied by cytoplasmic division to
produce megakaryocytes. The plasma membrane of the megakaryocyte
fragments, liberating the platelets.


Erythropoiesis is an extremely active process.

It is estimated that about 2.5 million erythrocytes are

produced every second in order to replace those that are

continuously destroyed by the spleen and liver.


The life span of an erythrocyte is approximately 120 days.

Agranular leukocytes remain functional for 100 to 300

days under normal conditions.

Granular leukocytes, by contrast, have an extremely short

life span of 12 hours to 3 days.


The production of different subtypes of leukocytes is

stimulated by chemicals called cytokines.

These are autocrine regulators secreted by various cells of

the immune system.

The production of red blood cells is stimulated by the

hormone erythropoietin, which is secreted by the

kidneys.

Scientists have identified a specific cytokine that

stimulates proliferation of megakaryocytes and their

maturation into platelets. By analogy with erythropoietin,
they named this regulatory molecule thrombopoietin.


In man, as in all mammals there is a double circulation of

blood.

The primary circulation through pumping action of heart,

supplies blood to all regions of the body.

The blood later returns to the heart. It is called the
systemic circulation or body circulation.

A similar circulation carries blood to lungs for

oxygenation and returns it back to the heart. It is called the

pulmonary circulation.

Systemic circulation

The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, through

the pulmonary vein.

When the atria contract, blood from the left atrium is forced into

the left ventricle.

Later by a contraction of the ventricle, the blood leaves the heart

through the aorta.

The aorta is the single systemic artery emerging from the heart.

By successive branching, the aorta gives rise to hundreds of

arteries taking blood to all regions of the body.


As the branching happen, the arteries divide into numerous (4

106) arterioles.

In the target organs they produce four times as many

capillaries.

A similar number of venules converge into each other

forming veins of increasingly larger size.

Finally, only two veins, the superior and inferior vena cavae

return the blood to the right atrium.

Thus the course of blood from left ventricles through the

body organs and back to the atrium forms the systemic

circulation.

Pulmonary circulation

The venous blood from right atrium is conducted to the

right ventricle.

The ventricle expels the blood via the pulmonary trunk to

the lungs.

The oxygenated blood later returns by the pulmonary veins

to the left atrium.

This circulation from right ventricle to the left atrium via the

lungs is termed the pulmonary circulation.

Portal circulation

In the systemic circulation the venous blood passing through

spleen, pancreas, stomach and intestine is not carried back

directly to the heart.

It passes through the hepatic portal vein to the liver.

This vein begins as capillaries from the visceral organs and

ends in the liver again as capillaries.

These capillaries converge to form the hepatic vein which

joins the inferior vena cava, conveying blood to right atrium.

This route is the portal circulation.

Blood vessels

The blood vessels carrying blood away from the heart are

the arteries.

The Veins carry blood towards the heart.

The arteries and veins are named and classified according

to their anatomical position.

They can also be classified according to their size and wall

structure.

Types of blood vessels

Large elastic arteries: - The walls of these arteries contain elastic

fibers. The smooth wall measures about 1micron in thickness. It

gets stretched under the effect of pulse and recoils elastically.

Muscular arteries: - There are larger and smaller muscular

arteries. The larger muscular arteries are inelastic and they have
thick walls. The wall has 30-40microns in diameter in the layers of
smooth muscles. Since they regulate blood supply, they are called
distributing arteries. The small muscular arteries are capable of
vasodilation and vasoconstriction.

Arterioles: - They conduct blood from the arteries to the capillary

bed. These are small vessels capable of vasodilation and

vasoconstriction.


Capillaries: - These are fine vessels found between arterioles

and venules. They measure 5-8micron in diameter.

Venules: - These are tubes of flat, oval or polygonal

endothelial cells. Each venule is formed by the convergence

of two or more capillaries. Its diameter ranges up to
30micron.

Veins: - Veins seen in anatomy are medium veins. They run

in between venules and large veins. Large veins transport

blood to the heart. Veins with diameter above 2 mm have
valves. They are of semilunar type. They allow movement of
blood towards the heart. There are several valves in the
medium veins.

Functionally, arteries are subdivided into conducting,

distributing and resistance vessels.

Conducting vessels: - These are large arteries from the

heart and their main branches. The walls of these vessels

are elastic in nature.

Distributing vessels: - These are smaller arteries reaching

individual organs. They branch into the organs. They have

muscular walls.

Resistance vessels: - These are mostly arterioles. While

these vessels are smaller, their walls are highly muscular.

Hence these vessels can reduce pressure of blood due to
peripheral resistance.


Exchange vessels: - These are the capillaries. The walls

of these vessels allow exchanges between blood and the

tissue fluid surrounding the cells. The substances
commonly exchanged are oxygen, carbon-di-oxide,
nutrients, water, inorganic ions, vitamins, hormones,
metabolic products and antibodies.

Capacitance or reservoir vessels: - These are the larger

vessels and veins. These are of varying sizes. They collect

and convey blood back to the heart. The higher
capacitance of these vessels is due to their distensibility.
Hence their blood content is more, even at low pressure.
The number of such veins is also enormous. Thus the
veins are called as the blood reservoirs


The blood vessels show a vast range of structural

modifications.

A blood vessel consists of a wall and a lumen or cavity.

The wall of the blood vessels is made up of 3 distinct

layers or tunica.

Tunica intima

Tunica media

Tunica externa or Tunica adventitia


The tunica intima is formed of an endothelium, a delicate

connective tissue and elastic fibers.

The tunica media contains smooth muscle cells.

It causes vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

The tunica externa is composed of connective tissue.

The composition and thickness of layers varies with the

diameter of the blood vessels and the type.

Blood supply to blood vessels

As any other region, the cells and tissue on the wall of the

blood vessel require nourishment.

Some amount can diffuse from blood in the lumen.

For vessels having diameter greater than 1 mm, diffusion

of nutrients may not be possible.

Such vessels have very minute vessels called vasa

vasorum spread over them.

They penetrate into the wall of the blood vessels.

Innervations of blood vessels

The walls of the blood vessels are innervated by

sympathetic nerve fibers.

They regulate the contraction of the musculature.

They affect vasoconstriction.


The heart is a hollow, fibro muscular organ.

It is somewhat conical or pyramidal in form.

It is roughly the size of a closed fist.

An average heart measures 12 cm from base to the apex.

Transverse diameter at its broadest region is 8-9 cm.


The thoracic organs such as heart, trachea and esophagus

form a midline partition called the mediastinum.

The heart lies obliquely in the mediastinum.

The heart is surrounded by a double layered membrane called

the pericardium.

The outer layer is called the fibrous pericardium.

The inner membrane is called the serous pericardium.

In between heart and pericardium, there is a pericardial space.

This space is filled with a fluid called the pericardial fluid.


The wall of the heart is made up of three tissue layers.

The epicardium forms the smooth outer surface of the

heart.

The middle myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle.

This layer plays an important role in the functioning of the

heart.

The endocardium forms the smooth inner surface. It is

formed of squamous epithelium.

On either side of the heart are two chambers, one a receiving

chamber (atrium) and the other a pumping chamber (ventricle):

The right atrium is a thin-walled chamber that receives the blood

retuning from the body tissues. This blood, which is low in

oxygen, is carried in the veins, the blood vessels leading to the
heart from the body tissues.

The right ventricle pumps the venous blood received from the

right atrium and sends it to the lungs.

The left atrium receives blood high in oxygen content as it

returns from the lungs.

The left ventricle, which has the thickest walls of all, pumps,

oxygenated blood to all parts of the body. This blood goes

through the arteries, the vessels that take blood from the heart to
the tissues.


The two sides of the heart are completely separated from

each other by a partition called the septum.

The upper part of this partition is called interartrial

septum

The larger lower portion is called interventricular

septum.

The septum, like the heart wall, consists largely of

myocardium.

Four Valves

Since the ventricles are the pumping chambers, the valves,

which are all one way, are located at the entrance and the
exit of each ventricle.

The entrances valves are the atrioventricular valves

The exit valves are the semilunar valves

1.

Right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve)

It has three cusps, or flaps, that open and closes.

When this valve is open, blood flows freely from the right

atrium into the right ventricle.

However, when the right ventricle begins to contract, the

valve closes so that blood cannot return to the right atrium;

this ensures forward flow into the pulmonary artery.

2. Left atrioventricular valve (mirtal valve)

It is the bicuspid valve.

It has two rather heavy cusps that permit blood to flow freely

from the left atrium into the left ventricle.

However, the cusps close when the left ventricle begins to

contract; this prevents blood from returning to the left atrium

and ensures the forward flow of blood into the aorta.


Both the tricuspid and mitral valves are attached by means

of thin fibrous threads to the wall of the ventricles.

The function of these threads, called the chordae

tendineae, is to keep the valve flaps from flipping up into

the atria when the ventricles contract and thus causing a
backflow of blood.

3.

Pulmonic valve (semilunar)

It is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary

artery that leads to the lungs.

As soon as the right ventricle has finished emptying itself,

the valve closes in order to prevent blood on its way to the

lungs from returning to the ventricle.

4. Aortic valve (semilunar)

It is located between the left ventricle and the aorta.

Following contraction of the left ventricle, the aortic valve

closes to prevent the flow of blood back from the aorta to

the ventricle.

Blood Supply to the Myocardium

Although blood flows through the heart chambers, only

the endocardium comes into contact with it.

Therefore, the myocardium must have its own blood

vessels to provide oxygen and nourishment and to remove

waste products.

The arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart

are called the right and left coronary arteries.


These arteries, which are the first branches of the aorta,

arise just above the aortic semilunar valve.

They receive blood when the heart relaxes.

After passing through capillaries in the myocardium,

blood drains into the cardiac veins and finally into the
coronary (venous) sinus for return to the right atrium.


Lymphatic circulation along with blood circulation plays a key

role in maintaining the fluidity in all regions of the body.

It helps to maintain fluid balance in tissues and it absorbs fat

from the digestive tract.

It also functions as bodys defense system against micro

organisms and other harmful substances.

This system includes lymph, lymphocytes, lymphatic vessels,

lymph nodules, lymph nodes, tonsils, the spleen and the

thymus gland.

Lymphoid cells and tissues

Lymphatic organs contain lymphatic tissues.

These tissues primarily consist of lymphocytes.

They also contain macrophages, dendritic cells and reticular

cells.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells.

They originate from red bone marrow and are carried by blood

to lymphatic organs and other tissues.

There are several classes of lymphocytes.


The B-lymphocytes or B cells synthesize antibodies for

recognizing and neutralizing alien macromolecules.

T- lymphocytes can recognize and selectively kill cells infected

with viruses.

B and T lymphocytes are produced from stem cells present in the

bone marrow.

The T lymphocytes get matured only after entering into Thymus, a

lymphoid organ through circulation.

Maturation and differentiation of B cells will occur in the bone

marrow itself.

Thus the thymus and bone marrow are described as central or

primary lymphoid organs.

Lymph nodes

These are small round structures.

Their size ranges from 1-25 mm.

They are distributed throughout the course of the lymphatic

vessels.

These nodes are found all over the body.


The lymph enters the lymph nodes through afferent

lymphatic vessels and exits through efferent vessels.

The nodes contain open spaces called sinuses.

The sinuses are lined with phagocytic cells.

Spleen

It is roughly the size of a clenched fist

It is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity.

It has a fibrous capsule.

The spleen contains two types of lymphatic tissues,

namely the red pulp and the white pulp.

Tonsils

These are the largest lymph nodules.

They provide protection against bacteria and other harmful

materials.

In adults the tonsils decrease in size and may disappear.

There are 3 groups of tonsils in the pharyngeal walls.

Palatine tonsils are usually referred to as the tonsils. These are

larger lymphoid masses on each side of the junction between the oral
cavity and the pharynx.

Pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid is found near the junction between the
nasal cavity and the pharynx.

Lingual tonsil is a loosely associated collection of lymph nodules on
the posterior surface of the tongue.

The lymphatic circulation

The lymph fluid from the tissues is drained by lymphatic

capillaries.

These capillaries though present in many tissues are absent in

epidermis, hairs, nails, cornea, cartilages, CNS and bone

marrow.

The lymphatic capillaries join into larger vessels.

The larger vessels pass to local or remote lymph nodes.

These vessels and associated lymph nodes are arranged in

regional groups. Each group has its region of drainage.


Nodes within a group are interconnected.

Such regional groups with nodes and vessels are organized

in

Head and neck

Upper limbs
Lower limbs
Abdomen and pelvis
Thorax

The regional vessels return to the venous blood circulation

via the right and left lympho venous portals.

Nearly eight lymphatic trunks converge at the site of the

vertebral column and open into the venous portals nearer

to the neck.