RELATIVITY

THE

GENERAL

AND

SPECIAL

THEORY

BY

ALBERT
FBOFSasOB

EINSTEIN,
07

IH

FBTSICS

THS

tTHITIlBBITT

W.
UHIVEUSITT

NEW

HENRY

HOLT

OF

BEBLIH

BY

TRANSLATED

EGBERT

Ph.D.

LAWSON,
OF

M.Sc.

SHEFFIELD

YORK

AND
1921

COMPANY

19S80

COFYBIGHT,

BT

COMPANY

HOLT
HENBY

AND

PREFACE

THE
of

view,

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standard

the

The

reader.
in his

The

and

Einstein,
prinzip

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to

H.

(The

book

Das

the

author's

in

the

of

der

of

parts

(The

Foundations

Ambr.

Barth,

special theory

the

1916;
of

in

of

this

der

allgemeinen

Theory

assumes

relativity.
V

of

theory
A.
Das

some

of

tivity
relaA.

Lorentz,
RelativiUUscollection

Lane's

exhaustive

"

Vieweg

with

relativity, together
is

the

vances
issenschaften (Ad-

Friedr.

invariants,

General
book

in M.

in the
on

Teubner's
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by

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title

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also

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theory

theory

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papers

Relativity)

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original

published

Fortschritte

Braunschweig.
necessary

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of

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examination,

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Relativity

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Relativity)
familiarity

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vi

RELATIVITY

whole,
they

in the

actually originated.

clearness, it appeared
sHghtest

attention
I

presentation.
of

precept
L.

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tions
empiricalphysical foundaa

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"step-motherly" fashion,
imfamiliar
with physics may
not

for trees.

few

in

theory

feel like the

forest

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the other

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of

to the

having

diffictdties which

subject.

the

matters

of

pretence

reader

readers

whom

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to

the tailor and

left to

no

treated

purposely
that

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to

to

of

physicist,

theoretical

brilliant

make

scrupulously

according

elegance ought

paying

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the

to

that

inevitable

me

adhered

Boltzmann,

so

to

of

interest

the

In

repeat myself frequently,without

should
the

in which

connection

and

sequence

the

May
of

hours

imable

was

book

to

bring

the

see

some

one

suggestivethought!
A.

EINSTEIN

December, igi6

the

IN

THE

TO

NOTE

present

detailed

THIRD

by

book,

entitled

Time

"

the

firm

to mathematicians

by

H.

excellent

and

general theory
Weyl,

of

pubJulius Springer (Berlin).This

Raum

Matter),

the

on

relativity,written
Ushed

(1918) an

year

manual

EDITION

"

may

and

Zeit
be

"

Materie

warmly

physicists.

was

(Space

recommended

"

BIOGRAPHICAL

ALBERT
Jewish
the

of

six

school

months

From

1896

to

mathematics
School

school

secondary
some

time

and

having

obtained
Office
The
of

in

Einstein's

Theory
the

the

These

Emission
were

position

may

in

the

be

and

followed

vii

High

teacher.

For

private

tutor,
he

naturalised,
the

in

he

Swiss

Patent

occupied

the

tiU

to

the

years

1909.

important

most

this

period.

The

Special

of Energy,

Absorption
some

studied

becoming

and

Movement,

his

studies.

mentioned:

Inertia

year.

Technical

back

date

he

land
Switzer-

to

Einstein

was

involved

of Relativity,

Brownian

his

intended

engineer

theories

these

Amongst

of

ideas

where

accompanied

become

which

1902,

main

as

Germany.

proceeded

he

1879

sijrteenth

(Gymnasium)

meanwhile

post

he

at

he

afterwards

his

Albert

as

in

Munich,

continue

to

physics

Zurich,

in

he

1900

and

in

until

whence
later

bom

German-

Wiirtemberg,

Munich,

at

of

son

was

spent

were

MUan,

to

parents

Uhn,

Gymnasium

the

leaving

After

He

parents.

town

attended

is the

EINSTEIN

schooldays

His

NOTE

Theory

of

Quantum-Law

of Light
later

(1905).
by

the

viii

RELATIVITY

Theory of the SpecificHeat

fundamental

idea of the General

the

During
the

the

of

latter

similar

chair

continued

afterwards

his

received

Einstein

there

the

call to

Science, Berlin,

as

is

able

freely to

his studies

at

the

here

that

the

he

on

17).

Professor

Berlin, and,
for

Institute

Professor

His
was

two

first

sons

in

of

Academy
Van't

Berlin

Hoff.

himself

Academy,

in

also

physics

and
his

completing

lectures

Physical

the

at

addition, he

Einstein

various

on

University of

is Director

Research

wife, whom

has
he

of

of this

elder

Recently Professor
cousin, with

married

marriage,

Zurich, the
whom

been

from

fellow-student

when

of

the

the

Kaiser

Gesellschaft.

Wilhelm
f

in

of

Theory of Relativity(1915-

Einstein

specialbranches

accepted

devote

to

succeeded

General

work

1912.

1914,

to

successor

Einstein

was

until

Prussian

Professor

it

until

he

Polytechnikum, Zurich, and

activities

the

at

being appointed

Ordinarius

Professor
the

at

occupied

Prague, Bohemia, where

of

year

he

191

Extraordinarius

Professor

as

the

he

Zurich,

the

Theory ofRelativity.

to

1909

Professor

University

remained
In

interval

of

post

University
to

of Solid Bodies, and

both

being
is

at

married

in 1903,

There

of whom

sixteen

now

married.

Berne

Serbia.

Einstein

he

twice

were

are

years
a

ing
liv-

of age.

widowed

living in Berlin.
R.

W.

L.

NOTE

TRANSLATOR'S

IN

enlarge

to

book

which

At

not

with

Germany's
"The

of

for

valuable

additions

biographical

end

the

of

references

note

book,

guide

subject

to

E.

friend

the

those

book,
the

been

and
This

who

these

included

of

at

the

Enghsh

list, which
is

exhaustive,

readers

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Gen-

written

have

Author,

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than

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to

Professor
W.

has

III,

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of

of

one

Appendix

Apart

Index

an

by

plied
sup-

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to

intended

is
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pursue

farther.

desire

artists.

on

the

to

kindly

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translation.
to

suggestive

more

of

the

to

original.

Einstein

Relativity,"

this

specially

the

me

remarks,

additions

Confirmation

Experimental

Theory

in

celebrated

most

those

to

portrait

for

prefatory

Professor

request.

my

English-

necessary

Author's

appear

the

to

hardly

is

attention

do

me

the

on

draw

to

except

translation
it

public,

reading

on

this

presenting

Curtis,
Dr.

my

S.

R.

best

Mihier,

A.R.C.SC.,

Arthur

thanks

Hohnes,

to

D.Sc,

F.R.A.S.,

leagues
col-

my

and
also

A.R.C.Sc.,

Mr.
to

my

F.G.S.,

RELATIVITY

of

the

Imperial

reading

for

for

and

of

expression
their

of

course

have

its

for

thanks

bestowed

their

also

and

on

to

The

University

June

12,

of

1920

Sheffieid

owe

Methuen

Messrs.

advice,
the

and

for

during

work

publication.

Labosatory

Physics

helpful

suggestions.

ROBERT

The

in

kindness
for

manuscript,

numerous

coimsel

ready

they

care

the

through

criticism,
an

College,

W.

LAWSON

the
the

CONTENTS

PART

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

THE

RELATIVITY,
PAGE

I.

Geometrical

of

Meaning

Physical

sitions
PropoI

n.

III.

'

rv.

The

Mechanics

of

System

Co-ordinates

12
.

"VV.

of

Prmciple

The

(in the

Relativity

stricted
Re-

Sense)
VI.

Theorem

The

of
in

employed

14

the

of

Addition

Classical

Velocities

Mechanics

19

...

VII.

The

VIII.

On

of

Propagation
of

the

of

IncompatibiUty

Apparent
of

Light

with

the
the

Law
ciple
Prin-

Relativity

Idea

of

21

in

Time

Physics

25

....

DC.
X.

The
On

Relativity
the

of

Simultaneity
of

Relativity

the

Conception

30

of

Distance

XI.

The

XII.

The

GalUeian

The

Classical

in

Time

and

Space

Co-ordinates

of

System

34

Transformation

Lorentz

of

Behaviour
Clocks

in

Motion

Measuring-Rods

36
and
42

3d

xii

RELATIVITY
PAGE

Xm.

Theorem
The

XrV.

of the

of Velocities.

of Fizeau

Experiment

45

......

Value

Heuristic

The

Addition

of

the

Theory

of

Relativity
XV.

XVI.

General

Results

of the
the

and

Experience
Relativty

XVn.

50

Special Theory

58

Four-dimensional

The

Gravitational

XX.

The

Equality of

Mass

as

Postulate
XXI.

In

what

on

XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.

Mechanics

General

78
of

of the

Special

Relativityimsatisfactory?
the General

84
.

ciple
Prin-

87

and

Rotating Body

Gaussian

for the

and

from

and

Measuring-Rods

of Reference

Non-Euclidean

93

...

98

Continuum

Co-ordinates

Space-time
Theory
Euclidean

of

Continuum

103

of the

Relativity considered
Continuum

69

Gravitational

the Foundations

are

of Clocks

Euclidean

The

Inertial and

Relativity

Behaviour

65

74

Relativity

Inferences

Few

of
XXIII.

of

of

Theory
XXn.

Field

Respects

Classical

Principleof Relativity

Argument

an

RELATIYITY

OF

General

XIX.

Space

THEORY

GENERAL

Specialand

of

PART

XVIII.

52

;
.

Minkowski's

THE

Theory

Special
as

108

xiii

CONTENTS

PAGE

of the General

Space-time Continuum

The

XXVn.

Theory of Relativityis

not

Euclidean

Continuum
XXVIII.

Formulation

Exact

of
The

XXIX.

iii

of the

General

ciple
Prin-

Relativity

Solution

of the
the

on

115
Problem

Basis

of Gravitation
the

of

General

Principleof Relativity
ni

PART
CONSIDERATIONS

ON
AS

Cosmological

XXX.

119

UNIVERSE

THE

WHOLE

Difficulties

of

Newton's

Theory
of
Possibility

The

XXXI.

125

The

Structure

General

"Fmite"

and

yet

Universe

"Unbounded"
XXXn.

of

128

Space according to the

Theory of Relativity

135

....

APPENDICES
I,

Simple Derivation

of

the

Lorentz

mation
Transfor139

n.

Minkowski's

Four-dimensional

[Supplementary
ni.

The

to

Section

")

Space (" World

XVII.J

146

....

of the General

Experimental Confirmatiop
Theory of Relativity

(a) Motion

of the PeriheUon

(6) Deflection

of

Light by

148
of
a

Mercury

the Red

150

Gravitational

Field

(c) Displacement

152
of

SpectralLines

towards
iSS

BrBLIOGRAPHY

l6l

Index

165

RELATIVITY

PART

PHYSICAL

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

THE

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RELATIVITY

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SPECIAL

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RELATIVITY

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THEORY

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SPACE

AND

TIME

"'TT^HE

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MECHANICS

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grave

CLASSICAL

first

"space,"

SPECIAL

10

of

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it

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regarded essentiallyas

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jectory
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RELATIVITY

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SPACE

chanics,

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TIME

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illustration

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and
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IV

THE

GALILEIAN

OF

SYSTEM

CO-ORDINATES

is well

AS

known,

mechanics

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known
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bodies
motion

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le

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the

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of inertia.

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indicates

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law

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Galilei-Newton,

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as

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ordinates
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not

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RELATIVITY

OF

PRINCIPLE

THE

IN

attain

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14

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ity
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co-ordinate

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observe

railway

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THE

SENSE)

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THE

the

PRINCIPLE

latter

motion

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with

discussion
follows

respect

is

in relation

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mechanical

advance
we

K'

K,

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devoid

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general

capable

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the

of the

electrodynamics
evident

and

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question of

vaHdity

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nm

according
with

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to

respect

to

principle of

sense).

of

that

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need

principleof relativity.

recent

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all natural

representation with

development

it became

for the

phenomena.

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K'

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and

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classical mechanics

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to

phenomena

as

called

optics

insufficient foundation

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to

laws

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more

good

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natural

mechanics,

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co-ordinate

convinced

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one

as

phenomena

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to

generalisation

our

thus:

respect

of

to K.

in

tenet

statement

long

to doubt

the

then

condition

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respect

step farther

same

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relativity

help

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with

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the

the

Galileian

Galilei-Newton

rotation, then

course

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of

is

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K,

to

system,

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system

uniformly moving

of

exactly
K.

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with

preceding section, it

translation.

laws

exactly as they
when

translatory

co-ordinate

co-ordinate

motion

uniform

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IS

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in the

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when,

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contained

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RELATIVITY

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every

OF

affords

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physicaldescription

At

this

juncture

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of relativity
principle

ripe for discussion,and

it did

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appear

16

SPECIAL

THEORY

impossiblethat
be in the

the

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since it

basis

bodies

with

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must

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wonderful.

short

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apply

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principleof relativity

with

great accuracy

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in the

principleof

hold

with

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and

phenomena,

another, is

for

still

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domain

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should

us

theoretical

of

delicacy of

generahty
in

exactness

for the

measure

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supply

not

the actual

mechanics.

broad

of the

relativity.

does

considerable

suppliesus

heavenly

in favour

physical phenomena,

of all

grant it

such

mechanics

broad
sufficiently

presentation
must

much

very

principle of

the

classical

general facts which

two

are

speak

of

validity

with

question might

negative.

outset

though

this

to

answer

Nevertheless, there
at

RELATIVITY

OF

priorinot

yet
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probable.
We

proceed

now

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moreover,

principle
does

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for

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this

case

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relative to each

natural

description of
we

laws

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are

natural

that, from

of

manner,

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If the

sense)

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co-ordinate

are

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not

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equivalent

to

beUeve

being formulated
and

all

imi-

phenomena.

constrained

capable

particularlysimple
condition

be

later.

GalUeian

other,wiU

to

argument,

return

K, K', K", etc., which

systems

formly

shall

we

relativity (in

hold,

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to

of

course

In

that
in

only

on

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PRINCIPLE

THE

co-ordinate

(Ko) of

systems,

should

we

particularstate

reference.

We

should

of its merits

for

in

rest," and

then

the

then

Ko,

description of

hold

than

with

would

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been

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would

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different

pipe

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direction.

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oiu*

emitted

kilometres

relativity
were
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would

moment

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would

direction

that
be

carriage
expect,

an

organ-

the direction
emitted

placed perpendicular
earth

valid

is

on

the

should

of the

the

in

to

this
orbit

way
rail-

about

principle

therefore

the laws

physical systems

dependent

velocity of

If

we

into

earth
of

of

if the

an

with

comparable

of motion

enter

in

of its motion

second.

per
not

have

tude
magni-

the

by

that

from

carriage travellingwith
30

carriage

should

We

parallelto

axis of the

the sun,

would

the

velocity of

note

travel

be

be

which

K,

to

part.

its axis

round

of nature

reference

pipe placed with

would

the

duninished

to the fact that the

necessarilyplay

instance, that

tion."
mo-

were

This

at

{i.e.
"really") with respect

with

direction

"in

simple laws

Ko.

to

of

nomena)
phe-

"absolutely

systems

less

general laws

formulated
and

for

be due

be in motion
In

natural

embankment

to which

respect

simpUcity would

body

our

railway carriagewould

our

system K, relative

one

justified(because

be

Galileian

chosen

as

calling this system

all other

17

have

of motion

If,for instance,our
system

RELATIVITY

OF

of

expect
at

any

nature, and

their

orientation

behaviour
in space

18

SPECIAL

with

respect
in

at

the

the
of

whole

observations

anisotropic
a

This

the

RELATIVITY

For

owing

year,

year.

in

principle

very

of

earth

relativity.

of

system

^o

the

most

such

physical
different

argument

the
be

revealed

of

tion
altera-

cannot

However,

terrestrial

powerful

the

revolution

the

never

non-equivalence
is

of

to

hypothetical

have

properties

physical

OF

velocity

the

to

the

careful

of

of

relative

rest

earth.

course

throughout

i.e.

the

to

direction
in

earth

THEORY

space,
tions.
direc-

in

favour

VI

THEOREM

THE

THE

OF
EMPLOYED

VELOCITIES

OF

ADDITION
CAL
CLASSI-

EST

MECHANICS

LET

us

carriage

with

travel

other

to

The

only

man

relative

advance

distance

carriage.
he
the

As

carriage,

embankment,

in

numerically

equal

W=
second

+w

additional

and

the

to

relative

considered.

result, which

expresses

to

If
he

he

his

walking,

We

the
19

see

theorem

the

being

which

he

of

is

distance
in

later

the

ever,
how-

embankment

shall

of

to

distance

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relative

relative

covers

the

the

would

velocity

velocity with

total

to

seems

the

the

the

through

also

second,

man

during

distance

hence

this

in

Thus

of

in

or,

the

second,

to

consequence
an

direction

does

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traverses

walking.

the

to

the

answer

man

consideration:

still for

stand

to

were

in

embankment

possible

rails with

quickly,

velocity

the

railway

that

How

w.

following

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from

and

v,

carriage

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what

with

relative

process?
result

of

velocity

words,

advance

to

length

the

traverses

of

velocity

constant

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travelling along the

be

to

friend

old

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suppose

that
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this

addi-

"0

tion

SPECIAL

of

velocities
be

cannot

that

THEORY

we

have

reality.

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assume

its

in

employed

maintained;
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correctness.

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time

RELATIVITY

OF

in

other
down

being,

mechamcs,

classical

the

words,
does

however,

hold

not

we

law
in

shall

SPECIAL

28

is

THEORY

OF

believed
justifiably

this

Of

process) to
system).

must

of

hght

pltmged

such

As

tip of

of

that

ray

that

its

wiU

be

the

the

part of the

the

carriage.

is the

to

carriage,and

we

above

transmitted

with

same

with
Now

the

velocity

that

as

of the

much

course

the

apply

less.

carriage. It

the

the ray

is

consideration
of

Ught plays

walking along relativelyto

of the

velocityW
is here
the

to

required velocity

the

velocityof propagation

here

to the embankment

relative

from

sent

railway carriageis again

the

man

The

lightbe

embankment.

velocityof

can

the air above

of

ray

see

lightrelative
we

again choose

imagine

previous section,since

Kght

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but

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process

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inquire about
ray

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indeed

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travellingalong
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us

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along

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rigid reference-body (co-ordinate

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of

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Let

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course

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Let

law

Who

difliculties arise.

these

how

ray

simple

difficulties?

greatest intellectual

let

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RELATIVITY

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respect

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PROPAGATION

OF

velocity of propagation

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THE

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than

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the

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ia Section

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of

principle

theoretical

SPECIAL

24

THEORY

physics shows,
this

and

moving

bodies

leads

A.

H.

Lorentz

that

show

to

phenomena,

of which

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of

velocity

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physicists

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relativity,in spite
had

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vacuo

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in-

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of

RELATIVITY

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theory

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logically rigid

theory

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law

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the

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deal

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special theory

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vm

LIGHTNING
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PHYSICS

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SPECIAL

26

THEORY

the

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OF

RELATIVITY

lightningmust

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task

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simultaneity. By

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PHYSICS

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SPECIAL

28

but

stipulationwhich

in

freewill

order

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY
I

make

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arrive

to

at

of my

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IX

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SIMULTANEITY

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30

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RELATIVITY

the

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31

also simultaneous
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Observers

THEORY

SPECIAL

32

therefore

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RELATIVITY

in

ment

second

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contended

33

But,

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SIMULTANEITY

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VI

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assmnption,

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THE

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35

embankment.

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DISTANCE

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XI

THE

TRANSFORMATION

LORENTZ

results

THE

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three

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law

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The

considerations

the

because

derived

velocities

that

then

hypotheses,

these

theorem

in

Section

the

arises:

36

VI

light in

vacuo

principle of relativity,
have

How

of Section

of

of

itself

possibiHty presents

propagation
with

the

VI

we

in order

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remove

SPECIAL

S8

THEORY

framework

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space

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RELATIVITY

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THE

a/,/, z',^

values
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of

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to

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For

*:v

ray

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with

event

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39

is satisfied

vacuo

and

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for

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TRANSFORMATION

magnitudes

respect

so

of

LORENTZ

Fig.

orientation

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space

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by

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of

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eqiiations:
X

vt

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nT

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f^

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This

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to

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assimiptions

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transfoimation

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character
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in

SPECIAL

40

of times
should

THEORY

and

lengths, then
obtained

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"

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velocity of Ught

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Aided

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ia

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by

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for

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following equations:

=x
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^,

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THE

LORENTZ

TRANSFORMATION

41

]t

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expression

the

division,

by

x'

ct'
=

the
this

rays

equation.

equal
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light

We

thus

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transmission
also

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Lorentz

to

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shorter
42

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in
i

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RODS

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CLOCKS

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physical behaviour
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x, y, z,

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then

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aginary.
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tained
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SPECIAL

44

Let

THEORY

us

consider

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tf

and

first

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transformation

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RELATIVITY

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at

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THEORY

SPECIAL

46

transfonnation

Galilei

of

in terms

a;

This

equation

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then

point

nothing

in Section

obtain, as

But

well

embankment).

symbol W., and

the

we

VI,
(A).

just as

this consideration

of the

theory

relativity.In

of

equation
x'

we

system

-o-\-w

out

carry

basis

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on

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to the

to the

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the law

else than

reference

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man

denote

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(z)
+ 110)1.

expresses

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of motion

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a;' and

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/, and

and

RELATIVITY

OF

then

must

x' and

express

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use

Lorentz

transformation.
then

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the

obtain

f in terms

of

and

equations of

fourth

first and

making

(A)

wt'

the

of

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t,

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equation

equation

'-"^...

(B),

^+^
which

corresponds

velocities in
of

relativity. The

of these

two

experience.
a

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most

direction

theorem

this

Fizeau

ago,

and

of addition

according

question

theorems
On

the

now

point

we

performed
which

has

to

arises

is the better

important experiment

physicist
century

to

are

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enHghtened by
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than

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half

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THE

then

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Light

it travel in the direction

liquid above
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to

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respect

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or

tube

take

to

velocity of lightrelative

VI

tube

principleof relativity

Hght always

velocity

bodies

to

the

with

propagation

whether

in the

arrow

flowiug through

is

certainly have

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does

quickly

diagram, Fig. 3)

mentioned

accordance

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How

hquid

velocity 11?

shall

we

following

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ia

travels

its result.

the

with

particular velocity w.

tube

about

doubt

no

is concerned

experiment

question.

be

can

47

experimental physicists,

of the best

some

FIZEAU

OF

EXPERIMENT

plays

of Section
the

part of

/"
Fig.

the

or

embankment

railway

system

the

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carriage,or

or

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system

part of the

of

man

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carriage

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walking along
pomt

in

the

the

present

SPECIAL

48

section.

THEORY

If

relative

denote

we

the

to

tube

equation (A)

the

transformation

favour

of

the

the

According

exact.

velocity

flow

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per

cent.

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the

fact

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given by
of the

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A.

of

theory

the

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use

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long

does

before

in favour

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ness

by
ai

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of

-J-

as

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found

Fizeau

compared
") (I

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liquid.

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the

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-3

with

j,or
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Fizeau's

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least

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of

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obtained

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hand, owing

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replace (B)

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circmndiminish
a

crucial

for
relativity,

""),where

the other

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the

of

the

statement

was

experiment

theory

of

theory

of matter.

of the

of

attention

particular hypotheses

conclusiveness

test

excellent

phenomenon

relativity.This

stance, however,

very

within

to

in

theory of

influence

draw

now

electromagneticstructure
the

the

most

(B)

pmrely electrodynamical nature,

by

decides

propagation

of

Galilei

is, indeed,

the

formula

Lorentz

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as

light

transformation

and

the

theory

this is

from

recent

must

we

given by

derived

on

represented by

then

agreement
to

is

the

Experiment

by Zeeman,

measurements

velocity of

Lorentz

facts.

equation (B)

relativity,and

RELATIVITY

(B), according

or

the

to

the

by W,

or

corresponds

OF

the

is the index
to

the small-

in the first

place

approximation by

THE

of

electrodynamics
original
theory

theory
of

developed
simple
hj^otheses,
on

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OF

EXPERIMENT

Maxwell-Lorentz,

was

relativity.
from

FIZEAU

based,

in

Rather

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electrodynamics

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combination

on

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49

which

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of

built.

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opposes

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generahsation

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XIV

THE

HEURISTIC

VALUE

OF

THE

THEORY

OF

RELATIVITY

train

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that

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acceptance

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actual

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law

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nature

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transformation,
with

principle

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theory

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must

transformed

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time

light, the

up

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for

of

simi

is

lates
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the

and

y,

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combine

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considered
two

in this process

part
of

velocity of

be

to

we

Lorentz

transmission

relativity,and
Every

x,

connection

important

that,

transformation

of

transformation,

law

the

constitute

mechanics,

manner.

conviction

uniting these

law

which
this

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has

co-ordinates

events

nature.

vacuo

the

rectangular

t of

hand

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c.

obtained

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to

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constant

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on

following

pages

principle of relativity holds

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hand,

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led

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in the

epitomised

Experience
on

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thought

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into

instead

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the

stituted
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so

law

of

space-

HEURISTIC

time

variables

x,

K,

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y,

x',

VALUE

t'

connection
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of

of

relation

transformation.

variables
K'.

system

is

in

co-variant

co-ordinate

space-time

between

Or,

51

original

new

magnitudes

are

the

co-ordinate

the

accented

nature

2,

introduce

we

2',

y,

RELATIVITY

OF

the

given

the

and

Lorentz

General

with

this

ordinary
by

brief:

In

laws
Lorentz

to

respect

of

transformations.
This

is

the

theory

and

in

of

virtue

heuristic

If
did
of

one

theory

hitherto

of

law

this

satisfy

have

been

general
evinced.

natural

becomes

general,

for

nature

to

were

condition,

then

law,

valuable

disproved.
results

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Let

latter

of

laws
be

fovmd
least

at

of

assumptions

fundamental

two

of

theory
search

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condition

demands

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general

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in

would

examine

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of

the

mathematical

relativity

aid

nature.

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definite

us

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theory

XV

GENERAL

IT

is clear

from

OF

(special) theory

out

of

theory,

but

has

is

Maxwell-Lorentz

of

physicists

have
if

even

in

unequivocally
Classical

of

special theory

laws

however,
for

matter

velocity
rapid

rapid
are

of

motions

not

of

number

the

basis
has

of

generally
had

the

laws,
it

"

pendent
inde-

theory.

rendered

plausible,

experiment

mechanics

it could

part,

of

important

relativity

been

predictions

simplified

more

so

these

the
the

that

accepted

by

decided

less

its favour.

before
the

the

grown
In

derivation

the

theory

would

the

forming

special theory

latter

i.e.

that

has

optics.

altered

reduced

hj^otheses
The

and

incomparably

considerably

considerations

considerably

has

structure,

what

"

it

THEORY

relativity

appreciably

not

theoretical
and

of

electrod3Tiamics

it has

THE

previous

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fields
of

RESULTS

required
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in

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of

electrons

the
of
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such
and

SPECIAL

54

THEORY

only dealing

are

of

energy

We

shaU
The

the

the

question

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the

with

conservation

laws

the

law

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law

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K' which

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classical

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imited

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into

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every

factor

briefly,relative

in the

K,

system

of translation

motion

the Lorentz

law
not

system

co-ordinate

of co-ordinates.

mechanics,

to

co-ordinate

of uniform
or,

hold

should

energy
a

In

to

every

contrast

transformation

transition

from

one

another.

tions
comparatively simple considera-

are

led to draw

these

premises,

we

from

deciding
system

to

respect

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relative

is the

of

reference

with

also with

such

of

means

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in-

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conservation

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only

to

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|
that the
principleof relativity'requires

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but

and

energy

quite

be

to

briefly consider

shall

be attached

of

of

of mass;

conservation

two

importance,

conservation

of^the

theory of relativitythey have

imification

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mass.

fundamental

laws

of

We

of

conception
of

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law.

led is

relativity,physics recognised

of

advent

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generalcharacter

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of

specialtheory

the

velocity.

the

on

how

to

as

significancelater.

result of

important

most

concerned

with

point-mass depends

speak

which

to

RELATIVrTY

OF

the
in

following conclusion

conjunction

with

the

RESULTS

GENERAL

body

Maxwell:

absorbs^

which

radiation

of

form

an

the

velocity in

in

moving

with

amount

of

the

velocity

sufferingan

process,

has,

by

amount

an

as

v,

the

in

"o

energy

without

increased

its energy

55

electrod3Tiamicsof

the

equations of

fundamental

THEORY

OF

alteration

consequence,

Eo

v/-?
of the

consideration

In

kinetic

for the
energy

of the

energy

body

of the

expressiongiven
to be

out

comes

required

the

body,

above

(r^
v^
I

V
-

of

+
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mass

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amount

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Thus

"o,

-^;

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inertial

the

varies

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the

system of bodies
*

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of

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to

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amount

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body

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velocity

up

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increases

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mass

be

the

takes

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body.

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energy

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then

of

same

moving

constant, but
energy

the

by

an

is not

change
mass

of

in
a

measure

co-ordinate

system

SPECIAL

56

THEORY

of its energy.
of

mass

of

the

The

law

conservation

provided

that

sends

energy.

out

of

the

identical

that

see

attracted

Writing

the

the

law

only valid

takes

up

nor

expressionfor the

the

rf

mc^, which

term

the energy

hitherto

else than

the

before it absorbed

Eg.

direct

comparison

is not

ment

has

attention, is nothing

our

possessed by the body

energy

of this relation

possibleat

the fact that

the

themselves

the present

changes

subject a system

can

is

neither

system

v/^-^

with

and

energy,

of the

ia the form

energy

we

RELATIVITY

of the conservation

becomes

system

OP

in energy

perceptibleas

to

to which

Eo

change

e^eri-

time, owing

we

to make

largeenough

not

are

with

in the inertial

-En
mass

of the system.

with

the

alteration
stance

mass

m,

is too

-^
which

classical

was

in

present before

mechanics

was

successfullythe conservation
law

of

Let
nature.
^

As

comparison
the

It is owing to this circimi-

of the energy.

that

small

able
of

mass

to

tablish
esas

iadqpendent vaHdity.
add

me

The
judged

from

final remark

success

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co-ordinate

the
system

of

fundamental

Faraday-Maxwell
moving

with

the

body.

GENERAL

RESULTS

interpretation

of

resulted
that
actions

are

at

physicists
such

no

According

action

at

always

takes

the
of

or

of

velocity
the

fact
r61e

in

what

general

in

way

theory

that
this
this
of

the

with

place
action

theory

transmission.
the

relativity,
of

velocity

velocity
In

becomes

relativity.

Part

light

action
with

This

theory.
result

of

distance

is

plays
II

of

law

instantaneous

at

mediary
inter-

an

Newton's

the

of

instantaneous

as

of

tance
dis-

convinced

involving

type
to

distance

distance

with

the

at

becoming

(not

of

57

action

things

distance

mediiun)

gravitation.

THEORY

electromagnetic

in

there

OF

we

modified

an

at

finite
in-

connected

mental
funda-

shaU

in

see

the

XVI

EXPERIENCE

AND

THE

OF

what

TO

is the

supported

experiment
of

has

relativity

Lorentz

Thus

of

As

here

enables

light

and

to

to

with

relative

the
those

resulting

fact

of

fixed

stars,

the
from

the

relativity

the

These

simple

found
to

of

the

which
with

earth
to

the
of

be

influence

reference
in

fixed

earth

round
of

due

are

yearly
the

the

on

stars.

indicated,

SB

of

exceedingly

an

the

the

produced

fixed

position

to

the

support

theory

the

motion

(aberration), and

Maxwell-

refer

apparent

mental
funda-

particular importance,

are

We

the

of

in

of

reason

phenomena.

support

the

effects

the

the

which

effects

from

tion
ques-

theory

that
the

tivity
rela-

special theory

from

out

also

motion

experience.
of

sun

the

with

experience

us

for

The

of

This

electromagnetic

obtained

are

manner,

Fizeau.

predict

reaching

results

of

being
the

to

us

connection

theory

electromagnetic

mention

in

of

facts

relativity.

answered

crystallised

theory
all

special theory

by experience?

easily

not

mentioned

already

THEORY

RELATIVITY

extent

is

SPECIAL

the

accord
ment
move-

stars

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with

stars

itself in

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The

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of motion

of relativity,
In

able

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favour

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an

law

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by experience.

Maxwell-Lorentz

of

no

Lorentz

tested

there

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of

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extent, that

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from

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to

numerous

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reahty they

to

the

positionof

theory, which

too

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argxmients in favour

time

of

with

experimental arguments

MaxweU-Lorentz

colour

light (Doppler principle).

of

source

fixed

latter effect

The

transmitted

Hght

compared

as

the

on

them.

the

slightdisplacement

of the

spectrallines

earth

from

lightreachingus

the

the

to

respect

59

of

motions

relative

of the

components

RELATIVITY

AND

EXPERIENCE

of

"

i.e.

relativity
"

the so-called

substances

consist

of
particles(electrons)

large velocity. By

of these

rays

imder

magnetic fields,we
of these

introduction
in itself

and

the

particlesvery

ing
examin-

the influence
can

study

exactly.

the

SPECIAL

60

we

theoretical

the

In

THEORY

faced

are

dynamic

RELATIVITY

OF

with

diflScultythat

the

of itself is imable

theory

electrons,

of these

treatment

For

electro-

give

to

an

since electrical

ac-

coimt

of their nature.

of

sign repel each other, the negative electrical

one

constitutingthe

masses

be

under

scattered

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remained

hitherto

electrical

in

(rigidconnection

arrive

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electron

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during

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at

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by

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of

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electron

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is not

with

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general theory
of

an

of motion

of

electron

relativityrenders
are

held

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recent

it

the

A.

hypothesis
perience
ex-

of motion
of this

the amount
to

chanics),
me-

of

expression
justifiable
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confijmed
^

motion,

electron

experience.

direction

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contraction

-j-

in the

of that

in consequence

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first to introduce

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motion

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the

classical

particles constituting the

a

"*/i

of

agree

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the

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electron

motion

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forces

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repulsions,unless

would

electron

masses

has

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years.

likelythat

the electrical

together by gravitationalforces.

SPECIAL

62

systems

THEORY

is

rest with

the

On

respect
other

motion

with

of K'

K')

to

all co-ordinate
K

long

time

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drift at the earth's

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Michelson

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face

on

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at

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to

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together
by

required for

with

the aether.
calculation

reference

to

the

and

for

aether-

an

that

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to

pass

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reflecting

lightrequires

from

one

the whole

system

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to

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to

RELATIVITY

(K) corresponding

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of motion

state

OF

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EXPERIENCE

the

when

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the

motion

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estimated

RELATIVITY

moving

mirrors

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But

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the

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the discussion

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Comparison

shows

XII

the

contraction

compensate
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in

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clearly

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Morley

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FitzGerald

and

Lorentz

the

fact

"

the

shoiild

times

two

and

experiment involving

an

the

to

planes. Although

between

difference

63

perpendicularly

exceedingly small, Michelson

is

of

is

body

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AND

hence

experiment

any

Here

the

tion
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from

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without

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and

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as

the

SPECIAL

64

factor

prime
the

not

attach

to

THEORY

involved

motion

body
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case

itself,
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for

relatively

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REIATIVITY

this

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at

xvn

MINKOWSKI'S

FOUR-DIMENSIONAL

non-mathematician

THE

by

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indefinite
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"world"

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65

by

being

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Space

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SPACE

phenomena
Minkowski

SPECIAL

66

THEORY

RELATIVITY

naturally four-dimensional

is

it is

Fdr

sense.

which

is

namely,

three

space

is in

this

there

event

(realisedor

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{t' t).
=

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It is for this
of

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/.

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POUR-DIMENSIONAL

SPACE

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in

Appendix

n.

SPECIAL

68

THEORY

correspond
in

exactly

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geometry.

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RELATIVITY

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THEORY

GENERAL

TO

the

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RELATIVITT

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If it is

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GENERAL

72

THEORY

bodies

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GENERAL

76

for what
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THEORY

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RELATIVITY

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XX

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GENERAL

80

THEORY

the

chest

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man

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supposition

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GENERAL

82

From
we

THEORY

consideration

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to

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of

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supplied

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reference-body such
true

gravitation.

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may

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gravitational field

field

existence
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relativitymust

misconception suggested by tijeseconsiderations.

in the

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RELATIVITY

general theory

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In

OP

by

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Section
observer

XVIII.
in

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INERTIAL

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XXI
WHAT

IN

ARE

RESPECTS

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THEORY

SPECIAL

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particles

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state

THE

SATISFACTOR
UN-

out

bodies

is not

law

starts

OF

times

for

imiform
other.

the

vahd

certain

possess

several

Material

emphasised

only be

can

stated

uniformly

in

repeatedly

RELATIVITY

from

move

continue

or

OF

law:

removed

to

AND

mechanics

following
far

FOUNDATIONS

MECHANICS

CLASSICAL

WE

THE

hold.

thought

condition
that

is
of

certain

logical
things.
refer-

86

GENERAL

the

reference-systems

this

objection

THEORY

without

clearly
claimed

of

be

may

of

motion

require
the

for

of

any

the

external

reference-body

Mach

because

is

of

is

rid

of

to

since

the

body

of

it

objection

placed
by

on

of

means

the

general
of

equations

such

whatever

reference,

motion.

importance

more

is

reference-body
agency

be

got

it, but

this

of

must

be

saw

recognised

conformable

every

of

state

objection

The

its

is

relativity,

hold

theory

and

only

can

which

physics

E.

Newton

invalidate

to

mechanics

It

principle
a

all,

that

basis.

new

But
of

K'.'^

and

attempted

success.

most

he

and

RELATIVITY

OF

for

rotating

its

of

such

maintenance,

uniformly.

when

especially
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that

nature

e.g.

in

the

the
it

does

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state

not

when

XXII

FEW

INFERENCES
PRINCIPLE

the

general
in

us

field

gravitational
Let

us

place

GaUleian

purely

in

natural

process

K'

body

to

this

the
For

in

respect

Galilei)

to

is

of

process

of
K

we

executing

how

find

the

K',

of

culation)
cal-

this known

from

exists

to

by

reference-

relatively

field

it

means

{i.e.simply

seen

reference

with

K.

to

respect

consideration

our

field

gravitational

fluences
in-

studied.
that

learn

accordance
an

accelerated
8r

which

body

rectilinear

uniform

(in

By

accelerated

how

us

example,
state

is

as

which

relative

K.

to

gravitational

teaches

also

appears,

body

new

able

the

process

in

domain

reference

then

know

we

manner

operations

which

since

But

of

theoretical
are

the

the

manner.

natural

any

GaHleian

the

body

we

for

of

properties

that

instance,

regards

relativity puts

theoretical

purely

for

as

of

that

show

XX

derive

to

"course"

whatsoever,

Section

principle

in

suppose,

space-time

takes

of

position

GENERAL

RELATIVITY

OF

considerations

THE

THE

FROM

motion

with

the
and

in

is
with

law

of

general

GENERAL

88

THEOEY

curvilinear

motion

OF

with

reference-bodyK'

relativelyto K'

with

It

is known

the

Hght

for

Galileian

can

tional
gravita-

of bodies

in

suppliesus

of

ray

the

out

such

consider

it with

shown

the

that

reference

to

the

the first place,it

reality. Although

that

the

incidence

ought

can

be

this

to

we

the

manifest

of

curvature

for the

passing

is nevertheless

clude,
con-

propagated
two

examination

general theory

light rays

the

spects
re-

compared with the

light rays

relativityis

estimated

the

1-7 seconds

itself in

of

of the

fields
gravitational

disposalin practice,its
for

of

importance.

detailed

only exceedinglysmall
our

of

accelerated

fields. In
gravitational

this result is of great

required by

ray

longer a straightline when

no

(reference-body
i?'). From

question shows

path

that,in general,rays of lightare

In

respect

with the velocity

rectilinearly

easilybe

in
curvilinearly

analogous

light. With

reference-bodyK,

lightis

chest

result of fundamental

new

carry

of

ray

we

is transmitted

It

same

at

the

on

consideration

our

when

consideration

we

that

the movement

obtain

we

importance

c.

or

new.
nothing essentially

However,

to

influence

that

so

the

to

acceleration

field prevailing
gravitational

field influences
way,

the accelerated

to

(chest). This

of the

moving body

this

respect

corresponds

curvature

RELATIVITY

the

at

sun

of

arc.

tude
magnigrazing
This

following way.

INFERENCES

As

seen

to

be

of the

be

to

such

indicated

of

is

the

solution

early

the

second

place

the

to

of the

to which

referred, cannot

the

with

by
the

means

Now

during
III.)

the

sun

The

or

otherwise

the

greatest

of

portance,
im-

result

shows

that, according

of

be

relativity,the

velocityof hght
of

the

of the

of the
the

star

have

already frequently
unlimited

might

theory
in

Royal

deflection

of

solar

and

of

of two

Royal

light demanded

eclipseof 29th May,

of

validity.

only
of

take

place

light varies

think

that

of

as

relativity

relativitywould

realitythis

photographs

of the

mental
funda-

two

special theory

light can

But

in

the

any

we

whole

it the

Joint Committee
existence

we

of

be laid in the dust.

By

when

this,the specialtheory

of

consequence

'

with

heavens.

velocityof propagation

position.

and

sun

is to

one

claim

of rays

curvature

with

the

to

which

of the

constitutes

and
relativity

when

ought

of

general theory

constancy

which

our

assiunptions in

eclipse

of astronomers.^

expected

vacuo,

of

problem

are

compared

sky

correctness

total

from

as

the

and

stars

part of the

the

this deduction

law

above,

another

at

examination

In

these

appear

sun,

during

position in

their apparent
is situated

the

of

times,

89

fixed stars

displaced outwards

amount

an

earth, certain

observation

At

sun.

appear

RELATIVITY

neighbourhood

the

capable of

thus

by

the

from
in

FROM

is not

the

expeditionsequipped
Astronomical

by theory
1919.

Societies,
was

firmed
con-

(Cf. Appendix

GENERAL

90

THEORY

We

case.

domaui
as

relativitycannot

of

we

RELATIVITY

only conclude

can

of

theory

OF

validity;its
able

are

that
claim

gravitational fields

the

on

special

unliinited

an

resiilts hold

disregard

to

the

only

the

long

so

influences

of

{e.g.of

phenomena

light).
it has

Since
of

the

theory

of

theory

of

the

often

theory

been
of

relativityis

that
relativity
overthrown

the

of

case

electrodynamics
looked
the

At

fields

the

development

quite

are

and

to

at

justifiedin saying
in

limiting

No

fields
fairer

are

the

invariable

destiny covdd

theory, than

that

of

laws

of the former

in

be

with

the

least.

electrodynamics
the

for the

be allotted

it should

we

statics
electro-

reason

Not
in

contained

case;

those

directlyto
the

is

other,

each

field-equationsof

the

by

electrical

Should

this

electrodynamics?

Electrostatics
as

for

which

case,

the

system.

that

overthrown

is

for the
which

trostatic
elec-

from

relativelyto

co-ordinate

the

Maxwell

rest

electric

that

correctly

only

an

electricity.

of

know

we

of

electrostatics

of

laws

strictlyrealised,in

masses

make

to

Before

derived

be

can

never

general

means

the

time

present

special

the

by

laws

considerations
is

the

by

the
as

upon

nents
oppo-

clearer

appropriate comparison.

were

by

it is perhaps advisable
relativity,

facts

of

contended

latter

case

regard
to any

of itself

lead

in which
to

time.

physical

point out the

FROM

INFERENCES
introduction

to the

way

theory, in
the

In

have

we

the influence
of natural

the

which
the

key,

consider

this for

fashion

absent.

in

If

with

of

relative

field which
time.*

refer

the

to

law

of

for all
Even
'

the

such

the

XX.

with

us

motion

no

domains

fields

domain

kind

of

chosen
of

means

for

are

to

motion,

gravitational

respect

to

K'.

and

space

course

ing
Accord-

the general
relativity,

gravitational field

from

Let

of this field will of

gravitationalfields

follows

laws

"Galileian"

exists

there

general theory

though by
This

K'

character

on

itself.

gravitational

is variable

The

depend

to

of

reference-body,

reference-bodyK' possessing any

then

the

space-time

choice

which
now

we

solution

moment.

suitable

i.e. domains

But

relativitysupplies

(approximately)in

imder

already

are

the

to

of

course

is absent.

gravitationalfield

acquainted

behave

the

on

investigation of

the

the

theoretically

of which

laws

problem,

concerns

by

which

the

lightjust

general theory

derive

to

general theory

are

the

gravitationalfield

satisfied

We

that

of

gravitationalfield

attractive

most

limitingcase.

transmission

us

processes,

when

known
the

of

91

comprehensive

more

as

seen

relativityenables

of

on

of the

example

with,

dealt

of

it lives

which

RELATIVITY

must

obtainable
all

be

satisfied

in this way.

gravitationalfields

generalisationof

the

discussion

in

tion
Sec-

GENERAL

92

be

can

be

this
the

derivable
kind.

special

the

that

hope

yet

way,

such

This

hope

we

gravitation

been

realised~ittbetween

But

maimer,^

of

fields

gravitational
has

tain
enter-

may

of

law

general

from

beautiful

most

RELATIVITY

OF

in

produced

the
will

THEORY

the

clear
it

was

and

not

to

still

of

vision

this

to

necessary

as

this

lies

withhold
extend

farther.

our

ideas

its

surmoimt

deep
it

and

goal

at

from

the
the

of

the

realisation

actual
serious

root

of

reader.

space-time

difi"culty,

things,
We

dare

require
continuum

GENERAL

94

second

THEORY

of

body

K',

reference

uniformly with respect to

ideas,we shall imagine K'

K.

who

is

sensible

force which

direction,and

which

with

rest

at

was

K.
reference-body

is "at
of

rest";

on

bodies

which

regards

at

are

the

as

disc
in

K'

the

to

is

radial
an

observer

an

the observer

as

original
the disc

on

himself, and

acting on

reference-bodywhich
the basis of the generalprinciple
is justifiedin doing this. The

relativityhe

force

of

interpretedas

respect

But

disc

his

regard

may

the

be

our

observer

An

outwards

would

fix

to

uniformly in

rotates

acts

rotating

be in the form

force)by
(centrifugal

effect of inertia
"vho

order

sittingeccentricallyon
of

is

its centre.

about

plane

own

which
In

to

plane circular disc, which

its

RELATIVITY

OP

of

aU

on

the

relative to

rest

effect

in fact

other

disc, he

gravitationalfield.

of this graviNevertheless, the space-distribution

tational
field is of

Newton's

on

the

does

right when

gravitationcan

not

not

he
be

be

not

possible

gravitation.*But

in

only explains the

but

that would

of

beUeves

this
relativity,

of

kind

theory

observer

in the

the

general theory

disturb

beUeves

of

him; he is quite

that

formulated
motion

since

"

of

also the field of force

general law

the

law

which

stars

rectly,
cor-

experienced by

himself.
'

The

field

disappears at tlie centre

to the distance

from

the

of the disc and

centre

as

v7e

increases

portionally
pro-

proceed outwards.

BEHAVIOUR

The

OF

observer
disc

doing

CLOCKS

performs experiments

with

clocks

it is his

so,

definitions

for

and

the

to

these definitions being based

wiU

To

be his

start

he

disc,and

the other

they

at

are

from

the

at the

whereas

the

According
XII, it follows

permanently
the
from
be

to

than

slower
the

circular

It is obvious

K.

noted

by

that

sittingalongside his
circular
make

disc.

the

field,a

case

clock

according
situated

to

clock

Thus

the

go

more

For

is in

of the

in Section
at

goes

the

of

tion.
rota-

rate

clock

at

the

effect would

at

our

same

the

every

quickly or
this

which
reason

observed

will

we

imagine
of

centre

circular

position in

(at rest).

disc

as

general,in

more

wiU

on

velocity,

disc, i.e.
whom

observer

an

Galileian

no

obtained

that

rate

this body,

edge of the

result

selves
our-

same

from

the latter clock

that

of

centre

the

iT in consequence

to

that

ask

now

non-rotating

the

at

circular

disc,so

of the disc has

centre

relative

at

judged

As

clock

We

go

the

K',

identically
the

of the

edge

and

enterprise?
of

centre

clocks

both

reference-body K.

motion

the

on

standpoint of

the clock

time-

of two

relative to it.

rest

whether

the

at

exact

circular disc

this

places one

clocks

constructed

at

In

his observations.

on

experiencein

with,

his circular

on

arrive

to

significationof

reference

95

measuring-rods.

intention

the

space-data with
What

RODS

AND

disc, or,

the
to

gravitational
less

quickly,

the

clock

it

is

is not

GENERAL

96

THEORY

obtain

possibleto
with

the

rest

with

similar

such

docks

I do

but

wish

not

this

at

If the

measuring-rod (a
the

which

Section

from

wiU

be

XII, moving

other

the

measuring-rod

applied to

if it is

the

radius.

the

circimiference

rod

and

then

the

one

quotient

If, then,
the

by

the

the

observer
disc with

diameter
the

familiar

of the

other, he
number

is at rest

with

respect

to

the validity of the

(relativeto

"'

results of the
a

his

not

from

of

measures

measuringing
divid-

disc,on

wiU

not

3.14

obtain

as

but
.

for

course,

.,

disc

K, this operation

have
we
Throughout this consideration
(non-Totating)system K as reference-body,since
'

wiU

direction

first

ir=

of

bodies

judged

disc in the

of the

i,

of the motion.

the

larger niunber,^ whereas

to K

less than

direction

hand,

the

to

the Galileian

the

K,

which

compared

as

shortening in

the

the

standard

disc) tangentiaUy

the

to

of

xmsurmoimtable

experience a shortening in length, as

farther

any

is short

disc,then, as judged

since, according
On

go

applies his

system, the length of this rod

attempt

we

definition

presents

observer

rod

of

radius

of the

suffer

simultaneityin

to

stage the

also

co-ordinates

difficulties.

edge

reference.

itself when
of

at

question.

Moreover,
space

of

body

of time

arranged

are

earlier definition

our

case,

this

with

the

to

definition

which

difficulty
presents

into

of

RELATIVITY

reasonable

respect

apply

to

aid

OF

to

use

we

may

the

Galildan

only

assume

special theory of relativityrelative

gravitationalfield prevails).

BEHAVIOUR

"would

OF

yield

exactly

of

field,
the

to

orientation.
also

X,

in
the

as

been

Thus

all

general
reader

order

to

be

relativity
for

this

in

theory,

able

the

long
not

meaning

based
be

make

must

apply

following

as

occur.

to

exactly.

in

have

conclusions

to

line

method

exact

an

appear
we

every

not

and

events

these

the

in

the

of

of

which

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reality

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in

in

in

co-ordinates

means

assign

previous

our

relativity

question.

the

laws

general

therefore
the

times

cannot

hold

straight

are

by

cannot

and

of

special

and

we

natural

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of

disc

co-ordinates

positions
idea

the

attribute

we

exactly

the

discussing

if

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the

to

defined

detour

the

define

to

the

all

meaning.

relative

y,

used

to

its

position

in

rod

in

nor

least

at

Hence

loses

disc,

97

that

proves

geometry

rotating

gravitational
length

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Euclidean

the

on

RODS

AND

exactly.

tt

propositions

CLOCKS

caUed

shall

in
subtle

the

on

postulate
prepare

paragraphs.

XXIV

EUCLIDEAN

AND

NON-EUCLIDEAN

CONTINUUM

surface

THE

in

front

point
passing

of

am

sure

clearness

and

"

by

Let
little

what

us

of

slab.

the

of

Uttle

these

constitute

diagonals
the

of

equality

point

to

by

"neigh-

(large)

words,

by

going

executing

jimips."

with

sufficient

here

by

"neighbouring"

is not

too

pedantic).

the

surface

of

that

by

We

describing

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one

rods

with

can

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which
the

are

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next

slab

diagonals,

so

we

equal
other

any

lay four
that

they

(a square),

long.

equally

of

are

on

figure

their

dimensions

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laid

marble

the

on

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made,

they

I say

quadrilateral

of

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have

compared

number

large

overlapping.

ends

other

one

process

this

appreciate

mean

that

mean

without

point

out

any

other

any

one

equal length

of

length,

will

imagine

smaU

marble

to

in

(ifhe

lengths being
the

from

spread

continuum.

now

rods

get

can

without

property
a

from

or,

reader

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is

repeating

the

jmnps"

latter

table

table

point

to

this

express

the

and

times,

point

marble

me.

this

on

one,

niunber

of

continuously

boiuing"

from

of

make

To

the

ensure

use

of

EUCLIDEAN

AND

little

testing-rod.

ones,

each

these

such,

untU
with

out

that

It is

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difficulties.

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at

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of
is

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favour
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diagonals

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rod,

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can

with

of

fourth

lowing.
folmeet

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sides

two

out

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of the

rangement
ar-

of

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determined.

this is
of

and

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equal.

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they

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especial

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little rods

thankfully surprised.
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surprises

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smoothly, then

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used

interval). By choosing
"origin,"

two

greatest

consequence,

slab

pointsof

has

which

to

is to be successful.

continuiun

Euclidean

the

think

experience many

if the construction

is

carry

squares

be

only

can

slab

adjustthe quadrilateral

to

may

marble

the

which
must

into

accord, then

own

can

three

remaining

longer able

belongs

we

already completely
no

now

am

as

marble

of

squares.

to

sides

two

each

arrangement

getting

moment

any

whole

that

need

with

with

square

wonder

similar

common

manner

to four

only

If at

comer

without

business

this

of

add

in

The

squares.

veritable

like

99

we

rod

one

finallythe

side

each

and

squares

has

proceed in

We

squares

is laid

this square

To

of which

the first.

NON-EUCLIDEAN

respect
as

one

characterise
reference

slab constitute

to

to

the

little

"distance"

(line-

corner

of

as

every

square

other

this origin by

comer
means

GENERAL

100

of

numbers.

two

rods

THEORY

must

OF

only need

how

state

origin,I proceed towards the "right"

"upwards," in order to arrive at the comer
under

square

then

are

the

reference

of

making

would
the

rods

unsuccessf;il.

"expand" by

of the
case

brought

into

table.

the

table

part do

expand,

on

still be

can

position on

of squares

must

diuiug the heating,

central

the

those

whereas

periphery,

rods

every

into disorder
rods

that

the central

the

not

at

suppose

heat

We

Uttle

our

experiment

proportionalto

construction

our

Uttle

reference

lengths
"

EucUdean
in the

the

by

region
the

on

of

outer

not.

With
imit

the

amoimt

an

coincidence

But

the

of

two

necessarilycome
because

ordinate
co-

recognise that

we

shall

We

slab, but

marble

in which

the

this

"Cartesian

in which

cases

the increase of temperature.

part

of

following modification

experiment,

also be

be

the

of

use

this abstract

there must

numbers

two

of Uttle rods.

arrangement

By

then
of the

is determined

which

system"

the

to

the

and

co-ordmates"

"Cartesian

with

comer

These

consideration.

many

startingfrom

when,

over

pass

RELATIVITY

to

the

Uttle

our

marble

continuum,

and

rods

slab
we

is

their

tion

longer

can

no

aid, since
be

the

carried

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also

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positionof defining Cartesian

directlywith

defined

"

longer
no

longer

co-ordinates

above
out.

as

constmc-

But

since

GENERAL

102

the

undertook

from

to

hold

laws

plane

the

can

with

for

to

the

pointed

is

indicated

way

to

the

ago

postulate

solved

the

method

formal

relativity.

problems

the

find

that

basis

of

(similar
different
Euclidean
with

continuum

to

of

which

which

is

treating

thus
dimensional,
multi-

cians
mathemati-

that

we

we

and

surface,

the

it

in

co-ordinates

Riemann

to

agine
im-

we

surface

according

Thus

surface

the
If

Cartesian

in
of

that

Euclidean

principles

continua.
the

of

in

the

on

relationships

non-Euclidean

long

not

fact

should

we

define

cannot

we

geometrical
the

out

and

rods

resulting

those

surface

rods,
Gauss

slab),

geometry

dimensions.

three

rigid

with

the

of

use

of

marble

The

the

treat

made

from

these

the

surface.

general

one

relativity

two-dimensional

this

making

be

to

geometry.

respect

of

postulate

treating

continuum

Euclidean

above

that

of

without

constructions

to

task

principles,

first

belongs

the

to

XXIII).

(Section

Gauss

general

the

by

about

brought

corresponds

here

depicted

situation

the

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

are

led

by

the

XXV

CO-ORDINATES

GAUSSIAN

to

and

the

geometrical

problem

following

We

way.

(see Fig. 4)

table.

These

indicate
The

curves

the

in
u

of

correspond
bers
2.

of

lying
We

M-curves,

table.

and

this

other,
and

and

only

value

surface

of

the

of

number.
drawn

are

curves

"=

and

and

"

"in-

the

covers

must

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curve

definite

we

system

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one

and
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the

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systern

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to

"

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then

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the

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diagram.

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be

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u=2

u=i,

2we

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lytical
ana-

of

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Thus
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In

'*'

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each

surface
a

of

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perfectly

point
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we

GENERAL

104

imagine
These

THEORY

S5rstem of

satisfythe

they

and

manner,

of

they

that

belong

table.

to

these

call

We

co-ordinates). For
has

diagram

surface

the

then

similar

with
number

Then

ds.
ds^

where
in

gn,

gn,

magnitudes
of the

rods

and

thus

For

the

case

case,

definite

relative

in

it is

the

the

Gauss

and

points

The

v.

c-curves,

of the
of the

table.
smiace

continuum

measuring-rods,
draw

depend

the behaviour

smrface

Euchdean

possible to

have

we

d'^,

and

^-curves

the

small

very

which
u

on

the

which
a

to

gjz

measured

as

the

In

distance

the

of

dv +

way

to

on

numbers.

^22 determine

to

P'

co-ordinates

P',

magnitudes

gn, gvt and

form
to

2gi2 du

are

also relative

considered
reference

according

ga,

perfectly

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f u du^ +

3,

-k-dv,

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by

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(line-interval)

and

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in the

point

to

-{"du,

manner

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u,

dv

and

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dinates
co-or-

co-ordinates

correspond

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of the

the

table

the

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P:

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value

surface

numbers

of

arbitrary

and

neighbouring points

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v=\.

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ing
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on

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surface

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of

value

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in

hkewise

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as

numbers

may

the surface.

on

conditions

with

It follows

shape.

drawn

f-curves

same

provided

are

RELATIVITY

OP

but

the

only
w-curves

with
in

this
and

CO-ORDINATES

GAUSSIAN

and

"-curves
a

that

manner,

attach

to

ds^

Here

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for

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supposed

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continuum

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of

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from

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.

distance

ordinates.
co-

with

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physical point
holds:

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Xi, 0C2, Xz, Xi,

values

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tinuum
con-

Gaussian

be

it in

ds

2gjidxidxt

continuum

numbers,

well-defined

ciated
asso-

If, for instance,

adjacent

and

values

space."

"co-ordinates."

distance

to

sidered,
con-

are

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dimensions

point

every

points correspond

the

also

represent

may

"in

But

dimensions.

of

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available, we

associate

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hold

dimensions.

two

continuum

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three, four

each

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sets

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mmierical

neighbouring points

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method

sHghtly

of two

the

that

nature

tesian
Car-

co-ordinates

association
of

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Gauss

points

etry,
geom-

each

to

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So

than

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of EucHdean

co-ordinates

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dv^.

perpendicular

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It

ones.

of

in the

straight Hnes

are

du^ +

them,

to

have:

these conditions,the

Under
are

numbers

simply

we

105

+gu

dxi.

GENERAL

106

where

the

vary

with

when

the

THEORY

OP

magnitudes
the

etc., have

gn,

positionin

continuimi

RELATIVITY

is

the

the co-ordinates

the

continuum

of

the

Only

Euchdean

which

continuum.

possibleto associate
points

values

Xi

Xt

that

so

is it

one

with

have

we

simply
ds^

this

In

relations

case

continuimi
in

which

have

the

this

obviously

of the
The

holds

behaviour

of the

according

to

rods

clearly imtil
over

considerable

is almost
of

ndes

the
it

as

for

the

ought

to

do not

the

be

geometry.

construction

this construction

geometrical

Euchdean

portion of

slab

of temperature.

thus

previous section

in the

squares

example,

practically constant

slab, and

be

may

For

It

regions

of the marble

case

imperfections of

the

ds^ which

consideration

in the

the

holding

always possible.

continua.

is

part of the

Hence

for

local variation

and

table

those

to

small
sufficiently

xmder

temperature

small

is not

Euclidean

as

foiir-dimensional

treatment

when

continuum

regarded

in the

measurements.

above

given

dx^ + dx^.

analogous

Gauss

only possible

of

hold

are

the

However,
is

dxi +

three-dimensional

our

we

dxi^ +

show

of

selves
them-

is extended
surface

of the

table.
We
a

can

method

continua

this up

sum

for

in

the

as

follows:

mathematical

general, in

which

Gauss

invented

treatment

of

"size-relations"

CO-ORDINATES

GAUSSIAN

("distances"
To

assigned

as

is

in

done

be

to

the

but

continua,

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also

only

"size"

like
of

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or

under

continuiun

nearly
part

is

It

system.

the

assigned

"distance,"

our

adjacent
is

non-Euchdean

notice.

of

parts
behave

the

the

to

respect
smaU

system,

definitely
in-

an

co-ordinate

consideration

under

by

system

to

with

when,

can

niunbers

to

Cartesian

apphcable

Euclidean

continuum

that

co-ordinate

of

generaUsation

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differ

are

Gaussian

nates)
co-ordi-

meaning

one

and

which

amount

The

only

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co-ordinates)
small

defined

that

way,

are

dimensions.

has

are

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(Gaussian

continuum

such

(Gaussian

logical

of

numbers

many

attached

points.

point

every

the

as

points)

neighbouring

between

defined.

107

smaller

more

the

XXVI

THE

CONTINUUM

SPACE-TIME
THEORY

are

which
Section

XVII.

of

theory

given

are

z,

these

words

"

tinuvun,
as

For

set

forth

the

another,
to

are

the

defined
in

transition
which

is

first, the

the

theory
nothing

more

in

than

in

of

the

last

deductions
and

in

other

maimer,

this

of

book.
to

sjrstem

with

reference

Lorentz
form

formation
trans-

the
the

themselves
of

y,

con-

simple

from

expression
108

x,

in

"

Galileian

These

the

or

imiformly

equations

relativity,

co-ordinates

first part

one

moving

of

We

four-dimensional

the

from

vaUd.

derivation
of

the

physically

detail

are

for

of

the

systems."

event

an

of

description
continuimi.

iova

determine

point

systems

co-ordinate

the

in

special

the

co-ordinate

space-time

systems,

t, which

with

the

"Galileian

these

For

for

preference

Minkowski,
indicated

vaguely

certain

relativity,

formulate

to

of

idea

accordance

In

four-dimensional,
called

the

only

was

ERED
CONSID-

position

exactly

more

CIAL
SPE-

CONTINUUM

in

now

THE

RELATIVITY

EUCLIDEAN

AS

WE

OF

OF

basis

special

they
the

are

universal

THEORY

GENERAL

110

apart

of

the

Thus,

the

call

We

ence.

if

"

quantity

t,

we

in

ct

accordance

with

the

instead

of

the

space-time

the

regard

can

points.

time-variable

as

""/

variable

"distance"

four-dimensional

or

choose

we

the

ds

magnitude

events

two

RELATIVITY

OF

special

the

aginary
im-

real

tinuum
con-

theory

"

of

relativity

continuum,
considerations

as

"

result

of

the

"Euclidean"
which

preceding

four-dimensional
foUows
section.

from

the

xxvn

CONTINUUM

SPACE-TIME

THE

first

the

make

XXVI,

can

basis

the

of

which,

be

regarded

general

this

law.

the

according

that

velocity

of

light
when

Section
a

XXIII,

the

co-ordinates

our

objective
In

we

view
are

led

and

to

the

the

the

conviction
111

at

the

theory

the

that,

is

ordinates
co-

ent.
pres-

illustration

in
of

presence

of

definition

which

these

the

on

field

special theory
of

retain

the

time,

locity
ve-

cannot

the

invahdates

results

the

XXI,

depend

that

on

Section

latter

specific

the

of

arrived

we

this

found

field

in

of

with
we

gravitational

to

gravitational

cormection

In

possible

constancy

always

must

Section

to

was

relativity

to

terpretat
in-

four-dimensional

as

contrary,

to

which

physical

according

the

of

able

were

direct

according

theory
On

IS

co-ordinates

This
of

But

Hght.

the

result

and

law

we

and

simple

the

of

book

this

co-ordinates.

Cartesian

RELATIVITY

space-time

of

of

allowed

of

part

use

THE

CONTINUUM

EUCLIDEAN

NOT

IN

OF

THEORY

GENERAL

OF

led

of

us

to

relativity.

considerations

according

to

GENERAL

112

the

THEORY

the space-time
general principleof relativity,

continuum

that

here

corresponding
variations
made

be

cannot

but

one,

from

bodies

and

measuring-rods

with

respect

to

time

Section

show

culty.

We

was

which

were

the

we

of

in

it is

impossible

the

rigid
nature

tion
posiof

essence

confronted

in

four

which
(co-ordinates),

definite but
not

have

only

points

of

regard
a

need

to

Xi, X2, Xs,

"time"

be
as

Xi,

serve

%,

least
the

This
of such

"space"

the
Xt

Xt,

direct

purpose

continuum

the

co-ordinate.

of

point

the

not

Gauss

to

every

difl"-

space-time

manner

arbitrary manner.

even

as

the

to

and

this

surmount

mambers,

but
physical significance,

numbering

XXV

four-dimensional

assign

(event)

continuiun

Xi

co-ordinate

Sections

arbitrary

an

We

to

way

refer the

co-ordinates.

and

there

was

shall indicate

another,

directly. Such

us

continuum

must

two-

clocks,arranged rigidly

considerations

the

XXVI

does

it

we

XXIII.

But

of

of

shall be of such

and

one

difl"cultywith

the

here

so

local

which

Cartesian

clocks,which

that

with

with

as

case,

from
(reference-body)

system

slab

Just

construct

general

example

an

equal rods,

up

and

as

Euclidean

the

and

temperature,

to

as

marble

continuiun.

impossible

build

have

we

acquaintance

system

regarded

the

to

of

dimensional

to

RELATIVITY

OF

in

arrangement
kind

that

we

co-ordinates

SPACE-TIME

The
of

the

does

it

CONTINUUM

reader

may

think

world

would

be

mean

to

Xi, od, %,

co-ordinates

have

by

Thus

then

by
which

are

close

so

corresponding
a

oiur

in

are

which

reality

encovmter

two

lines

points

in

co-ordinate
After

the

same

mature

admit

can

the

is
which

question
values,

have

Xi,

%,

consideration
that

in

oc^, Xs, Xi.

be

acterised
char-

of

such

values

thus

of

have

four-dimensional
such

any

lines

in

the

the

reality such

to

physical existence
their

treatment,
the

counters.
en-

such

fact

that

the

motions

of

the

particular system
Xz,

in

points

many

about

statements

represent

space-

having regard

claim

expressed

without

give continuity;

to

mathematical

our

If this

nimiber

way,

statements

In
an

in

The

points

Xi,

point, we

correspond

only

anxiety-

in

must

to

as

continuum

motion.
these

described

co-ordinate

together

the

In

careful

this

of values

the

(uni-dimensional)line

continuima.
in

be

the material

to

More

existence

existence

values,

these

of motion.

infinitelylarge

an

of

systems

it woiild

permanent

particular

themselves

that

momentary

single system

its

kind

any

What

consider, for instance, a

us

with

only

duration,
time

Let

point

had

point

if in

x^,

the

significance?

no

description

event

an

shows, however,

is imfoimded.
material

such

quite inadequate.

assign to

co-ordinates

consideration

that

113

X4,

reader

in

of

common.

will doubtless

encounters

con-

GENERAL

114

THEORY

the

stitute

only actual

with

nature

When

which

we

material
stated

of the
the

time

by

determine

by the

observation

the

the

motion

of

of

reference,we
of this

encoxmters

correspondiag values

of

of

observation

the

of

encounters

of

encounter

particularpoints
in the

same

means

the

clocks, in conjunction with

of

with

just the

time-space

physical statements.

body

than

more

with

body

clocks

to

of

particularpoints of the reference-body.

also

can

in

describing

were

nothing

RELATIVITY

evidence

meet

we

ppint relative

point with
We

OF

the

the

on

the

hands

dials.

of
It is

of space-measurements

case

measuring-rods, as

Uttle

tion
considera-

will show.
I

hold

following statements

The

physical descriptionresolves
of statements,
time

of Gaussian

terms

is

of

mode

of

be

Thus

co-ordinates
the

the

description; it
character

represented.

B.

such

In

ment
state-

of their

four

reality,the

continuum

body

defects

is not

of the

space-

by

completely replaces

aid of
the

number

and

in

time-space

suffering from

Euclidean
to

Gauss

Xi.

%,

the

description with

without

events

to

co-ordinates, every

Xi, %,

description of
means

two

refers

expressed by the agreement

co-ordinates

the

of

coincidence

itself into

of which

each

generally:Every

tied

continuum

of

of

reference,
the

down

latter
to

which

the

has

xxvm

EXACT

FORMULATION
PRINCIPLE

WE

are

OF

in

now

provisional

XVIII

by

there

used,

an

"All

equivalent

are

be

in

general
The

of

the

bodies

of

in

the

in

of

co-ordinate

systems

stiU

state

another

of

this

are

the

than

which

natural

of

laws

of

of

relativity,

the

of

motion,"

the

rigid

method

lowed
fol-

is

in

description.

has

to

The

take

the

following

fundamental

relativity:

idea

"All

sian
Gaus-

essentially equivalent
laws

of nature."

principle of relativity
it

renders

it is when
H5j

of

of

general

general

form,

clearly intelligible

of

form

K', etc.,

use

space-time

to

principle

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the

reference.

corresponds

K,

state

system

body

Section

general

their

theory

co-ordinate
the

the

sense

general

We

of

general

in

description

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possible

the

The

reference

be

may

for the formulation

in

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the

replace

given

formulation.

special

not

statement

of

the

of

relativity

maintained,

Gauss

place

formulation

for

reference-bodies,

to

exact

whatever

cannot

position

(formulation

phenomena

nature),

RELATIVITY

of

principle

GENERAL

THE

OF

in

the

yet

more

form

of

116

GENERAL

the

natural

THEORY

extension

relativity.According to
the equations which
relativity,
of

nature

form

same

t, of

specialtheory

K'.

According
the

the

Xi,

equations

If

into

dimensional

by

gone

theory
of

of

In

this

serves

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of

state

Galileian

it.

must

of

to

Xi,

into

over

mation
transfor-

every

nate
co-ordi-

Gauss

one

imder-

the

general

specialtheory
domains,

gravitationalfield

no

is

so

imifonn

material

exists.

reference-body

Galileian

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the

acterise
char-

can

Galileian

to

three-

being

of

The

follows:

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is

reference,i.e. a

of
of

then

idea

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"old-time"

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reference

connection

law

of

transformation)

our

things,

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motion

for

of

fundamental

body

variables

pass

Lorentz

adhere

to

of "isolated"
to

the

relativityas

those

of

another.

relativityhas

i.e. to

reference-

new

Gauss

form;

development

the

the

general theory

the

transition

view

the

of

same

to the

desire

we

Lorentz

hand, by appUcation

equations

(not only
system

the

to

other

of the

corresponds

the

replacethe space-time variables

arbitrary substitutions
Xz,

of

(Galileian)
reference-body K by

on
relativity,

Xi,

the

of

use

of

general

equations

space-time variables x',y',z',t',of

body

the

express

when, by making

transformation,we
X, y, z,

the

into

over

pass

special principle

the

of

of

laws

RELATIVITY

OF

rigid body

chosen

that

rectilinear

the
the
tion
mo-

points holds relatively

118

GENERAL

tern

chosen

THEORY

arbitrarily.

"mollusk"

certain

with

(really

the

time

moUusk

is

material

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long

so

tivity

The
that

requires

success

natilfe-

in

the

the

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in

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right

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of

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as

rela;:^

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equal
laws-oi

must

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relativity

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be

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principle

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considered

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jmti__egiial

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arate
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all

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'^the

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gives
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formal

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to

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posed

RELATIVITY

That

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OF

in

on

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comprehensive

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"

xxrx

THE

SOLUTION

OF
ON

THE

PRINCIPLE

IF

THE

reader

in
the
We

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clocks

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We

behaviour

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particular

material

by

interpret
119

reference-^
is

kind).
and

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clocks

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to

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lines.

domain
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tional
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no

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points;

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straight

Then

gravitational
learn

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relativity, likewise

system

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of

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of
to

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gravitation.

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to

culty
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methods
of

in which

material
and

further

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the

previous

our

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reference

"isolated"

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behaviour

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problem

relative

special theory
of

the

from

The

K.

will

domain

GENERAL

THE

followed

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start

OF

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solution

TATION
GRAVI-

OF

RELATIVITY

considerations,

to

BASIS

OF

the

PROBLEM

with
formation.
transas

the

THEORY

GENERAL

120

behaviour

of

measuring-rods,

under

points
field G.

Hereupon

that

influence

the

continues

laws,

same

gravitational
GaUleian

special

derived

step is

from

This

is not

the

of

means

out

still

require to

which

law,

was

simply by
This

which

is

haviour
be-

always

reference-body(mollusk)
be

chosen.

gravitational field

the

specialkind.

general law-of

find

obtain

above.

caprice, however,
the

the

tional
yet the generallaw of the gravita-

is of

consideration

found

in

how

field,since

as

from

co-ordinates.

descriptionmay

the

prevailing

specialcase

the

of

matter

law

the

to

investigate the space-time

to

is formulated

in the

simply by

GaHleian

the

transformation

used

the

gravitationalfield G,

of the

valid,no

when

derivable

not

case,

on

of co-ordinates.

next

behaviour

place according
case

is

field

transformation
The

the

in

even

hypothesis:

freely-moving material

and

take

to

gravitational

gravitational field

the

of

material

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introduce

we

measuring-rods, clocks
points

clocks

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influence

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RELATIVITY

OF

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by

-field of

In

be

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gravitation we

generalisationof
can

imder

the

law

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consideration

following demands:

(a) The

required generalisationmust

likewise

satisfythe general postulate of relativity.

(b) If

there

is any

matter

consideration,only

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domain

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under
and

SOLUTION

thus

OF

GRAVITATION

according
is of

energy

Section

to

XV

its

only

for its effect in

importance

field,

excitinga

(c) Gravitational

field

satisfythe

must

121

(and

of energy

and

of the

law

of

together

matter

conservation

impulse).

Finally,the general principleof relativitypermits

field
which

the

on

gravitational

in
has

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theory

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only

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attachih^tb

lightin

to

the

Section
of

XXIj
the

regarded
move

with

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as

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the

in

to

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relativity^
the

defect

was'brought

interpret^TEe
also

observation

in

mechanics

application of

the

and

co-ordinate

plained
ex-

astronomy,

is

powerless.

the

in which

and

already

theory

gravitational fields

being weak,
respect

ceed
pro-

points.

it has

classical
the

we

measuring-rods,

which
in

special

equality~br~mertial

but
of

result

confine

case

of

classical mechanics

against-which
we

for

have

method

gravitation derived

gravitational mass;
a

which

beautyjlttorin removing

law

empirical

If

the

to

general postulate

the

when

of the

frame

explained

of

processes

laws

i.e.

freely-moving material

theory

tional
gravita-

this connection

principleaccording
been

known

to

the

of the

all those

absent,

relativity. In

and

The

is

field

fitted into

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clocks

of

course

place according

take

already

the influence

determine

to

us

all

to

be

can

masses

system

with

GENERAL

122

THEORY

which

velocities

small

are

latter

hypothesisthat

them.

If

deviations

owing

must

to

motion

round

the

of the

Thus,

if

fixed

theory

be

deduction,
has

being

one,

maintain

stars, if

which

two

of

the

reference
which

with

obtained

ellipse,which

its

position with

could

we

observed

be

and

motion

the

the

of

if Newton's
to

obtain

ellipse,which

an

fixed

tested

confirmed

disregard

consideration.

ought

we

the

an

under

planet

can

been

theory,

influences,and

to

of these

one

themselves

stars

strictlycorrect,

orbit

with

in

sun

the

to

Newton's

planets

correct

we

for these

save

of

of observation

test

here

to

fixed

other

planets

fixed

the

lation,
calcu-

Newton

practicallyall

the

of the

action

the

between

of

theory

attention

permanently

respect

for

the

According

moves

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inversely

of the

accuracy

escape

draw

deviations.

planet

is

their smaUness.

to

We

the

the

from

nevertheless

must

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of the distance

their appearance,

make

iatroduce

to

points

the

lar
particu-

any

the force of attraction

increase

we

first approximati

had

Newton

the square

the

theory. Thus

mutually attractingmaterial
proportionalto

as

here without

assumption, whereas
the

obtain

Newtonian

theory is obtained

with

compared

then

velocity of light,we
the

RELATIVITY

OF

for

the

precision that

by

the

delicacy

This

stars.

with

great

all the
is

of

is

curacy,
ac-

planets

capable
observation

of

SOLUTION

attainable

the

of

that

sense

of the

orbital

this

rotary

43

seconds

ensured

seconds

of

classical

of

means

This

of
and

which

of the

orbit

be

the

ia
tained
ob-

orbital
an

few

explained by

have

devised

ceedingly
ex-

and

within

to

only

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per

can

for

value

of

arc

mechanics

were

the

orbit

The

correct

hypotheses

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it rotates

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stationary with

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ception
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nearest

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plane

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arc.

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ellipsewas

Leverrier,it

above,

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amount

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after

the

to

of

The

which

planet

time

mentioned

influences

the

the

the

Mercury,

respect

the

123

time.

present

Mercury,
Since

sun.

known

the

at

is

GRAVITATION

OF

the

on

Uttle

solely

sumption
as-

bility,
proba-

for

this

purpose.

it is found
the

indicated

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eUipse

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the

case

seconds

of

in

agreement

Apart
to

arc

make

from

in

the

Mercury

per

century,

with

two

the

relativity,
roimd

the

manner

planets,

rotation

is too

delicacy

of

present time; but

it must
a

amount

result which

with

servation
ob-

that
to

43

is strictly

observation.

this one,

only

this

of

planet

all the

with

detected

of

for

Mercury,

possible at
in

of every

necessarily rotate

exception

small

the

that
must

sun

the

general theory

the basis of the

On

it has hitherto

deductions

from

been
the

possible
theory

GENERAL

124

which
the

THEORY

admit

of

field

the

of

lines

of

with
in
the

by

confirmed

'

m.)

Observed

reaching
the

from

large

from

spectral

for

as

pared
com-

Hght

do

the

duced
pro-

{i.e.

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molecule).

deductions

the

stars,

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manner

wit,

to

gravitational
of

displacement
us

of

the

by

corresponding

kind

observation,

by

rays

analogous

an

same

these

that

light
and

sun/

Ught

tested

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of

curvature

RELATIVITY

OF

doubt

not

wiU

theory

also.

by

Eddington

and

others

in

igig.

(Cf.

Appendix

be'

CONSIDERATIONS

126

This

view

is not

The

Newton.

should

the universe

density of

the

kind

is

stars

outwards

group-density of

the

in which

of centre

this

from

and

that

centre

the

diminish, imtil

should

stars

requires that

maximimi,

finally,at great distances,it

is succeeded

infinite region of emptiness.

Hie^^ar

ought

be

to

finite island

of

theory

the

rather

theory

have

the

proceed

we

as

with

in harmony

latter

UNIVERSE

THE

ON

by

an

univ^se^

ocea^jrf
^le^infinite

in

space.^
This

that

light emitted

the

individual

of

stars

passing
with

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a

and

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petually
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into

objects of
would

universe

^^_

nature.

destmgd

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impQv=_
gradually but systematically^

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finite

stars

infinite

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out

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to

satisfactory.

very

satisfactorybecauselTTeads^to

It is still less
result

itself not

conception is in

erished.
1

Proof.
"

According

'.'linesof force"
m

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For

of lines of force

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Thus

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sphere

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throughout

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V

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to

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popOT

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peR.

ultimately become
which

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Hence

the

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infinite with

impossible.

at

increasingradius

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R

of the

would

sphere,

NEWTON'S

order

In

attraction

between

rapidly

this

In

of

density

fields

matter

universe
a

ought

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the

be

constant

our

of

them

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of

which

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to

these

be
laws

general
Newton.

the

mean

even

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thus

conception,

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ourselves

the

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of

purchase

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We

course

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for

of

more

inverse

infinitely large

material
the

nature

our.emancipa-

difficulties

has

foimdation.

laws

the

possible

possess

force

mentioned,

a^modification-and-comphcatign

law

theoretical

law

is

fimdamental

of

cost

Newton's

more

to

Of

centre.

tionjfcom

on

to

distasteful

the

from

it

the

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diminishes

masses

produced.

being

from

at

way

gested
sug-

in

law,

distances

result

infinity, without

to

of

would

than

Seeliger

Newton's

great
two

127

dilemma,

of

for

that

assumes

law.

this

escape

modification

he

to

THEORY

We

would
able

neither

to

would

imagine
the

state

preferred

to

be

theoretical

empirical

can

serve

of

the
foimded

same

nor

erable
innumpiupose,

why

reason

for

others;
just

principles

one

as

as

any

little

is

the

XXXI

THE

OF

POSSIBILITY

"FINITE"

"UNBOUNDED"

universe

also

led

geometry
that
our

laws

of

in

detail

touch

the

In

place,

first

two-dimensional

rods,
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In

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M8

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to

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tion.
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YET

UNIVERSE

speculations

BUT

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UNIVERSE

FINITE

"

in

sidered

Section

universe

the

but, Uke

of

is

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squares

is

made

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they

existence,but
instead

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now

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on

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ment,
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of observation

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universe

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and

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In

infinity.

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two-dimensional;

these

there

of

rods.

rods

Let

If

to

to

of

up

"plane,"

constructions

with

for

room

129

contrast

is

beings

infinite.

because
the

In

it extends

universe

universe

XXIV.

these

ours,

(surface)is

UNBOUNDED

YET

the

length,
ing-rod.
measur-

area

finite
of

CONSIDERATIONS

130

ON

with

constructed

square

UNIVERSE

THE

rods.

The

great charm
in

resulting^^from iiris^-consideration jies

the

recognition oljlie^facl-tliat the universe_j;^.Jhes"-~

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aU

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universe.

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UNIVERSE"

FINITE

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if

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whether

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plane

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sphericalsurface

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on

only

But

they

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world-sphere

indeed, they

not

radius

when

even

their

that

131

the

measurements.

demonstrate

"world"

of

part

their

part is very

determine

can

("world"),

universe

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UNBOUNDED

YET

on

surface.

sphere
But

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choice

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have

than
has

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CONSIDERATIONS

132

justificationin
the

the

all

that

value

ratio

the

of

of the

it is the

is

To

three-dimensional

equivalent.
is determined

imagine

to

of

epitome

an

experience that
bodies.

"rigid"
a

we

finite

else than

this

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covered
dis-

was

likewise

are

all

volxmie, which

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sible

that

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imagine

we

imagine

experience,
in the

have

can

the

namely,

which

points

"space"

ovx

of

"world-

the

spherical space?

nothing

means

space

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its "radius"
a

given

sphere-universe there

possesses

by

curvature."

spherical space

It

for

of

points

analogy,

Riemann.

by

of constant

*a three-dimensional

is

all

words,

two-dimensional

this

the

equivalent.

r, but

for

faces,
sur-

possessing

are

on

other

"surface

all closed

circumference

same

in
"world-sphere";

sphere"

it

depends

of
in

unique
on

UNIVERSE

THE

that,

points

its radius

circle to

fact
is

sphere

property that
admit

ON

sense

i.e. of
of

movement

we

imagine

can

sphericalspace.
Suppose

directions
of

these

AU

the

we

from

the
free

draw

lines

point, and

distance

end-points

spherical surface.
the
made

(F)

area

up

of

stretch

with

can

by

F is

less than

F=

aU

each

from

measuring-rod.

lengths

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on

speciallymeasure

measuring-rods.

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strings in
oS

mark

of these

of this surface

Euclidean,
always

We

or

up

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If the

universe

square

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if it is spherical,then
/\.'irr^;

47rr^. With

increasingvalues

CONSIDERATIONS

134

in

the

of

maimer

is

far

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of

relativity

moderate

its

of

difficulty

solution.

But
of

universe.

sufficient

being

permits

UNIVEBSE

THE

spherical

question.

degree
the

the

from

this

to

finds

ON

our

certainty,
mentioned

Our

to

the

enable

general

and
in

ia
Section

us

theory
it

answering

perience
ex-

this

with

nection
con-

XXX

xxxn

STRUCTURE

THE
THE

GENERAL

by
about

the

is known.

the

chosen
stars

velocity
a

as

to

we

treat

the

is

the

to

exclude

Euclidean
conceivable

of

the

matter

behaviour

of

of
the

matter.

geometry
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our

in

of

the

135

whole,

if

itself
exact

universe.
diEEers

discussion
and

fields,
in

imiverse

thus

conclusion
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previous

This

our

the

can

as

velocities

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at

for

with

measuring-rods

possibility

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at

our

on

that,

the

universe

gravitational

by

the

something

light.
arrive

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clusions
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considerations

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are

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system,

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of

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small

nature

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co-ordinate
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aheady

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matter

of

theory

properties

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our

transmission

rough

as

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base

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know

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suitably
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of

state

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geometrical

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only

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independent,

matter.

TO

RELATIVITY

geometrical

not

are

space

the

to

the

relativity,

tmiverse

OF

THEORY

ACCORDING
determined

ACCORDING

SPACE

OF

clocks

by

i.e.

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is sufficient

vaUdity
But

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of
is

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CONSroERATIONS

136

from

Euclidean

the

more

the

metrics

only

to

an

even

of

the

behaves

universe

to

We

infinite.

As

quasi-Euclidean imiverse
would

matter

universe

it would

picture which
we

are

small
universe

the
be

would

have

to

be

results

will

be

parts from
be

of

such

matter

where;
every-

imsatisfactory

universe

XXX.
average

an

zero,

ever
howthe

difference, then
the

indicate

tmiformly,

trary,
con-

if

that
imiverse

the

spherical (or elliptical).

detailed

the

in

density

in Section

calculation

of

realitythe

individual

that

differs from

that

distributed

uniform,

that

it would

Thus

by

thing
some-

Such

quasi-Euclidean. On

be

necessarily
in

us

in the

which

may

cannot

to

portrayed

we

nil.

inhabited

present

of matter

density

matter

be

not

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clidean
quasi-Eu-

average

necessarily be

could

lake.

shows

the

is irregular

plane:

its space

calculation

But

imiverse

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called

regards

masses

parts, but

of

might fittinglybe

that

might

our

surface

rippled surface

imiverse.

is not

sun.

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departs appreciably from

like the

Since

by

in its individual

curved

If

extent

regards geometry,

as

analogously

nowhere

of

magnitude

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space

small

all

seems

calculations

surrounding

exceedingly

imagine that,

be

since

probable,
of

this notion

and

one,

UNIVERSE

THE

ON

distribution

real imiverse
the

of matter

will deviate

spherical,i.e.

quasi-spherical.

But

it

the
wiU

in
verse
unibe

STRUCTURE

THE

necessarily
with

us

finite.

of

expanse
of

simple

in

matter

'"

For

the

fact,

connection

universe

'

and

SPACE

the

theory

between
the

137

suppHes
the

space-

density

average

it.

"radius"

the

In

OF

of

the

universe

we

the

obtain

equation

Kp
2

The

use

is

the

of

average

the

C.G.S.

density

system

of

the

in

matter.

this

equation

gives

i-oS.io^';

APPENDIX

DERIVATION

SIMPLE

OF

LORENTZ

THE

[Supplementary

TRANSFORMATION

tion
Sec-

to

XI]

FOR

the

In

into

problem

such

both

of

is

event

present

t, and

x' and
A

with

x'

abscissa

/' when

and

light-signal,

positive

axis

of x,

the

2,

di\dde

the

first

only

abscissa

t'.

system

ordinate
co-

and

K'

require

We

Any
the

to

respect

the

incide.
co-

a;-axis.

the

with

time
t

can

on

to

respect
the

and

we

the

by

nate
co-ordi-

Fig.

considering

represented

system
time

by

the

permanently

case

locaUsed

are

in

systems

parts

which

of

indicated

systems

aj-axes

events

orientation

relative

the

the

the

by
to

find

given.

are

which

is

proceeding

is transmitted

along

according

to

the
the

equation
x

ct

ct

or
X-

Since
relative

the

same

to

K'

light-signal
with

the

(l).
has

velocity
ISO

to

be

c, the

transmitted

propagation

APPENDIX

140

relative
the

to

the

K'

system

will be

represented by

formula

analogous

x' -d

(2).

space-time points (events) which

Those

(i) must
the

satisfy(2). Obviously

also
when

case

satisfy

this wiU

the relation

{x'-ct')=\{x-ct)
X

is fulfilled in general, where

If

"

ct)involves
which

rays

the

considerations

transmitted

stant;
con-

light

to

along

the

the condition

obtain

we
negativea;-axis,

"

being

are

indicates

to

apply quite similar

we

(3)

(3),the disappearance
disappearance of (a;' ct').

for, according
of {x

be

{x'+ ct^ =fi(x

ct)

(4).

equations(3)and (4),
By adding (orsubtracting)
and

introducing for convenience

and

b in

place of the

constants

X +
a

the

constants

and

where

obtain the

we

equations
x'
cf

should

We

thus

if the constants
result from
For

x'

o,

the
and

the

bct\

ax

act-bxi

have
a

"

"^-

the solution of
and

known.

were

our

lem,
probThese

followingdiscussion.

origin of K' we
hence
according

equations (5)

^"

have
to

the

permanently
first of

the

APPENDIX

14S

if the

But
and

if

eliminate

we

into

taking

from

equations (5),

the

expression (6),

the

account

K'^f^o),

from

taken

snapshot be

we

obtain

this

From

that
the

separatedby

a;-axis and

K)

conclude

we

will be

represented on

two

distance

points on the
to
(relative
i

snapshot by the

our

distance

Aio'-=a(i--^
what

from

But

be

been

equal to Aa;'in (7a),so

a^

The

constants

fourth

and
in

of the

b.

that

A*

we

in

equations given

(7) must

obtain

(7")determine

obtain

shots
snap-

"

By insertingthe

(5), we

two

-^,

equations (6) and

a

said, the

identical; hence

be

must

has

the

(7fl).

values
first

in Section

the
of

and

(76).

stants
con-

these
the

XI.

0/-=

(8).
f~

LORENTZ

THE

Thus

TRANSFORMATION

have

obtained

for events

on

we

the

143

Lorentz

formation
trans-

aj-axis. It satisfies

the

the condition
a;'2

cV2

(8a).

c"^

result,to include

of this

extension

The

a;2

events

is obtained
by
placeoutside the a;-axis,
retainingequations (8) and supplementingthem

which

take

by the relations

i:i]
this way

In

of

Hght

and

the

of

satisfythe postulateof

we

of the

w-

velocityof light in
This

for the

may

be

stancy
con-

for rays

vacuo

both
arbitrarydirection,

for the system K'.

the

system

shown

in

followingmanner.

We

originof

light-signalsent

suppose

iT at the

time
the

accordingto
r

or, if

we

from

It will be

o.

the

gated
propa-

equation

-s/x^+ y^ +

square

t=

out

this

z'

ct,

="

the

equation,according to

equation
s? +

It is required
by the law
in

conjimction with

that

should

the
of

transmission

the

take

accordance

place

with

the

propagationof light,
postulate of relativity,
the signal in question
of

from

judged

as

"

(lo).

z*-c*^~o

K'

"

in

correspondingformula
/

d'

or,
a/2 4-

y'"+ s'2

CV"

....

(lOffl).

APPENDIX

144

equation (loo)may

In order that
of

equation (lo),we
*'" +

z'"

y"'+

thus

jc-axis,we
the

of

(8a)

We

have

thus

o-=

the Lorentz

of

those

K.

should

consideration
the

kinds

two

Lorentz

that

the

with

of K'

axes

this

in the

that

to

the

pointingin
Lorentz

other
we

simple

construct

general

sense

viz.

from

specialsense

and

the

responds
cor-

rectangular

system

new

with

its

directions.
can

characterise

transformation

the

eralised
gen-

thus:

x', y', z' t',in

expresses

homogeneous

by

system

of

to

respect

able

in

replacement

Mathematically,

that

viously
Ob-

purely spatial transformations, which

co-ordinate

It

the

transformations,

of

(9).

generaUsed.

are

we

transformations

to

axes

(8) and

of the a;-axis.

transformation

Lorentz

from

from

shows

satisfies

consequence

essential

not

be in the direction

seen

spatiallyparallelto

of K'

velocity of translation

easily

represented by

be

are

is also

It

the

transformation.

whether

they

(ii).

points on

of

transformation

that

so

c"^)

really

also

(9) stiU requires to

chosen

consequence

is

It

(ii) is

hence

it is immaterial
be

for

i.

for

i;

derived

Lorentz

(8) and

(9),and

and

hold

transformation

Lorentz

ffCr!+ ys + z"

have

equation (ii) for

The

c^/''

be

have

must

equation (8a) must

Since

that

terms

of

linear

functions

the relation

of x, y, z, t,of such

kind

THE

is

x', y',

their

z', t',
side

TRANSFORMATION

identically.

satisfied

substitute

hand

LORENTZ

of

on

(no)

in

left-hand

agrees

is

That

expressions
the

145

with

x,

y,

side,
the

to

If

say:

z,

t, in

then

right-hand

we

place
the

of
left-

side.

APPENDIX

MINKOWSKI'S

FOUR

("WORLD")

still

t,

imaginary

formation
trans-

simply

if

ct

i.

troduce
in-

we

in

place

accordance

with

insert

we

"

xz

"

Xi

V"

similarly for the

which

condition

xi'^ +
That

%'"

the

is, by
"

see

(iia)

co-ordinates
to

the

Xi' +

that

%,

the

Xz.

xa^ +

theory

of
116

x^

the

of

this

condition

is due

way
to

this

ordinates
"co-

equation.
time

of
as

(12).

x^.

imaginary

same

It

by

thus:

into

the

the

choice

the

into

exactly
Xi,

""'"

is transformed

enters

in

expressed

then

satisfied

afore-mentioned

(12)

from
Xi

according

x"'^ +

K',

system

identically
be

can

i.d,

accented

is

transformation

We

Lorentz

"

If, in

Xi

and

more

XVII]

Section

the

time-variable.

as

SPACE

to

characterise

can

the

this,

DIMENSIONAL

"

[Supplementary

WE
of

II

ordinate
co-

formation
trans-

the

space

fact

that,

relativity, the

"time"

FOUR-DIMENSIONAL

into

enters

Xi

the

natural

"world-point."

This

(Euclidean)
into

latter

x\, x'z, x'z,

Xi, Xi, Xs,

linear

are

which

analogy

can

regard

manner

as

(with

co-ordinate

"world."

with

(12)

Xi^ +

is

time

system

xi.

formal

EucUdean

the

We

one.

in

co-ordinate);

in

of

equation

the

complete

to

then

functions

"world"

corresponds

duce
intro-

we

origin,

X2^ +

four-dimensional

of

co-ordinate

same

satisfy

Minkowski's

imaginary

transformation

JCs"

Xi'^ +

If

homogeneous

identically

Xi'^ +
The

the

close

"space"

Cartesian

with

were,

"world."
bears

geometry.
new

three-

it

as

three-dimensional

{x\, x'2, x'3)

system

in

becomes,

"world"

analytical

the

point-event

four-dimensional

four-dimensional

the

"world"

"happening"

the

the

as

by

called

was

termed

physics

in

to

fonn

same

described

Xi,

also

space,

similarity

the

x^,

From

"existence"

an

%,

who

dimensional

the

continuum
Xi,

Minkowski,

in

147

Xi, x^, x^.

four-dimensional

"co-ordinates"

by

laws

co-ordinates

space

SPACE

the

space

Lorentz

"rotation"

four-dimensional

of

APPENDIX

THE

EXPERIMENTAL

CONFIRMATION
THEORY

GENERAL

FROM

we

of

and

the

of

of

compilation
it were,

But
the
the

of

the

important

deductive

science.

from

its

longer

initial

As

develops

by

148

the

to

It

is,

as

embraces

for

it slurs

science

of

has

the

thought

an

emerged

advances

process

data,

and
of

development

by

over

intuition

by

by empirical
system

by

ment
develop-

means

no

theoretical

merely

from

enterprise.

as

stages,

the

catalogue.

the

soon

servation
ob-

ascertained

way,

process;

in

as

laws,

resemblance

played

part

achieved

Guided

view

actual

thought

exact

rather

of

point

are

individual

be

classified

be

to

compass

empirical

some

purely empirical

this

whole

bears

of

this

of

Theories
short

can

in

Regarded
science

of

laws

general

comparison.

in

of

process

science

number

form

point

the

induction.

large

in
the

theoretical

expressed

are

of

statements

which

of

THE

RELATIVITY

empirical

an

process

evolved,

OF

imagine

may

evolution
continuous

OF

systematic

view,

no

III

of

are

ment.
arrange-

investigator
which,

in

APPENDIX

150

in

and
capable of investigation,
of

this

despitethe profound

what

foUows,

shall

we

the

empirical

which

(a) Motion
According
the

latter, or,
of

centre

such

gravity of

gravity,Ues
in such

the
to

mxmi

to

in

insert

distance

law,

the motion

would

but

line

from

in

of

planetmini-

decreases

again
law

of attraction

still take

distance

the

the

of

In

ellipse

that, according

find

periodic variations;
by

centre

of Newton's

different law

new

that

planet.

course

then

and

the

common

common

the

If instead

somewhat

during such

the

or

ton's
New-

is revolving

the

and

sun

svm,

maximum,

calculation,we

described

and

the

sun-planet grows

the

manner

the

that, in

rriiriiTmnn.

them

to

of the foci of the orbital

one

manner

discuss

round
ellipse

an

correctly,round

more

portant
im-

Mercury

of

mechanics

describe

system, the

year,

would

sim

In

obtained.

a planetwhich
gravitation,

law of
round

also

shall

appertaining

Newtonian

to

and

theories.

Perihelion

the

lead,

in the fundamental

two

we

evidence

of

physics

again consider these

hitherto been

has

the

and

deductions,

also

not

difference

of

assumptions

does

pre-relativity
days

the

to which

to

place in

we

into
this
such

sim-planet exhibits
this

joining

case
sun

the
and

period (from perihelion

"

angle
planet
closest

EXPERIMENTAL

CONFIRMATION

151

proximity

to

differ from

360".

The

line of the orbit would

closed

one,

but

be

then

the

it would

fiU up

plane,

viz. between

circle

of

the

differs of

of

radius

{N.B.

least

the

orbital

the

the

and

from

planet

the

One

"

angle

amount

exceeds

this

tt

the

angle

by

in the

by

the

and

the

described

corresponding

to

one

given by

amount

an

tion
mo-

place, and

take

perihehon

one

that

revolution

absolute

corresponds

angular

measure

above

expression

which

the

radius

sun-planet

the

interval

by

angle during

of

next.)

the

and

this
of

between

expression
the

eUipse,

velocity of Hght,

the

revolution

also be

In

semi-axis

major

eccentricity,c

may

Newton-Kepler

the

represents the

period

theory of Newton,

physics, and

perihehon

of the

the

complete

gives the

the

the

in its orbit should

revolution

in

result

generaltheory of relativity,

from

exceed

customary

to

of time

course

of

of

from

that

way,

should

its

to the

course

planet

complete

the

circle

sun-planet between

next

the

part of

distance

variation

in such

the

greatest

small

one

in

not

sun.

which

to

perihelion)would

to

"

annular

an

According also

sun

stated

the

of
as

and

planet.

follows:

of

ellipserotates

roimd

the

sun

in

Our

According

the major
relativity,

general theory

the

axis
same

152

APPENDIX

sense

the orbital motion

as

requires that
seconds

of

should

the

be

After

Newcomb

the
the

to

amounts

differ

not

that, according
a

of

ray
*

almost

the

light wiU

Especially since
an

to

exact

the

the

circle,which

perihelionwith precision.

over,

sensiblyfrom
of

Sy

arc

per

Field
been

aheady mentioned

general theory

planet
makes

^^d

empiricalresult

Light

experience
next

"

only.

of

it has

XXII

fluences
in-

remaining
1859

seconds

43

Gravitational
Section

time.

remained

Mercury

few seconds

an

vinexplainedperiheUal

an

(b) Deflection

In

the

by

uncertaintyof

The

culate
cal-

disturbing

"

that

delicacy

present

all the

does

above-mentioned

century.

its

with

the

(Leverrier

foimd

of which

of

the

at

Mercury

on

1895) that

amount

43

would

foimd

Mercury

that

to

of the orbit of

movement

of

of

account

was

"

it

suffice to

not

motion

attainable

exerted

planets, it

that

have

does

corresponding

taking

to

solar system

our

small

so

Newton

observation

amount

detection.^

observed

exactness

of

fact, astronomers

of

theory
the

of

of

point

shoiild

planets

necessarily
escape
In

planet. Theory

century for the planet Mercury,

per

other

magnitude

of the

this rotation

arc

for the

but

III

Venus

it

more

of

relativity,
of its

curvature
has

an

orbit

difficult to

that

locate

is
the

CONFIRMATION

EXPERIMENTAL

when

path
this

being

curvature

the

by

passing through
of

path

to

which

is

As

gravitationalfield.
should

we

passingclose
the

passes

at

sun

of

"

of this
field

is

") of

other

half

be deviated

of

fight

which

sun-radii

from

(a)

should

mental

by

test

the

by

the

of

only

The

for
every

is

phere
the

near

effect

why

reason

total

so

strongly

can

sun's
be

seen

tonian
New-

}
i

"

the

/-^^''

stars

7/

^//Dj,
/'

sxm.

must

atmos-

Ym.

$.

illvmiinated

the

disc

the

by

is because

the

time

light from

the

the
we

ecHpse

other

theory,

sun.

of

means

eclipseof

total

the

to

experi-

an

photographic registrationof
during

arc

of

the

by

result admits

This

by

is

("curva-

caused

space

of

produced

attraction

of

geometricalmodification

at

which

light

deflection

that, according

deflection

the

and

sun,

wait

theory,

added

be

may

ture

of A

7 seconds

half

this

would

ray

distance

of

to

amoimt

It

of

ray

For

angle

the

centre,

experienced

projected through

heavenly body

latter.

the

towards

its

to

that

result

that

expect

gravitationalfield,

similar

body

153

are

sim

that

the

invisible.

clearlyfrom

the

stars

The

situated

predicted

accompanying

APPENDIX

154

If the

diagram.
which

is

earth.

direction

But

light from

as

the

distance

In

the

In

The

is taken

later.

As

i.e. at

the

to

(away

from

We

the

Royal
of
the

war

centre

to the

than

tested

in

the

on

sponds
corre-

to

(Brazil)

and

at

months

(West

Africa)

and

of

same

another

earlier

or

photograph,

eclipse-photograph

an

outwards
amount

a.

Royal Society and

the

Society for

the

deduction.

aroused

nature

to

lowing
fol-

ecUpse.

of the

sun) by

of the

angle

Sobral

celebrated

will be

the

solar

the standard

equipped

"

of

neighbourhood

two

the

sent

tion
investiga-

by

material
the

war,

expeditions
"

island
several

to

Undaunted

by difficulties of both

societies

these

few

important

and

the

greater

displaced radially

psychological

i.e.

Astronomical

this

from

sim

is situated

sun

the stars

indebted

are

be

star

photograph

with

appear

corresponding

would

somewhat

in the

the

sky,

the

star

deflection

the

sim,

of

second

compared

ought

ham,

A,

stars

when

positionsof

most

the

photographed during

are

position in

and

by

position.

addition, a

stars

by

of the

practice,the question is

sun

present,

observed

as

centre

its real

way.

the

not

consequence

star

from
to

the

A,

in the direction

seen

the

(5) were

sun

distant
practicallyiir"nitely

in the

seen

III

of
of

to

Principe
Britain's

(Eddington,CottingCrommelin, Davidson), in order to obtain

astronomers

CONFIRMATION

iEXPERIMENTAL
of

photographs

eclipse

amounted

only.

to

Thus

comparison

in

in

necessary

adjustments required for

and

during

millimetre

was

accuracy

expected

photographs

of

hundredths

photographs,

the

of

few

be

obtained

photographs

the

great

the

making

and

eclipse of 29th May,

solar

discrepancies to

stellar

the

between

the

relative

The

1919.

the

155

their

the

taking

subsequent

measurement.

results

The

theory

in

of the

of

calculated

arc)

the

thoroughly satisfactorymanner.

of

rectangular components
the

confirmed

measurements

deviations
forth

set

are

the

of the

in

the

The

observed
stars

of

and

(in seconds

following

table

of

results:

(c) Displacement
TOWABDS

In

Section

system

K'

Galileian

system

the

it has

XXIII

which

or

Spectral
ReD

been

is in rotation

K,

clocks

Lines

that in

shown
with

regard

of identical

to

construe-

a
a

APPENDIX

156

which

tion,and
to

the

shall
A

clock,which
of

centre

ci"

disc, has

of

respect

Section

or

XII,

with

This

the

We

from

velocity relative

to

"rate"

relative

moving

clocks.

distance

the^
to

If I'orepresents the

respect XaK.

clock) relative

rest, then

with

at

of ticks of the clock

the

the

angular velocityof rotation

the

represents

of the disc Z' with

number

which

rates

dependence quantitatively.

is situated

the

at

respect

given by

is

where

this

with

at rest

positions of

the

on

examine

now

which

considered

are

rotating reference-body,go

dependent

are

III

to K

when

of the
with

to

the

be

given by

imit

per

is at

iy) when

it is

but

at rest

accordance

with

by

also be

expression may

clock

velocityv,

disc,will,in

sufficient accuracy

the

clock

("rate"

time

stated

in

the

lowing
fol-

form:

If

we

represent the difference

centrifugalforce
and

the

centre

between
of

the

the

disc

of

potentialof

position of
by "^, i.e.

the
the

the

clock

work,

158

APPENDIX

element

which

surface of

in

is situated

smaller

(or on

in free space

the

celestial body).

Now

4"=

where

K",

gravitation,and
body.

Thus

take

to

the

the

is the

displacementtowards
compared with

as

element

same

earth, the

produced
of this

amoimt

Vo

the

the sun,

the red

lionths

of the

because

in

the

at

spectrallines

the

at

ought

surface

of

displacementbeing

about

to

amotmts

wave-length.

possiblein the

is not

the

towards
displacement

predicted by theory

radius

heavenly

KM

Va-v

For

of the

mass

of

constant

place for spectrallines produced

surface of stars
of

is Newton's

general neither

mil-

two

culation
trustworthy calcase

the

the red

of the
M

mass

stars,
the

nor

is known.

It is

question whether

open

an

exists,and

at

working with
Owing
the

great zeal

Whereas

of Evershed

and

bands,

have

almost

beyond

own

the

doubt,

an

and

the

are

solution.

Bachem

on

existence
other

case

opinion as

the
of

to

of
its

(Bonn),
and

measurements

Schwarzschild

placed

this effect

of the effect in the

Grebe

result of their

not

astronomers

towards

it is difficult to form

existence.
as

present time

the smaUness

to

sun,

the

or

those

cyanogen

the

effect

investigators,par-

EXPERIMENTAL

COlSnPIEMATION

ticularlySt. John, have

in

opinion

refrangible

but

decision
these

data

of

effect

which

towards

spectrum

the

by

paper

at,

from

the

fixed

examination

of

The

E. Fretmdlich

in

together,

35,

of

and

"Zur

tion
ques-

here,

Priifung

(Die
520:

p.

servatio
obcussed
dis-

attention

our

entitled

No.

reaUty

of the

Relativitats-Theorie"

turwissenschaften,1919,

not

or

results

standpoint

engaging

definite

whether

referred

be

to

the

of any

to

as

collected

been

has

the

less

certainly

are

aUow

not

are

been

aUgemeinen

der

lines

gravitation.

in detail

of

does

displacements

have

in

measurements.

present

arrived

being

the

to

opposite

their

the

the

to

up

available

the

the

to

by statistical investigations of

revealed

stars;

of

end

led

of

consequence

displacements

Mean

been

159

Na-

Julius

Springer, Berlin).
At

aU

the

during
of

events,

definite

few

next

spectral lines

other

of

towards

the

not

relativitywill

hand,

if the

If

years.

potential does

theory

decision

cause

red

will
as

to

the

furnish
mass

us

of the

the
with

the

the

by

the

be

untenable.

of

the

study

reached

displacement

exist, then

spectral lines be definitelytraced

potential, then

will be

tional
gravitageneral
On

the

displacement
the

to

of

this

tional
gravita-

ment
displace-

important information

heavenly bodies.

of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WORKS

IN

ENGLISH

ON

EINSTEIN'S

THEORY

Introductory
The

Foundations

Einstein's

(translation

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Time

by

H.

by

H.

L.

L.

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Electron

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L.

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Manifold

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Lewis,

Amer.

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the

On

Einstein's
W.
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Erwin

Univ.

Physics:

Special

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Clarendon

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Contemporary

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on

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2.,

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96,

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December

N.

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1919.

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vol.

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1919.

Spectrum
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igig,

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INDEX

166
De

Fizeau, experiment of, 46

Sitter,21

Displacement of spectralUnes,
iSS

124,

(line-interval),
3, 5,

Distance

3S. 99,

34,

transformation, 40,

129

104,

physical interpretationof, 5

"

157

Galilei,12
"

8,

of atom,

Frequency

45,

43,

61

SO,

GalHeian

nates,
co-ordi-

of

system

relativityof, 34

"

15, 17, 54, 93,

13,

Doppler principle,59
Double

stars,

108, 116,

Gauss,

co-ordinates,

154

124,

69-124,

Electrodynamics,

15,

24,

48,

Electron,

of, 2-4

truth

92,

field,75,

Gravitational

116,

III,

91,

Electrostatics,go
Ellipticalspace,

121

79,

87,

of, 60

masses

119,

120,

136
133

potential of,

Empirical laws, 148

"

cidence),
(space-timecoin-

Encounter

IIS

Gravitation, 75, 82,

52, 60

electrical

"

relativity,

propositions,i

"

Electromagnetic theory, 58
75

of

ideas, 2,

Geometrical

52, 90

ii4-ri8

112,

theory

General

Electricity,
90

waves,

103-

21

105,

"

106

103,

102,

Gaussian

Eclipse of star,
Eddington,

119

21

76, 81,

mass,

157

121

Grebe, 158
113

Euclidean

geometry,

97,

104,

loi,

13s,

Group-density of stars, 126

16

Equivalent,

i,

2,

128,

68,

Helmholtz,
129,

Heuristic

128

relativity,

of

value

147
SO

propositions of, 3, 8
"

space,

68,

147

102,

149

Inertia, 77

Evershed, 158
Experience,

Induction, 148,

S9,

70

Inertial mass,

55,

76, 81,

120,

121

Faraday, 56,
FitzGerald,
Fixed

stars,

74

63
12

Fizeau, 46, 58, 61

Instantaneous

photograph

(snapshot),
141
Intensityof gravitational field,
127

INDEX

167

Intuition, 148

Morley, 63, 64

Ions, S3

Motion,
"

Kepler,

152

Kinetic

energy,

16,

52,

S3i

128

of inertia,12,

Law

of Nature,

Laws

15

71, 72,

Newton's

Light-signal,40,

139,

143

Light-stimulus,40

law

of

44

A.,

reference-

bodies,
48, 52, 58,

24,

128

geometry,

Non-GalUeian

of force, 126
H.

94,

motion, 76

Non-Euclidean

Limiting velocity (c),43,

Lorentz,

gravitation,57,

of

127,149
"

Lines

150

tion,
gravita-

of

constant

law

152

123,

126,

122,

158

118

84,

70,

86,

12,

170
"

Leverrier,

13s

122,

152

Newton,

of Galilei-Newton,

Laws

17,

121

Newcomb,
Lattice,

70

heavenly bodies, 16,

of

Non-uniform

117

motion,

72

59-63
"

transformation,
108, 116,

39,

139,

Optics, IS,

46, 50,

143,

Organ-pipe,

144,

Parabola,

146

(generalised),
144
E.,

Path-curve,

field,74

Manifold

(.seeContinuum)

of

Matter,

"

"

Plane,
52, 56-59,

49,

Mercury,

iso-

equations, 56,
of

Measuring-rod,
112,

length,
s,

119,

6,

34,

121,

loi

95,
132,

128,

i,

Point,

123,

152

orbit of, 123,

152

129

128

Position,

of, 54

energy

Principle of relativity,15-17,
23"

Processes

141

6
specification,

Point-mass,

Measurement

"

10

of

Poincare,

61

90

13s,

10

measurement,

120

fundamental

Mercury,

of

Place

96,

17

Physics, 8

heavenly bodies, 159

Maxwell,

of,

'152

86

Magnetic

Mass

note

9,

PeriheUon

Mach,

52

24,

24,

70

of Nature,

50

Propagation of light, 21,

24,

36, 108,

23,

143

Michelson, 62-64

in

liquid,47

Minkowski,

in

88
gravitationalfields,

65-68, 108, 147

INDEX

168

Straight line, 1-3,

Quasi-Euclidean universe, 136

Quasi-sphericaluniverse, 136

los,

9,

97,

10,

129

Sjrstem of co-ordinates,Si

10,

II

Radiation,

55

substances,

Radioactive

Reference-body,
28,

22,

$,

31,

7,

32,

59

8-11,

44,

70

mollusk,

Rest,

Rotation,

95,

128,

118

co-ordinate,66,

"

"

102,

61,

24,

125

in

Physics, 26,

of

an

17

Riemann,

of, 149

Time, conception of,

118-120

velocity, 141

"

truth

position,3

Relative

148

Theory,
"

18

space,

Three-dimensional, 65

rotating, 94
"

Terrestrial

"

132

146

117,

event, 28, 32

interval,36, 67

147

Trajectory,
"

Truth,"

10

Schwarzschild, 158

translation,14, 69
(World) structure of,

Uniform

Seconds-clock,

44

Universe

Seeliger,125,

Simultaneity, 26,

29-32,

128,

96

Euclidean,

"

eclipse,89,

153,

155
"

Space,

9,

62, 65, 125

Space, two-dimensional,
three-dimensional,

128

147

Special theory of Relativity,

24

space,

St. John,

132,

of

89.
Venus,

Weight

136

130

light, 11,

133

159

photographs, 153

152
77
(heaviness),

World-point,

130,

147

radius, 133
sphere, 130,
Zeeman,

21,

143

129

Stellar universe, 126

"

of ir, 97,

World, 65, 66,

Spherical surface,
"

spherical,132,

Velocity

point, 118

1-68,

"

Value

Space-interval,36, 67

"

(radius) of,

137

Space co-ordinates,66, 96, 118

"

136

132

130,

expanse

space

conception of, 24^

"

of, 131

Universe, elliptical,
133,

Size-relations,107
Solar

13s

circumference

"

relativityof, 31

"

127

48

131

147

22,