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WORLD DEVELOPMENT
INDICATORS
ISSN 0163-5085
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Foreword
ment can be substantially increasedto lift millions of people out of poverty by the end of the
represent.
First, investing in people requires an efficient public role. Markets alone generally do not ensure that
Barber B. Conable
President
The World Bank
This Report has been prepared by a team led by Vinod Thomas and comprising Surjit S. Bhalla, Rui
Coutinho, Shahrokh Fardoust, Ann E. Harrison, Daniel Kaufmann, Elizabeth M. King, Kenneth K.
Meyers, Peter A. Petri, and N. Roberto Zagha. T. N. Srinivasan, Mark Rosenzweig, and Francisco
Sagasti collaborated closely and provided extensive advice. The team was assisted by Sushenjit
Bandyopadhyay, Fernando J. Batista, Marianne Fay, Jon Isham, Kali Kondury, Stefan Krieger, and
Yan Wang. Stanley Fischer played a principal role in the initial stages of the Report's preparation. The
work was carried out under the general direction of Lawrence H. Summers.
Many others in and outside the Bank provided helpful comments and contributions (see the
bibliographical note). The International Economics Department prepared the data and projections
presented in Chapter 1 and the statistical appendix. It is also responsible for the World Development
Indicators. The production staff of the Report included Kathryn Kline Dahl, Connie Eysenck, Alfred
F. Imhoff, Hugh Nees, Kathy Rosen, Walton Rosenquist, and Brian J. Svikhart. Cartographic services
were provided by Jeffrey N. Lecksell, Gregory George Prakas, and Eric M. Saks. Library assistance
was provided by Iris Anderson and Jane Keneshea. The support staff was headed by Rhoda BladeCharest and included Laitan Alli, Trinidad S. Angeles, and Lupita Mattheisen. Clive Crook was the
principal editor.
The advice and support of Professor Bela Balassa (1928-1991) are respectfully acknowledged. His
contributions to this and past World Development Reports were valuable in understanding development. The core team remembers fondly David A. Renelt (1964-1991), who contributed to the Report.
iv
Contents
Acronyms and initials ix
Definitions and data notes x
Overview 1
The world economy in transition 2
Paths to development 4
Elements of a market-friendly approach 6
Rethinking the state 9
10
Priorities for action
12
1 The world economy in transition
The long view 12
The setting for development 14
Prospects for world development 21
Quantitative global scenarios for the 1990s 27
31
2 Paths to development
The evolution of approaches to development 31
The determinants of the growth of income 42
Components of overall development 47
The way forward 49
52
3 Investing in people
Welfare and growth 53
Challenges in human development 59
Public policy 65
70
4 The climate for enterprise
Entrepreneurs unleashed 70
Enterprise in agriculture 72
Empowering the manufacturer 77
Evidence on the productivity of investment projects
5
82
93
193
Boxes
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
vi
22
How well did early World Development Reports foresee growth in the 1980s?
28
81
85
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
8.1
Thespeedofreform
114
117
136
Text figures
2
Per capita income: selected countries in 1988 compared with the United States, 1830-1988
1
Life expectancy at birth: selected countries in 1985 compared with Japan, 1900-85 3
2
Policy distortion, education, and growth in GDP, sixty developing economies, 1965-87 5
3
The interactions in a market-friendly strategy for development 6
4
Rates of return for projects financed by the World Bank and the IFC under different policies
5
and conditions 8
12
Periods during which output per person doubled, selected countries
1.1
13
Gains in life expectancy, selected countries and periods
1.2
Per capita output growth in the OECD and developing countries and significant world events,
1.3
1918-88
16-17
1.4
1.5
2.1
17
The share of exports in GDP, selected country groups, 1900-86
19
Estimates of the growth of GDP, 1965-89
The sectoral distribution of the labor force, low- and middle-income developing countries,
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
7.1
7.2
8.1
32
vii
Text tables
1
Growth of GDP per capita, 1965-2000 3
1.1
Historical trends in GDP per capita 14
1.2
Global savings and investment 23
1.3
Aggregate long-term net resource flows to developing countries, 1980-95 24
1.4
The international economic climate in the 1990s: a comparison of recent and projected indicators
1.5
Real GDP and real GDP per capita growth rates for low- and middle-income economies,
1965-2000
2,1
2.2
2.3
3.3
3.4
4.1
4,2
4.3
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.1
6.2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.1
30
2.4
3.1
3.2
45
A.7
A.8
A.9
A. 10
A.11
A.12
vi"
27
185
EC
LIBOR
NGOs
NIEs
ODA
OECD
Kingdom)
Economic rate of return
Direct foreign investment
GDP
GNP
G-7
IBRD
IDA
IFC
IMF
PPP
TFP
UNDP
Unesco
UNICEF
WHO
ix
"world." Note that the definition of "oil exporters" has been changed (see the definition in
the analytical groups below). As in previous editions, this Report uses the latest GNP per capita
estimates to classify countries. The country com-
The use of the term is convenient; it is not inexperiencing similar development or that other
economies have reached a preferred or final stage
of development. Classification by income does not
omies classified by the United Nations or otherwise regarded by their authorities as developing
are identified by the symbol t). The use of the term
"countries" to refer to economies implies no judgment by the Bank about the legal or other status of
a territory.
"Other economies" are Albania, Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In the main ta-
gary,
across time.
Analytical groups
economies," comprises the members of the OrFor analytical purposes, other overlapping classifications based predominantly on exports or external debt are used in addition to geographic coun-
ganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development except for Greece, Portugal, and Turkey,
economies.
million population, although not shown separately, are included in group aggregates.
Oil exporters are countries for which exports of
viated to "severely indebted" in the World Development Indicators) are twenty countries that are
deemed to have encountered severe debt-servicing
East Asia comprises all the low- and middleincome economies of East and Southeast Asia and
the Pacific, east of and including China and
Thailand.
South Asia comprises Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Latin America and the Caribbean comprises all
American and Caribbean economies south of the
United States.
xi
Data notes
Billion is 1,000 million.
Trillion is 1,000 billion.
xl'
The cutoff date for all data in the World Development Indicators is April 30, 1991.
Overview
Development is the most important challenge facing the human race. Despite the vast opportunities
Thousands of dollars
20
since World War II. But the gap between the indus-
_Japan
France
United States
10
Brazil
,Thailand
Algeria
..-China
Sri Lanka
Haiti
Indonesia
Indi!,
1080
I yZaire
1830
1860
1890
1920
1950
1980 88
spectacular, but when they have worked in opposition, the results have been disastrous.
communication has been tying economies together. But it remains to be seen whether this
Increasing exposure to external influences undoubtedly puts the developing countries at risk.
High industrial-country fiscal deficits, potentially
high international interest rates, weaknesses in the
financial institutions in the United States, deterioration of some aspects of the financial situation in
Japan, and protracted and inconclusive negotiations in the Uruguay Round of trade talks will all
80
75
,Greece
: France,
United States
SriLanka
70
Japan
China
Thailand
65
Brazil
Algeria
ditions and especially on country policies. Recently, countries in Eastern Europe embarked on
60
ambitious programs of economic reform, The Soviet Union grappled with difficulties of economic
and political transformation. A number of devel-
55
Indonesia
India
Bolivia
50
Uganda
Senegal
45
40
1900
1920
II
1940
1960
198085
Country studies which support these projections suggest that, under more vigorous and com-
Population,
Group
1989
(millions)
Projection
for
1965-73
1973-80
773
3.7
2.3
Developing countries
4,053
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, Middle East, and North Africa
Latin America and the Caribbean
480
1,552
1,131
433
421
3.9
2.1
5.3
1.2
5.8
3.8
2.5
0.4
4.9
1.7
1.9
2.5
4,053
3.0
2.4
Industrial countries
1980-89
19Osa
2.3
1.8-2.5
1.6
0.4
2.2-2.9
0.3-0.5
4.2-5.3
2.1-2.6
1.4-1.8
1.3-2.0
2.9
2.7-3.2
1.2
6.2
3.0
0.4
Projected on the basis of the two main scenarios (baseline and downside) discussed in Chapter 1.
Using population shares as weights when aggregating GDP growth across countries.
Sources: World Bank data and World Bank 1991a.
Paths to development
Thinking on development has shifted repeatedly during the past forty years. Progress has not
Growing productivity is the engine of development. But what drives productivity? The answer is
technological progress, which is in turn influenced
verely distorted price systems than only moderately or slightly distorted ones. Most of the
countries with severely distorted prices did poorly
in output growth and productivity. At the opposite extreme, the few economies that had relatively
undistorted price systems did well. In the middle
the results are more ambiguous: some economies
were successful, but others did much less well. In
proved costly. Retarding competition and interfering with prices, deliberately or accidentally, have
very often proved counterproductive.
Is this view really consistent with the remarkable achievements of the East Asian economies, or
with the earlier achievements of Japan? Why, in
these economies, were interventions in the market
such as infant-industry protection and credit subsidies associated with success, not failure? First,
these governments disciplined their interventions
with international and domestic competition. This
GDP
growth
(percent)
High
education
Low
High1
distortion
Low
education
distortion
higher levels of education or fewer policy distortions did better, growing at 3.8 percent a year. But
the countries that had boththat is, a higher level
percent a year. There also seems to be such a cornplementarity between increasing physical capital
and economic policies. This research does not by
Investment
in people
(Chapter 3)
Competitive
microeconomy
(Chapter 4)
Global
linkages
>
(Chapter 5)
Stable
macroeconomy
(Chapter 6)_,,/
itself show causation, but it suggests that the resuits from moving forward on several fronts at
Investing in people
The Report looks at the relation between governments and markets under four broad headings:
human development, the domestic economy, the
international economy, and macroeconomic poiicy. These areas of activity are interrelated. A rela-
such linkages, the results will probably be disproportionately strong if done together (see Figure 4).
two-thirds longer in Sri Lanka. Among middleincome countries, Brazil and Uruguay have similar
investment projects in developing countries confirms that market incentives work. The rate of return to public and private sector projects imple-
tunities for partnership with the private sector. Involving the private sector permits services to be
delivered more effectively, as in the cases of educa-
When international flows of goods, services, capital, labor, and technology have expanded quickly,
20
15
10
\\
Foreign
exchange
Fiscal
deficit
premium
0 High
0 Moderate
0 Low
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that were affected by nontariff
measures is estimated to have doubled. In 1986,
more than 20 percent of imports from the developing countries were covered by "hard-core" mea-
or monetary expansion, and problems in the financial sector, which have been quickly followed
by inflation, chronic overvaluation of the currency,
and loss of export competitiveness. Excessive borrowing can also lead to domestic and external debt
problems, and to the crowding out of private investment. Restoring the confidence of the private
sector is now a basic aspect of efforts to spur re-
newed growth and generate employment in several countries with a history of macroeconomic instability, including Argentina, Bolivia, Cte
d'Ivoire, and Ghana.
Fiscal and financial instability have sometimes
been partly inflicted on governments by external
eventsor by internal shocks such as civil wars or
most promise, suggests a reappraisal of the respective roles for the market and the state. Put simply,
governments need to do less in those areas where
markets work, or can be made to work, reasonably
well. In many countries, it would help to privatize
many of the state-owned enterprises. Governments need to let domestic and international competition flourish. At the same time, governments
frastructure of better quality; mobilizing the resources to finance public expenditures; and providing a stable macroeconomic foundation,
without which little can be achieved.
Government intervention to protect the environment is necessary for sustainable development. Industrial countries as well as developing
countries face serious problems of environmental
degradation. In addition to air and water pollution, sustained development is threatened by the
depletion of forests, soil, village ponds, and pastures. Appropriate policies include proper pricing
of resources, clearer property rights and resource
ownership, taxes and controls on pollution, and
investment in production alternatives. The experience of many countries suggests that market reforms can also help to protect the environment.
But specific environmental actions are needed.
Finding the least costly way to confront environmental ills is a high priority.
What might prevent a realignment of the roles of
endorse the notion that authoritarian governments, on average, show greater promise for
achieving rapid growth. And looking beyond
growth to the other elements of economic develop9
ment, the lesson of experience is even less equivocal: political freedoms, and civil libertiessuch as
harmful interventions that entrench special interests and lead to rent-seeking and the "capture" of
the state. Governments sometimes intervene in
the market to address political instability and other
political constraints. But the result is that all too
often, the combination of pervasive distortions
and predatory states leads to development disasters. Reversing this process requires political will
and a political commitment to development. Implementing the economic reforms considered in
this Report is one way to confront the political
constraints on development.
Reform must look at institutions. The establishment of a well-functioning legal system and judiciary, and of secure property rights, is an essential
complement to economic reforms. Reform of the
public sector is a priority in many countries. That
includes civil service reform, rationalizing public
expenditures, reforming state-owned enterprises,
and privatization. Related economic reforms include better delivery of public goods, supervision
of banks, and legislation for financial develop-
ment. Strengthening these institutions will increase the quality of governance and the capacity
of the state to implement development policy and
enable society to establish checks and balances.
Experience also suggests that a relatively equitable distribution of income and assets broadens the
10
Improve the climate for enterprise. Governments need to intervene less in industrial and agricultural pricing, to deregulate restrictions to entry
and exit, and to focus instead on ensuring adequate infrastructure and institutions.
Open economies to international trade and investment. This calls for far fewer nontariff restric-
lower tariffs, and a decisive move away from discretionary forms of control.
Get macroeconomic policy right. Macroeconomic policy needs to ensure that fiscal deficits
are low and inflation kept in check. Appropriate,
low and stable interest rates, and steady noninflationary growth would transform the climate
for development in the rest of the world.
The industrial countries and multilateral agencies,
including the World Bank can strengthen develop-
Increase financial support. More external financing, both concessional and nonconcessional,
would greatly strengthen the development effort.
Many developing countries continue to struggle
market-based incentives for saving and investment are essential if domestic resources are to play
their essential part in financing development.
In each of these areas, the challenge to policymakers is to exploit the complementarities between state and market. They can transform the
outlook for economic development by having the
state intervene less where it may (for example, in
production), and more where it must (for example,
in environmental protection), by strengthening institutions and capabilities, by finding nondistortionary ways to promote equity, and by fostering
checks and balances in governments.
11
tions. But global economic conditions are important. So whereas the rest of this Report is largely
about what countries themselves can do to improve their performance, this chapter looks at the
10
20
30
40
50
United Kingdom,
1780-1838
United States,
1839-86
Japan, 1885-1919
Turkey, 1857-77
Brazil, 1961-79
Rep. of Korea,
1966-77
China, 1977-87
Note: For the rationale for the choice of periods, see the technical
note at the end of the main text.
Sources: For United Kingdom, Crafts 1981; for Japan, Maddison
1989; for others, World Bank data.
is
indeed
possible.
even faster than Japan: for example, Brazil in eighteen years, Indonesia in seventeen, the Republic of
Korea in eleven, and China in ten. This change in
pace indicates that the industrial revolution gained
1957-87
1971-84
1946-83
1956-78
1921-46
1950-71
1927-5
1905-56
23
41
India
32
43
Sri Lanka
38
50
Rep. of Korea
44
52
Guatemala
Note: The numbers below each bar indicate life expectancy at birth
at the beginning of the period. For the rationale for the choice of
periods, see the technical note at the end of the main text.
Sources: Data before 1978, Gwatkin 1978; later data for all countries
except India, WHO 1989; for India, United Nations 1989.
Region or group
1830
1913
Asia
375
(40)
510
Latin America
1950
487
(15)
(23)
1,092
1,729
Africa
..
Europe, Middle
East, and
North
..
1989
1215
2,812
(16)
2,969
3,164
(40)
(31)
348
(11)
558
513
940
(29)
2,017
(8)
(27)
Growth rate
1913-50
1950-89
0.1
3.6
1.2
1.2
(28)
(52)
(49)
Sub-Saharan
1973
0.8
(5)
2,576
2.0
(26)
Africa
Eastern
Europe
600
(64)
Developing
economies
2,128
4,658
(57)
(65)
(63)
701
(32)
839
(25)
1,263
1,599
(22)
5,618
1.4
2.0
(56)
2,796
2.7
(28)
OECD
members
935
2,220
3,298
7,396
10,104
1.1
2.3
Note: Data presented are simple averages of GDP per capita. Numbers in parentheses are regional GDP per capita as a percentage of GDP in the
OECD economies. Regional groupings include only non-high-income countries. Hungary is included in Eastern Europe group, not in Europe,
Middle East, and North Africa.
Sources: For 1830-1965, Maddison, background paper. Data for 1950-65 for Africa and the Middle East are based on OECD; data after 1965 are
based on growth rates from the World Bank data base. Benchmark values are 1980 international dollar estimates from Maddison, background
paper, if available; from Summers and Heston 1984, otherwise.
ago an influential government report in an important developing country observed that labor today
shunned hard, productive jobs and sought easy,
has allowed resources to be used more productively, causing incomes to rise and the quality of
life to improve. Scientific and medical innovation
has proceeded at a breathtaking pace during the
past two hundred years (Box 1.1).
14
Using new technologies effectively has often required adaptation and innovation in economic institutions, and occasionally political and social institutions, too. New means of transport extended
markets and thereby increased the division of la-
part of the world economy than in isolation, although protection has stimulated growth in some
instances. Historically, trade wars have retarded
global development.
The Great Depression and its aftermath are perhaps the clearest example of this. The collapse of
the post World War I trading system did not trigger the Great Depression, but it did contribute to
its depth, spread, and duration. The stock market
crash of October 1929 caused demand and trade to
Box 1.1
smallpox vaccine (1790) opened the way for the vaccination of cholera, typhoid, and anthrax. Pasteur established the relationship between microbes and immunity (1880). Half a century later came Fleming's
discovery of penicillin (1929), its clinical application
(1941), and the development of other antibiotics. As a
result, the morbidity rate of tuberculosis in the United
States, for example, declined from 79 per 100,000 in
1939 to 9 in 1988. Widespread immunization programs
have contributed to dramatically reduced infant mortality rates, which are estimated to have declined in
The industrial revolution in Europe began with inventions that augmented labor with machinery and new
sources of energy. After Savery's steam engine (1698)
and Newcomen's improved engine (1712), Watt's more
efficient engines (1770 and 1796) brought steam into
wide use. The production and transport of coal grew
quickly. Next came improvements in oil refining
(1850s), then a method of drilling for oil. The internal
combustion engine (1876) and the technologies for electricity generation and transmission (1886) were part of
the same progression, transforming old industries and
launching new ones. Transportation was revolutionized along the way, with the steamship and the
1965 to 72 in 1985.
Food production
plane (1903). Harbors, highways, railways, and airports brought trade to the remotest of places.
The telegraph (1844), telephone (1876), radio (1895),
and television (1925) changed the way people interact.
With the electronic computer (1924), communication
satellites (1960), and fiber optics (1977), information is
now transmitted and processed at breathtaking speed,
yet at practical cost.
trade regime. Other countries followed. Expanding agricultural markets lessened protectionist
pressures, and the period from 1848 to 1873 became one of freer trade throughout Europe.
This process of international integration was
Though this shift toward international integration undoubtedly spurred development, it also exposed countries to external economic shocks, and
hence to occasional setbacks. Dramatically lower
sumers paid high prices and export-oriented manufacturing was stifled. In 1845, when the potato
crop failed in Ireland, mass starvation followed.
This disaster paved the way for the repeal of the
Corn Laws, and Britain moved to a more liberal
Figure 1.3 Per capita output growth in the OECD and developing countries and significant
world events, 1918-88
Per capita output growth (percent; five-year moving average)
8
1920
1918
1950
1940
1930
1944
1947
1924-26
1939-45
Return to fixed
exchange rates
World War II
GATT established
Sources: For events, Pollard 1990; for data, see the technical note at the end of the main text.
Foreign trade was financed in the late nineteenth century by a surge of foreign lending from
Europe, to the newly settled countries of the temperate zones and to czarist Russia. Technological
breakthroughs in chemicals, electrical products,
ical capital (Figure 1.3). Farm output had expanded significantly outside Europe during the
war. So the gradual recovery of European agriculture lowered prices after 1925. Prices collapsed after the October 1929 crash. The period from 1918 to
1925 was one of great instability in exchange rates,
tariffs, trade agreements, and regulations.
The Great Depression and World War II shattered the global economy and badly shook the confidence of the developing countries, especially in
Woods framework and formed a parallel international system. Eastern European nations nationalized their economies and adopted Soviet-style
central planning. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was set up to coordinate their economic activities.
1953
OECD-
Developing countries
1953
1960
1980
1970
1960
S 1957
European Economic
Community formed
1988
1971
1964-67
Kennedy Round
of GAfl
Decolonization of
Africa accelerates
trade and global integration for nearly three decades (Figure 1.4), the international framework
1981-
1973
1979
First oil
Second oil
price shock
price shock
1986-
Uruguay Round
of GATT
Latin America
OECD
That is the background against which the governments of developing countries must choose
their trade policies. Today more than 4 billion people, or nearly 80 percent of the world's population,
live in developing countries. Their share in global
World
5
Asia___________________
0
1900
1915
1930
1945
1960
1975
1990
17
third between the 1960s and the 1970s. Their external debt grew from $63 billion in 1970 to $562 bil-
grated. This, as history has shown, exposes countries to external shocks. The shocks of the 1970s
and 1980s have been severe. The collapse of the
lion in 1980.
That was about 3.2 percent of their GNP, compared with less than 1 percent only a few years
earlier. Mexico declared a debt moratorium in
1982. Many other countries were forced into debt
restructuring agreements with official creditors
ing regions.
cies, and greater policy cooperation, led to increased activity. Low inflation, moderate wage increases, and high business profits spurred private
all the harder. There were wide swings in exchange rates, and international interest rates were
erratic. The U.S. current account balance swung
from a $7 billion surplus in 1981 to a $162 billion
deficit in 1986, gradually declining to about $110
billion in 1989. (The United States absorbed about
23 percent of the merchandise exports from developing countries in 1989more than the combined
.b
0 1965-73
El 1973-80
0 1980-89
latter half of the 1980s). Fiscal and regulatory policies emphasized supply-side incentives; taxes on
both household income and business profits came
down. Most countries began reducing the role of
the public sector. Major structural reforms included the privatization of publicly owned enterprises and the liberalization of product, labor, and
financial markets.
During the 1980s, the backwardness of the command economies contrasted sharply with the rapid
technological advance in the market-oriented
economies of Asia and the West. Economic performance deteriorated in the Soviet Union (Box 1.2)
Recent developments
were tightened in response to production at nearcapacity levels and rising inflation. The slowdown
Box 1.2
shoes and far more steel than the United States, but the
encouraged, and private family enterprises were legalized. Foreign trade was decentralized, and a currency
retention scheme was introduced along with a system
wasteful.
currency auctions.
8.5 percent.
put in the industrial countries is expected to expand by less than 2 percent in 1991.
World trade
By contrast, the consequences for Eastern Europe have been severe because countries there
have begun to pay for oil with hard currency. For
oil-importing developing countries as a group, the
effect of the increase in the oil price on the current
account balance is estimated to have been about 7
percent of their combined exports. In addition, the
Arab Republic of Egypt, Jordan, and Turkey have
had extensive economic relationships with Iraq
and Kuwait. These and other countriesBangladesh, India, Morocco, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Sudanhave to pay higher
interest rates on debt service, and have lost trade
and service contracts and workers' remittances.
Revenues from tourism have also fallen sharply.
World trade
Pessimistic
Optimistic
Capital flows
World finance
Capital flows to the developing countries resume; greater confidence spurs direct foreign
pick up.
investment.
Major institutions muddle through; financial reforms and regulatory changes reduce systemic
risks; economic recovery is rapid; Brady Initiative and its successors gradually reduce developing- country debt burdens.
United Nations.
Industrial-
Security
Environment
Damage to the environment mounts, with economic repercussions; global resources dwindle;
the frequency of local environmental disasters
increases.
With the United States-Canada Free Trade Agreement in effect, the United States declared an "En-
22
imbalances of the 1980s. Germany's current account surplus will decline as unification increases
investment demand. And the demand for international credit and investment in Eastern Europe and
remittances. By the mid-1990s the severely indebted developing countries could still be exporting more goods and nonfactor services than they
import, although the balance should narrow sig-
relative importance of official flows, direct investment, and private lending-might prevail well into
the 1990s. High international interest rates, together with only a modest growth of international
financial flows to the developing countries in the
next several years, could slow development. The
1970-73
1974-80
1981-85
1986-88
Level in 1988
(billions of
dollars)
16.5
(5.2)
0.8
4.1
21.4
16.2
(4.8)
1.3
6.1
14.6
(4.9)
1.2
6.3
22.1
16.3
(3.8)
1.0
5.0
22.3
2,997
(664)
175
875
4,048
16.0
(5.0)
0.7
16.1
(4.6)
14.5
(5.0)
1.0
5.6
21.1
16.2
(4.4)
0.8
4.5
21.5
2,981
(740)
23.6
4.6
21.2
0.9
6.0
23.0
151
781
3,913
23
Table 1.3 Aggregate long-term net resource flows to developing countries, 1980-95
Share (percent)
1995'
1980
1989
1995'
82.8
51.2
63.3
103
100.0
100.0
100.0
12.5
14.0
18.6
25
15.1
29.4
24.3
20.1
12.2
7.9
19.6
6.3
13.3
18.0
6.1
11.9
31
10
21
24.3
14.7
9.5
28.4
9.6
18.8
30.1
9.7
20.4
50.2
41.1
17.6
8.1
26.7
4.3
47
12
60.6
49.6
42.2
6.8
45.6
11.6
9.1
9.5
22.4
35
11.0
35.3
34.0
1980
1986
Net flows'
Official grants
Component
Official loans
(net)
Bilateral
Multilateral
Pri vate flows
Private loans
Direct foreign
investment
a. Projections.
b. Excluding IMF transfers.
Source: World Bank 1990d.
(DAC) of the OECD bilaterally and through multilateral channels rose by an annual average of about
dealing with the more than $1.3 trillion in outstanding developing-country debt (this figure in-
New debt reduction and rescheduling mechanisms for the official debt of low-income countries,
table 19). Although some DAC governments (Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Sweden, and
Switzerland) increased their aid as a share of GNP,
the amount of aid fell as a share of GNP for several
large contributors (Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States). As a result, the DAC
countries' aid-GNP ratio remained constant at 0.35
percent throughout the 1980s. As the decade prog-
ressed and many developing countries experienced economic distress, however, it became an
objective to make aid more effective. There was a
growing awareness of the limitations of government in promoting growth. This led aid-granting
and developing-country governments alike to recognize the role of the private sector and to stress
the importance of better domestic policies. More
and more, aid-granting countries will take effectiveness into account when setting their aid budgets. An adequate volume of aid is essential.
DIRECT FOREIGN INVESTMENT. Flows of direct for-
eign investment (DFI) are likely to grow in response to policy reforms. However, they will prob-
The volume of aid extended by member governments of the Development Assistance Committee
24
reforming developing countries even modest increases in DFI flows can have a measurable effect
on growth.
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS. The financial situa-
The industrial countries' macroeconomic policies also influence the demand for, and supply of,
global savings, and thereby the level of world interest rates. Conversely, financial integration has
made the task of setting national macroeconomic
policy much more complicated. Diverging or inconsistent policies have often been the main cause
of volatility in financial markets. To counter this,
the Group of Seven industrial countries (G-7) have
in recent years achieved a greater degree of policy
cooperation, which can be credited with some of
the equilibrating adjustments among the main exchange rates since 1985. But coordination of interest rate changes and intervention in the currency
markets may not always be sufficient, and occasionally may even be counterproductive. Pooling
information on broader aspects of macroeconomic
tions. Ethnic tensions within countries could aggravate these trends, as could new conflicts over
regional resources such as water and oil.
POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The 1980s witnessed political reforms and shifts to participatory
forms of government in many parts of the world.
In recently published work, scholars and policy-
loom ever larger in the aid-granting countries' consideration of aid effectiveness and aid priorities.
25
vations originate in industrial countries, and because research tends to focus on problems of local
concern, technical advances may systematically favor industrial-country producers and consumers.
Industry studies suggest that new technology may
tion will raise the demand for petroleum in residential use and power generation. Increases in
industrial-country demand for petroleum will be
mainly the result of its use in automobiles and
other forms of transport. Natural gas will expand
further as a major energy sourceespecially in developing countries and the USSR, where safety
pollution of the environment. Studies in Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States
have found that environmental damage from air,
water, and noise pollution amounts to between 0.5
and 2.5 percent of GNP annually. This exceeds the
estimated cost of pollution controls. The harm (including that caused by climate change) may be
greater in the developing world. The annual cost
of deforestation is estimated at 6-9 percent of GNP
in Ethiopia and 5.7 percent of GDP in Burkina
Faso. Estimates of the costs of substantially limit-
ing pollution are generally much smallertypically about 1-2 percent of GNP in industrial
countries.
Long-term growth and environmental conserva-
make substantial progress in key areas of negotiations, but not in agriculture. Project 1992 will yield
a significant long-term growth dividend for Europe. Net inflows of capital into developing countries will gradually expand. Most developing
countries will continue to implement policy
reforms.
Table 1.4 The international economic climate in the 1990s: a comparison of recent
and projected indicators
(average annual percentage change, unless noted)
Trend
Indicator
1965-89
Recent
experience
1980-89
World Bank
baseline,
1990
1990-2000
World Bank
downside,
WEFA
Group,
1991-95
DRI,
1991-95
3.1
6.6
3.1
3.8
2.6
3.7
2.9
3.6
2.2
4.3
3.1
3.4
2.8
3.4
3.2
4.4
3.1
3.3
8.6
3.1
10.2
5.8
8.4
4.3
7.4
3.4
9.6
5.1
3.9
7.7'
4.0'
8.6
4.3
7.9'
4.9'
World tradee
4.1
4.1
5.0
5.8
4.5
5.6
4.3
9.3
-10.1
22.2
-0.6
0.9
0.9
0.8
Real GDP
Inflation
Interest rate (percent)
Nominaib
Reald
-3.0
-2.0
GDP deflators in local currency for World Bank and IMF projections; for others, inflation is measured by consumption price deflator.
Six-month LIBOR on dollar deposits.
U.S. three-month Treasury bill rate; the real rate is the Treasury bill rate deflated by the U.S. GNP deflator; DRI projections are for the U.S.
long-term government bond yield deflated by the U.S. GNP deflator.
LIBOR deflated by U.S. inflation rate (percentage change in the GNP deflator).
World volume of exports.
Average OPEC price of oil deflated by the manufactures unit value exported by industrial countries; Project LINK's is the average price for
Saudi Arabian exports deflated by the GNP deflator.
Sources: World Bank data; IMF 1991; WEFA Group 1991; DRI/McGraw-Hill 1990; Project LINK 1991.
27
Box 1.4 How well did early World Development Reports foresee growth in the 1980s?
World Development Reports of a decade agoand the
predictions by the rest of the international communitywere generally too hopeful about growth in the
1980s. The Reports' high-case scenariowith good pol-
icies and a return everywhere to the strong performance of 1960-78proved far too optimistic. The lowcase scenario was much closer to the mark for both
industrial and developing economies.
Box figure 1.4 The World Bank's long-term projections of average GDP growth for the decade of the 1980s
compared with outcomes
(percent)
High-case projection
Low-case projection
7
1979
1979
1980
\ 1981,
1982
5
4
..
1979
1981
1982
1980
0
0
1981, 1982
1979
1981,5
1982
1979
1980
55 1979
1980
'1981, 1982
1979, 1980, 1981, 1982
1980
0
6
1979
1980
1979
, ,-_
. .
1981, 1982
1981, 1982
1981, 1982
S 1979
1980
1981,
1982
1980
1980
Latin America
1] Sub-Saharan Africa
0 OECD
Oil exporters
Note: Years refer to the edition of World Development Report in which the projection was published. If outcomes matched projections
exactly, the data would fall along the diagonal line. Points below the line indicate optimistic projections; points above, pessimistic ones.
For more information on the projections and outcomes, see the technical note at the end of the main text.
Source: World Bank data.
Quite different outcomes, obviously, are possible. The GATT talks might succeed in all the areas
of negotiations, including agriculture. World trade
28
percent of world output. Industrial-country restrictions on imports reduce the GNP of the developing countries by 3-4 percent; the harm is greater
for major exporters of manufactures.
dle-income countries as a group would be $147 billionwith $19.5 billion in direct foreign investment,
Alternative projections
a large combined surplus throughout the 1980s. Instead, the OECD had a $90 billion deficit in 1990,
whereas the large oil-exporting developing countries
were in deficit for much of the 1980s and only recently
in the industrial countries will hurt all the developing countries; a continuation of negative transfers
moved into a small surplus. Although the early Rerts recognized the potential severity of the debt
cr1 sis, they did not foresee the large negative transfer of
resources from developing countries after the
mid-1980s.
joined the ranks of the industrial economies. Under the assumption that they adopt favorable domestic policies, China and India are also expected
Table 1.5 Real GDP and real GDP per capita growth rates for low- and middle-income economies,
1965-2000
(annual percentage change, unless noted)
Region or group
GDP, 1989
(billions of
dollars)
Population,
1989
Trend,
(millions)
1965-89
Baseline
Downside
1965-89
Baseline
Downside
3,303
4,053
4.7
4.9
4.1
2.5
2.9
2.2
171
142
480
367
3.2
3.3
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.1
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.0
895
351
1,552
1,131
7.2
4.2
6.7
4.7
5.6
4.2
5.2
1.8
5.3
2.6
4.2
2.1
828
433
4.2
3.6
3.2
2.2
1.8
1.4
964
421
4.3
3.8
3.1
1.8
2.0
1.3
5.5
4.5
4.8
3.7
2.9
2.5
3.5
2.6
2.9
1.9
Region
Sub-Saharan Africa
Excluding Nigeria
Asia
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, Middle East, and
North Africa
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Income group
Low-income economies
Middle-income economies
2,948
996
5.1
2,308
1,105
4.5
Note: For group totals, see the technical note at the end of the main text.
Source: World Bank data.
Paths to development
Economic development is defined in this Report as
a sustainable increase in living standards that encompass material consumption, education, health,
by no means total, nor is there universal agreement on what it takes for a country to develop. But
In recent years many countries have implemented market-oriented reforms. With these
changes has come a growing recognition that development is a multidimensional process, within
which price reforms, investment, and institutionbuilding are complementary. Success depends on
getting many things right.
Several countries have achieved rapid develop-
from these investments by giving markets, competition, and trade leading roles. New ideas, progress in technology, and pressures to achieve efficiency thus were nourished by their economies.
The extent and efficiency of the state's involvement in the economy has been critical. One lesson
Economists have traditionally considered an increase in per capita income to be a good proxy for
other attributes of development. But the weakness
of income growth as an indicator is that it may
mask the real changes in welfare for large parts of
the poor population. Improvements in meeting
the basic needs for food, education, health care,
equality of opportunity, civil liberties, and environmental protection are not captured by statistics
on income growth.
Policymakers in most developing countries have
differed, however, about priorities. India's economic plans, for example, assumed that income
growth by itself would fail to reach many of the
poor. Much stress was placed on measures to
tackle poverty directly. A different emphasis is
seen in Malaysia's policy documents: "For opera-
100
Agriculture
Industry
Services
80
60
40
20
1965
1980
1965
1980
965
1980
E Low-income countries
1J Middle-income countries
were the result of better living conditions. Although rising incomes and falling mortality provide incentives for lowering fertility and slower
population growth, this demographic transition
does not always happen in an orderly way. The
population of the developing world grows about 2
Rapid agricultural growth has generally been associated with successful industrialization and sus-
against agriculture.
Trade. Policymakers felt that import substitu-
centers are usually part of this pattern. In the industrial countries, nearly 80 percent of people live
in urban areas. In the developing countries, the
urban share of the population has doubled in the
past thirty years to more than 40 percent. Government strategies have directly or indirectly affected
this transition. Excessive industrial protection;
import-substitution; and a pro-urban bias in pric-
economic gain.
ported these views with varying degrees of enthusiasm. By the early 1980s the dominant paradigm
had shifted.
When many developing countries achieved independence, their leaders were concerned with both
political and economic development. Their political goal was national unity and identity. Their primary economic goal was the rapid structural transformation of backward agrarian economies into
modern industrial ones.
The dominant paradigm of that time recognized
Physical capital. It was a goal of policy to increase saving and investment and thus the rapid
accumulation of capital.
Table 2.1 The growth of agricultural productivity and the nonagricultural sectors, 1960-88
Growth of
agricultural
yield per hectare
1-2.5 percent
China
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab
Rep. of
Korea,
Rep. of
Mexico
Brazil
Indonesia
Thailand
Cte d'Ivoire
Congo
Pakistan
Panama
Syrian
Arab Rep.
Turkey
Burundi
Colombia
Costa Rica
Rwanda
Liberia
Yugoslavia
Bangladesh
El Salvador
Greece
India
Mali
Less than I
percent
Hungary
Nicaragua
Philippines
Argentina
Bolivia
Ethiopia
Nigeria
Malawi
Mauritania
Morocco
Sri Lanka
Togo
Zambia
Peru
Sudan
Senegal
Zimbabwe
Central
African
Rep.
Ghana
Tanzania
Uganda
Zaire
Note: The nonagricultural growth rate is calculated as the weighted average of the growth rates of industry and services, with the weights being
the share of each in GOP. Calculations are from national accounts data for all countries for which data are available and for which the initial share
of agriculture in GDP in the 1960s was more than 10 percent.
Source: World Bank data.
33
change constraintthat is, the difficulty of financing import needs by means of exports (Chenery
addition to the community's income. The economic case for the industrialization of densely
populated backward countries rests upon this
mass phenomenon of disguised rural unemployment" (Mandelbaum 1945). But with time, the
tasks when they are unable to fulfill even the elementary and necessary functions of government"
(Bauer 1958). The balanced growth approach "requires huge amounts of precisely those abilities
which we have identified as likely to be very lim-
34
Growth theories
cation) or introduce increasing returns (improvements in physical infrastructure) can be good for
growth. Also important are complementary policies that facilitate the spread of knowledge and
that permit free entry and exit of firmsand free
mobility of people, capital, and technology.
Linkages in development
Education, technology, and openness have complex relations to development. They enable economies to respond not only to price signals but also
to new ideas. This link between knowledge and
growth has been important in East Asia for the
past forty years and in Scandinavia, especially between 1860 and 1950 (Box 2.1). It was recognized
in the literature early on. "It is not enough that
knowledge should grow; it should also be diffused, and applied in practice. The rate at which
knowledge is taken up depends partly on the receptiveness of the people to new ideas, and partly
on the extent to which institutions make it profitable to acquire and apply new ideas. . . New ideas
the welfare state have had costs that could have been
avoided with difficult policies. First, in an attempt to
keep down the cost of capital, financial markets were
heavily regulated after the war. This, however, limited
the access of smaller firms and entrepreneurs to capital. It has also discouraged the adaptation to the financial innovations abroad. (These markets were deregulated during the 1980s.)
postwar era.
The early period: mid-1800s to World War II
markets.
Scandinavia's pragmatic willingness to avoid conflict
and to seek consensus in political and economic life has
programs.
been development goals in the eyes of policymakers and planners. Their methods, however,
36
Not all countries have achieved the same successes. The rate of GDP growth has varied sub-
(Figure 2.2).
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Argentina
Chile
20,000
Mexico
Costa Rica
Peru
A.
Turkey
Brazil
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Zambia
Nigeria
Ghana
Cte d'Ivoire
Thailand
Zimbabwe
Rep. of Korea
Morocco
Pakistan
Indonesiab
(percent)
-2
'
-
'1
Cameroon
Sub-Saharan Africa
10
12
East Asia
I
South Asia
Kenya
Bangladesh
India
Egypt
Malawi
Tanzania
U 1960
Japan
Spain
Singaporea
Mauritius
Greece
Colombia
Jamaica
Malaysia
Algeria
0 1988
Industrial countries
0 1965-73
_________________________
0 1973-80
U 1980-89
37
China. From 1950 to 1978 the Chinese economy was centrally planned in most respects. The
defects of such a highly centralized administrative
system became clear, despite the progress in infra-
India. The government has been actively involved in the production process, regulating "the
scale, technology, and location of any investment
project other than relatively small ones . . . a chaotic incentive structure and the unleashing of rapacious rent-seeking were the inevitable outcomes"
(Srinivasan 1990). This extensive government involvement was accompanied by macroeconomic
stability in the 1960s and 1970s, but growth was
slow nonetheless. During the period 1960-79, the
growth of per capita income averaged 1 percent a
year. Absolute poverty declined from about 55 percent in the early 1960s to only 45 percent in the
mid-1980s. Since the late 1970s, some industries
have been deregulated. The exchange rate, whose
real value relative to the dollar was the same in
Nigeria. A telling statistic about this oil exporter is that its per capita growth rate, which av38
tariff law reduced protection to domestic manufacturing from 58 to 30 percent. In 1968, a crawling
peg exchange rate replaced the multiple exchange
The other economies were relatively more interventionist. Japan and Korea followed policies of
protection for infant industries and of credit sub-
reduced from about 37 percent in 1973 to 15 percent in 1987; in Sri Lanka it fell from 37 to 27 percent between 1963 and 1981.
Republic of Korea. Undoubtedly, this economy
is an example of spectacularly rapid development.
launched in the 1960s. After experiencing economic difficulties in the late 1970s, Korea pursued
sidies. Why, in these cases, did interventionist policies succeed when they so often failed elsewhere?
Some economists argue that intervention worked
because markets were still freer than in other economies. Some go so far as to argue that intervention
economists say that the secret is to intervene competently. But this begs the key question: what is
the difference between competent and incompetent intervention?
The issue remains controversial, but three propositions now command quite wide support. First,
government intervention in these economies was
subjected to international competition and marketrelated checks and balances. These governments
rience stand out: first, rapid technological progress, supported by a strong outward orientation;
nized labor supported the government's growthoriented policies. Economies of scale, learning by
approach.
followed
relatively
free-market
39
Box 2.2
and technology are generally considered the main reasons for Japan's success, as elaborated on elsewhere in
Institutions?
The bureaucrats?
Some see the Japanese miracle as the result of bureaucrats in the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) guiding firms' production and investment
decisions. Since the 1930s at least, Japanese bureaucrats have influenced manufacturers' decisions. They
have eased their access to capital and to foreign technology. They have granted subsidies, trade barriers,
and tax breaks. They have formulated plans to allocate
production. And they have sanctioned cartels. As industrial consultants who can persuade their clients to
follow their advice, MITI's officials have a close relationship with manufacturers.
The size of interventions?
rapid advances in productivity. In Britain, economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s was slower
because of high inflation, troubled labor relations,
an overvalued exchange rate, frequent balance of
payments problems, low corporate profits, and too
Data on average incomes for countries conceal regional variations in incomes, especially in large
countries, Variations in nominal income, or output,
ment agencies, producers, and producers' associations. For example, norms of behavior toward authority,
between workers and supervisors, and a consensusbuilding approach in conflict resolution have allowed
better quality control in mass assembly.
All three
Each explanation probably captures an aspect of reality. But it is difficult to draw lessons for other countries
from an institutional explanation of Japan's success
except to note that bureaucrats did not try to fight mar-
40
northeastern region (30 percent of the people). According to an estimate for 1975, when measured in
Nominal average
income of regions:
variation from national
average
1000
5?0
KILOMETERS
INDONESIA
1000
KILOMETERS
ATEs
Washsn1ton,
Lagos
KILOMETERS
KILOMETERS
Alaska and Hawaiian Islands
not to scale
Note: Regional estimates include income from oil production, especially important in Indonesia and Nigeria.
Sources: Indonesia income data from Biro Pusat Statistik 1989; Nigeria data from World Bank; Brazil data from IBGE 1987; United
States data from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1990.
41
years has been to identify and measure total factor productivity, which measures changes in output per unit
of all inputs combined. Before, most analysis of productivity focused on the growth of labor productivity,
broadly. Technical change includes such obvious innovations as the mechanical cotton picker, the pneumatic
tire, the hand-held calculator, the personal computer,
system.
But technical change also includes numerous ways of
reducing real costs. These costs may fall as more discipline is instilled in the work force by a more demand-
ing manageror as the work force becomes more productive because a too-demanding manager has been
fired. An assembly line might be made more productive simply by straightening it outor a farm by introducing a different fertilizer. Productivity may also be
increased by, for example, installing a facsimile machine, closing down unprofitable branches, or buying
ments in total factor productivity. But the main additional element is in the quality of labor. If the additions
to the labor force are more productive than the existing
force, they will add more to output than they would
while the anti-export bias from protection has impeded the growth of exports. Further, these policies have lowered agricultural incentives. Second,
severe and prolonged macroeconomic imbalances
hurt investment and growth. Private investment is
done under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Economic Research (Bhagwati 1978;
Krueger 1978). Since then, further studies have
accumulated rapidly. They include recent work at
the World Bank (where five large multicountry
studies have covered approximately sixty countries), other agencies of the United Nations, and
the World Institute for Development Economics
Research.
across countries can be examined through a comparative study of large groups of countries and of
42
economic growth in industrial countries is voluminous (Denison 1962; Jorgensen and Griiches 1967;
Maddison 1981). Similar work for developing
countries has been less comparable, however, because of data problems. Data on inputs are gener-
Many studies document the high returns on investment in education. In past studies of growth,
education has been roughly proxied by literacy
rates, or by primary school enrollment ratios. Research for this Report suggests that increasing the
average amount of education of the labor force by
one year raises GDP by 9 percent. This holds for
Region, group,
or economy
TFP
Labor
Capital
GDP
1960-73 1973-87' 1960-87' 1960-73 1973-87' 1960-87' 1960-73 1973-87 1960-8 7' 1960-73 1973-87' 1960-87
Developing economies
Africa
East Asia
4.0
7.5
2.6
6.5
3.3
6.8
6.3
9.8
6.3
10.7
2.1
2.8
2.3
10.2
2.6
2.2
2.6
0.7
2.6
5.8
5.1
3.8
5.1
4.2
2.3
5.0
3.5
5.0
3.6
4.4
4.2
7.7
7.4
8.0
7.4
7.5
5.6
7.2
7.1
7.6
6.3
7.7
7.2
1.4
2.5
1.8
2.2
1.9
2.8
2.3
2.4
1.7
2.6
2.1
2.3
2.2
1.3
0.0
1.3
6.3
-0.7
1.3
0.6
-1.1
1.2
-0.2
0.0
1.9
1.4
0.0
0.6
0.6
Industrial economies
0.4
2.3
0.9
4.8
-1.0
-0.2
5.7
3.8
1.9
0.9
4.2
-0.3
-0.9 -0.6
3.0
5.3
1.7
0.6
-0.2
3.1
0.1
-0.5
1.3
2.4
2.6
3.6
1.0
-0.1
1.9
1.8
2.8
3.4
1.8
2.2
3.0
3.8
Note: Estimates for developing countries are based on a sample of sixty-eight economies; see the technical note at the end of the main text.
France
Germany"
United Kingdom
United States
5.5
4.3
3.3
3.7
2.1
1.8
3.9
3.1
1.7
1.4
1.2
0.5
43
Box 2.4
analysis.
Dubious quality
error.
mortality.
Poor comparability
GDP measures pose important problems in comparability across countries and over time. Among the major
hurdles are price changes accompanying quality
changes, changes in relative prices, the choice of base
periods, and the extent of coverage of economic activity. The conventional use of official exchange rates in-
These cautionary remarks should not lead us to abandon quantitative analysis. Nor do they relieve us of the
Africa, 50
Latin America, 27
44
Total
16
24
20
60
Before
1975
9
5
1
15
Before
1975-79
4
3
8
15
19803
16
11
30
Total
1975
1975-79
1980-
Total
36
26
27
89
11
10
15
22
15
15
22
52
35
26
27
88
Before
1975
12
2
3
17
1975-79
1980-
10
4
10
24
13
20
14
47
Since 1960, growth in productivity has accounted for a relatively small proportion of output
growth for most developing countries. The exception is East Asia, where the share is more than 25
percent. For the industrial economies, productivity growth has been much more important. A
recent study of the United States suggests that
technical progress alone accounts for more than 50
Another draws this conclusion: "a major difference between [developing and developed countries] seems to be that growth in the former is
largely accounted for by the accumulation of inputs rather than the growing efficiency in their
deployment" (Chenery and Srinivasan 1988).
The small role that productivity growth plays on
average in developing countries is unlikely to be
explained by lower rates of technological change.
In East Asia, productivity increased at 2.6 percent
a year for the period 1960-73, about the same as in
the industrial countries. The importance of productivity growth, despite its small share, is indicated by the fact that differences in it account for
more than half of the variation in growth rates
across countries. Economic policy, as this Report
will explain, goes a long way to explain these
differences.
1960-73
Africa
East Asia
Europe, Middle East,
and North Africa
Latin America
South Asia
Total
Labor
TFP
59
50
22
16
17
35
51
55
81
56
10
20
38
25
0
26
92
62
37
17
68
94
55
76
19
51
19
28
73
28
16
0
28
14
30
20
23
28
0
14
14
Capital
20
18
1973 -87
Africa
East Asia
57
58
67
67
65
Selected industrial
countries, 1960-85
France
Germanya
Japan
United Kingdom
United States
27
23
36
27
23
10
5
5
27
27
20
14
48
24
78
87
59
78
50
1931-38). During periods of slow growth, productivity stagnated or declined (it fell by 0.2 percent
during the period 1918-31). In the period 1960-73,
output grew at 9.2 percent and productivity at 3.4
percent. In the period 1973-87, output grew at 3.7
percent and productivity at 0.8 percent.
The contribution of domestic policy
similar results.
Third, macroeconomic instability diminishes the
foreign exchange premium. Finally, the data suggest that an increase in the share of government
consumption in GDP results in a decline in productivity growth later on. This is consistent with
the results of other studies (Barro, forthcoming).
-2
-2
TFP growth a
a. The unexplained residual of GDP growth after controlling for
growth in conventional inputs (labor, capital, land).
Source: World Bank data.
the evidence still suggests that simultaneous efforts to improve policy and to augment human
and physical capital can have exceptionally high
returns.
The effects of external factors
Second, openness and competition are associated with growth in productivity. This holds for
the various measures of openness used in this Re-
Interacting variables
GDP growth
5.5
3.8
3.8
3.1
5.3
4.0
3.5
3.4
Average TFP
growth
1.40
0.25
0.00
-0.40
1.30
0.40
-0.16
-0.19
Probability
Probability of
of higher
higher than median than median TFP
GDP growth
growth
63.7
52.0
35.7
42.0
53.9
57.0
55.1
35.0
39.2
54.3
48.8*
39.7
447*
73.6
35.6
53.8
26.7
56.5
46.4*
44.0
41.2*
499*
38.1
46.0*
5.2
3.5
4.6
2.6
0.91
0.75
0.07
-0.36
Note: All results are significant at the 5 percent level unless marked with an asterisk (*), in which case they are not significant.
High distortion here is reflected by a foreign exchange premium of more than 30 percent; low distortion, a premium of 30 percent or less. See
the technical note at the end of the main text.
Education is measured by the average years of schooling, excluding postsecondary schooling, of the population age fifteen to sbty-four. High
education is defined here as more than 3.5 years; low education, 3.5 years or less.
Five-year increase (above or below the median).
Investment rate as a share of GDP (above or below the median).
Sources: For foreign exchange premium, International Currency Analysis, Inc., various years. For all other variables, World Bank data.
Meeting basic needs is an important part of economic development. The governments of many
developing countries have made it a priority. India's first prime minister, while introducing the
country's third five-year plan in 1960, stated: "It is
said that the national income over the First and
Sometimes aid can permit countries to postpone improving macroeconomic management and mobilizing domestic resources. External agencies continued to provide aid
to Tanzania while the country experimented with disastrous rural policies and institutions. The ready availability of foreign assistance to Pakistanlargely for political
Aid improves the credibility of economic reform by providing assistance in the design of reform packages and
by holding down the cost. Structural adjustment lending
has triggered and helped sustain reforms in many coun-
reasonsenabled it to postpone fiscal reform. Sometimes aid can strengthen lobbies that have a strong
vested interest in a distorted policy framework and so
make policy reform more difficult.
tureroads, railways, ports, and power generating facilities. It also builds technical expertise in project evaluation, monitoring, and implementation. Aid also
contributes to personnel training and institution building
(for example, in Korea, Pakistan, Thailand, Colombia,
and Mexico). In addition, information on best practices
such as Bangladesh's Grameen Bank, Bolivia's Emergency Social Fund, and Jamaica's Food Stamp Scheme
helps recipients tailor practices to their circumstances
and avoid mistakes.
Domestic policies, institutions, and administrative capacity also vitally affect the success of project aid. An
excellent example of their contribution to the effectiveness of project aid is the green revolution in South Asia
in the 1960s. It was successful both because of technology transfers, research, and infrastructure financed by
aid and because of the responsiveness of domestic institutions.
48
Aid can support better economic and social policies. External aid and finance agencies are more and more sensi-
aged these strategies in the 1960s and 1970s, when import substitution and regulation were in vogue. Agencies can often adjust rapidly to the changing thinking on
social conditions. The emphasis on policies has also resulted in successful programs to reduce poverty, for ex-
01234567
Sudan
Central African Rep
Senegal
lhnzania
Uganda
example, some of the economic and social indicators discussed above are positively associated with
noneconomic components of development, such
as civil and political liberties (Box 2.6).
education
Mali
Burundi
CEte diveire
Pakistan
Bensn
Nigeria
Morocco
Toga
Rwanda
Bangladesh
Zaire
-=
Cameroon
Haiti
India
Kenya
Ghana
Gabon
Algeria
Zambia
Guatemala
Malawi
Congs,
Madagascar
Egypt
Syria
Turkey
Indonesia
Bolivia
Zimbabwe
China
Nicaragua
Brazil
Hong Kong
Colombia
Venezuela
El Salvador
Mexico
Israel
Pertugal
Peru
Singapore
Rep. of Korea
Low female
Buridna Faso
Ethiopia
Thailand
Mauritania
Greece
Malaysia
Philippines
Costa Rica
Perhaps the clearest lesson from work on development during the past thirty years is that there is a
premium on pragmatism and an open mind. Ideas
Yugoslavia
Sri Lanka
Argentina
Chile
Spain
tutions in forming their approaches to development, have now been largely set aside. New ideas
stress prices as signals; trade and competition as
links to technological progress; and effective government as a scarce resource, to be employed sparingly and only where most needed.
In development, generalizations can be as rash
as unbending commitments to theories. Quantitative evidence of the sort reviewed in this chapter is
suggestive, but no more. There is no magic cure
for economic backwardness. There is more than
Hungary
Japan
High female
education
Noneconomic components
of development: liberties
Box 2.6
Finally, after controlling for income growth and regional effects, liberties appear to be strongly and positively associated with measures of welfare improvements such as women's education, overall education,
and infant mortality declines (Box figure 2.6). These
that freedoms in general make it harder for government to take tough but necessary decisions. The latter
view is often advanced to explain the success of countries such as the Republic of Korea (with its "good"
economies, 1973-86
1.2
1.0
fined as "rights to participate meaningfully in the political process"; and civil liberties, or the "rights to free
0.8
0.6
0.4
There is a strong relation between income growth, education levels, and declines in infant mortality; between
female education levels, and changes therein, with infant mortality decline; and between political and civil
liberties and achievements in male and female education and infant mortality decline (Box table 2.6).
The results of regression analysis do not go as far as
to suggest that liberties contribute positively to income
4- Less liberty
More liberty -3
Box table 2.6 Correlation matrix for measures of overall development, 1973-87
Measure
1. Growth
2. Decline in infant mortality
3. Change in education
4. Change in female education
5. Change in female-male education gap
6. Education level
7. Female education level
8. Political and civil liberties
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.12*
0.27
1.00
0.23
0.41
0.92
1.00
0.31
0.29
_0.18*
0.22
1.00
0.42
0.67
0.30
0.52
0.55
1.00
0.37
0.19*
0.59
0.32*
0.28
0.39
0.57
0.63
1.00
0.71
0.25
0.48
0.56
0.98
1.00
Note: Numbers are penod averages; data are for a sample of sixty-eight economies. All correlation coefficients are statistically significant at least
at the 10 percent level, except for those marked with an asterisk (*),
a. Because of low data quality, these data cover only the period 1973-84.
Sources: For political and civil liberties, Gastil 1989. For others, World Bank data.
50
51
Investing in people
If you plan for a year, plant a seed. If
for ten years, plant a tree. If for a hundred years,
teach the people. When you sow a seed once, you
will reap a single harvest. When you teach the
people, you will reap a hundred harvests.
Years
75
70
65
world's poor. But the demands of the future require better targeting, new and more efficient
methods of delivery, fewer regressive subsidies,
and closer partnership with the private sector in
the provision of certain services.
During times of economic hardship, such as the
1980s, tough choices need to be made, and short-
term gains in economic growth need to be balanced against long-term threats to human development and the quality of life. One lesson from
the past is that the economiessuch as Japan and
the Republic of Koreawhich committed themselves to education and training made great strides
uiui
.l.ui1
uirni
uiwaririu
iiiii
...--
60
55
50
45
40
35
IAF4UU_
1840
1860
Argentina
1880
1900
--
Czechoslovakia
England and Wales
Sri Lanka
1920
1940
Bangladesh
Egypt
France
Sweden
1980 2000
1960
Chile
Japan
United States
Note: Countries were selected because of the availability of longterm life expectancy data based on census data and life tables,
rather than on extrapolations.
Sources: United Nations 1982a; World Bank data.
Box 3.1
sial. They have been widely attributed to improvements in medical technology and expansion of hospital
services. Considerable evidence points to the important role disease control has played in increasing life
expectancy. Others have argued that improvement in
nutrition was the principal factor and that the decline
in rural mortality before 1920 is largely attributable to
the rising living standards of the rural population.
Recent studies have strengthened the nutrition argument. For national populations in North America and
found to have achieved modern heights by the mideighteenth century and to have reached levels of life
expectancy that were not attained by the general population of England or even by the British peerage until
hunger could also be avoided by appropriate government policies on food inventories and food prices in
cultural technologies.
Health
entrepreneurship.
strength, physical, mental, and moral, of the human race." The historical experience of nations
bears witness to this statement.
Better diets, housing, and control of communicable diseases have raised the quality of life everywhere. By reducing illness, these improvements
Table 3.1 The economic burden of adult illness, selected countries and years
Country and year
Days ill
(past month)'
(past month)'
3.6
2.6
2.1
1.0
0.9
1.3
1.3
1.6
0.6
0.6
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.3
6.4
6.4
6.5
2.5
2.5
4.4
3.1
2.1
1.5
Ghana, 1988/89
Cte d'Ivoire, 1987
Mauritania, 1988
Indonesia, 1978
Philippines (Bicol region), 1978
Bolivia (urban), 1990
Peru, 1985/86
Jamaica, 1989
United States, 1988'
4.5
1.2
also brings substantial economic benefitsreleasing resources that can then be used to
it
rise in incomes. In Sierra Leone, a 10 percent increase in the caloric intake of farm workers consuming 1,500 calories a day raised output by 5 percent. Similar results have been found among
Kenyan road construction workers with a daily intake of 2,000 calories.
54
group of countries with a large gender gap (represented by the top trend line in each plot)where the
enrollment ratio of girls is only three-fourths or less
that of boysinfant mortality and total fertility rates
may be more cost-effective to spend the additional resources on girls who have lower enrollment rates than
on boys.
Box figure 3.2 The effect of the gender gap in education on infant mortality and total fertility, 1985
Infant deaths per 1,000 live births, 1985
250
10
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Note: The figure assumes that primary school enrollment affects infant mortality twenty years later. The gender gap in education is the ratio
of female to male enrollment at the primary school level.
Source: King and Hill, forthcoming.
55
Percent literate
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1850
1870
- Brazil
Egypt
- Indonesia
- Sweden
1890
1910
Chile
France
- Japan
1930
1950
1970 1990
China
Hungary
- Nigeria
minds by broadening their experiences, and improves the choices they make as consumers, producers, and citizens. Education strengthens their
ability to meet their wants and those of their family
by increasing their productivity, and their potential to achieve a higher standard of living. By improving people's confidence and their ability to
create and innovate, it multiplies their opportunities for personal and social achievement.
Consider the evidence on the benefits of
women's education (Box 3.2). Better-educated
women, who are more informed about the value of
health care and personal hygiene, tend to be less
affected by the absence of community health programs and tend to use them more frequently when
they are available. In Nigeria and the Philippines,
studies suggest that the mother's education is so
56
Table 3.2 The effect of an additional year of schooling on wages and farm output, selected
countries and years
Percentage
increase
in wages
Male
Female
Percentage increase
in farm out put
Sources
12 P
21 S
5
6
8
12S
13
8
16
12P
10
13
18
10
17
7
13P
25S
11
Glewwe 1990
Lee 1981, Jamison and Lau 1982
Behrman and Deolalikar 1988
Riboud 1985
King 1989, Jacoby 1989
8S
18
Smith 1979
6
5
7
11
Westphal 1986).
why entrepreneurship may be one of the most important channels through which education raises
economic productivity.
In market economies entrepreneurs are the link
Restoration was fueled by its aggressive accumulation of technical skills, which in turn was based on
its already high level of literacy and a strong com-
Box 3.3
Countries with a longstanding commitment to educating their populations have the most advanced economies today. The policy changes associated with the
restoration of the Meiji emperor in Japan in 1868 are a
case in point. Japan had been isolated from global technological developments for more than two centuries,
What is less well-known, but probably more important for Japan's sustained success, is that extraordinary
changes were made in the educational system. At the
beginning of the Meiji era, literacy was only 15 percent,
but by 1872 a universal and compulsory system of elementary education had been introduced and the foundations for secondary education had been laid. On the
basis of careful investigation, the education system was
patterned on the French system of school districts; the
university system was patterned on that of the United
States. Primary school attendance rates grew from less
than 30 percent in 1873 to more than 90 percent in 1907.
four. In a study of entrepreneurs in northern Thailand, 40 percent had a university degree. In Malay-
workerare not more educated than wage employees; but, as in Malaysia, enterprise size is positively associated with the entrepreneur's years of
education (Figure 3.3).
Population
the poorest developing regions rose from twothirds in 1950 to three-fourths in 1985. The average
population growth rate in developing regions in-
vivalof the
Singapore, with a population of 2.7 million, annually exports about $35 million worth of manufactured exportsabout twice as much as does Brazil,
with a population of 147 million.
The effect of population growth on the natural
environment is another source of divergence between private and social costs (Box 3.4). The pressure of population can raise agricultural demand,
leading in turn to the abuse of marginal land and
14
12
10
other natural resources, The annual rate of deforestation in the 1980s was 0.5-2.3 percent in Bra-
Peru,
Bolivia,
Malaysia,
Ghana,
1985-86
1989
1975
1988-89
Cte
d'Ivoire,
1987
0 1-2
D 34
0 10 or more
Challenges in human
development
59
Percent
4.0
1850
3.5
21.3
3.0
2.5
2.0
2025
66.9
1.5
1.0
0.5
58.2
(I
,.
Africa
I I 1 1 ,.f I
0 Asia
Europe
U Latin America
U Oceania
0 World
But income growth is neither necessary nor sufficient to control population. Family planning programs can work. The implementation of these programs has contributed significantly to the decline
of fertility in low-income countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Thailand has successfully reduced its population growth rate from 3.1 percent
in the 1960s to 1.9 percent in the period 1980-89,
and the total fertility rate declined from 6.3 children in 1965 to 2.5 in 1989. Family planning can
tion, and desertification. Per capita arable land declined from 0.5 hectare per person in 1965 to 0.3 in
1987. The traditional system of shifting cultivation is
The pressure on land has been exacerbated by people's needs to gather fuelwood and graze their livestock. Fuelwood accounts for about 80 percent of energy needs in Sub-Saharan Africa, and it is in very
short supply. As the situation worsens, farmers have to
other regions. This suggests that even more information and family planning services might make
of disease.
tell.
Improving health and nutrition
about 1985
(percent)
38 million
dcaths
43.5
20.0
3.4-
17.1
51.9
6.3
6.8
12.6
10.6
Industrial
countries a
Developing
countries
o Cancers
o Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
U Circulatory and degenerative diseases
U External causes
U Other and unknown causes
Note: Data are reported for 1985 or the closest year, depending on
availability by country.
Including Eastern European countries and the USSR.
Infectious and parasitic diseases in developing countries include
diarrheal diseases (13.2 percent), tuberculosis (7.4 percent), acute
respiratory illness (19.5 percent), and others (3.4 percent).
Source: Lopez, forthcoming.
cumstances. One lesson, however, is that education about nutrition is important. Failure to edu-
cate the public is a major reason why dietfortification programs in some Latin American
countries have failed. A second lesson is that nutritional initiatives can be carried out by all sorts of
different institutions. For example, schools can be
used to deliver micronutrients to children as well
as to the general community.
The appropriate methods for treating and controlling disease will again vary from case to case.
In the developing countries as a whole, infectious
62
What is the best way to improve developingcountry health care? In particular, how much
should be spent on preventive, as opposed to
curative, care? WHO and UNICEF estimate that
nearly 43 percent of the 14.6 million child deaths
each year could be prevented through vaccinations
(at an average cost of $13 per child) or low-cost
interventions such as oral rehydration therapy (at
$2 to $3 per child per year). A recent World Bank
study (Jamison and Mosley, forthcoming) ranked
various policies by cost-effectiveness (as measured
by cost per year of healthy life saved). One conclu-
on reach. Health promotion and disease prevention are generally neglected in favor of expensive
treatments that reach relatively few and are often
ineffective, such as for many kinds of cancers. Immunization programs still deserve priority in lowincome countries. Programs for family planning,
Box 3.5
grams is weaker. Tuberculosis treatment programs, for example, have proved cost-effective.
25
in Asia.
This human tragedy is imposing a potentially crippling burden on Africa's peoples, economies, and already inadequate health care systems. It is a human
and economic disaster of staggering dimensions. Infections strike adults in the prime of life, plus up to onethird of all children born to infected mothers. By 1992,
the total number of infected children in Africa alone is
20
15
10
expected to reach 1 million, and many more will become orphans. In contrast to malaria and other causes
of excess adult mortality in developing countries, AIDS
does not spare the elite. In some African cities, relatively well-educated and more productive workers are
infected in disproportionately large numbers (Box figure 3.5). The epidemic is therefore likely to have a detectable, and possibly substantial, effect on per capita
income growth and welfare for years to come. Moreover, AIDS patients fortunate enough to be admitted to
hospitals will occupy places thereby denied to others,
many with conditions that would otherwise have been
curable. They will require long hospital stays, expensive drugs, and the time of skilled staff. In some central
African capitals, more than 50 percent of admissions to
hospitals are now AIDS cases. The direct costs of treatment have also been estimated to be quite high, rang-
Rwanda, 1987
Zambia, 1985
Zaire, 1987
o Low status
lj Middle status
0 High status
Note: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus. For definitions of
socioeconomic status and the samples used, see the Chapter 3
section on AIDS in the technical note at the end of the main text.
Sources: Bugingo and others 1987; Melbye, Nselesani, and Bayley
1986; Ndilu 1988.
63
education of scientists and technologists and of specialization in certain fields of study. In particular,
require tenth- to twelfth-grade skills. And although only 1 percent were unable to perform simple arithmetic operations, 35 percent were not able
to answer questions involving simple quantitative
problem-solving.
Beyond the basics, what is the right educational
base for rapid economic growth? In lower-middle-
income developing countries where workers already are assembling electronic devices for international markets, skifi needs will change quickly as
trade and employment patterns shift and technology advances. Managerial and advanced technical
skills will be crucial for exploiting new opportunities and technologies. The newly industrialized,
export-oriented countries will have different
ment spending with social indicators were assessed for this Report using cross-country, timeseries data. The limitations of the quality of data
and aggregative analysis were fully recognized.
With these caveats, it was found that for industrial
countries, income growth, not government spending, explains improvements in infant survival and
secondary enrollment. This is unsurprising. These
countries had already achieved high levels in these
Many well-designed and well-targeted programs have workedand not necessarily with a
heavy drain on public resources. In the health sec-
This narrowed the gap in access to schools between rural and urban residents.
Table 3.3 Government expenditures for education and health as a percentage of GDP, 1975, 1980,
and 1985
Region or group
Number of
countries with
declining
expenditures,
Health
1980
1985
6.0
5.9
5.5
12
(21)
3.3
3.4
4.0
8 (18)
3.9
4.1
4.4
(13)
1.1
1.1
1.4
(8)
2.0
2.4
3.1
4
0
(4)
0.7
0.8
0.7
(4)
2.8
2.9
3.1
(9)
0.9
0.9
1.0
(6)
6.0
5.7
6.9
(5)
1.5
1.5
1.4
2
2
4.2
4.6
5.0
13
(23)
1.1
1.3
1.2
(10)
LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean
4.2
4.6
4.4
13
(24)
1.7
2.3
2.2
(13)
Eastern Europe
4.9
4.8
4.7
4
47
(7)
..
0.9
1.1
(2)
31
(64)
Industrial countries
Central and West Asia
South Asia
East Asia
North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Total
(106)
1980-85
(3)
Note: The numbers of countries with data for 1975, 1980, and 1985 are in parentheses. For purposes of comparability across countries, data are
taken only from consolidated budget accounts; countries that report only budgetary central government expenditure are not included.
Government social spending before 1975 is reported by a much smaller number of countries and is therefore not shown.
a. Number of countries in which public education (health) expenditures as a percentage of GDP declined between 1980 and 1985.
Sources: IMF data; Unesco data.
66
It often makes sense to shelter some social programs from short-term economic pressures for the
sake of long-term investments in social welfare.
But the state's role need not be limited to financing
and provision. By setting and enforcing standards
of provision, and by otherwise influencing the private sector, it can widen its role even in the face of
Middle-income countries
Zimbabwe, 1985
Honduras, 1985
Thailand, 1988
Ecuador, 1985
Colombia, 1985
Peru, 1985
Jordan, 1985
oping countries already have a fee-for-service private health care system; introducing elements of
cost recovery into the public health system therefore ought to be feasible. The government's share
Many other financing options besides fee-forservice are available. Health insurance systems can
play a useful role. Although broad insurance coverage may not be currently attainable in most developing countries, limited health insurance is feasible. Brazil, Korea, and Mexico demonstrate that
the coverage of health insurance can be gradually
Health
Low-income countries
Tanzania, 1975
India, 1980
Ghana, 1975
Sri Lanka, 1988
Sudan, 1980
Sierra Leone, 1985
Average
Education
Fiji, 1985
Malta, 1988
Venezuela, 1980
Korea, Rep. of, 1988
Greece, 1985
Iran, Islamic Rep. of, 1975
Average
..
45.4
..
73.1
69.0
..
73.0
..
57.5
..
94.1
..
88.0
57.0
20.2
60.2
44.5
17.2
40.5
39.9
50.2
21.2
13.6
24.1
20.3
27.4
27.0
67.4
60.3
44.4
4.2
44.6
43.3
34.5
88.5
58.2
future demands for health care, especially expensive curative care. There are concerns, however,
about equity (because these plans generally start
in the formal employment sector) and the risk that
costs will rise too quickly (because consumers and
health care providers lack incentives to
economize).
In education, several countries have encouraged
community participation and parental support at
the primary level. Korea's experience in promoting primary education in the 1950s shows that
this need not create inequities. Students and parents covered 71 percent of the costs of constructing
Total
Multilateral'
of education, rather than to the primary level. Moreover, the bulk of aid given to primary education was
not allocated to increasing the supply of critical resources for learning, such as teaching materials and
teacher training, which have been found to be the most
cost-effective. In low-income countries, quantitative
expansion has been the focus; buildings, furniture, and
equipment accounted for 57.8 percent of all aid. Only
1.5 percent of total aid is given for primary health care,
and only 1.3 for population assistance.
ents' associations; the government paid for maintenance and repair, staff salaries, instructional
materials, and operational expenses. Other
schools were established and maintained by nongovernmental or local government organizations:
the central government paid a grant for each enrolled student and covered up to one-fourth of the
total costs of building.
NONGOVERNMENTAL PROVISION OF SOCIAL SER-
VICES. It is always important to ask whether governments have the capacity to implement their social programs. In some cases, large and complex
cess to adequate schooling and health care. Private, nonprofit providers tend to be smaller and
more flexible in their planning and budgeting; the
government, constrained by civil service laws and
employees' unions, is less able to change ineffective programs. Allowing private organizations to
provide services under controversial programssuch as family planning in some Latin American
countries-enables the government to keep its distance while still ensuring that services are
available.
68
(percent)
1980-81'
1983-84
1985-86
1987
1988
12.7
11.9
10.9
10.6
11.0
5.5
18.2
5.1
17.0
5.3
16.2
5.2
15.8
5.3
16.3
5.0
4.3
4.3
8.9
13.9
7.8
7.8
12.1
12.1
Bilateral"
Education
Health and
population
Education
Health and
population
Total
Cooperation between the public and private sectors may be particularly appropriate if nongovernmental providers are experienced and efficient and
if the government has been unable to expand rapidly enough to satisfy demand. In Rwanda, religious missions, which have traditionally provided
most health care services, are reimbursed by the
government for 86 percent of staff salaries; these
missions continue to provide 40 percent of health
services. The governments of Zambia and Zimbabwe also cover a substantial part of mission expenditures on health services. As with other goods
and services, competition among for-profit providers in the social sectors is important to ensure
efficiency in the delivery of services. Any public
subsidies to the for-profit sector (whether in the
systems, voluntarily provided by firms that recognize training on the job to be particularly important when the pace of technical change is rapid. In
Investing in people
institutional arrangements, but also with the overall economic policy framework. Policies that en-
courage innovation and investment and that increase the demand for workers who are better
educated and better trained provide the crucial
conditions for development. In India, returns on
investments in schooling were higher in areas that
were able to adopt the modern high-yielding grain
varieties of the green revolution, and investments
in schooling in those areas also increased. In the
United States, firms with newer physical capital,
especially in the high technology industries, hired
area, more than in any other except macroeconomic policy, the state usually is cast in the
leading role. Governments need to make a clear
commitment to this task, and put it among their
highest priorities. The evidence shows that investing heavily in people makes sense not just in hu-
been particularly large (as indicated by the statistical analysis later in this chapter). That difference in
the productivity of investments can make a differ-
Good government policies, institutions, and investments are vital. But the key to rapid development is the entrepreneur. Governments need to
usually publicly provided: power and telecommunications, small-scale and rural credit, research
Entrepreneurs unleashed
Irene Dufu, a Ghanaian nurse turned business woman,
shows what access to resources in a more and more com-
ing melted. Chu 's managers at the conglomerate approved a makeshift production line. Soon three ovens a
day were being produced. Four years later microwave
production topped 200,000 units a year. By the late
1980s, production exceeded 1 million units. Among
U.S. buyers nowadays, the odds are more than one in
high tariffs to protect industry reduce the availability of agricultural inputs and increase their prices.
A clear lesson of experience is that high productivity in agriculture is especially important for industrialization and growthand is feasible. As in-
Policies outside agriculturesuch as those affecting trade and industryhave often imposed a
"tax" on the farmer and hampered agricultural
growth at least as much as sector-specific price and
72
agriculture and their adverse effects on agricultural performance. The largest agricultural
lossesmeasured by the difference between the
actual and the potential rate of agricultural
growthare found for the "extreme discriminators" in the sample: Cte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and
Zambia. Government policies implicitly taxed the
farmer by more than 50 percent, resulting in the
lowering of their crop prices by more than half in
twenty-five years. Ten other countries, classified
ture. These, too, incurred large losses in agricultural value added. By contrast, agricultural
losses were small or nonexistent for the countries
better prices to farmers can be almost instantaneous: it can involve no more than changing the
short term, much like individual crops. Agricultural export response to incentives has in fact
been estimated to be even higher than the response for all exports.
ments, better education, and physical infrastructure such as roads and irrigation.
These complementary factors are not fully independent of economic policies. Appropriate pricing
promotes institutional change and investment,
both public and private. When pricing is right and
agroclimatic conditions are appropriate, farmers
demand additional infrastructure, extension, and
credit services; research institutions intensify efforts to develop and adapt varieties highly benefi-
cial to farmers; and private traders and moneylenders proliferate. Some of the demand for
raised substantially and the "household responsibility system" was introduced. This gave households control over the land they occupied and let
them keep their net income. Output growth accelerated from about 3 percent a year during the pe-
Agricultural research and extension have a substantial public good component: as a result, the
government's role in their promotion has long
been recognized. Research resulting in a new pattern of crop rotation, for instance, can be used by
ate enough of the rewards to make their investment worthwhile. And once new techniques are
developed and available, farmers need to be ac73
India.
In some applied areas, there are incentives to do
private research when the results can be embodied
technology. But they rarely conduct formal research because the farm is generally too small to
capture more than a small share of the potential
benefits from the farmers' own research. Even a
private firm in the technology-supply industry (for
varieties from public research, whether domestically or internationally funded (Box 4.1).
Biotechnology research has barely begun in the
Box 4.1 A different sort of enterprise: Gurdev Khush breeds super rice at the
International Rice Research Institute
In Asia rice is the main source of calories for 2.7 billion
people. A crucial achievement of the green revolution
has been to increase rice production in the past twenty-
74
Box 4.2
Bank launched an African Agricultural Services Initiative to improve agricultural performance by helping to
develop and disseminate new technology, and by encouraging the better use of the technology that already
existssuited to the prevailing farming conditions. For
instance, dissemination of a technology requiring extensive weeding would only be advocated in settings
where labor Constraints are not prevalent.
The initiative concentrates on establishing national
T&V-type extension services, and on strengthening re-
It is possible, however, that as a result of biotechnological advances some commodities produced for export in developing countries may be
displaced by new products from industrial coun-
ceed. Interaction with farmers is part of the training and visit (T&V) approach to extension. This
attempts to strike a balance between delivery (f 0cusing on the professionalism of staff, who work
full time on extension services under a single line
of command) and feedback (through regular visits
to the farmers, with the extension worker spend-
needed to help adapt and spread the new technologies. It will be some time, though, before new
ser-
75
suppliers, and agroprocessors often provide extension services. In Thailand, a diversified commer-
are removed, and as the commercialization of agriculture widens, the private sector can play a larger
role in extension services.
credit. The cost of informal credit from money80 percent. Loans are scarce or expensive when
lenders lack information about borrowers and face
difficulties in enforcing repayment. Gathering in-
non performing.
credit programs have often run into financial difficulties early on; frequently they have collapsed or
become a drain on the government budget.
What then is the role for public policy? To begin
with, a stable macroeconomy and a nondistorting
regulatory framework are preconditions for devel-
vegetables. Nowadays Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ADEMI in the Dominican Republic, and
76
In coping with their economic environment, industrial firms have many advantages over farms.
They tend to be larger, fewer in number, and less
dispersed, so their transactions costs are not so
But even a healthy financial sector will not always ensure an adequate supply of credit to the
small farmer. To increase the supply, governments
can foster the development of credit institutions
and markets. For instance, modifications to the
law of contract can make it easier for traders to
extend credit, by allowing them to deduct repayments from the value of the crop. Improving the
security of land tenure creates collateral in some
settings. Public spending on rural infrastructure
promotes competition in credit (and other) markets. Improving the literacy and numeracy of the
poor makes them more creditworthy.
This illustrates an important point: an efficient
intervention in one market often helps another
paid farmers too little and too late, in order to finance their own inefficient operations and subsidize urban consumers. The consequences for the
government's budget, for farmers' incomes, and
for agricultural production have often been disastrous (Box 4.3).
Industrial regulation
A good rationale exists for various industrial regulations. Rules on health standards, environmental
77
protection, worker safety, as well as rules to protect consumers and producers from restrictive or
monopolistic practices, are part of the legal and
institutional framework that any economy needs.
All too often, however, governments in develop-
Country
Transfers
as percentage
of current
government
expenditure
and period
Products
China, 1988
India, 1984-85
Gambia,
1982-87
Mali, 1982-85
Mexico,
Grains
Grains
10.5
Groundnuts
10.8
8.8
1982-85
Grains
Milk, grains,
oilseeds
4.6
Transfers
and credit
as percentage
of GNP
2.0
0.5
2.8
1.3
3.5
Tanzania,
1980-81
All crops
12.4
1.7
4.0
3.2
5.6
4.6
Zambia,
1980-86
Maize,
fertilizer,
cotton
Zimbabwe,
1983-87
All crops
re-
portant conduits for technology transfer and industrial modernization in countries such as Brazil
and the Republic of Korea, has been obstructed in
other developing countries by regulatory restrictions. Where the government has allocated indus-
trial capacity, reserved subsectors to state enterprises, and decided on plant locations, firms have
failed to expand and thus to benefit from scale
economies and greater specialization (Box 4.4). In
Pakistan, capacity licensing prevents producers
from reaching an efficient scale of production. In
the cotton-spinning industry, licensing requirements keep mills to an average size of 15,000 spin-
on technological progress and industrial productivity. However, the neglect of internal regulatory
reform in many countrieswhich often entails reforming institutionshas meant that domestic deregulation has not always proceeded apace with
external trade openness. As a result, anticompetitive regulatory policies can be present in economies that are open to foreign trade, as in some
tory maze. For large firms the constraints of restrictive regulatory and domestic trade policies is
not so much the explicit exclusion from access to
resources, as it is the waste of effort associated
with manipulating the rationing and licensing sys-
Labor-market regulation
adoption of new technologies, and efficient production that would be demanded from the rigor of
competitive marketsat home and abroad.
Internal and external restrictions often exist side
by side, compounding each other's adverse effects
The goal of government regulation of labor markets usually is to protect individual welfare, not to
influence the pattern of industrial development.
Restrictions on child labor, working hours, and
Box 4.4
digenous firms had to obtain import and export licenses, a domestic trading license, land rights, a permanent operating license, and storage and location
permits. All this often took two years. Total factor productivity fell by 2.5 percent in the mid-1980s.
the growth of total factor productivity has been positive in recent years; and the average rate of return on
investment increased from 13 percent in the period
1982-85 to 22 percent in 1986-88.
79
ment opportunities is slowed as a result of employment regulations that were originally intended to help workers.
The minimal use of labor regulations in the Republic of Korea and other East Asian economies
has not impeded rapid growth in employment and
real wages. Working hours in Korean manufactur-
ing, including overtime, which is often mandatory, are the longest in the world. But since the
mid-1960s growth in manufacturing wages and
employment has exceeded 8 percent a yearfaster
Brazil, 1965-85
Colombia, 1966-84
Japan, 1950-70
Korea, Rep. of,
1966-84
Portugal, 1966-84
Turkey, 1966-84
Yugoslavia, 1965-85
Taiwan, China,
1966-85
80
Earnings
Employment
Productivity
1.7
0.8
5.4
8.1
4.6
3.1
4.6
8.2
4.7
2.1
6.9
7.3
0.7
3.0
2.1
5.0
4.2
6.7
0.9
2.1
1.3
6.4
1.9
7.0
Box 4.5
Tax reform
spread absenteeism, petty corruption, moonlighting, and a general breakdown in morale and discipline. All this goes on to reduce the productivity of
the private sector, too, because the quality of the
social and physical infrastructure and other public
services deteriorates.
Taxation and productivity
Governments need to tax households and business to finance their spending. But taxes have an
economic cost. Taxes on commodities or expenditures (such as a sales tax) lower incentives to work;
tax exemptions or taxes that vary across categories
It is difficult to estimate the economywide efficiency loss caused by the overall rate of domestic
firms is hampered.
Projects implemented in an undistorted policy climate can have, on average, an ERR that is at least 5
percentage points higher than in a distorted cliA policy climate that promotes enterprise-by let-
methods. For 1,200 of these projects-implemented during the past twenty years-economic
rates of return (ERRs), which measure the contribution of the project to the economy (or its productivity), have been compared with various indexes
positive?), and the public sector's financial demands (how big is the government's budget def icit?). By every measure, ERRs are highest in undis-
Table 4.2 Economic policies and average economic rates of return for projects financed by the
World Bank and the IFC, 1968-89
(percent)
Public
Public
projects in
nontradable
sectors
private
projects
All
projects
All public
projects
agricultural
projects
Public
industrial
projects
13.2
15.0
19.0
13.6
15.4
19.3
12.1
15.4
14.3
INSF
INSF
INSF
14.6
16.0
24.3
9.5
10.7
17.1
8.2
14.4
17.7
7.2
14.9
18.0
3.2
11.9
16.6
INSF
13.7
16.6
11.5
17.2
19.3
INSF
10.3
15.2
15.0
17.3
15.4
17.5
12.7
17.0
12.7
17.8
17.9
17.9
11.0
15.6
13.4
14.8
17.8
13.7
15.1
18.1
11.7
12.2
18.6
10.3
21.0
14.1
16.6
16.8
18.2
10.7
12.2
14.3
All
Trade restrictiveness
High
Moderate
Low
Foreign exchange premium
Negative
Positive
Fiscal deficits
High (8 or more)
Moderate (4-8)
Low (less than 4)
Note: INSF, insufficient number of observations (less than 10) to make inferences.
a. Percentage of GDP.
Source: World Bank data.
82
and 13 percentage points higher when the premium is small then when it is large (Figure 4.1).
Projects in the nontradables sector are, it seems,
just as vulnerable to a bad economic climate as the
others.
Trade restrictions were measured using a yearly
index of tariff and nontariff barriers in thirty-two
countries. The pattern of the results is roughly the
All pubIc
sector projects
15
Public transport,
urban, public
utility, and
energy projects
All private
sector projects
Trade restrictiveness
0 High
10
U Moderate
El Low
Industrial
projects a
Transpor , urban
public utifity,
and energy
projects
Foreign exchange premium
Agricultural
projects
El 50-200 percent
0 0-20 percent
ing from negative to highly positive ERRsexceeding 50 percent. Only some of that variation
can be attributed to the economic climate.
The background research done for this Report
makes it possible to be more precise. Under relatively undistorted conditions, as measured by low
Box 4.6
When market incentives are inappropriate, and complementary investments and institutions absent, private sector projects will tend to be inefficient. During
the late 1970s, millions of dollars were invested in a
were judged to have substantially attained the institutional objective of strengthening projectrelated organizations and agencies; almost onequarter showed negligible results in this respect.
The weaknesses of implementing agencies have
been especially important in agricultural projects
in Africa, all the more so in complex ventures such
as integrated rural development programs. They
help to explain why the record of many such proj-
The data show that the productivity of investments is much higher when the project's institutional objectives are achieved. Before implementa-
84
be broader. Weak infrastructure can alter the character of a country's development. In Thailand, for
instance, regional cities have stayed small, and industrial growth has been held back by poor trans-
(Box 4.7).
IFC's projects provides evidence that public investments matter. The productivity of projects in
agriculture and industry increases significantly as
Box 4.7
tion was an important determinant in project performance and sustainability. In one World Bank project,
Peruvian farmers in San Lorenzo formed thirty-two
community groups and successfully took over all aspects of an irrigation project that had been designed
and run by the national government. During a ten-year
period in the Philippines, the National Irrigation Ad-
ministration shifted from a top-down management approach to heavy reliance on local farmers in the design,
operation, and maintenance of local irrigation systems.
85
ment in total investment. Put differently, the results suggest that there is a strong interaction between policies and complementary public
(percent)
25
20
15
10
'..\..
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
growsup to a point. On average, the ERR increases by more than 6 percent as the share of
of the benefits.
86
Premiums before
project starta
More than 30
Less than 30
More than 30
Less than 30
11.7
13.2
17.8
17.7
Note: The number in each cell is the average of the ERRs of public
and private sector projects.
Average foreign exchange premiums during the year of project
appraisal, which takes place about a year before project
implementation starts.
Three-year average of the foreign exchange premiums at about
the time of project completion.
Source: World Bank data.
taken in competitive and market-oriented climates. And finally, external agency support for
improvements in the policy climate pays off. Perhaps the most powerful rationale for supporting
structural reforms is that they raise the productivity of investmentspublic and private.
87
countries have restricted trade to promote industry and raise revenue. In retrospect, these objec-
opment, as in East Asia, competition was maintained in external and domestic markets. These
countries preserved incentives for technological
change by using export success as a yardstick for
performance. Trade intervention was also moderate and restricted in time, minimizing costly distortions from protection.
Technology is the knowledge that leads to improved machinery, products, and processes. Additions to this knowledge reduce the real cost of pro-
supply
of imported inputsranging from capital equipment and turnkey plants to sophisticated components for electronic assembly. One explanation for
the observed relation between high trade shares
and GDP growth is that increasing trade allows
countries to import capital goods. A comparison of
Box 5.1
trade occurs through exporting (Box 5.1). Exposure to international markets keeps exporters informed of new products, and foreign buyers are an
important source of information that can be used
to upgrade technology. In a survey of 113 Korean
export enterprises in the 1970s, 20 percent of the
firms cited contacts with foreign buyers and suppliers as important; only 8 percent considered licenses and technical agreements important. From
contacts with foreign buyers, firms received blue-
policy reforms transformed Viet Nam from a net importer to a net exporter of rice. During 1988 and 1989,
agriculture was decollectivized and rice returned to
family-farm production. Price controls were eliminated, and a large real devaluation of the currency in
1989 strengthened financial incentives to export. Finally, trade institutions were reorganized to eliminate
state monopolies in imports and exports, which intro-
information on international markets, technical management, and capital provided the vital push.
89
prints and specifications, information on the production techniques and technical specifications of
competing products, and feedback on the design,
quality, and technical performance of exported
products. China's heavy reliance on foreign trade
corporations to mediate trade arrangements between Chinese enterprises and world markets has
problems, led many developing countries to control the flow of disembodied technology and restrict royalty payments in the 1960s and 1970s. In
India, restrictions on the size and time allowed for
making royalty payments encouraged suppliers to
favor lump-sum transfers. Yet by discouraging
product, the higher its import duties. This has encouraged assembly and packing operations that
are heavily dependent on imported materials and
equipment. Typically, governments respond with
local-content regulations requiring finished products to contain a certain share of domestically produced components. Local content rules are often
applied across the board, without regard for comparative advantage, further reducing the competitiveness of the assembled products.
developments. One of Brazil's vehicle-components firms, Metal Leve, entered the international
market in 1965 to use up excess capacity and ex-
ploit fiscal and credit incentives. The entrepreneurial ability of the firm's leadership and the
firm's entry into international markets created a
dynamic process of technological change and expanding export shares, driven by foreign demand
for high quality. Exporting also strengthens the incentive to adopt new technology by increasing the
returns from innovation through expanded market
opportunities. In the computer industry, for instance, firms must target global markets from the
beginning in order to make their investments
profitable.
Government technology policy
technology have generally made very strong internal efforts to diffuse and develop technology. This
3). The others are domestic competition (also discussed in Chapter 4), the macroeconomic framework (discussed in detail in Chapter 6), informa-
land waterways expanded, patent activity increased. Access to larger markets and more regional competition sped up the pace of innovation.
A recent study of successful industries in six Eu-
countries; Chapter 2 showed that a rapidly increasing capital stock has contributed a significant
since 1960.
more than 100 manufacturers. Domestic competition is important even in industries with substantial economies of scale (for example, the chemical
industry in Germany, the car and truck industries
in Sweden, and pharmaceuticals in Switzerland).
costs, older plants using obsolete processes survive despite operating at less than 30 percent capacity. In Europe's computer industry, sheltered
national markets were handed over to "national
champion" firms that never left their protected
markets.
capital-goods imports or licenses, foreign exchange restrictions are likely to be a significant deterrent to technology development.
An overvalued exchange rate can also distort the
technology transfer and the benefits from imported technology under local conditions will
decline.
tion has been perceived in industrializing countries as benefiting foreign companies more than
domestic industry. Patent protection can promote
the development of innovative technology by domestic firms and the transfer of existing technology from industrial countries. But it can also raise
the cost of using newly patented technology. Yet
for the newly industrializing economieswhich
are now reaching the technology frontier in several
areasthe gains from greater protection of intellectual property may soon become important. Historically, industrial nations strengthened their intellectual property protection as they developed.
Governments should encourage competition between public and private sector providers of information by eliminating restrictions on entry of private and foreign suppliers of consultancy services.
of metrology, norms, standards, testing, and quality control helps an economy to upgrade and diffuse technology. In economies as diverse as the
Republic of Korea and Turkey, testing and quality
control services have contributed to export success
and created incentives to invest in upgrading. Experience, however, suggests three important considerations. First, unless there is vigorous compe-
Second, entry into this sector should not be restricted to public organizations. These services are
PROPERTY. Most
industrializing
programs.
TRANSFER:
AN
ASSESSMENT. Is
openness equally important at all levels of development? In Africa, strong protection of industry
Labor movements
Migration, transfers of skilled personnel, and returning workers from abroad all contribute to the
diffusion of technology. After legal barriers were
removed from the emigration of skilled workers in
were enrolled in secondary schools in SubSaharan Africa. Despite heavily subsidized univer-
sity education, Africa has skill shortages in science, engineering, auditing, and higher-level
accounting and management. Low-income countries also need to encourage partnerships with
firms which have gained experience in adapting
technology and marketing. The recent export success of Mauritius in garments may be traced to a
combination of favorable policies, a well-educated
labor force, and a large influx of direct investment
from Hong Kong.
the United Kingdom (1825) and exports of machinery (1842), British entrepreneurs and workers
helped to develop railways and coal mining in Europe and elsewhere. In the period after World War
II, large numbers of foreign students received science and engineering training in the United States
professional categories. After completing their education, 63 percent of students from the Republic
of Korea, 49 percent from Jordan, and 33 percent
The net losses from brain drain may be mitigated by other factors. Net remittances from migrants in France, Germany, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
and some other countries are often high. Migrants
Table 5.1 The relative performance of foreign firms in manufacturing, selected countries and years
Net foreign exchange earnings
as share of sales
Country
Cte d'Ivoire
1976
1987
Venezuela
1976
1988
Morocco
1985
1986
1987
1988
4.2
2.2
3.8
2.1
0.9
1.3
1.4
1.2
(percent)'
Firms with majority
foreign ownership
37
28
13
36
Domestic
firms
8
18
11
0.7
0.6
14
13
21
0.7
0.6
17
16
21
0.9
0.8
18
17
24
0.8
0.7
22
16
28
Note: All averages weighted using firm sales. Foreign firms are defined as all firms of which at least 5 percent of assets are foreign owned.
Ratio of foreign firm to domestic firm productivity (output per worker).
Equal to exports minus imported inputs divided by sales. For Morocco, equal to exports divided by sales because no data were collected on
imported inputs.
Source: World Bank data.
94
tinational textile firms led to inefficient production. Another study found that more than a third
of foreign investment projects earned negative returns for the host country because of import protection. As shown in Table 5.1, majority-owned
foreign firms generated less foreign exchange than
joint ventures or domestic firms. In all three countries, much of the manufacturing sector has been
protected, so both foreign and domestic firms have
concentrated on the domestic market. In addition,
both Morocco (for phosphates) and Venezuela (for
petroleum and aluminum) imposed restrictions on
1970
1974
Multilateral
1978
1982
1986
1990
- Bilateral
Private
regulatory system. A World Bank study of fortyfour international mining companies found that
most of the companies surveyed preferred working within the bounds of a clearly defined investment and corporate tax code to negotiating individual agreements on tax breaks or subsidies. The
oping-country standards.
Although DFI grew at a slower rate than commercial flows, averaging 6 percent annually in real
terms from 1970 to 1989, it fluctuated much less
than private flows. After a steady upward trend in
the 1970s, DFI dropped off between 1981 and 1986,
recovering to its 1981 level in 1988. But the aggre-
Period and
correlation
Official
Direct foreign
flows/GDPa
investment / GDP
0.14
0.13
0.10
0.16
0.50*
1975-82
1982-89
1970-89
Private
flows / GDP
0.26'
0.45'
0.26'
0.24
0.24
0.39*
0.31'
0.34*
0.52*
0.17
0.24
0.15
0.21
0.23
0.07
0.16
0.33'
0.05
0.02
investors. Repayments are linked to the profitability of the underlying investment, whereas
under debt financing the borrowed funds must be
serviced regardless of the project's success. Table
5.2 shows that DFI is the only capital inflow that
was strongly associated with higher GDP growth
during the period 1970-89, although the direction
of causation is not clear. If DFI is likely to promote
growth, the converse is also true.
Prospects for enhanced flows of DFI to developing countries in the 1990s remain uncertain. One
study estimates that the share of developing countries in global foreign investment flows declined in
the 1980s from 26 to 21 percent. In addition, DFI in
developing countries is highly concentrated: in the
1980s, fifteen countries attracted 75 percent of all
investment. DFI cannot be viewed as a substitute
for commercial lending or official flows; it is at best
a complement. The flow and effectiveness of DFI
will be improved by adequate domestic and official
financing by organizations such as the World Bank
High tariffs often invite discretionary enforcement: in many countries, official levels of protection are high but actual tariff collections are low.
Brazil's import-weighted statutory tariff level for
policymakers protect final products instead and allow inputs to be imported duty-free, then the so-
Box 5.2
1820
1875
1913
1925
18
9
14
16
15
10
1930"
1950
1987
Manufactures
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
Average
30
10
7
.
10
50
40
22
15-20
9-10
15-20
12-15
20
21
4-6
8-10
3-5
13
18
20
22
15-20
41
3-5
4-6
20
9
41
16
14
40-50
11-14
25
17
37
16
17
18
14
[3
19
24
14
.
30
21
46
.
63
21
19
18
11
3
18
26
25
11
9
7
7
7
7
7
48
32
23
14
16
7
7
7
14
13
19
45
23
17
9
4
13
11
6
8
6
Al! goods
Australia
Canada
Japan
United States
Average
455
14
4
41
20
40
23
38
21
97
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, Middle East
and North Africa
Africa
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Average
Manufactures
NTBs
Tariffs
All goods
Tariffs
NTBs
22
81
20
47
21
77
22
48
26
30
31
30
24
33
32
30
34
34
20
27
33
32
21
28
Industrial countries rarely used nontariff measures during industrialization, although lately this
has been changingwitness the increase in voluntary export agreements for autos and steel and the
Multifibre Arrangement (MFA) for textiles. Yet for
a sample of eighty-two developing countries, nontariff barriers were applied to 28 percent of all imports in 1987 (Table 5.3). Overall, the evidence
markets, which provide greater returns from research efforts and increase competition, motivate
developing countries.
tic markets are dominated by only a few producers, or if there are economies of scale in production. These studies, however, only measure
changes at one point in time; they are not designed to analyze the potential linkages between
trade policies and long-term growth.
Box 5.3
quotas, different exchange rates for imports and exports, and subsidies. But information on relative prices
Marshall 1985).
growth.
between trade policies and growth is difficult. Poli-
(macroeconomic policy, measures to promote domestic competition, and so on) may be responsible
both for superior export performance and for high
GDP growth. Moreover, it is difficult to establish
Figure 5.2 Openness and growth in productivity: partial correlations for developing
countries, 1960-88
(percent)
a
Productivity growtha
Productivity growth
0.04
0.15
S
0.03
0.02
s ills
0.00
0.00
-0.05
-0.01
0.05
0.01
0.10
-0.02
-0.10
j55
-0.15
-0.03
-0.20
Strong
Weak
Weak
Trade liberalization,
Productivity growtha
Productivity growth'
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.00
-0.02
-0.02
-0.04
-0.04
-0.06
-0.06
Significant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Significant
Productivity growtha
Productivity growth a
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02 _S
0.02
0.00
-0.02
S
-0.04
I
5
.:
.s
-0.02
Small
IS
:.
-0.06
Significant
Insignificant
Bias against agriculture b
Productivity growth a
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
Large
-0.04
Large
Small
3s.
0.00
-0.06
100
Strong
197888b
From a purely practical point of view, government intervention in trade is risky for several reasons. Countries often underestimate how difficult
or sectors. In Costa Rica, subsidies for nontraditional exports were 5 percent of total central government expenditures in 1990; 80 percent of these
subsidies were received by fewer than 20 firms.
Korea, which tied credits and subsidies to successful export performance, also made mistakes: the
drive to establish heavy industry through widespread subsidies in the 1970s was at best only a
partial success. Often, policies designed as short-
What distinguishes the countries which intervened in trade and yet were also able to grow rap-
idly? First, the successful interventionists preserved incentives for technological change by
maintaining international and domestic competition and imposing performance requirements in
return for any credit subsidies, import protection,
or restrictions on domestic entry. In Japan and Korea, subsidies and protection were strictly tied to
achieving export success within a defined period.
Companies which did not perform well were allowed to fold. In the Japanese synthetic fiber industry, MITT helped firms obtain licenses from
several different national sources to ensure new
formers.
ten by the agricultural sector and by the consumers who pay higher prices for low-quality
products. If governments do intervene, the guiding principles should be (a) to impose competition
by fostering outward orientation and domestic
competition, (b) to intervene at the source of the
distortion (for example, to subsidize education
rather than use protection when the problem is
lack of human capital), and (c) to intervene only
through nondiscretionary, time-bound policies
that do not encourage rent-seeking. Economies
which do choose to use trade protection should
use low tariffs instead of nontariff barriers such as
quotas or price controls.
Box 5.4
Selective state intervention has figured prominently in two of the impressive success stories of development: Japan and the Republic of Korea. Both coun-
cluding resource-rich Canada, Malaysia, and Botswana, moderate intervention supported diversification of the export base and helped new industries get
established (Lewis 1988). In Canada, moderate tariffs
(10-30 percent) protected industry into the early twentieth century. The government did not use quotas or
exchange controls, however, nor attempt to prevent
the decline of uneconomic industries. In 1988, manufactures exceeded 50 percent of total exports. Malaysia
has also employed modest tariff protection, but it has
used exchange controls and import sparingly. Manufactures rose from 6 percent of exports in 1965 to 46
percent in 1988. In Botswana, which has one of the
highest GDP growth rates in the world for the postwar
period, the value of manufactured exports surpassed
that of beef exports in the mid-1980s. At independence
beef products had provided almost all of Botswana's
export earnings. Although skillful management of the
mining sector has been critical to success, modest use
fuel commodities, combined with more inelastic demand for some of these products, suggests that countries could well boost export earnings by diversifying
into manufactures. In the past, government interven-
Choksi 1990). A study of trade reforms which accompanied World Bank loans in the 1980s found
that many countries realigned their exchange rates
and offset biases against exporters, and converted
quotas to tariffs. Only a few of the countries examined, however, reduced their tariffs substantially.
Evidence suggests the merits of phasing out quantitative restrictions rapidly, and reducing tariffs to
reasonably low and uniform levels, such as a range
of 15-25 percent. Experience supports a substan-
financing,
Successful reforms have usually reduced the coverage of quantitative restrictions and the level and
dispersion of tariffs. Quantitative restrictions may
casessuch as the Brazilian aircraft industryproducers are more likely to have oligopoly power in
home than in global markets. That makes protection
even more costly than in the perfectly competitive case.
If other countries retaliate by subsidizing their national
firms, everyone may be worse off. Studies of the gains
external
Microeconomic aspects
instrument for encouraging domestic industry. Although protection may encourage learning by doing
by promoting productionand draw more workers to
including
industry found no welfare gains from subsidizing exports, in part because other countries also subsidized
entry (Baldwin and Flam 1989). A study of the global
rivalry between a large U.S. airplane manufacturer and
a large European one estimated that government sub-
account,
tial and comprehensive reform within, say, five respond to the new incentives. Until recently, regulations in the transport sector steeply increased
years, with major and decisive actions in the first
year.
the cost of shipping products to ports or the U.S.
border. Regulations inhibiting exit by insolvent
Despite these difficulties in implementing recompanies (such as bankruptcy laws and instituform and sustaining it once introduced, liberaliztional or political constraints) also prevent iming countries outperformed the others. A study of
developing countries in the 1980s found that,
provements in the structure of production under
trade reforms. Restrictions on exit partly explain
holding other factors, countries that implemented
the failure of earlier trade liberalization attempts in
trade reforms experienced a higher annual inPoland and Yugoslavia. Such cases confirm one of
crease in GDP growth (Thomas and Nash, forth103
on the mix of policies. Governments need to asFigure 5.3 The share of imports affected by all
nontariff measures, 1966 and 1986
60
50
40
30
20
10
n
In
n
European United States
Community
El 1966
In Japan
In OECDa
El 1986
countries found that appreciation of the real exchange rate was often associated with the collapse
of a reform episode. Trying to implement trade
reforms when the exchange rate is grossly overvalued will make balance of payments problems
worse and is likely to sabotage the reform effort.
dampening the impact of competition for producers of import-competing goods. (The role of
macroeconomic policy in development is dis-
Even the best-conceived trade reform may fail because of problems which are not purely economic.
Those who stand to lose from a trade reform are
generally more organized and politically powerful
than those who stand to gain, such as consumers
at large or rural agricultural interests. Reform also
and sequencing of reform right can help to overcome such difficulties. (Chapter 7 returns to these
issues in the art of reform.)
The global climate for trade
Industrial-country protection
MFA, and other highly restrictive measures (Figure 5.4). This number does not even include other
restrictions such as price restraints or health and
safety regulations. If these measures were included, the share of trade covered by nontariff barriers in industrial countries could be equal to the 28
percent of trade covered by all nontariff measures
in developing countries in 1987.
Subsidies to agriculture increased by 80 percent
in the United States, by 60 percent in Canada, and
In
In
European United States
Community
In Japan
In OECDb
while the number of countervailing and antidumping cases filed by Australia, Canada, the EC,
equal to the value of total official development assistance in that year. Action by developing economies to reform their trade policies must be met by
equal efforts to reduce protection in the industrial
world. But developing economies should not slow
their own reform efforts simply because of rising
protection in industrial ones. The four East Asian
the mid-1980s, industrial countries have done almost nothing to roll back the accumulated protection. The increasing use of such measures by industrial countries during the past 30 years
provides a disturbing precedent for retaliatory action and for the enactment of similar measures by
developing countries.
Laird and Yeats (1987) estimated that the cost (in
1990 dollars) to developing economies in terms of
105
serious problems for low-income primary producers. The solution is not an easy one. If countries produce a large share of world exports (such
-a
Box 5.5
addition, these figures are likely to overstate the decline because they ignore improvements in the quality
of manufactured goods.
Many developing countries have diversified their ex-
ports: the share of manufacturing in the nonfuel exports of developing countries increased from 15 per-
Volume of exports4
170
200
150
Income terms
of trade
150
110
100
90
70
50
50
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Note: Barter terms of trade are the weighted export unit values of
primary commodities deflated by the weighted import unit values
of each region. The barter terms of trade multipled by the actual
volume of exports yields the income terms of trade. Data are
based on a sample of ninety developing countries.
1900
106
1915
1930
1945
1960
1975
1990
creased competition from larger markets, particularly in countries with emerging infant industries
and low domestic demand. Yet a trading bloc may
also lead to losses if members replace lower-priced
goods from outside the bloc with more expensive
goods produced by other members. Even if a regional trading bloc can be designed to generate net
gains for its members, these gains are exceeded by
the benefits from unilateral trade reform.
What about primary product exporters? The evi-
middle-income countries during the 1970s, inappropriate policies led to losses in market share and
greater dependence on a few primary commodity
exports. Industrial countries, which impose
2960
1970
European Community
Association of South-East Pacific States
Central African Customs and Economic Union
Central American Common Market
Caribbean Community
LAIA-Latin American Free Trade Area
Andean Group
West African Economic Community
Economic Community of West African States
Economic Community of the Great Lake Countries
Mano River Union
Regional Cooperation for Development
34.6
21.7
1.6
7.5
4.5
7.7
0.7
2.0
1.2
0.0
48.9
14.7
3.4
26.8
7.3
10.2
2.3
9.1
2.1
0.2
0.1
1.0
0.0
1976
..
13.9
3.9
21.6
6.7
12.8
4.2
6.7
3.1
0.2
0.2
0.8
1980
1983
1987
52.8
17.8
4.1
22.0
6.4
13.5
3.5
6.9
3.9
0.2
52.4
23.1
2.0
21.8
9.3
10.2
4.3
11.6
4.1
0.2
0.1
8.5
58.8
17.7
0.9
11.9
6.3
11.3
3.2
7.7
5.5
0.1
5.3
5.2
a. Includes the original six members up to 1970 and nine after 1980.
Source: Lachler 1989.
107
108
Openness to trade has improved resource allocation, increased competition and product specialization, and provided a broad avenue for technology
transfer. Ironically, greater competition and a more
flation, an overvalued exchange rate, and a balance of payments crisis. These lead in turn to low
investment and slow growth. The contrast is illus-
countries,
long-term
in their own right. The task is all the more demanding when macroeconomic reform is merely
Republic of Korea
Current account balance
Fiscal balance
15
10
0
5
-2
-3
-5
-10
1976
It itt
1978
1980
-4
I
1982
1984
1986
1988
Morocco
Fiscal balance
15
10
-5
-10
0
-15
-5
-20
-10
-15
-25
-20
-30
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
Inflation
requires
frequent
price
to hold a larger share of their assets as cash balances) more than other groups. High rates of inflation, as in Argentina, Brazil, and until recently Israel, can also lead to nonproductive expansion of
the financial system. The demand for financial-in-
termediation services rises with the public's attempt to protect the real value of its assets. Banks
proliferate, trying to capture the part of the inflation tax that falls on non-interest-bearing deposits.
In Brazil, the financial sector's share of GDP doubled between 1975 and 1987, a waste of resources
caused by a demand for services that existed only
because of high inflation.
Exchange rate policy
Sri Lanka
Fiscal balance
(percentage of GDP)
55
50
-5
45
-10
40
35
-15
30
-20
25
20
-25
15
-30
10
-35
-40
1976
1977
1978
1980
1979
1981
1982
Tanzania
Fiscal balance
(percentage of GDP)
-25
55
50
-50
45
-75
40
-100
35
30
-125
25
-150
20
15
-175
10
200
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
tal market controls, and the composition of government spending. Correcting external imbalances
generally requires adjusting the exchange rate toward its equilibrium level to redirect resources to
the tradable goods sector and to reduce spending.
In the short run, most of any nominal devaluation
is also a real devaluation. If it is to endure, this real
devaluation has to be supported by anti-inflationary policies, including in many cases lower fiscal
deficits. Evidence shows that a real depreciation is
tinued to be relatively low even after their commitment to a fixed exchange rate was abandoned.
ing the nonboom tradables sector in a phenomenon known as "Dutch disease." When booms are
temporary, a devaluation may be necessary. Indonesia, for example, devalued the rupiah in November 1978 to prevent a real appreciation of the
Chile
Private investment
GDP growth
40
10
30
in the energy sector, that raised the current account deficit to 10.8 percent of GDP by 1983. Colombia avoided a debt crisis because its debt was
small to begin with, because the authorities borrowed cautiously, and because the response to
macroeconomic imbalances was swift. The lesson
of such episodes is that countries should try to
keep their spending consistent with their perma-
-10
20
-20
10
-30
nent income.
Turkey
Busts
10
30
25
5
20
15
10
-5
5
-10
1970
1975
GDP growth
iiiilIuii
1980
1985
1988
D Private investment
cies are concerned with the supply side; they address the efficiency of resource use, emphasizing
reforms in specific sectorsespecially trade, f i-
In the 1980s many countries embarked on programs of stabilization and structural reform. Stabilization policies work mainly on the demand side
to reduce inflation and external deficits (though
converse is rarely true: structural reforms are unlikely to succeed unless they are preceded or accompanied by stabilization. Similarly, stabilization
attempts.
Fiscal reform often involves difficult trade-off s.
Cutting capital spending may create less political
resistance than cutting current spending (mainly
wages and subsidies). Abolishing inefficient in-
Adjustment programs very often include measures to reduce the fiscal deficit. Some countries
have cut their primary deficits (which exclude interest outlays) by as much as 10 percent of GDP.
The composition of the reduction varies from case
to case. Ghana, Jamaica, and Mexico, for instance,
Box 6.1
Other assessments compared changes in the performance of countries that had programs with changes in
114
policies may take longer to emerge than the relatively short period considered in most studies. A
review of the trends in social indicators shows that
most countries made progress in the 1980s, al-
Labor markets play an important role in determining the outcome of adjustment. Downward flexibility of real wages will cushion the effect on output and employment of policies that are intended
to reduce domestic absorption. The evidence suggests that real wages are in fact flexible. In Bolivia,
Chile, and Ghana, real wages declined significantly during adjustment. However, when labor
markets bear a disproportionate share of the adjustment burden, the fall in real wages may cause
an excessive decline in aggregate demand, which
in turn may jeopardize the recovery of output. In
Malaysia in the mid-1980s, changes in the exchange rate, interest rate, and commodity prices
all helped to cushion the effect of adjustment on
real wages and employment. As a result, the subsequent recovery was faster.
Recently attention has focused on the short-run
effect of adjustment on the poor. Fiscal consolidation often involves cuts in government programs
and a temporary rise in unemployment. Different
groups are affected in different ways by fiscal cuts.
The needs of the persistently poor and the newly
poor (those who lost jobs as a result of adjustment)
are not the same; nor are those of urban and rural
households. Special programs, as in Bolivia and
Ghana, can include temporary measures to protect
the groups that are most at risk. This is a worthy
goal in its own right, but it may also help to maintain political support for adjustment.
coffee boom, import controls and foreign exchange licensing were removed without comple-
mentary changes in exchange rates and macroeconomic policy. Within months, the balance of
payments turned sharply negative and the coun-
adopted an ambitious program to cut public expenditure, auction foreign exchange, and reduce
subsidies to urban consumers amid significant internal political opposition within the government.
A year later, however, the price of copper, the
dominant export, fell sharply while the country's
fiscal and monetary situation deteriorated. Consumer subsidies on some food staples were removed overnight while stockpiles of others were
not at hand. Urban unrest followed, and the government, strongly dependent on urban political
support, reversed the reforms.
Credibility
The timing of reforms involves political considerations. New governments are in a strong position to
initiate reforms: they are less obligated to defend
ously. In this respect, it is important not to promise too much. It may also be necessary for policy to
"overshoot" (as Poland's arguably did in the currency devaluation of January 1990), to prove that
this time the reformers really do mean business.
Macroeconomic stability
helping to subordinate special interests. (These issues are further discussed in Chapter 7.) Economic
plan for liberalization (complete with estimates of
effective protection) well before the crisis of 1983.
When the choice came to implement it, the homework had already been done.
Speed
Box 6.2
Shock treatment implies that reforms are implemented quickly in a concentrated period lasting less
than two years. Bolivia, Ghana, Mexico, and Poland
introduced reforms to eliminate substantial distortions
during a short period. Chile carried out most reforms,
is
form when there is a substantial administrative constraint or when new institutions have to be built. If
capital markets are not well developed, for instance, a
rush to privatize may result in an underpricing of as-
form can help to reshape expectations about the government's commitment and so contribute to its
success.
Scope
to promote investment (Bolivia and the Philippines in the 1980s); trade liberalization has failed
in the middle-income countries. Gross investment, which had averaged about 26 percent of
Sequencing
To achieve these benefits, it might seem that reforms should be implemented simultaneously. Often, this is indeed desirable. Import liberalization,
for example, makes domestic producers more eff i-
of
118
been more likely to have high levels of private investment as a share of GDP. A large external debt
Economy group
Foreign savings
1965-73
1965-73
18.4
25.2
15.3
11.1
16.6
-1.3
3.4
5.5
3.6
2.7
7.1
2.7
China
India
Indonesia
Kenya
Nigeria
19.6
24.8
17.1
13.7
21.0
14.1
24.4
31.0
21.3
23.6
24.1
22.2
26.4
34.9
23.9
29.5
23.7
12.0
Low-income, excluding
China and India
14.1
19.6
19.1
2.8
2.3
21.6
20.5
23.3
14.3
21.2
20.5
23.9
26.4
23.8
30.0
26.0
27.3
29.3
26.6
23.2
19.8
29.8
24.4
30.7
20.1
25.8
3.0
1.9
8.2
2.7
5.3
4.6
7.1
14.5
-1.5
-1.2
1.4
2.4
5.4
5.1
Low-income
Middle-income
Brazil
Korea, Rep. of
Morocco
Malaysia
Philippines
Thailand
1.2
1.1
-0.3
-0.1
1.7
2.6
4.4
4.3
1981-89
1974 -80
1.1
-3.0
8.9
9.7
23.3
31.1
20.3
26.7
15.2
23.5
23.0
34.4
20.4
26.9
16.6
9.3
6.2
11.3
17.2
12.9
3.4
1.8
0.8
13.0
3.3
2.4
4.2
18.1
18.5
15.1
11.7
21.0
19.2
22.9
11.5
28.5
23.9
21.5
19.7
18.0
29.0
11.4
27.4
17.7
21.6
22.7
19.0
21.5
CONDITIONS.
Statistically, cross-
prices, and so it may also dampen private investment. Macroeconomic stability increases confidence and thereby fosters private investment.
Macroeconomic policy also affects investment
by influencing the quantity of credit available for
the private sector's use. Evidence supports the hypothesis that credit flows have a positive and statistically significant effect on private investment.
Because interest rate ceilings are an important tool
of monetary policy for many developing countries,
comes the relevant variable for investment decisions. Tighter monetary policy or a change in the
composition of credit that favors the public sector
reduces private investment. When bank loans are
119
Figure 6.4 Differing patterns of private and public investment in four countries, 1970-88
(percentage of GDP)
Argentina
Cte d'Ivoire
20
20
15
10
1970
1974
1978
II
1982
19861988
iip-.I.
1970
1974
Jamaica
25
20
r&r4I
-:
1970
1974
1978
Public investment
1982
19861988
1978
1982
19861988
Republic of Korea
30
25
20
up
1970
1974
1978
1982
19861988
Private investment
120
Several coun-
and growth in the medium term. But public investment can lower private capital formation if it uses
scarce resources or if its output competes directly
show that firms' operating costs rise and investment falls when infrastructure is weak. Government investment in infrastructure seems to have
promoted private investment in Egypt, for instance. In Korea, public investment appears to
have a positive effect on private investment in
both the short and long runs. An implication of
these results is that capital outlays on infrastructure should continue during periods of fiscal adjustment; they are more likely than other types of
public investment to complement and increase private investment.
THE COMPOSITION OF PRIVATE INVESTMENT.
Pri-
In many developing countries, agriculture accounts for a significant part of household income.
As the economy expanded rapidly, Korea's national saving increased from less than 10 percent of
GNP in the mid-1960s to 32.8 percent in 1986. Vari-
Box 6.3
of household income; in the United States, 14.3 percent; in the United Kingdom, 10.4 percent; and in
Sweden, 7.8 percent.
Some of these differences can be explained by conceptual discrepancies. The procedures used to calculate
degree of risk-aversion, the weakness of demonstration effects, and the prevalence of intergenerational
transfers; (b) demographic and socioeconomic factors,
such as the age structure of the population, the distri-
mains high.
Various explanations have been advanced: (a) cultural factors, such as the Confucian heritage, a high
desirable.
is also
ing countries found that less than half of the increase in public saving obtained by cutting government consumption will be offset by lower private
saving; in the case of a tax increase, slightly more
of the increase in public saving will be offset. Per-
est may also increase the share of savings channeled through the financial system. Once that sys-
122
The developing world's exporters of manufactured goods appear to be most sensitive to fluctua-
suffered a sharp increase in debt service payments. The consequent balance of payments problems were further compounded by the effects of
the world recession and the reduction in the availability of external financing.
How important are external factors for develop-
nancing to maintain unsustainable levels of consumption in the face of shortfalls in export revenues or shifts in terms of trade. In other cases,
alongside macroeconomic mismanagement, external borrowing financed capital flight (Box 6.4).
translate into consumption increases, even without domestic distortions, a recent study found that
for some countries, the share of external transfers
used in consumption has been exceedingly high.
The additional consumption spending from an additional dollar of foreign loans in the 1960s and
1970s was 88 cents for Bolivia, and 99 cents for
Colombia. Yet in the Republic of Korea, which in-
the continued expansion of global markets. Although the quality of economic management is
GDP.
countries.
Box 6.4
Capital flight
incorporated in these measurements under the assumption that a large part of capital flight consists of
illegal transactions that appear only in this item. When
capital flight takes the form of underinvoicing of exports and overinvoicing of imports, it will not be captured in balance of payments entries. None of these
definitions is entirely satisfactory, and all of them pose
measurement problems. At best, they provide only a
range of estimates.
The extent of capital flight has varied widely. For the
above all a symptom of macroeconomic mismanagementin many instances compounded by political instability. As investors choose from among domestic financial assets, inflation hedges (consumer durables or
land), and foreign assets, they make their decisions on
the basis of domestic inflation and interest rates, foreign interest rates, and the expected rate of depreciation of the currency. If investors fear a devaluation,
they will move their funds abroad to avoid a capital
loss. Similarly, high inflation rates and repressive financial policies that keep real interest rates too low will
encourage residents to invest abroad or to stockpile.
Because capital flight generally occurs during a period of scarce foreign capital inflows, it imposes heavy
costs on an economy. As a symptom of macroeconomic
mismanagement, it also increases domestic insta-
in the economy and the government through a resumption of growth and the adoption of sustainable
policies. Unfortunately, it is much easier for a government to lose credibility than to regain it.
port for macroeconomic stabilization and longterm structural reforms in trade, domestic and la124
The period of abundant inflows of financial resources to the developing world came to an abrupt
Interest paymentsb
Economy group
Net transfers
1970-75
1976-82
1983-89
1970-75
1976-82
1983-89
10.2
14.8
28.5
2.9
4.3
9.8
1.1
1.2
0.7
20.5
28.5
60.7
2.9
5.3
11.8
2.7
2.4
1.0
18.6
20.1
16.3
18.6
20.7
3.4.6
1.9
-2.7
-5.4
-2.5
-1.7
-3.4
Low-income
1970-75
1976 -82
1983-89
Low-income, excluding
54.9
5.1
11.0
15.4
1.9
46.1
80.3
14.1
17.9
41.6
-0.3
Brazil
28.2
42.0
12.1
28.5
30.3
3.3
Morocco
55.1
109.5
2.8
13.0
17.1
1.8
Philippines
45.8
79.2
4.2
14.1
20.5
1.2
Note: Variables are yearly averages calculated for the period; economy averages are weighted using the share of GNP in 1981.
Argentina
2.7
0.8
6.8
1.8
As a share of GNP.
As a share of total export receipts.
Source: World Bank data.
investment in developing countries. Any expansion of DFI in other countries is likely to depend
on their political and macroeconomic stability, and
on their rules on taxes and remitted profits.
Most of the low-income countries' debt is owed
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
Venezuela show how debt renegotiation can support domestic policies by increasing overall confidence and encouraging the return of expatriated
capital.
6
5
4
3
-1
-2
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
0 Flows
El Transfers
to grow only modestly as commercial banks rebuild their capital. Yet additional private financing
126
through instruments such as project and tradelinked finance, direct foreign investment, joint
ventures, and debt and equity issues abroad. Official flows are likely to grow somewhat faster than
Box 6.5
Since the 1982 debt crisis, Mexico has negotiated rescheduling and new money packages in 1983-84 and in
1986-87. These agreements, which involved complex
negotiations, failed to provide medium-term relief on
the external front. In 1985 Mexico introduced important reforms of external trade and of the financial sector,
bearing a fixed interest rate. About 13 percent of creditors chose the new-money option, 40 percent chose the
fiscal deficit and threatened the substantial fiscal reforms that had been undertaken in recent years. Medium-term debt relief seemed to be the missing ingre-
127
Political instability is a fact of life in many countries. The past forty years have seen scores of racial, tribal, communal, and guerrilla wars. Coups
d'etat have occurred in many of the Latin American countries (except in Mexico, Costa Rica, and a
128
Number
160
thority, even the most basic functions such as taxation and allocation of public spending can become
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
developing countries today. Fragile social consensus, entrenched special interests, and weak administrative capacity have influenced their choice
of economic policies, and the outcomes.
To a large extent, governments everywhere tend
to tailor economic policies to balance conflicting
interests. Political rather than economic considera-
1850
1875
1900
o Military rule
o Parliamentary system
o Absolute monarchy
1925
1950
1975
0 One-party system
0 Presidential system
In many developing countries, political and economic instability have put the social consensus un-
Table 7.1 Irregular executive transfers: average occurrence per country, 1948-82
Income group
1948-52
1953-58
1959-64
1965-70
1971-76
1977-82
Low-income
Middle-income
High-income
1.0 (21)
1.1 (24)
1.7 (32)
0.2 (23)
1.2(39)
1.4(41)
1.4(51)
0.8(47)
0.2(25)
1.3 (53)
0.9 (51)
0.1 (28)
0.9(55)
0.6(55)
1.6(30)
0.0 (23)
0.1 (24)
0.1 (28)
Note: Number of countries considered is in parentheses. Both successful and unsuccessful executive transfers are included. Irregular successful
executive transfers are changes in the office of the national executive from one leader to another, outside conventional legal or customary
procedures for transferring power. Unsuccessful irregular executive transfers are failed attempts at such irregular transfers. Countries are ranked
according to their per capita income in 1988.
Sources: Taylor and Jodice 1983; data base supplied by the Inter-University Consortium of Political and Social Research. Income group
classifications are from the World Bank.
129
tries were nationalized in many developing countries, including Algeria, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Sri
Lanka, and Tunisia. Governments regarded themselves as too weak administratively at the time to
cades of attempts by governments to tax the families that owned the mines. An inability to regulate
and supervise the banking system led many governments to nationalize banks or intervene directly
in the allocation of credit. Interventions in agriculture have followed a similar pattern. Farming in
Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, has been highly
taxed through currency overvaluation, state marketing boards paying low procurement prices, and
export taxes.
In many developing countries, it is common to
find tariffs, tax incentives, or special regulations
By the 1980s, persistent difficulties in financing external and public sector deficits made the costs of
Buying support at the cost of economic efficiency was, in the end, self-defeating. Governments reacted to mounting civil service wage bills
by letting nominal wages lag behind inflation; this
power cuts, silent telephones, bad public transport. This caused further dissatisfaction. More
generally, this highly interventionist approach
slowed growth, which in many countries again
undermined political stability.
was no effort to build capacity in banking supervision. High tariffs and the inflation tax made it less
necessary to broaden tax bases. The expansion of
ship rightsthat is, to address the underlying reasons for the high cost of rural credit. Meanwhile,
in many developing countries the agricultural
banks have failed to deliver, so farmers are as
Corruption
servicesand thus also undermine social cohesiveness. Corruption was identified as a serious
problem in ancient China and India, in the Ottoman Empire in the fourteenth century, in England
in the early 1800s. Every other year a scandal is a
reminder that it continues in Europe, Japan, and
the United States. Corruption has also contributed
to the fate of many governments: it was a major
Box 7.1
Fighting corruption
Problems
taining all the authorizations and permits necessary to start a new business takes two years even
132
Solutions
achievementsin a country where corruption remained widespreaddid not last. In the early 1980s,
nepotism became a problem once again, and tax assessments and tax collections dropped significantly.
for a well-connected businessman; the law requires twenty-four different steps involving
twenty separate offices. Anticorruption campaigns
are periodically undertaken, sometimes with success (Box 7.1). But often the root causes remain:
weak agencies fighting market forces with controls
society considers excessive, discretionary, or
illogical.
NIEs are the exceptions, not the rule. Dictatorships have proven disastrous for development in
many economiesin Eastern Europe, Argentina,
Central African Republic, Haiti, Myanmar,
Nicaragua, Peru, Uganda, and Zaire, to name only
a few.
Box 7.2
Populist experiments
kept low with the help of price controls. But bottlenecks soon appear as a result of the strong expansion in domestic demand; because of dwindling foreign reserves, these cannot be bypassed by increasing
imports. Shortages, accelerating inflation, and declining reserves lead to capital flight and the demonetization of the economy. The budget deficit worsens as
trols and expansionary demand policies fueled repressed inflation; the parallel market flourished. Foreign reserves were so low that it was impossible to
meet the surge in demand by increasing imports. By
1972, the government was forced to devalue the escudo
and adjust public sector prices. It was unable to control
wages, however. Between 1970 and 1973, inflation increased from 35 percent to about 600 percent a year,
and the fiscal deficit jumped from 2.7 to 24.7 percent of
GDP. GDP growth accelerated to 9 percent in 1971 but
turned negative in 1972 and 1973, when output fell by
5.6 percent.
133
(percent)
Continuous
Percentage of
adjustment years
In which fiscal
deficits fell
In which expenditures as percentage of
GDP fell
In which credit
expansion
slowed
Continuous
authoritarian
systems
Transitional
democratic
systems
49
50
25
38
46
29
61
62
43
democratic
systems
Democratic
systems
Authoritarian
75
systems
In nonpolarized environments
In polarized environments
29
62
67
11
14
Another approach to the problems of political instability, fragile social consensus, and weak governance is to build more effective institutions. This is
an extremely broad concept. It encompasses the
public bodies through which the state discharges
its most fundamental responsibilities: maintaining
law and order, investing in essential infrastructure, raising taxes to finance such activities, and so
People's values and ideologies affect institutions, and these in turn affect the economy. Analyzing the role in development of such factors as
culture, religion, law, and politics has a strong intellectual foundation in the work of Hayek, Hegel,
Marx, and Weber. Centralized political institutions
backed by a strong bureaucracy are argued to have
stifled entrepreneurship and productivity growth
in ancient Chinaeven though technologically the
country was far ahead of what is now the West. At
the level of organizations, recent research suggests
that the superior performance of Japanese manufacturing results (among other factors) from norms
of behavior that promote the flow of information
that made the community, not only the borrower, responsible for payments.
Behavior also adapts to market needs and influences
transactions costs. Stealing and trading have the same
linguistic root in various languages because of the dis-
take risks and attract resources to activities that otherwise could not have developed. Since the 1970s, leasing contracts have allowed enterprises to reduce the
risks associated with large investments in equipment.
In Bangladesh, the Grameen Bank found innovative
ways to lend to low-income groups while keeping defaults low. This was achieved by establishing contracts
was also an essential step in the process of nationmaking in Europebut remains a priority in many
developing countries.
Nongovernmental organizations
most developing countries, strengthening or creating institutions remains a difficult but necessary
task (Box 7.4).
state with well-developed administrative structures and agencies responsive to markets' needs.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have become an important force in the development process which, to some extent, has mitigated the costs
of developing countries' institutional weaknesses,
which often include administrative shortcomings
135
Box 7.4
mercial courts, banking legislation, and stock exchanges. For low-income Africa and Latin America, the
In Brazil, mechanisms are being devised to improve the flow of information among universities, research institutes, and industrymaking research more
responsive to industry's needs.
In Malaysia, a recently created government bondrating system is expected to reduce private firms' fi-
ling is overdue and could greatly improve the efficiency of rural credit markets and reduce the generally
extremely high costs of rural credit.
In many countries, better banking supervision is
important for successful financial liberalization.
action.
Association.
Most of NGOs' resources (about 60 percent) are
raised by themselves. The rest ($2.2 billion in 1987)
are from official aid agencies, which channel funds
Bangladesh, NGOs specialized in health and family planning reach only one-sixth of the country's
80,000 villages. Many small NGOs' managerial capacity needs to be developed before they can be
effective. For others, little is known about fundraising costs. In addition, even the most effective
NGOs cannot fulfill all the gaps left by the commercial and public sectors. Aside from their growing numbers and the volume of resources they mobilize, the importance of NGOs lies in their ability
to involve communities and grassroots organizations more effectively in the development process
and in addressing poverty.
-Ihiwan, % Singapore
-China S Indonesia
S Hong Kong
Thailand
- \
-Israel5
Malaysia
Tunisia S
Hungar7
S
Zortugai,/
Sri Lanka
Brazil
ISSyna
Turkey
____-Colombia
Bcuador
MexicoS
S Panama
Kenya
India S
Costa Rica
UruguayS Philippines
- Bangladesh
S Cote d'Ivoire
Spain
Yjigoslavia
Egyp
Chile"
Tobago
S Peru
Argentina
S Venezuela
I
-2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Income inequality
35
40
45
Despite such evidence, greater equality of income is still considered by some to be inimical to
growth. Increasing the capital stock, it is argued,
requires high saving rates; this in turn implies a
tween growth and equity, which helped to entrench antigrowth policies in socialist economies
and antiequity policies in conservative ones, has
been further discredited by the many economies
(high-saving) rich. The Republic of Korea's tax reform of 1973 largely excluded capital income (interests, dividends, capital gains, and other returns on
assets) from the tax base. The conventional wisdom among industrial countries as well as policy-
that the pattern of development has strong distributional implications. Industrial protection and
discriminatory taxes on farming help to explain
why income inequality is more severe in Latin
In fact, there is no evidence that saving is positively related to income inequality or that income
inequality leads to higher growth. If anything, it
Box 7.5
Similar starts
claimed tens of thousands of lives. The cost of destroyed infrastructure and forgone income from disrupted economic activities has been estimated to be
close to two-thirds of GDP. In addition to its superior
growth, Malaysia has reduced the incidence of poverty
from 50 percent in 1970 to 10 percent todayand re-
or invest. Nor were they harassed by currency controls, extensive quantitative trade restrictions, or the
threat of nationalization without compensation. Minor-
ity businesses that were discriminated against in domestic markets were thus not shut out from business
opportunities abroad. They could use their income to
buy abroad goods and services (such as education) that
were being denied them at home.
Sri Lanka's heavy regulatory framework before 1977
gave ample opportunities for discretion and discrimination. Economic controls ended up becoming controls
on individualsdespite Sri Lanka's democratic traditions. Travel was restricted because of exchange con-
Different results
-w
portant single variable influencing income inequality. Investments in education, health, and
been an important reason for the improving distribution of income in Malaysia and Indonesia. Gov-
can improve distribution and at the same time promote development in other ways. The reform pro-
grams of the 1980s and 1990s thus have emphasized more and more the need to protect social
138
dustrial countries at a comparable stage of development (Tables 7.4 and 7.5). The evidence
suggests that many of the developing countries'
cause maintaining preference requires that dynamism elsewhere in the economy must be offset.
In Europe, for instance, maintaining farm incomes
1880a
1929a
1960b
1985b
France
Germany
Japan
Sweden
15
19
10
31
32
11
19
18
6
8
31
47
33
65
35
52
United
Kingdom
United
States
10
24
8
10
28
37
32
48
GNP.
GDP.
Low-income
Lower-middle-income
Upper-middle-income
Industrial market
Consumptionb
1972
1986
1972
1986
19
15
25
23
27
28
40
12
11
12
14
13
14
14
19
27
a. GNP.
b. GDP.
Source: World Bank, various years.
139
services to more manageable numbers of employees. The second is pay and grading restructur-
improved pay structures and some reform of institutional structures. No African country's ongoing
reform program has completely rebuilt its civil service structures. The Ghanaian program, in opera-
ghanistan, Angola, Central America, and Indochina; civil wars in Ethiopia, Mozambique,
Somalia, and Sudan; and the snail's pace of super-
140
years of the Iran-Iraq conflict cost more than $400 billion. The cost by the end of the war in 1988 was much
higher. Economic disruption is similarly severe in civil
wars. The conflict in northern Ethiopia's Eritrea terri-
tory has cut the labor force; bombs and mines have
caused farmers to avoid some land, thus effectively
taking it out of production-40 percent of land was
estimated to have been left idle in 1987, which partly
explains the food shortfalls in the region.
Inevitably, war retards development. The combined
Number of wars
Period
1900-09
1910-19
1920-29
1930-39
1940-49
1950-59
1960-69
1970-79
1980-89
1900-89
Civil
10
15
11
11
13
20
12
18
29
141
Deaths during
international wars (thousands)
Deaths during
civil wars (thousands)
Civilian
Military
230
12
243
25
7,045
13,470
42
20,556
1,140
109
838
1,770
39,285
3,031
1,256
1,246
1,733
69,229
39
646
International
8
8
7
5
9
7
6
63
21
933
20,176
1,073
622
639
702
31,440
19,110
1,926
605
606
931
37,539
Total'
Civilian
1,007
1,571
1,827
3,543
1,899
11,697
Military
139
139
111
1,109
5
253
1,222
1,236
179
4,393
Total'
166
1,327
371
1,796
2,182
1,879
3,301
4,957
2,081
18,059
Total deaths
as percentage
of world
population
0.02
1.13
0.02
0.17
1.70
0.17
0.13
0.16
0.08
Note: All but 11,000 of the war deaths following 1949 took place in developing countries. All numbers are estimates and are subject to significant
error. Domestic conflicts are not always clearly definable as civil wars, and thus coverage of these statistics varies among studies. A variety of
civil disruptions are excluded. For example, estimated deaths during purges and collectivization in the Soviet Union during the 1930s, which
range from 5 to 20 million people, are not included. Figures for deaths resulting from other such events after World War II are also excluded
because of poor data. Rough estimates for these range up to 15 million. Also, some wars are counted as civil even when foreign intervention
occurred. Deaths during the Korean War, deaths during the Viet Nam War for the 1965-75 period, and the war in Afghanistan for the 1978-89
period are included under international wars.
a. Totals include total estimated deaths. When breakdowns are unavailable, deaths are omitted from civilian and military subcategories. Totals
may also differ as a result of rounding. Deaths were prorated when reporting periods spanned more than one decade.
Sources: Sivard 1988, 1989.
141
Table 7.6 Public expenditure on the military compared with that on social sectors, 1986
(percentage of GNP)
Military
Less than 1
1-1.9
2-4.9
Nigeria
Paraguay
Uganda
Zaire
5-9.9
2-4.9
1-1.9
expenditure
Brazil
Mexico
Ghana
Niger
Argentina
Bangladesh
Cameroon
Colombia
Dominican Rep.
Ecuador
Guatemala
Haiti
Nepal
Philippines
Romania
Rwanda
Sierra Leone
Burundi
India
Indonesia
Benin
Bolivia
Burkina Faso
El Salvador
Guinea
Mali
Myanmar
Turkey
Uruguay
Barbados
Cyprus
Gambia
Algeria
Central
African Rep.
Cte d'Ivoire
Papua New
Guinea
Swaziland
Trinidad and
Chad
China
Pakistan
Peru
Sri Lanka
Sudan
United Arab
Emirates
Costa Rica
Luxembourg
Tobago
Fiji
Austria
Finland
Ireland
Japan
Switzerland
Jamaica
Malta
Venezuela
Bulgaria
Chile
Congo
Czechoslovakia
Malawi
Mauritania
Poland
Senegal
Somalia
South Africa
Spain
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Yugoslavia
Zambia
Australia
Belgium
Botswana
Canada
Denmark
France
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Panama
Portugal
Sweden
Malaysia
Morocco
Singapore
Tunisia
United States
Yemen, Arab Rep.
United Kingdom
Zimbabwe
Syria
USSR
Yemen, P.D.R.
Guyana
Gabon
German Dem. Rep.
Hungary
Italy
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
5-9.9
lOand above
Bahrain
Cuba
Egypt
Ethiopia
Greece
Honduras
Korea, Rep. of
Kuwait
10 and above
Angola
Iraq
Iran, I.R. of
Israel
Jordan
Oman
Libya
Nicaragua
Saudi Arabia
Note: The ranges given in this table are illustrative of the differences in expenditures in the different categories; they are not necessarily indicative
of precise differences across countries because of some differences in the definition of the categories. The estimates of social expenditure do not
cover those by local bodies.
Source: Sivard 1989.
countries expend more on the military than on social sectors (Table 7.6). During the past three decades, military and civilian regimes appear to have
education.
easy to replicate.
In the 1980s and 1990s so far, transferring stateowned enterprises to the private sector has been
an important government objective both in OECD
countries such as New Zealand and the United
Kingdom, and in developing countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ghana, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Togo, and Turkey.
In most of these countries, privatization has meant
much more than merely transferring assets to the
private sector. It has been part of a broader exercise aimed at stabilizing and liberalizing the econ-
virtually everywhere. Except for relatively advanced economies such as Argentina, Brazil, and
Mexico, the infrastructure of privatizationlawyers, accountants, merchant bankers, and entrepreneursis largely missing in most developing
countries. The need to build up this infrastructure
is particularly acute in Eastern Europe, where it is
difficult even to find qualified individuals to serve
as directors of companies. Departments competent to handle privatization must be created, then
adequately staffed and funded: a challenge in itself
during times of financial stringency.
expense of efficiency.
been accompanied by new institutional arrangements that allow the government to retain ownership while improving the enterprises' efficiency.
In Argentina, and in Mexico to a lesser extent, pri-
OF
IMPLEMENTATION. Privatization
privatization.
Previous attempts at decentralization in socialist
economies had given workers in many enterprises
rights that traditionally belong to shareholders in
143
national petroleum company, and the main distributor of electricity. More privatizations are expected in the near future. In Chile, privatizations
have reversed the emergency nationalizations of
the preceding years; sectors traditionally dominated by the government, such as steel, petro-
The experience of the former German Democratic Republic suggests that, even under favorable
by Germany's privatization agency (Treuhandanstalt) have now reached 300 per month (compared with 25 per month during ten years in the
British privatization program), it will take years to
complete the process. Uncertainty about the value
of the companies was initially so great that purchase prices were to be settled later by arbitration.
sets have been leased, not bought outright. Auctions of small assets, coordinated by the central
authorities, have already started in Czechoslovakia. For the larger firms, programs of "free"
distribution of shares are being planned to accelerate privatization. The Polish plan calls for the conversion of several hundred large firms into joint-
144
properly valued. Selling the enterprise at an appropriate price may be impossible, and meanwhile
managers will be unable to make informed deci-
Box 7.7
The challenge for governments is to implement reforms in the face of sometimes trenchant political
opposition. Structural reforms may hurt powerful
interests. Streamlining the civil service threatens
urban workers with unemployment, especially in
Africa, where the public sector often employs up
the beneficiaries are often dispersed and unorganized, making it difficult for the government to
count on their support.
Transforming a centrally planned economy into a market economy requires complex and unprecedented re-
Three sets of issues arise. One concerns the economic implications of a policy sequence: will one kind
of reform achieve its objectives while other economic
distortions remain? Another question is political: will
mounting opposition derail reforms scheduled near the
end of the sequence? Finally, there is technical feasibility. New legal, accounting, and financial systems
vate sector activity has been relatively higher in predominantly agricultural countries such as China and
deregulation.
One school of reform proposals puts change in ownership at the head of the sequence before or alongside
changes that address macroeconomic stability and markets. The rationale is partly political. With early privatization, there is less risk that the economy will remain
state-controlled and greater pressure for complemen-
A preferred sequencing (Box figure 7.7) would include early steps to stabilize the macroeconomy and
145
excellent.
Area of reform
0
Macroeconomy
Maintain stability
Markets
Goods and services
Prices
Trade
Distribution
Labor market
Financial market
es
Remove QRs
Privatize; demonopolize
Deregulate hiring
and firing
Develop
Ownership structure
Small enterprises
Large enterprises
Foreign investment
Revise regulations
Government
r'ti
Legal framework
Institutional
framework
Social safety net
Evaluate
gencies
Institutionalize
146
10
If output responds quickly to a program of reforms, support for the program will increase and
the changes can be consolidated. Rapid growth in
exports bolstered reforms in Indonesia, Korea,
and Turkey. Strong export growth can also help to
prevent policy reversals caused by balance of payments problems and dwindling foreign exchange
reserves. Reforms that improve the investment climate are more likely to be sustained because new
investors will add to the forces in support. Expanding output and investment would enlarge the
tax base, raise tax revenues, and reduce the budget
deficit. All this argues for reforms that are bold
enough to elicit a prompt supply-side response.
Timid programs are unlikely to win converts to the
cause of reform. Many reformers in Eastern Europe have taken these lessons to heart (Box 7.7).
Despite the political difficulties, many governments have shown great ingenuity in implement-
ing controversial reforms. For instance, the governments of Bolivia, Ghana, Korea, and Mexico
strived to convince the public of the costs of inaction and to explain the thinking behind their re-
poor. Well-designed safety nets (such as the emergency adjustment funds introduced in Bolivia and
Ghana in the 1980s) can help the most vulnerable
development.
Reform will remain a formidable task, requiring
political courage and economic vision. Combining
the many different elements described here and in
ually changed the orientation of the manufacturers' association from import substitution to
export promotion. In general, governments
committed to addressing their societies' problems
mination.
147
Experience is
quate financial resources.
nevertheless turning policy reform into the art of
the possible. Comprehensive, market-friendly re148
Help domestic markets to work well by fostering competition and investing in infrastructure
Liberalize trade and foreign investment
Avoid excessive fiscal deficits and high
inflation.
These elements of the development strategy interact (see Figure 4 in the Overview). Investing in
people spurs productivity all the more powerfully
in an economy that already has undistorted domestic markets; at the same time, efficient domes-
efficient domestic markets and the global economy. Efficient markets attract foreign investment,
which boosts productivity. At the same time, trading links to the outside world let countries pursue
deed. No more important task confronts the human race. Enough has been learned, however, to
justify some confidence about the future. The
strategy outlined in this Report draws on this experience. The measures suggested are not a counsel of perfection. As many countries have shown,
they are a workable program.
Tasks for global action
would be highly desirable in any case. The resources for more public spending where it is es-
tional conditions can make rapid economic development all the more possible. Industrial countries,
with only one-fifth of the global population, ac-
Global trade
Economic policies
barriers).
Despite encouraging signs, the problem of external debt continues to depress the prospects for the
severely indebted countries. The Brady Initiative
150
Developing countries
Technology
OECD
-2
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
maintenance and energy conservation. Degradation of rivers in Eastern Europe and deforestation
in Africa illustrate the dangers of poor or nonexistent environmental policies. Often, a first step is
to eliminate subsidies for activities that harm the
environment, including the colonization of forests
will have to be forged and maintained on extremely controversial issues, including protection
of the ozone layer and potential global warming.
Need all countries share the burden of protecting
the environment equally? Or might developing
countries bear a smaller share of present costs because they contributed less to the stock of accumulated pollutants? International tensions could also
intensify over environmental spillovers, as in the
case of rivers shared by several countries (the Nile,
for example, is essential to Egypt, Ethiopia, and
Sudan).
The main priority worldwide is to establish incentives, regulations, and safeguards that lead to a
proper allocation of resources for environmental
the United Nations Development Programme, and the United Nations Environment
Bank,
151
nomic principles. Reforms can encounter difficulties of design and implementation (Box 8.1).
But they have worked in various country contexts.
Box 8.1
Successes provide the dos, failures the don'ts. The specifics of reform programs may vary across different regions and stages of development. But here are seven
many countries, ambitious changes could not be followed through because the country lacked trained personnel and adequate institutionsan independent judiciary, clearly defined and enforced property rights,
and a strong central bank. Reform is a complex process
of interwoven tasks, and there need to be mechanisms
for interministerial coordination in order to carry them
out. The development of institutional capacity needs to
be emphasized from the outset, because institutionbuilding takes time and results will not be immediate.
In the meantime, it helps to implement actions that
economize on scarce capabilitiessuch as deregulating
domestic markets, liberalizing agricultural marketing,
and removing quantitative restrictions.
Attention to macroeconomic instability is fundamental.
Continuing fiscal imbalances can derail reforms. Severe macroeconomic instability has caused more than
one trade and financial liberalization program to fail. In
highly inflationary settings, upfront and drastic reduc-
152
ineffective. When domestic deregulation did not accompany external liberalization, investment and output responded slowly. And when trade reform did not
accompany domestic deregulation, investment went to
the wrong sectors. When tariff reduction was not complemented by a broadening of the domestic tax base
and a reduction in tax exemptions and subsidies, fiscal
imbalances emerged, threatening the trade liberalization. There is thus a premium on simultaneously taking complementary actions.
future.
Investing in people
cation services, established organizations will be encouraged to expand their activity in the underserved
appropriate. Such community-based programs can address the current needs of the poor and encourage the
tries include expanding primary education, alleviating poverty, and controlling population
growth through better education, health care, and
family planning. Opportunities exist to improve
primary schools in Bangladesh, to reduce poverty
in Bolivia through local action, and to fight pov-
elsewhere.
Extending and improving primary education.
Bangladesh has few resources except its peoplemuch
like Japan a hundred years ago. Yet more than twothirds of its adults are illiterate, a consequence of historically low school enrollment. Primary school enrollment
is currently only 59 percent (49 percent for females), and
the quality of education is poor. Teachers are often inade-
reduction.
percent a year in the 1960s, 2.9 percent in 1987). Investments in human resources are thus inadequate: primary school enrollments are half as high as in the average low-income country. In parallel with development
agencies, the governments of the Sahel need to act decisively to lower population growth. The scope for progress is great: the proportion of women using con tracep-
countries as Botswana and Zimbabwe. Agency assistance for population control programs is likely to be
available.
support but will also require larger government expenditures. Although many resources must be committed to
relief and reconstruction because of the recent cyclone,
To
Throughout the
itive financial markets, encouraging bankers and producers to take advantage of the economic recovery.
standards. An autonomous central bank is being introduced. Hungary needs experience with these new institutions. For example, an important public offering had
to be halted recently because no clear provisions had been
made for distributing shares when the offering was oversubscribed. To establish confidence, the stock exchange
train thousands of accountants, bank staff and regulators, lawyers, investment bankers, and others with related skills.
is
Building institutions for technological development. For countries such as Thailand that have established global links in a wide range of manufactured products, the next task is to strengthen technological
linkages: to develop institutions that foster the absorption, adaptation, and diffusion of technology. Much of
Macroeconomic reforms in 1983 focused on devaluation, the reduction of the government's investment pro-
Thailand's technology trade is now conducted by subsidiaries of foreign firms; the country's capacities to absorb
and generate technology have not yet caught up with its
competitive trading position. Technological inflows
resource allocation, and it strengthens the incentives for saving and investment. Examples of stabilization are Indonesia and Mexico.
Stabilization as a prelude to growth: Indonesia. In 1967 Indonesia's Suharto government inherited an extensively nationalized, highly regulated, unstable economy. It gradually rationalized economic
management during the next fifteen years, but strong
percent.
Stabilization as the prelude to growth: Mexico. In the 1960s, Mexico grew rapidly under the early
stages of an import substitution strategy. By 1976, it
faced large fiscal and balance of payments deficits and
worsening inflation. These troubles receded with large
discoveries of oil and heavy external borrowing. But
within a few years Mexico's debt more than quintupled,
setting the stage for the collapse of credit and the sharp
economic decline of 1982-83.
Microeconomic reforms have concentrated on reducing government involvement in the economy. The number of SOEs has been reduced from 1,100 in 1982 to 350
forms began in 1985. Mexico acceded to the GATT eliminated more than three-quarters of its import-license re-
favorable regulations for export processing, and substantially reduced export taxes and restrictions on fruits and
vegetables. By 1987, exports of manufactures overtook
major rivers on the northern coast are seriously polluted; and groundwater withdrawal has caused saline
What would happen if the world community implemented policies in the spirit of those outlined
above? No one can know for sure, but some broad
estimates are possible based on the projections of
several country models at the World Bank, which
assess long-term growth under different assumptions about country policies and international conditions. These models reflect a wide range of coun-
intrusion into the aquifers that provide water for domestic use. In Jakarta it costs $20-$30 million a year simply
to boil water for home use. Costs associated with illness
and with reduced property values, although unquantified, are undoubtedly high. With urban and industrial
uses of water expected to grow at rapid rates, large
shortages are forecast within a decade or so. Solutions
156
Poor
Very good
Good
Poor
1.0
3.0
1.0
Good
1.5
Central case
2.0
Very good
2.0
0.5
1.0
Note: The changes in the growth rate given in each cell are
unweighted deviations from the "central case." The figures are
rounded.
Source: World Bank data; see the technical note at the end of the
main text.
growth a year. After ten years, with compounding, a country with very good policies would be
more than 40 percent better off than another that
started with the same income but pursued poor
policies. If that growth advantage were sustained,
the first country would have twice the income of
the second after twenty yearswhich would make
a crucial difference in poverty reduction.
A global challenge
the global situation constant, the difference between good and poor domestic policies would
yield on average 1.5-2 percentage points growth
per yearon average, about twice the improvement from better external conditions. Given the
uncertainty about the quality of the global economy, countries that can adapt their domestic policies flexibly to changing circumstances will be at a
great advantage. Even if global conditions are inhospitable, the reward for good domestic policies
is very high.
and environmental processes are taken into account. Nonetheless, sound general principles have
emerged to guide policy.
Despite the uncertain outlook for the 1990s, a
friendly approach. With strong international cooperation, the opportunities for development will be
157
Technical note
Chapter 1
ter uses data on GDP and GDP per capita for the
period 1700-1988 (for Table 1.1 and Figures 1.1 and
1.3) which are based on a 41-economy sample (with a
combined population of 3.99 billion people in 1988)
along with aggregate figures on Eastern Europe from
Maddison, background paper (covering 310 million
people). The sample, along with Maddison's data on
Eastern Europe, thus covers roughly 86 percent of the
ume estimates for 1830-1965 are taken from Maddison (1981, 1989), and Maddison and Associates,
(forthcoming) for the ICP-Maddison sample countries. The volume series is spliced to a World Bank
data base GDP volume series at 1965. GDP volume
indexes for 1950-65 are taken from OECD 1968 for the
(non-OECD, non-Eastern Europe). The economies included in each group are as follows. OECD: Austra-
Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru. South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Pakistan. East Asia: China; Indonesia; Philippines; Republic of Korea; Thailand; Taiwan, China. Africa: Ethiopia, French Africa
(aggregate for Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cen-
zi
zh
de03
de39
e60
ZPtri
ZPtr2
(1)
0.38
(17.7)
0.44
(3.6)
0.04
(1.3)
zk
Chapter 2
zptre;
(*100)
0.09
(2.5)
0.04
(1.9)
0.13
(1.5)
(2)
0.38
(17.6)
0.46
(3.8)
0.04
(1.4)
0.09
(2.6)
0.04
(2.0)
0.16
(1.8)
0.04
(2.0)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0.38
0.04
(1.4)
0.09
(2.6)
0.04
(2.0)
0.16
(1.8)
0.38
(17.6)
0.45
(3.7)
0.04
(1.4)
0.09
(2.6)
0.04
(2.0)
0.17
(1.9)
0.38
(17.6)
0.45
(3.8)
0.04
(1.4)
0.09
(2.6)
0.04
(2.0)
0.17
(1.9)
0.04
(2.3)
-0.02
(-0.6)
(17.6)
0.046
(3.8)
-0.03
(-1.2)
ZPtr
0.004
(1.3)
(1.3)
0.01
(1.6)
0.004
(1.3)
1,826
1,826
1,826
ZPtre
mvpt
R2
0.004
0.01
(2.7)
0.004
(1.3)
1,826
0. 2256
1,826
159
(1)
0.024
(-2.3)
(2)
0.029
(-3.6)
(3)
0.032
(-3.4)
General government
0.002
(-0.1)
0.002
(-0.1)
0.004
(-0.3)
Consolidated central
government
0.001
(0.1)
0.001
(0.1)
0.001
(0.1)
Budgetary central
government
0.003
(0.4)
0.002
(0.3)
0.001
(0.2)
0.002
(4.6)
0.001
(2.0)
Gastil's index
Female education
0.004
(-5.7)
economic Survey. These surveys are nationally representative random samples, with the exception of the
Philippine and Bolivia (urban only) surveys. For details, see the two background papers by King, Rosenzweig, and Wang.
amined the incidence of illness among adults between ages 20 and 59 years (in the month before the
survey), and the duration of illness and absence from
work of those who were ill. Self-reported illness may
be affected by several factors other than health status,
including wages, the possibility of work-sharing arrangements among family members, and the availability of paid sick leave. Sensitivity analyses, however, do not show statistically significant association
of self-reported illness or absence from work to daily
earnings or whether the worker was entitled to paid
sick leave or social security. The number of days lost
for possible sample selection bias, the size of the enterprise was found to be positively associated with
the education of the entrepreneur. These results took
account of the entrepreneurs' age, sex, and place of
residence; for Malaysia, ethnicity and inherited
wealth were also controlled for.
AIDS in developing countries. Box figure 3.5 is based
Coefficient
Intercept
0.024752
20.63
Private income
0.049862
4.04
0.026073
0.003557
0.004220
1.33
0.45
0.50
Government health
expenditure
General government
Consolidated central
Budgetary central
nus total government expenditure) and using an annual time-series data for 68 economies (see Note table
Chapter 4
GDP
Healthl
Health2
Educi
Educ2
Coefficient
0.0000367
0.0011655
2.954
1.069
0.0035853
0.836
0.0007568
0.0039422
0.702
1.287
0.057
Healthl
0.0148330
Health2
Educi
Educ2
- 0.0701540
0.0010280
0.0209830
5.826
1.748
GDP
uation Department of the World Bank and the Evaluation Unit of the IFC. Reappraisal of a project takes
place within one year of project completion, and the
ERR evaluation is then performed according to the
standard Squire-van der Tak methodology. The ERR
on an investment project is a commonly used productivity indicator measuring the economic contribution
of the investment project to the overall economy. It is
0.504
2.401
trade restrictions. In addition, data on foreign exchange rate premiums were gathered for each country and year. Thus, each project ERR was correlated
with at least two policy indexes.
Table 4.2 presents average ERRs for various values
of the four policy indexes: (a) real interest rates, from
a World Bank data base; (b) IMF data on central government fiscal deficits; (c) the Halevi-Thomas
(Thomas, Halevi, and Stanton, background paper)
index of trade restrictiveness/openness, ranging from
one (most restrictive) to five (most open), for 32 countries for which comparable published information on
8-10 percentage points (or more) when large improvements in the parallel premiums and trade regime take place. In contrast, when included along the
parallel premiums and trade restrictiveness variables,
the real interest rate variable loses all economic and
statistical significance. The fiscal deficit variable is significant in the single-policy specification and in some
additional sensitivity tests were performed by segmenting the sample by time periods and country
sizes; the results were not altered.
To explore causality, a variety of controlling variables were obtained for most countries, which made
multivariate analysis possible. A tobit procedure was
utilized (instead of ordinary least-squares) to address
the censoring in the data at an ERR of -5 percent. The
ERR of each project is the unit of observation for the
Chapter 5
Data and definitions. Figure 5.2 is based on a background paper by Harrison, which draws on a crosscountry, time-series data set assembled by the core
forthcoming).
Statistical methods. The effects of these seven variables on GDP growth were separately tested, control-
countries, country dummies included in the regressions should control for differences in measurement.
The second, index of trade liberalization, 1978-88,
measures the movement toward liberalization for 30
countries for the period 1978-88. The index was calcu-
ground paper). The third, foreign exchange premium, measures the deviation of the black market
rate from the official exchange rate (source: International Currency Analysis, Inc., various years). The
fourth, change in trade shares, measures the ratio of
exports and imports to GDP (source: World Bank
dex (Thomas, Halevi, and Stanton, background paper). The number of countries available for each index varies, ranging from 60 (for trade shares) to 19.
Results. Note table 5.1 shows the results for differ-
Levels
(1)
Changes
(2)
Trade liberalization
index
1960-84
1978-88
premium'
(3)
Entire period
averages
Levels
Changes
(4)
(5)
(6)
>0*
>0**
>0
>0
>0
>0
<0
<0
>0
>0
>0**
>0
>0
>0*
>0**
<0
>0
<0
>0
>0
>0
>0
>0
>0
<0
>0
>0
>0
Foreign exchange
Trade shares
Price distortion
Six-year averages
Levels
Changes
measure'
Movement toward
world prices
Bias against
agriculturea
>0
>0*
>0
>0
>0
>0*
>0
>0
>0
163
tant, much variation in growth rates is still unexplained, even after accounting for education, labor,
land, and capital stock.
Direct foreign investment. The chapter's discussion
United Nations and World Bank data. Income inequality is defined as the ratio of the income shares of
conditions. In addition, the external conditions assumed under the "poor" and "very good" case scenarios are country-specific; for example, higher international oil prices may have been considered as part
Bibliographical note
This Report has drawn on a wide range of World
Bank sourcesincluding country economic, sector,
and project work, and research papersand on numerous outside sources. The principal sources are
noted below, and also listed in two groups: background papers commissioned for this Report and a
selected bibliography. Some of the background papers will be available through the Policy, Research,
on the Report's outline and the Overview. The Report benefited from regional, Bankwide management
Chapter 1
This chapter benefited from the advice of many experts, including Irma Adelman, Ramesh Chander
Charles Kindleberger, Angus Maddison, Douglass
North, Jeffrey Williamson, John Williamson, and
Shahid Yusuf. Paul Armington, Norman Hicks,
Robert E. Lucas, Jr., Desmond McCarthy, Vikram
Mark Sundberg provided helpful comments on contemporary economic conditions, and the staff of the
Systems and Socio-Economic Data divisions of the
preparation; and Maddison and Associates, forthcoming. Helpful comments were made by Gary
Becker, Armeane Choksi, Jaime de Melo, William
Easterly, Anne 0. Krueger, Lawrence Lau, Robert Z.
Lawrence, Paul Romer, Marcelo Selowsky, Shekhar
Shah, and George S. Tolley.
Chapter 3
Hoff and Stiglitz 1990; and Ruttan, background paper. The section on industrial and labor regulations
draws in part from Lindauer 1989 and Lopez, back-
Chapter 5
sources. In addition to World Bank data and numerous outside sources, the discussion on technology
incorporates examples from Rosenberg and Frischtak
1985 and Evenson and Ranis 1990. The discussion of
intellectual property protection is based primarily on
Mansfield 1989; discussions with Claudio Frischtak;
and Nogues 1990. The analysis of the role of government intervention is based on a variety of sources,
but benefited greatly from Westphal 1990 and Grossman 1989. The discussion of trade reform draws primarily from Thomas and Nash, forthcoming, and Papageorgiou, Michaely, and Choksi 1990. Box 5.1 is
based on Wheeler, Cole, and Irianiwati 1990 and material provided by David Dollar. Table 5.1 draws on
three census data sets analyzed with the assistance of
Mona Haddad and Brian Aitken. The data on aggregate capital flows used in Figure 5.1 and Table 5.2
were collected for this chapter by David McMurray.
Box figures 5.5a and 5.5b are based on data provided
by Ron Duncan, who also commented on the analysis. Michele DeNevers, Ashoka Mody, and Lant Pritchett provided extensive comments.
This chapter draws heavily on the academic literature, and on World Bank reports, project evaluation
data from the Bank's Operations Evaluation Department and from the IFC, and internal documents. The
sources for the analysis of economic rates of return
for projects financed by the Bank and IFC are given in
This chapter draws heavily on World Bank documents, operational experience, and academic
Chapter 6
on work by Alan Gelb and Cheryl Gray in the Socialist Economies Unit of the World Bank's Country Eco-
1990 and Horioka 1990. Box 6.4 is based on Cuddington 1986, Dooley 1986, and Edwards and Tab-
Chapter 8
Background papers
Chapter 7
Bank documents as well as on Lindauer and Valenchik 1990. The discussion on military expenditures
is based on data from U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 1986, Sivard 1989, and UNDP 1990.
Roger Sullivan drafted the section on wage expenditures and civil service reform, drawing from operational experience, several internal Bank documents,
and Merode, forthcoming. The section on stateowned enterprises, privatization, and reform is based
on operational experience, a vast literature, and published documents, particularly Kjellstrm 1990 and
Michalet 1989. Homi Kharas drafted the discussion of
Eastern European countries. Haggard and Kaufman
1990 and Remmer 1986 were the primary sources for
the section on the political economy of reform. Box
7.1 is based on Klitgaard 1988; Box 7.2 on Dornbusch
and Edwards 1989; Box 7.6 on work by Jack Hamilton; and Box 7.7 on Fischer and GeIb, forthcoming,
Hinds 1990; and Kornai 1990. Box figure 7.7 is based
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Kaufmann, Daniel. "Determinants of the Productivity of Projects in Developing Countries: Evidence from 1,200 Projects."
"The Forgotten Rationale for Policy Reform:
The Productivity of Investment."
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Statistical appendix
The tables in this statistical appendix present summary data on population, national accounts, trade,
and external debt of low- and middle-income economies, high-income economies, and the world as a
1965
1973
1980
1990
2,911
2,129
782
3,370
2,456
914
4,138
3,013
1,125
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.1
2.0
2.3
2.1
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.9
392
459
565
2.4
2.3
2.1
1.8
301
496
1,580
1,156
440
430
2.6
2.6
2.4
1.8
2.6
2.7
1.7
2.4
2.0
2.4
3.2
1.6
2.3
2.0
2.1
3.2
1.4
781
315
295
364
1,346
922
361
349
736
698
780
733
835
776
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
277
296
324
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.7
3,924
4,446
5,298
158
197
274
2.1
2.8
1.8
3.1
1.8
3.4
1.6
3.1
1,195
1.9
2.0
1.8
a. Projections. For the assumptions used in the projections, see the technical notes for Table 26 in the World Development Indicators.
181
Table A.2 GNP, population, GNP per capita, and growth of GNP per capita
Country group
1989 GNP
(billions of
dollars)
1989
population
(millions)
1989 GNP
per capita
(dollars)
2,040
4.2
2.4
5.2
2.5
2.1
2.3
1.5
4.1
0.5
1.4
3.4
0.6
1.4
3.3
0.6
-1.1
554
1,720
4.8
2.9
-3.4
1.7
5.2
1.2
0.6
4.7
367
340
540
320
-0.7
-3.1
-1.3
480
1,552
1,131
-0.3
-1.2
6.3
2.9
9.5
6.7
0.0
2.2
0.0
6.4
3.1
944
823
433
421
2,180
1,950
1.8
0.4
0.0
4.7
2.3
-0.5
-1.7
-0.5
-1.2
-2.4
15,230
14,748
831
773
18,330
19,090
3.7
3.8
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.4
3.7
3.7
2.7
2.8
2.1
2.1
20,736
5,206
3,980
2.8
1.5
1.2
2.4
1.5
1.7
478
553
6.0
1.0
-2.5
-2.1
-1.1
2,253
4,053
2,948
1,105
958
162
3,232
981
841
800
330
1.9
0.0
3.2
323
a. Preliminary data.
1973
1965
1980
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990a
3,030
2,237
3,303
2,451
859
3,476
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
389
309
80
867
660
201
2,430
1,807
657
2,550
1,938
604
2,655
2,024
653
-34
-22
2,745
2,051
679
16
169
138
315
32
241
71
790
588
202
828
632
223
793
602
220
821
605
234
931
683
272
996
736
283
-1
-28
-29
-17
-25
-23
215
167
46
549
415
129
1,924
1,448
445
31
2,099
1,555
509
36
2,308
1,716
1,722
1,304
380
37
1,862
1,424
1,640
1,218
456
-34
114
89
24
290
228
61
810
624
205
-19
850
656
178
16
1,091
842
226
23
1,210
810
643
155
12
962
733
210
788
606
151
30
31
69
55
12
225
177
198
151
164
45
24
168
148
25
129
24
143
26
171
146
26
180
152
28
-5
-2
-4
-1
-0
91
70
20
206
148
56
547
379
166
589
406
644
416
212
780
504
262
895
588
307
892
191
585
395
189
-9
16
14
781
12
-6
Low-income economies
GDP
Total consumption
974
Middle-income economies
GDP
Total consumption
432
576
16
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
19
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
26
4
0
172
East Asia
GDP
Total consumption
South Asia
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
1980
1985
1987
1965
1973
69
60
220
184
49
277
225
65
295
239
67
328
268
12
97
81
17
-2
-1
-12
-13
-12
81
18
206
148
52
644
463
200
749
566
191
-18
100
78
20
254
201
54
714
550
173
-0
1,434
1,185
240
1986
1988
1989
1990a
71
350
285
79
351
289
76
374
313
79
-11
-14
-13
-17
858
652
240
810
614
206
808
590
219
828
598
242
-8
-33
-10
-0
-12
681
528
689
551
731
563
838
641
-10
121
33
122
16
149
19
175
22
964
746
188
30
3,401
2,595
774
27
8,096
6,256
1,787
9,156
7,321
1,802
11,130
8,848
2,211
12,924
10,224
2,640
14,504
11,302
3,130
-9
23
71
51
67
3,335
2,551
757
27
7,775
6,076
1,707
8,835
7,079
1,733
10,804
8,592
2,141
12,541
9,934
2,557
14,537
11,298
3,176
-9
23
71
51
14,073
10,977
3,029
67
358
4,790
3,658
1,098
15,411
12,164
3,210
37
19,570
15,126
4,385
20,443
15,736
4,658
35
13,067
10,334
2,696
37
17,522
13,748
3,720
11,796
9,087
2,738
-29
55
59
49
35
25
550
320
460
344
466
352
465
330
139
16
105
11
112
609
475
118
16
582
469
109
66
26
112
23
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
62
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
High-income economies
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
15,021
11,658
3,286
63
OECD members
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
1,413
1,169
235
9
63
Other economies
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
World
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
2,044
1,678
GDP
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Net exports
143
87
-26
Note: Components may not sum to totals because of rounding. Net exports include goods and nonfactor services, a. Preliminary data.
183
1965
1973
1980
1985
1987
1988
1989
79.5
20.5
18.8
76.1
23.2
21.7
74.4
27.0
23.9
76.0
23.7
21.1
74.7
24.7
22.6
73.8
25.8
23.5
74.2
26.0
22.9
81.5
19.0
18.1
76.7
22.5
21.0
74.4
25.5
24.6
76.4
26.9
22.4
73.7
28.4
24.9
73.4
29.2
25.1
73.9
28.5
24.5
77.7
21.5
19.5
75.6
23.5
22.2
74.3
27.8
23.6
75.8
22.1
20.5
75.2
23.1
21.5
74.1
24.2
22.7
74.4
24.9
78.2
20.8
18.9
78.8
21.1
18.6
77.0
25.3
20.2
76.9
19.2
17.6
77.2
20.9
18.2
76.2
21.9
19.4
77.2
20.7
17.6
84.8
13.9
13.0
80.1
17.8
16.1
78.6
20.0
18.0
87.2
12.1
9.4
85.7
15.9
9.8
87.0
15.7
7.7
85.7
15.1
8.9
77.0
22.3
22.8
71.9
27.2
25.5
69.4
30.4
29.4
69.0
32.5
29.2
64.6
33.0
33.7
64.5
33.6
34.0
65.6
34.2
33.1
86.0
16.8
13.5
83.6
17.0
16.0
83.4
22.0
16.7
81.2
23.6
17.9
81.9
21.6
17.1
81.5
22.5
17.3
82.2
21.6
76.3
22.4
18.9
71.9
25.2
25.2
71.8
31.0
26.9
75.6
25.5
22.4
75.8
25.4
22.2
73.0
27.1
25.0
72.2
29.2
78.6
20.3
19.0
78.9
21.2
19.0
77.1
24.3
20.4
77.5
17.7
17.2
77.0
20.4
18.4
76.5
20.9
18.9
77.4
19.5
17.2
82.7
16.7
17.7
76.3
22.7
24.1
77.3
22.1
23.3
80.0
19.7
20.5
79.1
20.4
21.1
77.9
21.6
22.2
77.6
21.9
22.6
82.8
16.6
17.7
76.5
22.7
24.1
78.2
22.0
22.4
80.1
19.6
20.2
79.2
20.4
20.9
78.0
21.5
22.1
77.7
21.8
22.4
82.0
17.5
17.9
76.3
22.9
23.7
76.6
23.2
23.4
79.1
20.6
20.6
78.5
21.2
21.3
77.3
22.3
22.3
77.1
22.6
22.5
72.1
20.1
19.9
61.1
24.2
33.7
58.2
25.9
41.1
78.0
19.4
22.8
74.8
22.9
26.5
75.5
24.1
24.2
71.0
24.1
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Low-income economies
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Middle-income economies
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Severely indebted middle-income economies
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Sub-Saha ran Africa
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
East Asia
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
South Asia
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
16.5
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Latin America and the Caribbean
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
High-income economies
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
OECD members
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Other economies
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
World
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
Total consumption
Gross domestic investment
Gross national savings
184
Table A.5 Investment, saving, and current account balance before official transfers
(percentage of GNP)
Balance of payments:
current account balance
Country
1965-73
1973-80
1980-89
19.7
25.4
21.3
14.3
18.9
21.8
19.0
13.3
18.6
32.0
20.6
24.1
12.0
31.1
23.4
24.9
24.0
17.3
18.8
25.5
26.7
18.7
24.9
20.2
24.2
23.9
15.7
34.2
15.5
12.2
21.5
18.1
20.4
27.4
23.2
13.5
17.0
25.2
23.1
26.2
12.3
22.0
16.6
29.3
22.8
12.8
12.3
22.6
19.1
20.0
9.7
16.3
14.7
13.8
11.9
19.9
9.8
31.9
21.8
34.0
29.1
9.5
23.7
38.2
18.3
12.8
11.0
25.4
8.7
17.2
15.8
23.9
22.3
27.8
20.6
24.3
24.5
31.2
28.7
22.0
29.1
26.9
17.2
16.1
15.8
21.3
32.6
14.0
44.6
29.3
32.0
25.9
1965-73
1973-80
1980-89
*Argentina
*Bolivia
*BraZil
*Chile
Colombia
*Costa Rica
*Ecuador
Guatemala
*Honduras
Jamaica
'Mexico
*peru
*Uruguay
*Venezuela
20.1
21.3
19.1
11.9
15.8
13.0
12.7
11.6
14.0
23.7
14.9
20.9
12.0
31.9
18.5
19.3
12.1
19.0
13.8
21.2
16.4
14.7
13.6
20.2
19.7
11.3
35.8
15.5
12.2
21.5
18.1
20.4
27.4
23.2
13.5
7.4
25.2
23.1
26.2
12.3
22.0
-4.1
-2.1
-2.4
-3.2
-8.8
-6.2
-1.7
-4.6
-8.4
-5.7
-3.2
-0.0
-11.7
-5.5
-2.3
-10.2
-6.6
-4.0
-4.2
-4.4
-4.3
-10.2
-1.8
-8.4
-3.0
-10.3
-6.6
-4.2
-9.6
-10.2
-1.8
-4.2
-2.3
0.8
1.6
1.6
-4.8
-23.6
-12.3
-2.5
-1.8
-9.7
-1.2
-18.8
-13.8
-4.6
-13,8
-11.0
-7.5
-5.2
-7.4
0.4
-6.4
-4.6
-5.2
0.2
Cameroon
*Congo, People's Rep.
*Cte d'Ivoire
Ethiopia
Ghana
Kenya
Liberia
Malawi
Niger
Nigeria
*Senegal
Sierra Leone
Sudan
Tanzania
Zaire
Zambia
8.7
26.0
28.7
29.6
23.8
22.8
17.5
14.1
16.3
23.9
9.7
28.5
4.2
.
19.2
15.8
13.8
16.0
13.4
13.0
11.8
17.0
10.4
16.8
6.9
6.9
16.3
27.5
10.8
10.0
24.4
4.2
23.7
38.2
18.3
12.8
25.4
.
-25.2
.
-1.8
-3.6
-5.5
19.2
15.8
13.8
16.0
-4.5
-13.0
-13.3
1.6
-1.4
-14.8
0.1
-2.8
9.7
11.0
17.1
14.2
34.3
-1.0
9.6
14.1
5.3
19.9
13.0
9.4
17.2
4.5
2.4
-13.3
-15.1
-6.8
-9.8
-4.4
-8.6
30.4
31.2
32.2
26.2
21.7
26.7
13.7
17.6
22.6
24.6
25.9
29.4
11.7
24.3
21.9
30.4
31.2
32.2
26.2
21.7
26.7
-2.1
-6.3
-5.3
1.6
0.2
0.6
-1.0
-2.1
-10.3
-4.8
-5.0
-2.9
-20.7
-4.1
-4.1
23.9
18.8
25.8
15.8
21.0
11.7
13.4
23.9
18.8
25.8
-1.4
-4.6
-0.3
-5.8
-7.2
-2.4
-4.0
-10.2
35.2
27.9
27.9
25.3
28.3
30.4
27.5
22.8
38.2
30.5
39.0
18.2
32.0
16.8
35.2
27.9
27.9
25.3
28.3
30.4
27.5
22.8
38.2
-2.2
-4.7
-5.6
-11.1
-0.8
-11.7
9.4
17.2
-4.1
-0.9
-2.8
-10.2
-9.7
-7.0
-12.2
East Asia
Indonesia
Korea, Rep.
Malaysia
Papua New Guinea
*philippines
Thailand
19.7
22.1
South Asia
India
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Europe, Middle East, and North Africa
Algeria
15.1
17.5
20.6
26.6
23.3
18.5
29.9
29.7
29.9
21.8
35.6
11.2
9.3
.
13.6
.
17.8
16.0
27.1
29.7
23.2
18.1
32.9
-1.5
.
-5.5
-2.5
-2.7
Note: Asterisks indicate severely indebted middle-income economies. Figures in italics are for years other than specified.
-9.0
-5.6
.
-6.1
-2.9
-6.7
-3.7
-2.7
-5.6
-2.1
a. Excludes transfers,
1965-69.
185
1989 GDP
(billions of
dollars)
1965-73
1973-80
1980-89
1987
1988
1989
3,303
996
2,308
6.5
5.3
7.0
4.7
4.5
4.7
3.8
6.2
2.9
3.8
5.9
2.9
4.3
8.1
2.7
2.9
4.1
2.4
2.3
4.5
1,091
6.4
5.2
1.9
2.8
1.3
1.3
-1.6
171
4.8
8.1
3.6
7.7
6.5
3.2
6.6
4.2
3.9
5.0
2.1
7.9
5.1
2.9
1.6
0.2
8.9
4.3
1.2
3.1
2.9
9.7
8.2
2.1
0.5
2.9
5.5
4.5
1.5
895
351
828
964
1.5
1.3
-0.8
-0.7
15,021
14,537
4.8
4.7
3.1
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.4
4.4
4.4
3.4
3.3
2.6
2.6
20,443
5.0
8.3
3.3
3.7
3.1
0.8
3.5
4.4
2.5
3.3
2.2
2.5
-0.3
1.1
6.7
4.2
a. Preliminary data.
1965
Agricul-
Count ry group
186
ture
19
38
33
15
34
32
35
12
37
39
19
33
12
36
33
37
18
31
13
36
33
37
18
31
12
36
34
37
33
14
33
11
37
11
36
11
36
11
36
20
35
31
35
21
43
25
40
19
28
29
35
32
44
22
33
27
31
26
41
24
30
25
29
25
42
24
31
24
30
13
41
14
37
15
37
31
44
19
31
17
41
42
44
28
34
24
38
16
16
33
12
33
10
37
10
37
10
37
5
5
42
43
3
3
37
36
31
34
34
37
37
31
10
40
37
37
35
32
13
48
10
54
14
38
13
35
19
32
12
38
37
36
24
43
23
32
24
32
27
44
26
15
35
15
10
37
14
35
14
35
Agriculture
Count ry group
1965-73
1973 -80
1980-89
1965-73
Industry
1973-80
1980-89
1965-73
1973-80
1980-89
3.1
2.9
3.3
2.5
2.1
3.0
3.3
4.0
2.6
8.3
8.8
8.1
4.9
6.6
4.4
4.5
8.6
3.0
7.3
5.8
7.7
6.4
5.5
6.6
3.5
6.2
2.8
2.8
3.2
2.1
7.4
5.9
1.5
7.3
5.9
1.9
2.4
3.2
3.1
1.1
2.5
2.0
5.2
2.9
10.4
12.4
3.9
4.3
9.4
5.5
0.7
10.4
6.7
3.4
9.8
4.0
4.2
7.2
5.3
2.3
7.7
6.3
2.9
1.9
7.5
5.4
3.1
1.6
7.5
5.8
2.7
1.6
2.8
2.4
4.1
2.2
.
3.3
Services
-2.3
-2.5
1.5
1.3
10.9
10.9
1.9
1.7
2.1
2.2
12.6
12.6
0.7
0.6
3.1
3.1
0.2
2.7
2.6
5.4
10.6
9.8
2.3
1.4
2.4
-1.1
12.1
1.2
9.8
3.2
7.9
1.9
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
Low-income economies
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
Middle-income economies
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
Severely indebted middle-income
economies
Primary goods
Manufactures
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Primary goods
Manufactures
East Asia
Primary goods
Manufactures
South Asia
Primary goods
Manufactures
1980-87
1987
10.9
4.1
11.6
-5.1
3.1
7.3
13.0
4.6
2.8
3.4
1.8
0.3
1.3
7.0
-4.2
-3.1
7.2
8.6
8.6
20.4
-0.4
14.7
2.4
3.5
1.4
3.9
4.2
0.8
3.7
7.7
-3.2
9.1
0.1
6.0
5.1
7.1
-3.3
-0.1
2.6
5.6
-0.5
-0.3
-1.6
10.3
10.2
18.9
8.6
3.5
1.2
5.3
4.7
3.6
3.3
2.9
0.6
2.2
6.0
11.9
6.7
13.1
10.0
4.5
5.6
1.9
-2.9
-0.5
7.7
13.7
1.1
13.2
2.8
0.9
10.9
3.6
8.2
4.1
20.7
12.1
14.2
14.7
5.8
-0.2
-0.8
-1.8
-2.0
2.7
4.4
9.7
2.4
6.0
2.4
28.4
-9.2
10.6
8.4
28.3
9.4
5.0
17.1
9.6
4.6
13.8
13.2
11.4
-3.3
-0.8
25.0
18.2
0.7
-0.2
-1.9
4.5
2.1
6.3
5.4
3.7
6.2
12.0
6.8
10.6
-5.3
-2.2
22.8
11.1
1965-73
5.1
4.0
2.5
5.3
2.4
5.4
10.9
10.4
12.7
0.6
23.6
6.4
6.6
3.9
2.1
3.0
1.8
1.3
5.0
14.7
0.6
-1.4
15.6
1.1
1973-80
3.5
1.2
4.9
-0.8
-1.2
3.2
8.1
13.9
2.5
7.4
-7.0
-10.0
10.7
21.6
8.1
20.0
1988
9.8
4.1
1989
4.9
2.7
6.3
-4.9
-5.7
-5.6
23.9
-0.6
-1.4
-4.9
0.9
6.3
.
187
1980-87
1987
1988
1989
-0.6
4.8
11.2
10.4
3.0
3.4
2.3
6.1
9.0
5.6
17.1
10.5
4.9
25.0
2.0
4.5
16.7
2.2
0.2
9.5
10.1
8.8
6.2
13.4
4.2
8.2
10.7
5.2
3.8
8.0
1.0
4.7
9.8
5.6
3.4
5.0
4.0
17.5
5.7
2.4
-1.3
-0.4
9.5
5.7
6.2
8.4
2.9
8.2
10.6
1965-73
.
1973 -80
Primary goods
Manufactures
Latin America and the Caribbean
Primary goods
Manufactures
High-income economies
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
OECD members
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
-0.4
-1.9
1.4
4.3
-2.7
-4.6
-2.5
-9.4
10.1
3.3
2.9
1.6
-2.4
-11.8
-12.9
4.0
5.3
7.6
5.4
6.4
8.0
3.7
6.2
9.7
5.2
3.8
4.1
4.2
4.5
3.6
5.5
10.5
17.8
5.5
4.5
5.2
2.1
-4.0
-2.5
-0.9
1.5
-3.1
3.7
-11.6
-13.9
3.7
4.4
7.5
2.7
9.2
6.9
4.9
9.8
3.7
7.3
10.7
4.9
2.8
7.0
0.3
4.1
9.1
6.2
3.6
1.9
4.1
6.0
4.0
15.8
6.4
0.4
2.8
0.4
-1.2
-7.6
9.1
2.5
1.6
4.2
1.2
0.6
6.7
-6.4
-9.3
8.3
8.2
8.2
-1.8
-1.1
-5.7
-0.8
-2.5
-6.2
-6.8
-1.7
-7.5
-19.8
-9.6
-9.9
-26.3
-17.0
17.7
17.4
17.7
15.5
42.2
8.3
15.5
1.6
6.5
2.8
Other economies
World
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
Primary goods
Food
Fuels
Nonfood primary
Metals and minerals
Manufactures
188
-5.6
8.8
6.6
-3.2
32.7
20.6
-10.0
-3.9
22.4
2.7
7.3
Country group
1973-80
1980-87
1987
1988
1989
6.1
5.8
5.9
9.0
3.1
2.7
5.8
14.7
18.5
8.3
29.5
9.8
4.0
6.8
-4.6
-6.9
-2.7
-9.7
-3.9
-3.3
-0.9
8.5
9.5
3.0
0.4
2.1
4.8
6.1
6.1
6.7
4.3
2.2
4.6
10.3
8.6
5.1
19.4
6.7
4.6
10.7
-4.1
-3.5
-6.8
-3.1
-2.4
0.1
1.0
2.1
1.9
0.5
1965-73
Export prices
0.4
1.8
-7.4
15.1
23.4
22.6
11.7
6.0
-14.3
11.8
3.7
8.4
16.0
17.0
20.1
31.6
6.5
-1.4
-1.8
-11.1
9.6
19.0
13.9
26.0
47.5
6.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
-2.0
-2.0
-1.2
-5.4
5.6
5.3
8.2
4.7
Terms of trade
2.8
-6.7
-3.7
-3.8
-2.8
-5.7
-2.3
3.1
5.4
0.3
-3.1
5.7
1.2
-1.3
-1.1
-2.2
-3.3
0.3
1.4
-3.9
-0.1
-0.4
-0.9
-1.5
-0.4
-9.0
0.1
21.1
3.3
3.3
.
13.5
1.3
-4.3
-3.9
0.6
-0.5
0.6
3.3
1.2
1.8
0.9
0.2
8.0
1.2
2.5
-9.7
-1.8
-6.0
2.2
7.2
0.0
0.5
-0.1
-0.4
-0.4
-22.5
0.1
6.6
189
1970-73
1973-80
1980-87
1988
1989
1990
17.9
15.2
20.7
22.6
18.0
26.1
15.0
18.5
12.9
-2.1
0.8
12.1
-4.4
-0.1
4.0
-3.5
16.7
14.7
16.5
14.1
26.0
23.8
18.3
17.5
20.0
5.5
4.3
7.7
5.5
6.8
3.3
8.8
12.0
2.8
18.4
15.6
20.0
24.7
21.2
26.5
14.2
19.1
12.0
-4.6
-1.2
-6.6
-2.2
2.3
3.5
12.2
-5.0
-2.4
16.8
12.6
18.6
25.2
22.0
26.5
16.2
25.4
12.9
-4.8
-2.4
0.1
3.5
17.9
-7.6
3.5
-6.1
-6.2
20.1
17.1
25.5
23.9
22.4
26.2
18.1
1.7
2.1
0.9
4.2
8.7
-5.1
10.7
14.2
2.4
23.4
26.5
20.7
22.7
17.9
26.6
17.9
20.3
16.5
-0.7
-0.0
1.7
1.4
-2.5
-1.1
6.7
13.4
1.4
11.6
12.3
1.5
11.2
10.4
24.5
15.5
12.1
33.9
5.9
4.1
11.4
7.9
6.5
11.8
8.9
8.7
9.6
22.3
16.3
32.2
31.1
26.7
35.8
13.4
17.3
-2.0
-2.4
-1.5
1.1
1.4
0.8
8.7
11.8
5.1
16.8
11.6
18.9
21.6
15.2
23.5
14.3
21.3
12.7
-5.6
-4.2
-1.3
1.2
3.8
12.1
-7.9
-7.2
-7.0
Private
5.0
-1.4
Low-income economies
Private
Severely indebted middle-income economies
Private
Sub-Saha ran Africa
Private
22.0
12.6
East Asia
Private
South Asia
Private
Europe, Middle East, and North Africa
Private
9.7
Private
190
1970-72
1980-82
1989
1970-72
1980-82
1989
1973-75
1980-82
1989
12.6
58.2
30.7
46.0
68.1
39.8
51.4
47.5
73.8
7.4
19.5
65.3
15.6
44.2
30.8
9.0
49.3
11.9
11.1
46.1
36.8
29.5
71.0
62.6
68.3
10.9
58.0
39.4
21.1
3.6
18.6
81.7
27.0
32.9
52.6
52.6
38.6
76.0
81.4
83.9
20.9
82.3
46.7
23.2
3.2
87.4
41.8
69.3
54.0
31.9
60.2
48.6
52.5
26.3
92.6
80.5
34.7
84.4
55.8
69.2
91.0
50.7
88.1
88.9
53.9
63.2
70.5
29.0
37.4
31.7
89.1
42.0
60.6
78.9
96.4
81.4
18.3
73.0
67.1
47.4
47.4
61.4
24.0
18.6
16.1
79.1
17.7
53.3
76.8
96.8
6.6
7.3
26.1
8.3
5.4
15.5
8.2
3.5
1.8
4.7
31.8
44.2
16.1
10.1
17.2
29.2
28.4
46.0
23.4
33.7
42.4
37.2
5.6
18.9
17.3
61.4
42.1
22.9
28.5
57.8
80.4
24.2
66.3
53.9
42.2
43.7
63.3
10.3
82.2
86.5
51.6
87.3
58.0
58.3
81.1
85.8
97.0
68.8
63.2
60.6
86.9
61.0
42.5
22.0
56.6
45.3
24.3
90.9
90.3
54.8
74.0
72.2
41.0
15.1
69.1
67.4
75.1
75.5
65.9
69.7
72.7
58.4
41.1
87.5
91.9
72.5
82.8
95.1
73.9
47.6
93.9
82.7
78.4
94.5
89.2
86.1
17.8
13.5
48.4
12.7
41.9
41.7
19.0
14.2
2.9
31.2
36.8
39.4
13.1
39.0
57.5
78.0
43.4
54.7
75.7
9.1
9.7
45.2
25.9
27.8
59.0
84.9
30.9
32.6
24.9
24.5
34.1
30.3
27.3
41.6
58.9
12.5
8.2
27.5
17.2
4.9
26.1
52.4
6.1
17.3
21.6
5.5
10.8
14.0
1.8
11.3
15.1
36.9
2.1
0.0
10.1
16.9
21.9
13.4
48.0
9.4
0.0
9.6
0.3
11.9
10.2
9.7
31.7
35.4
5.2
1.4
3.7
11.3
3.7
7.7
37.8
72.3
35.2
51.0
6.1
22.6
40.1
51.7
34.3
21.9
23.4
31.4
39.1
61.0
37.3
23.6
34.8
53.0
42.5
27.7
64.8
49.0
93.8
77.4
59.9
48.3
65.7
78.1
76.6
68.6
60.9
39.0
62.7
76.4
65.2
47.0
57.5
4.9
15.1
11.8
17.4
0.0
7.2
0.4
29.0
36.7
22.9
24.1
22.4
27.8
20.2
43.9
16.4
41.6
24.9
95.1
90.5
81.6
83.9
92.6
79.5
59.3
93.9
85.1
4.9
9.5
18.4
16.1
7.4
20.5
40.7
6.1
14.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
3.2
12.9
16.7
10.6
3.5
48.3
70.9
0.0
22.4
82.4
79.1
55.9
36.6
24.7
60.1
63.3
23.6
28.5
82.3
11.7
76.6
68.5
19.7
72.2
46.8
37.5
51.7
29.1
0.0
20.9
7.7
70.7
28.6
7.8
62.5
77.6
17.6
87.9
44.1
63.4
75.3
39.9
36.7
76.4
71.5
17.7
88.3
23.4
31.5
80.3
27.8
53.2
62.5
33.9
2.1
0.0
2.7
11.3
0.0
0.0
0.8
3.2
23.4
2.5
81.3
27.2
47.0
33.9
13.6
23.0
10.1
32.3
8.9
64.4
39.7
64.0
29.8
19.4
29.8
55.8
*Argentina
*Bolivia
*Brazil
*Chile
Colombia
*Costa Rica
*Ecuador
Guatemala
*Honduras
Jamaica
*Mexico
*Nicaragua
*Peru
*Uruguay
*Venezuela
19.0
23.8
75.3
18.4
28.7
70.4
73.9
Cameroon
*Congo, People's Rep.
*Cte d'Ivoire
Ethiopia
Ghana
Kenya
Liberia
Malawi
Niger
Nigeria
*Senegal
Sierra Leone
Sudan
Tanzania
Zaire
Zambia
0.0
19.1
1.5
0.0
2.1
0.0
2.3
0.0
0.7
24.5
3.8
2.2
0.4
32.8
20.7
1.5
1.2
14.2
2.4
5.3
14.3
East Asia
Indonesia
Korea, Rep.
Malaysia
Papua New Guinea
*Philippines
Thailand
South Asia
India
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Europe, Middle East, and North
Africa
Algeria
*Egypt, Arab Rep.
*Hungary
*Morocco
*Poland
Portugal
Tunisia
Turkey
Yugoslavia
92.3
29.3
71.4
92.2
37.5
12.1
191
Contents
Key 195
Introduction, maps, and charts 198
Tables
1
Basic indicators
204
Production
2
3
4
5
6
7
Domestic absorption
Growth of consumption and investment 218
Structure of demand 220
10 Structure of consumption 222
Fiscal and monetary accounts
11 Central government expenditure 224
12 Central government current revenue 226
13 Money and interest rates 228
8
9
30
31
254
268
Box A.1 Basic indicators for economies with populations of less than 1 million 271
Box A.2 Selected indicators for other economies 272
Key
In each table, economies are listed within their
groups in ascending order of GNP per capita, ex-
have been made from the most recent demographic surveys (as reported by the UN Population Division's PRED Bank database). This
information is included to demonstrate that demographic indicators are derived from sources that
are sometimes old and because the currentness of
Country
ranking
in tables
Afghanistan
Algeria
35
Angola
Argentina
Australia
42
Austria
Bangladesh
Belgium
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia
Botswana
78
76
107
Figures in colored bands in the tables are summary measures for groups of economies.
Official
Population
census
population
estimate
1979
1987
1970
1980
1986
1989
1987
1975
1990
1990
113
5
112
25
36
1981
1981
1981
1979
1969*
1989
1989
1988
1989
1980
43
68
1976
1981
1980
1985
1985
1989
57
1979
1976*
116
26
1986
1975*
1989
1989
1989
1986
1978
Brazil
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
85
79
Burundi
Cameroon
Canada
Central African Rep.
Chad
10
18
1964
1989
1990
1988
1990
Life
expectancy
Infant
mortality
Total
fertility
1976-80
1983
1979-81
1986*
1986*
1981
1984*
1983
1983
1986*
1987*
1981*
1987*
1977-81
1970-75
172*
1976-80
1979*
1975*
1987*
1985*
1971
1970-71
1958-65
1985*
19S4'
1974-78
1986*
1970
1984
1984
1976-80
1984*
1986*
1986*
1986*
1976-SO
1984
1976_80*
1984*
198186*
1985*
1960-61
1981_86*
1976-SO
1986*
1966-70
1963-64
195
Country
ranking
in tables
Population
census
population
estimate
71
21
63
55
72
1982
1990
1985
1984
1984
1989
1990
1988
1984
1989
Cte d'Ivoire
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Dominican Rep.
Ecuador
49
92
118
50
59
1975*
1980
1981
1981
1982
1983
1990
1990
1988
1989
44
62
2
121
114
1986
1971
1984
1985
1990
1989
1989
1990
1990
1990
Gabon
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
89
117
27
97
54
1961*
1985
1989
1987
1989
1990
Guinea
Haiti
Honduras
tHong Kong
Hungary
30
22
53
104
86
1983
1982
1974*
20
33
90
98
101
1981*
1980*
1986
1987
1986
1989
1989
1990
1987
1990
103
109
65
123
69
1983
1981
1982
1985
1979
1990
1990
1989
1989
1976
37
23
94
111
6
1962
1969
1989
1990
1989
1985
1970
1976*
Madagascar
80
32
38
96
12
Malawi
Malaysia
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
7
77
16
34
74
1987
1980
1987
1977*
Mexico
75
81
51
Chile
China
Colombia
Congo, People's Rep.
Costa Rica
India
Indonesia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Iraq
Ireland
tlsrael
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kampuchen, Dem.
Kenya
Korea, Rep.
fKuwait
LaoPDR
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
196
39
60
8
110
106
82
Official
1987
1984
1981
1981
1986
1980
1979*
1985
1985
1985
1988
1989
1989
1989
1990
Life
expectancy
1981-83
1986
1981*
1983*
1986
1986*
1981_86*
1979-81
1970
1982_84*
1984
1984*
1977-81
1986*
1985_86*
1975-77
1970-72
1984_86*
1970_72*
1984*
1985*
1986*
1986*
1986*
1987*
1981
1985*
1986*
1986*
1986*
1984*
1986*
1980_82*
1980*
1980-82
1986*
1981-83
1971-80
1973-76
1980*
1977_79*
1985_86*
1987*
1981-83
1976*
1973_76*
1985*
1970
1986*
1983*
1983*
1986*
1986*
1969-71
1976-78
1986*
1986*
1979
1978
1975
1978-79
1984-85
1986*
1981_86*
1985*
1985*
1983*
1981*
1985*
1985*
1984*
1981_86*
1971_75*
1971-75
1986*
1986*
1985*
1982
1986*
1981-86
1975*
1971_75*
1982
1984*
1985*
1984-85
1985
*
1990
1989
1982
1980
1983
1990
1989
1982
1989
1987
1986
1981_86*
1954-55
1970-71
1973-75
1985-86
1983
1986
1971
198186*
1960-61
1966-77
1971-81
1970
1989
1990
1990
1985*
1986*
1980
1982
1989
1989
1989
1977
1989
1970
1981
1971*
1975-80
1987*
1986*
1981_86*
1982*
1970
1975
1974-75
Total
fertility
1981
1983
1970
1989
1989
1989
1985
1984
1984
Infant
mortality
1975
1981_86*
1981_86*
1971-75
1976-80
1974
1984
1984
1981_86*
1976_80*
1971-81
1975
1979-81
1966-70
1976-80
1%9
1984*
1983
1984-86
1985
1979_81*
1986*
1980*
1981_85*
1975
1976-80
1972*
1974-76
1985*
1985*
1982*
1972_76*
1987*
1986*
1985*
1986*
1985*
Country
ranking
population
estimate
17
13
177
1988
1963
1980
95
24
1981
1988
1988
1990
1985
1990
in tables
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Official
Population
census
Life
expectancy
Infant
mortality
*
1984_85*
1986*
1972-81
1985
1972_81*
1970-80
1985-87
Total
fertility
1960
1976_80*
1985*
1985
70
52
61
58
48
1980
1980
1982
1981
1980*
1990
1989
1989
1990
1989
1978
1981
1977
1978
1974
1989
1989
1990
1985
1989
1986*
1986*
1984*
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
73
93
99
19
100
Senegal
Sierra Leone
tSingapore
Somalia
South Africa
45
11
105
4
84
1988
1985
1980
1975*
1970-71
1964-73
1984_86*
1985
1988
1985
1989
1975
1985
102
31
40
120
124
1981
1981
1983
1985
1980
1990
1989
1983
1990
1989
1980_81*
56
3
64
28
91
1981
1978*
1989
1989
1989
1988
1988
1976-78
1979-81
1975
1983*
1969*
1981_83*
66
67
14
115
108
1984
1985
1980
1980*
1968-69
1970-80
1981*
1976*
*
1984*
1983*
1969*
1981
1986
1989
1980
1983
1989
1983_85*
1975
1987*
1981
1986*
119
87
83
41
46
1980k
1985
1981
1989
1989
1989
1989
1989
1986*
1987*
Yugoslavia
88
Zaire
Zambia
Zimbabwe
15
1981
1984
1980
1982
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Spain
Sn Lanka
Sudan
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Uganda
tUnited Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Viet Nam
Yemen, Rep.
29
47
1980
1981
1980
1990
1989
1989
1989
1986
1976-80
1982
1972
1979-81
1978*
1981_86*
1979_81*
1986*
1981_86*
1984*
1987*
1986*
1985*
1986*
1985*
1985*
1981-86
1980
1981_85*
1981_86*
1971
1986_87*
1971-75
1986*
1976-80
1970
1980-81
1980
1985*
1982_83*
*
1986*
1985_86*
1975
1979-81
1974-76
1981
1984_85*
1987*
1987*
1976-78
1984*
1981_86*
1976_80*
1986*
1985*
1976-80
1976-80
1981_86*
1971_75*
1981_86*
1986*
1976-80
1985
1981
1986
*
1981*
1987*
1972*
1983*
1971_75*
1970
1980*
1976-80
1984*
197
Introduction
The World Development Indicators provide infor-
mation on the main features of social and economic development. Most of the data collected by
the World Bank are on the low- and middle-income economies. Because comparable data for
high-income economies are readily available, these
following broad areas: production, domestic absorption, fiscal and monetary accounts, core international transactions, external finance, and human
and natural resources.
In this edition, a new table on the environment
has been added, and changes have been made to
the external debt tables and the table on urbanization. Methodological revisions in the underlying
198
wise stated. The various methods used for converting from national currency figures are described in the technical notes.
The Bank continually reviews methodologies in
ditions to the external debt tables include additional debt service ratios.
Data supplied by the UN Population Division on
the population of capital cities and the percentage
of population residing in cities of 1 million or more
in 1990 have been added to Table 31, Urbanization.
are adjusted by Bank staff to conform to international definitions and concepts to provide better
consistency and to incorporate latest estimates.
For ease of reference, only ratios and rates of
capita incomes of $581 to $5,999, and 25 high-income economies. Four new Bank members are included in the middle-income category: Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, Mongolia, and Namibia. Data for
generally available from other World Bank publications, notably the 1991 edition of the World Tables.
cludes Albania, Cuba, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and the USSR, are shown only as
aggregates in the main tables because of paucity of
data, differences in methods of computing national income, and difficulties of conversion. Some
growth rates reflect general trends that are not unduly influenced by exceptional values, particularly
at the end points. To exclude the effects of inflation, constant price economic indicators are used
in calculating growth rates. Details of this methodology are given at the beginning of the technical
notes. Data in italics indicate that they are for years
199
median values (m) calculated for groups of economies. Countries for which individual estimates
are not shown, because of size, nonreporting, or
insufficient history, have been included by assum-
Germany and the Republic of Yemen, both recently unified, do not yet have fully merged statistical systems. Throughout the tables, all data for
Germany refer only to the former Federal Republic, but data for the Republic of Yemen, where they
are shown, refer to the whole country. As in previous editions, the data for China do not include
Taiwan, China, but footnotes to Tables 14, 15, 16,
and 18 provide estimates of the international transactions for Taiwan, China.
The table format of this edition follows that used
Groups of economies
Countries are colored to show their income
group; for example, all low-income economies (those with a GNP per capita of $580 or
less in 1989) are colored yellow. The groups
are those used in the tables that follow.
Low-income economies
Middle-income economies
High-income economies
Data not available
Soiree
Jaiica
Hordurs
Guaternal;'-
ruraguo
ELSalvador
Cons Rlu'nu../ I
Parahrrar
Sennazel
Guya a
'erelrGurarna (Fr)
Kaibati
Brazil
dame, (US)
Boliala
Tongo
Paraguay
duad,ioupe (Fr)
St KGO
and Neuls
Danniniea
Nelnrarrds
daMaen,,que (Fr)
ArtrJl,a (Seth)
3 St Lucia
I Barbados
Sen Grenadlees..
J.
Grenada
o
-
Venezuela
200
r3
Trinidad
and Tab050
concepts used. It should also be noted that country notes to the World Tables provide additional ex-
planations of sources used, breaks in comparability, and other exceptions to standard statistical
practices that have been identified by Bank staff on
national accounts and international transactions.
Fa,rnelslarids Norwa
UelennebeoBBtgeanatlseMeeebtua
lreIard,
Ia
Clraon,lIola,nje (UK)
Netherlarde
Mongolia
Belgiu ii,
Luxembour
Switzerlao
Andorra
Portugal
Twliy
'Maniro
Monatn.
Gibraltar (Vi)
China
niuM0l1a
Afgh,nretar
Jo
Pakistae
ue(aB
Algeria
Nepal BR9tOn
eakraie
Nab Rap.
at Egypt
Spa
.OatSt
Bangladesh
India
Myanmar \
Maoae (Port)
Mauritania
Cape Verde
Mali
Niger
Chad
Sudan
The Sanrbia
Suaini)S)
Ba tuna
Suirea-Oissuu
Guinea
Nigeria
Sierra Leone
Ethrtpla
COBB
dIaeire
Lanka
Central Atritan
Liberia
Camaroon
Rep
, Maldiuen
Ttgt
Uganda Ken
Ptepiee
Equartrinl Uuieea
Set Ttrny and Prinurpe
n...
lie
ettbe
Cnngo
Nauru
an
SNeer Rep
_)ojbdbab
Raeanpu
Buruedi
Zaire
Tateatia s
T
troUevtRellea
Angola
Maytte
Zarrrbo
Mteanrbiqu
Zar,babwe
Nairnibia
M audtiva
CNeee
Potuwana
Uwaarlaed
(Fr)
Reunion (Fn)
(Fr)
Leeatha/
')Utebr Atnica
Wd
201
Population
0-15 million
15-50 million
50-100 million
100 million or more
Infant mortality
Years
150
80
Life expectancy
100
50
1965
1989
Low-income economies
Middle-income economies
2000
1965
1975
1989
High-income economies
Other economies
Note: For explanations of terms or methods, see the technical notes for Tables 27, 28, and 32.
202
1965
1975
1989
0-9 percent
10-19 percent
20-39 percent
40 percent or more
The value added by a country's agricultural sector divided by the gross domestic
product gives the share of agriculture
in GDE The map classifies countries by
those shares. For example, countries
whose shares of agriculture in GDP
range from 0 to 9 percent are colored
yellow. The shares say nothing about
I:;'
-5
-6
-7
Low-income
economies
Middle-income
economies
Severely indebted
middle-income economies
Sub-Saharan
Africa
The current account balance (on goods, services, income, and all unrequited transfers)
represents transactions that add to or subtract from an economy's stock of foreign financial
items. For some purposes, however, official unrequited transfers (mainly foreign aid
grants, food aid, and technical assistance) are treated as being closely akin to official capital
movements. A measure of the current account balance before official transfers, sometimes
referred to as "total to be financed," is then appropriate. For further information, see the
technical note for Table 18, but note that the table reports dollar values for each measure in
1970 and 1989, while the chart traces period averages relative to GDP throughout the penod.
-8
[1
Note: For explanations of terms or methods, see the technical note for Table 18.
203
Low-income economies
China and India
Other low-income
I
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzaniab
Somalia
Bangladesh
6
7
LaoPDR
Nepal
Chad
Malawi
2,948.4 I
1,946.41
1,002.01
15.3
49.5
23.8
6.1
110.7
4.1
8.2
18.4
5.5
10
Burundi
5.3
II
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
4.0
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
2!
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1989
36,664 1
12,849 1
330 w
350 w
2.9 w
3.6 w
23,8161
300w
1.4w
802
1,222
945
638
80
144
237
118
141
1,284
28
120
130
170
180
180
180
180
190
-0.1
-0.1
0.3
0.4
.
0.6
-1.2
3.6
0.2
2.345
8.8
6.9
832.5
1,240
1,267
274
26
3.288
270
290
320
320
340
China
1,113.9
9,56!
Haiti
Kenya
6.4
23.5
109.9
28
580
796
4.6
113
350
360
360
370
380
3.0
623
14.4
239
57
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
Pakistan
Beam
Zambia
Guinea
11.3
113.8
16.8
34.5
8.2
7.4
3.5
7.8
246
16.8
1.7
l78.2
66
30
1,905
l,026
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
1.9
36
37
38
39
40
Bhutan
Kanipuchea,Dem.
Liberia
Ms'anmar
1.4
4!
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
Angola
Bolivia
45
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Egypt.ArabRep.
. .
2.5
430
470
500
500
1965-80
8.0 w
3.2 w
19.2 w
.
3.4
9.6
10.2
14,8
0.2
-2.8
-2.0
1.7
-2.4
1.4
1.2
1.8
5.7
0.3
1980-89
34.9
2.0
42.8
49
48
49
48
10.6
51
94
78
88
67
24
69
56
59
26.1
9.1
1.5
52
47
3.7
49
7.9
7.7
14,7
54.l
42
17.8
14.2
21.4
24.7
9.0
108.1
5!
5!
49
59.4
53
3.6
3.4
4.6
48
45
48
49
59
12.5
7.5
4.0
-0.4
5.8
6.8
9.0
7.7
41
6.3
38.3
60
40
59
24
83
72
9.4
6.7
35.5
7.6
4.9
10.9
12.8
71
17
13
56
16
26
8.3
61
35
26
9.4
46
-2.0
3.0
5.0
4.4
-0.5
84
62
70
74
48
65
61
11.5
2,040 w
1,360 w
2.3 w
2.0 w
20.9 w
22.2 w
73.0 w
65.7 w
5.7
5.6
4.7
7.1
13.4
3.3
3.1
6.8
7.9
0.3
15.0
475
1,285
284
824
407
1,000
1,010
1,020
1,030
1,030
3.2
-0.2
9.0
20.6
160.3
3.0
10.9
34.4
13.4
21
1,070
1,200
1,220
1,260
1,260
1,247
1,099
1,001
197
463
112
5.1
32.3
55.4
1,139
Jamaica
2.4
II
Tunisia
8.0
164
513
. .
-0.8
15.9
4.2
6.4
-0.7
6.5
66w
65w
31w
32w
25 w
26 w
46
391.9
11.0
7.3
54
35
60
70
48
48
81
11.0
14.8
3.1
33
IS
26
69
19.1
64
64
53
67
7.4
61
23
78
57
23
67
54
65
63
54
66
65
42
53
45
57
55
57
62
66
57
67
55
22
20
44
15
12
63
69
66
31
28
13
12
12
6.6
3.0
9.3
23.2
-0.4
7.0
2.3
4.2
17.5
-1.3
12.8
3.3
6.7
16.8
24.3
3.2
18.5
7.5
6.2
50
66
109
342
185
4.2
51
81
57
72
33
8.1
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
31
71
0.2
0.6
0.9
Paraguay
45
65
55
54
54
43
890
900
910
940
980
62
63
64
65
66
71
70
55
59
55
5!
51
6.7
5.9
61
87
53
57
6.5
2.5
2.3
Namibia
86
94
67
5.1
9.4
11.6
83
91
43.6
0.8
10.3
1.7
39
89
7.1
790
790
880
21.2
33
58
43
8.2
22.9
5.8
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
71
0.5
11.7
57
58
59
60
55
55
66
0.0
1.6
12.1
79
38
69
74
75
-1.5
1.2
SyrianArabRep.
89
74
7.4
7l0
56
88
-0.1
650
3.8
5.0
8.9
2.2
38
.
6.7
7.5
300
322
49
447
PapuaNewGuinea
62
10.3
391
52
53
54
55
78
2.5
9.5
60.0
7.0
24.5
44 w
42 w
SI w
2.0
528
Morocco
58 w
56 w
62 w
7.3
7.2
11.2
SI
55w
49
48
7.5
6.4
Total
1985
62 w
65 w
610
620
640
650
650
11.7
1985
111
40,406 1
23,921 I
51.0
7.2
1989
9.1 w
6.6 w
14.9w
47
1,104.5 I
681.81
9.7
7.1
Female
14.6
(percent)
(yeart)
7.4
7.8
6.2
5.0
Adult illiieracv
birth
181
677
2.506
330
49
50
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
390
390
390
390
430
-1.9
652
40.8
24.5
64.8
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cote d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Honduras
753
5.6
32
33
34
35
Sudan
72
587
924
236
expectancy
(percent)
1.0
Lift
Average annuala
rate of inflation
220
230
250
250
260
Sri Lanka
47
48
Dollars
Average annual
growth rate
(percent)
1965-89
220
31
46
Area
(thousands
of square
kilometers)
73
66
59
26
56
72
14
4!
45
37
40
15
18
59
46
Note: Economies with populations of less than I million are included only as pan of the country groups in the main tables, but are shown in greater detail in Box A. I. Other
economies not listed in the main tables nor in Box A. I, but also included in the aggregates, are uhown in greater detail in Box A.2. For data comparability and coverage
throughout the tables, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
204
Population
(millions)
mid-1989
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordanc
Panama
Chile
55.0
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
2.7
37.9
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
81
82
Upper-middle-income
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaty
Uruguay
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
Iraq
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Ronsania
SubSaharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
1.2
3.9
2.4
13.0
1.1
84.6
31.9
17.4
24.4
9.0
.
2.1
3.7
422.7 I
Area
(thousands
of square
kilometers)
313
2
1,958
2,767
330
2,382
111
10
16,485 I
93
177
10.3
42.4
92
99
1.5
212
1,760
132
438
238
77,071 1
23,066 1
15,582 1
5,1581
11,6581
421.21
554.3 I
830.4 I
772.6 I
57.81
20,385 1
21,059 1
33,875 I
31,165 1
100 tSaudiArabia
14.4
2,150
101
Ireland
102
103
Spain
3.5
38.8
4.5
5.7
2.7
3.3
70
505
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
tlsrael
104 IHong Kong
105 tSingapore
2,7101
21
1
106
107
108
109
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
57.2
57.5
245
Italy
110
Netherlands
14.8
37
2.0
18
31
111 tKuwait
112
113
114
Belgium
Austria
France
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
16.8
10.0
7.6
56.2
1.5
26.2
62.0
5.1
248.8
8.5
5.0
4.2
123.1
1,760
1,770
2,010
2,160
2,160
2,230
2,320
2.6
8.5
.
0.3
1.4
.
269
7,687
301
84
552
84
9,976
249
43
9,373
450
338
324
378
3,150 w
2,450
2,470
2,540
2,590
2,620
2,920
2,960
3,200
3,230
3,450
4,250
4,400
5,220
5,310
5,350
.
800 w
340 w
540 w
320 w
2,180 w
1,950 w
1,730 w
18,330 w
19,090 w
8,250 w
6,020
8,710
9,330
9,790
10,350'
10,450
12,070
14,360
14,610
15,120
15,920
16,150
16,220
17,300
17,820
18,430
19,030
20,440
20,450
20,910
21,570
22,120
22,290
23,810
29,880
1965-80
3.0
3.0
-0.1
4.0
2.5
.
2.6 w
-1.0
0.8
3.5
.
1.2
3.2
0.9
0.5
0.4
.
3.0
7.0
6.4
5.4
129.9
11.2
11.8
13.0
78.3
2.5
20.5
24.8
38.1
8.5
72.7
334.8
4.9
1.5
10.5
5.2
. .
1.4
9.3
.
8.9
19.8 w
10.4
9.8
31.3
2.6
57.8
15.2
12.8
15.5
14.1
.
2.9
10.3
2.5 w
0.3 w
5.2 w
1.8 w
1.9w
2.1 w
2.4 w
2.5 w
3.8 w
2.6
2.1
2.4
2.7
6.3
16.7 w
11.4 w
9.3 w
8.2 w
13.1 w
31.5 w
29.1 w
7.6 w
7.5 w
13.0 w
66
67
67
38
31
37
26
29
25
73
72
12
12
75
71
70
23
69
12
17
10
71
70
65
72
34
63
27
50
24 w
64
28 w
70
62
66
15
14.1
227.8
7.5
59.2
96.9
71
73
61
49
4
16
75
20
70
-6.6
65
62
77
50
12
63
71
13
d
11
63 w
51 w
68 w
58 w
65 w
67 w
51w
19 w
40 w
52 w
29 w
59 w
40 w
17 w
66w
28w
24w
76 w
76 w
72 w
64
0.2
18.2
.
53.7 w
19.0 w
6.0 w
7.9 w
21.8 w
160.7 w
140.5 w
4.6 w
4.3 w
14.0 w
74
77
25.2
76
78
74
77
76
76
7.8
2.0
10.7
11.4
6.1
10.3
1.8
7.4
1.9
-4.0
15.9
-2.7
75
6.5
77
74
76
76
77
1.1
71
4.6
2.4
5.5
5.2
1.8
1.6
9.3
6.5
77
75
75
76
77
75
77
79
78
70 w
2.9
6.0
4.5
3.8
2.3
8.6
4.0
47
9
38
5.0
5.8
9.3
14
19.1
13.5
7.8
9.4
22
d
1.6
-1.0
-4.4
13
24
d
4
72
53
63
71
72
5.1
10.2
67 w
1.7
16.0
0.8
3.0
Total
1985
78.7 w
117.1
7.1
1.5
11.4
7.0
Female
1985
17.9
11.6
12.3
8.1
(percent)
(years)
1989
62
-3.0
.
12.0
.
11.7
18.4
19.9
15.4
1980-89
41.4
Adult illiteracy
birth
20.8
8.4
L)fe
expectancy
Average annual
rate of nflationa
(Percent)
1.6
130
128
433.2t
1640
1,565
1.3
15.6
23.2
4,052.8
480.4
1,552.2
1,130.81
1965-89
1,780
1,790
1,990
256
268
1,648
10.0
18.3
1989
51
23.7
4.4
(percent)
1,370
1,600
912
1,221
8,512
1.1
Dollars
779
582
89
77
757
19.2
35.0
147.3
10.6
3.1
53.3
Average annual
growth rate
2.7
6.0
4.0
1.8
8.0
7.4
3.2
3.4
4.3
4.6
10.5
7.7
7.0
5.6
7.6
1.3
65 w
41w
72 w
51w
33
8
7
19
12
21
d
d
d
d
14
d
d
d
d
d
37
d
d
d
d
30
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
41
1.6
3.6
6.6
322.8 I
22,663 I
Other economies
9.1 w
13.2 w
65 w
133,6091
3,980 w
1.6 w
5,206.1 1
World
57 w
47 w
1,840 w
14.5 w
58 w
1.2 w
7.3 w
12,1201
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
265.21
( Economies classified by United Nations or otherwise regarded by their authorities as developing, a. See the technical notes. b. In all tables GDP and GNP data
cover mainland Tanzania only. c. In all tables GDP and GNP data for Jordan cover the East Bank only. d. According to Unesco, illiteracy is tess than 5 percent. e. In all tables GNP data for Hong Kong refer to GDP. 1. In all tables data refer to the former Federal Republic of Germany only; for former German Democratic
Republic data, see Box A.2.
205
1965-80
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladeshc
7
8
LS0PDRC
Malawi
Nepal
Chacf
10
Burundi
II
Sierra Leone
Madagascarc
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire:
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Ma1i
Nigefc
4.8 w
5.0 w
4.6 w
1980-89
6.2 w
7.6 w
3.4 w
1.2
-0.4
2.6
3.0
1.6
4.2
3.8
3.5
1.5
2.1
..
..
..
..
6.4
2.4
5.5 w
5.7 w
5.2 w
3.5
4.2
-4.4
3.3
5'. i
3.6
-1.0
5.6
-1.6
2.5
5.0
6.8
0.2
4.1
1.5
1.2
2.7
4.9
6.7
6.7
2.2
1.1
4.5
0.1
7.1
6.5
4,3
-0.3
2.5
3.1
-0.6
10.5
17.4
5.8
6.0
6.1
1.4
9.3
6.3
2.7
2.4
2.4
-0.8
-3.4
0.7
-3.4
4.3
0.3
. .
0.5
1.3
13.1
2.2
2.6
-4.3
-2.1
4.6
. .
1.4
1.8
11.4
6.7
0.6
0.8
3.9
1.6
6.1
-0.4
0.6
2.5
1.7
1.2
1.8
1.9
4.2
0.3
3.8
2.8
1.5
-1.6
-3.4
1.8
5.8
5.0
SriLanka
4.0
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesiac
Mauritania
6.8
7.0
Afghanistan
2.9
36
37
38
39
40
Bhutan
41
l/ietNam
2.1
3.3
Sudan
3.8
5.3
1.4
2.9
0.9
5.7
0.8
2.2
4.1
4.0
3.7
2.7
2.2
6.2 w
5.5 w
..
1.5
2.5
2.1
4.7
4.4
3.2
6.8
..
3.4 w
3.4 w
11.9
2.2
5.3
5.2
12.0
15.4
2.2
3.i
2.6 w
2.1 w
5..
4.8
5.8
5.5
5.7
2.5
3.2
0.1
0.3
1.4
-0.8
2.9
2.9 w
2.5 w
-2.1
3.7
7.3
5.8
8.1
KampucheaDem.
Liberia
Myanmar
6.2
10.5
12.6
-1.6
3.2
24
4.5
9.7
6.4
4.2
0.8
4.2
2.0
1.3
7.1
-2.0
7.3
10.0
2.1
1.6
1.9
1.4
-3.7
1.6
3.2
5.3
14.6
6.9
6.3
1.8
31
-0.4
4.4
-3.3
1.0
4.1
6.4
3.9
.
..
4.8
7.9
7.4
0.2
0.0
7.6
-0.4
1.1
2.9
1.9
7.6
3.4
-6.5
4.8
4.7
6.5
10.3
9.3
2.7
6.6
5.9
0.1
2.0
1.1
5.3
4.8
-0.5
2.5
1.5
0.1
6.2
13.4
12.7
4.6
4.9
4.8
7.
6.6
6.5
0.1
11.9
7.4
2.4
10.0
4.9
6.5 w
6.2 w
3.0 w
2.6 w
6.1w
3.7
6.9
4.6
-3.8
5.4
3.3w
2.5w
7.5w
6.1w
5.4
3.8
2.7
3.1
1.4
2.7
Moroccoc
5.0
5.9
6.8
8.0
5,7
4.1
4.6
3.3
6.3
2.4
52
4.1
2.1
3.1
53
54
1-londuras
5.0
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.c
2.3
0.4
3.9
2.0
5.9
6.2
5.1
3.1
0.8
3.2
9.1
1.6
5.9
-0.9
5.1
3.9
8.8
3.2
0.4
4.2
7.0
-0.5
3.8
3.4
1.9
3.6
4.3
7.8
4.4
1.9
13.7
1.8
11.5
0.4
2.2
-1.0
4.9
3.4
7.5
-1.2
55
1.2
2.4
56
SyrianArabRep.0
57
58
59
60
Camemonr
61
ParaguayC
7.0
62
63
64
65
66
El Salvadore
Colombia
Thailand
JamaicaC
Tunisia
4.3
5.7
7.3
0.6
7.0
3.6
4.5
4.6
1.4
1.2
0.5
6.5
3.4
5.5
Peruc
Ecuador'
Namibia
3.5
1.8
6.7
1.0
.
206
2.9
2.0
2.3
1.7
1.8
2.6
4.1
0.6
1.6
3.0
-3.3
3.3
2.2
. .
8.0
-0.8
-1.7
7.5
9.1
2.6
0.5
8.2
2.9
2.8
8.9
1.1
4.1
10.4
10.8
6.1
.
3.1
6.8
2.7
7.3
-0.6
9.9
12.0
4.7
2.8w
2.3w
-0.5
10.4
1.4
7.1
2.9
2.9
5.2
8.6
7.3
6.8
0.4
2.3
4.2
1.2
1.7
6.2
5.7
4.7
9.4
2.3
0.6
8.1
4.8
4.6
0.4
0.2
4.3
7.6
0.4
1.6
7.5
6.5
3.7
-1.2
6.8
5.2
2.3
-0.5
1.9
4.3
-0.9
0.7
7.1
-0.2
4.8
3.9
4.9
-1.0
7.3
2.1
1.9
5,9
4.4
4.4
2.6
2.9
3.3
7.9
5.0
3.3
9.7
-0.5
3.1
2.8
6.9
4.3
2.0
4.2
2.9
6.8
5.2
2.2
Togo
Zambiac
GuineaL
2.9
2.5
1.4
-1.4
1.5
5.3
2.8
DominicanRep.0
6.2 w
7.5 w
4.4 w
4.1
1.3
Coted'Ivoire
1980-89
2.7
2.8
51
11.5 w
12.4 w
7.4 w
1965-80
-4.9
0.7
7.2 w
7.3 w
6.9 w
Servtces, etc.b
1980-89
4.6
Zimbabwe
Philippines
1965-80
5.5
1.9
China'
Haitic
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
47
48
49
50
8.6 w
10.6 w
3.1 w
1.9
4.9
3.6
Angola
Boliviac
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegalc
Yemen, Rep,c
7.6 w
7.2 w
8.5 w
1980-89
-1.4
Rwandac
India
42
43
44
45
46
4.0 w
4.8 w
2.5 w
1965-80
BurkinaFaso
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
2.6 w
2.7 w
2.5 w
1980-89
2.7
3.9
3.5
2.5
Ghant
26
27
28
29
30
1965-80
Manufacturinga
Industry
Agriculture
GDP
3.2
1.2
1.3
-2.0
9.1
-0.1
7.0
1.4
1.8
5.3
5.7
9.5
-0.6
4.6
-0.3
4.3
1.5
5.0
6.4
3.1
8.1
1.4
11.2
8.1
2.1
6.4
7.6
2.7
6.5
2.8
7.4
-0.1
7.4
2.4
0.4
9.9
5.9
3.0
2.7
1.0
4.5
GDP
1965-80
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
Turkey
Botswana'
Jordan
1980-89
6.2
5.1
13.9
11.3
Panama'
Chile'
5.5
Costa Ricac
PoIand'
Mauritius
6.3
Mexiccf
Argentina'
Malaysiac
Agriculture
1.9
.
5.2
6.5
3.4
7.4
1965-80
3.2
9.7
.
3.0
-4.0
7.2
24.0
6.3
13.0
1965-80
7.5
13.5
3.1
0.7
2.9
2.8
2.5
5.9
0.7
4.2
2.8
8.7
2.7
9.1
-0.3
4.9
1.4
7.6
3.3
-1.1
3.2
3.0
0.8
0.3
-2.7
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua'
0.4
7.4
2.7
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaty
Uruguay
2.5
6.8w
-0.6
6.6
4.0
4.9
0.9
0.2
3.9
2.5
3.7
4.2
-2.4
3.2w
5.1
-3.3
1.1
-0.5
1.0
3.9
1.5
1.4
5.8
6.3
10.1
4.9
0.5
2.2
0.4
2.5
3.2
2.2
0.7
3.1w
1.0
3.1
-1.2
1.0
1.4
GabonC
7.8
9.5
6.1
4.5
5.7
2.2
2.9
10.0
5.0
-5.5
0.0
-6.2
0.4
5.0
-6.4
2.6
92
1.2
3.4
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal'
Korea, Rep.'
Omanc
Libya
Greece
5.3
2.5
9.9
9.7
12.8
3.3
5.1
16.4
1.2
7.1
98
99
Iraq
4.1
1.5
. .
9.0
5.6
3.0
3.8
2.7
13.0
4.2
5.8
1.7
1.6
3.0
10.7
2.3
0.3
6.4
0.4
2.7
0.6
-1.1
-8.4
9.5
6.2
2.3
5.5
5.8
2.0
12.4
13.7
1.2
21
-3.9
1.4
18.7
.
9.6
13.1
27.0
.
15.5
0.2
6.2
9.1
10.5
13.7
0.9
8.4
10.7 w
4.6 w
6.0 w
3.4 w
12.6 w
7.1 w
7.1 w
4.5 w
8.3 w
4.5 w
3.5 w
2.3 w
7.7 w
6.3 w
2.7 w
7.2 w
1.5 w
6.8 w
7.3 w
1.5 w
6.8w
1.6w
1.9w
3.4w
4.6 w
4.5 w
Romania
tOther
5.8 w
4.2 w
7.3 w
3.7 w
3.8 w
2.1 w
7.9 w
5.1 w
2.9 w
3.0 w
6.1 w
6.1w
1.6w
1.9w
3.8 w
3.8 w
8.2 w
3.0 w
3.0 w
2.4 w
10.6
-1.8
Ireland
Spain
5.3
4.6
6.8
8.6
1.8
10.0
6.1
2.4
2.2
3.5
2.6
2.4
103 tlsmelc
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingaporec
7.1
New Zealand'
Australiac
United Kingdom
ItalyC
2.9
4.3
110
Netherlandse
3.9
1.7
1.6
0.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
III tKuwaitc
Belgiumc
Austriac
Francec
4.0
4.1
3.8
119
UnitedStatesc
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japanc
Switzerlandc
Other economies
6.7 w
7.5 w
10.9 w
4.4 w
3.1w
1.9w
6.7 w
4.5 w
0.7 w
10.4 w
6.7 w
3.1 w
1.6 w
3.0 w
2.1 w
6.9 w
1.5 w
1.3 w
6.4 s'
4.1
2.2c
3.3
2.6
2.7
14.6
-8.4
I0.lc
-0.7 w
-4.4
8.1
8.8
4.3
. .
3.1 w
3.1 w
5.3 w
10.5
2.4
5.2
3.4
9.4
7.0
3.6
2.8
-5.7
.
_2,ge
09e
43e
.
0.4
2.1
. .
. .
1.9
2.2
0.8
3.3
1.0
1.4
11.9
3.0
-7.2
0.9
3.6
5.0
13.2
. .
0.8e
39e
23e
3.0
-0.6
1.6
5.9
.
_Q,5e
58e
1.1
1.7
2.9
2.3
.
-0.2
1.1
5.9
2.0
4.5
1.8
2.4
1.3
0.3
9.3
-8.7
18.8
2.5
1.3
5.1
4.3
1.6
2.5
3.2
1.8
0.9
3.0
3.6
4.0
0.0
-1.4
-0.4
-0.6
2.1
. .
4.4
6.6
5.7
11.6
3.3 w
7.7 w
4.1
7.8 w
2.1 w
2.2 w
1.5 s'
-4.5
I 15
Germanyc
Denmark
3.3 w
2.0 H'
5.2 w
2.9 w
2.9 w
1.9 w
3.2 w
2.5 w
3.1
3.2
106
107
108
109
122
123
124
2.8
-2.7
3.0w
3.1
121
10.9
0.7
3.8
1.3
118
6.0
1.3
-1.6
3.2w
6.1
ll7
2.3
1.9
2.4
114
6.0
2.7
7.5
Yugoslavia
112
113
11.9
8.0
6.5
3.8
5.5
1.6
0.1
101
102
5.0
11.5
.
.
3.4
2.7
3.0
2.0
0,5
91
1980-89
7.6
LebanonC
Upper-middle-income
88
89
90
1965-80
1.6
3.3
87
-1.4
Bulgaria
86
7.4
5.3
4.7
79
80
85
Services, etc.
1980-89
-3.5
3.9
5.3
83
84
1980-89
5.9
0.8
2.4
3.5
82
1965-80
1.9
4.1
0.5
2.7
AlgeriaC
77
78
Manufacturinga
Industry
1980-89
0.4
0.4
1.0
2.8
1.8
0.0
1.7
2.9
4.3
5.7
7.4
3.6
3.1
2.9
4.8
5.2
-0.1
2.7
.
3.3
3.1
2.5
.
4.9
2.6
8.2
. .
0.8
3.8e
4.0e
3.8
1.6
0.6
. .
4.3
4.2
.
4.8
2.8
1.6
2.0
2.7
3.7
3.0
3.8
3.7
3.2
3.4
3.0
3.3
4.8
1.0
3.3
1.5
4.1
3.0
6.7
6.7
3.2
2.1
1.7
3.3
..
2.4w
4.1w
2.6w
3.1w
World
8.4w
6.1 w
-1.1 w
3.9 w
5.4 w
6.6w
1.2w
Oil exporters (exci. USSR)
a. Because manufacturing is generally the most dynamic part of the industrial sector, its growth rate is shown separately.
items. c. GDP and its components are at purchaser values. d. World Bank estimate. e. Data refer to the period 1970-80.
3.7w
3.2w
..
3.2w
10.0 w
1.9 w
207
GDP
(millions of dollars)
1965
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mozanibique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bang1adesh'
La0PDRC
Malawi
Nepal
Chadc
Bumndi
13
14
15
Sierra Leone
Madagascarc
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
16
MaliC
17
18
Nigerc
BurkinaFaso
11
12
Agriculture
1989
163,0401
117,730 t
44,490 1
1965
956,340
653,040 1
301,160 I
1,t80
790
220
4,380
220
730
290
150
320
750
5,850
1,100
4,150
260
670
350
5,420
2,540
1,090
20,240
630
1,410
2,810
32 w
31 w
33 w
58
64
42
14
46
71
53
66
65
44
50
65
35
58
36
1,020
960
42
890
34
46
2,280
28,920
4,460
9,610
25
13
19
11
15
14
20
12
16
24
26
11
22
23
29
2
16
15
15
44
39
48
31d
34d
32
31
38
. .
15
35
31
18
12
27
46
20
20
24
11
40
59
14
16
12
42
49
33
16
19
15
17
10
21
13
54
23
47
33
10
10
24
SriLanka
28
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesia'
Mauritania
Afghanistan
3,840
6,340
340
93,970
160
910
32
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kanipuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
1,600
600
32
30
65
56
26
24
21
27
30
23
37
13
37
24
36
25
45
270
27
40
1,330
54
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Boliviac
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegalc
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippineu'
51
MoroccoC
2,950
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuineac
340
460
1,330
200
1,470
57
58
59
60
Camemonc
2,118,080 1
911,2001
19 w
21 w
7,720
710
4,550
810
4,520
31,580
4,660
0
960
6,010
760
890
10
18
42
54
25
29
39
38
18
34
41
41
17
20
31
25
26
38
51
39
47
40
33
49
49
42
38
38
34
32
43
34
44
40
38
16
14
5!
30
47
46
17
31
39
38
32
36 w
35 w
32
31
19
27
30
30
22
18
31
20 w
20 w
45 w
48 w
14
13
14
20
46
45
56
38
52
47
20
20
25
22
47
46
33
55
49
49
43
30
59
50
41
41
42
54
56
15
.
18
13
35
39
26
47
23
24
28
33
46
19
17
16
11
16
22
28
24
26
11
15
23
34
16
17
3,520
4,320
42
40
28
18
19
30
25
12
26
21
10
14
19
29
22
22
35
23
33
18
27
20
30
22
27
30
39
10
17
18
11,080
28,610
10,380
1,650
. .
38
21
5
440
4,130
37
29
19
22
16
16
800
5,910
4,390
970
880
5,860
39,410
69,680
3,880
8,920
29
12
18
16
17
15
36
19
14
21
21
22
27
23
37
21
27
32
10
22
14
24
17
9
18
16
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
50 w
51 w
5,250
44,350
7,170
6,650
22,390
8,150
30
34
23 w
34 w
30 w
12 w
14 w
.
23
29
25
2,270
38
61
33
35
46
28
44
29
17
11,460
5,020
1,150
45
18
14
810
41
280
117,580 1
27
37
23
43
10
15
12
13
31
206,0001
11
14
208
50
36
35
37
30
4,700
2,750
Colombia
Thailandc
Jamaicac
Thnisia
14
65
68
37
75
44
1,060
ElSalvador'
26
11
40
24
36
2,080
2,040
2,460
2,170
235,220
45
62
63
64
65
66
1,340
61
10
5,260
Ecuadorc
Namibiu
Paraguay'
10
190
PeruC
2,050
Congo,PeoplesRep.c
SynanArabRep.c
14
7
32
46
44
Honduras
Guatemalac
42
44
1,050
Cted'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.'
28
13
140
Yemen,Rep.0
11
13
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
67
30
26
27
28
29
30
40
4!
14
16
31
417,830
2,370
7,130
35,820
1,770
50
14 w
22
54
52
22
67,200
350
920
5,450
220
1989
31 w
28 w
39 w
12
50,530
Services, etc. b
1965
28 w
24 w
37 w
China
. .
27 w
32 w
31
21
22
23
24
25
Guinea
20 w
24 w
8w
1989
India
Togoc
Zambiac
37 w
41 w
28 w
1965
11
14
19
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
1989
28
14
20
HaitiC
28 w
32 w
17 w
56
RwandaC
150
1965
44 w
44 w
44 w
1,100
Manufacturinga
Industry
1989
27
.
8
15
11
19
38
45
33
. .
15
21
62
49
51
47
53
50
45
46
62
47
50
48
49
47
45
53
54
67
47
47
50
53
. .
55
GDP
(millions of dollars)
67
68
69
70
7!
Turkey
Botswanac
Jordan
Panamac
72
73
74
75
Costa Rict
76
77
78
79
80
St
82
ChIICC
87
LebanonC
Mongolia
NicaraguaC
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaryc
Uruguay
91
TnnidadandTobago
92
CzechoslovakiaC
93
94
95
PortugaF
Korea,Rep.'
97
Omanc
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
Romania
tOther
tOO tSaudi Arabiac
101
Ireland
102
103
SpainC
tlsraeF
104 tHong Kong
los tSingaporeC
106
107
108
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
New Zealand
Auslraliac
United Kingdom
ItalyC
Netherlandsc
tKuwaitc
Belgiumc
Austriac
Francec
119
United StatesC
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japanc
Switzerland'
121
122
123
124
24
1,740
200,730
53.070
16
13
14
17
37,480
39,780
28
660
5,940
590
.
3,130
90
96
5,220
68,290
50
Ma1aysia'
Yugoslavia
Gabon'
Iran, Islamic Rep.
88
89
71,600
2,500
3,910
4,550
25,250
21,640
16,500
VenezuelaC
86
7,660
Mauritius
Mexico'
Argentina'
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
1989
190
1965
1989
1965
34
34
17
25
19
18
11
1,150
.
3,430
570
25
88,730 t
9,820
10,540
19,450
.
930
11,190
230
6,170
690
71,760
3,440
150,250
4,200
50,470
3,740
3,000
60
44,880
211,880
7,700
22,990
39,910
1,500
5,270
2,430
374,030 I
29,120
90,700 1
64,5 10 t
95,470
109,8601
1
13,920
25
47
33
44
.
21
24
29
59
23
40
42
33
.
15
11
32
23
26
26
10
10
42
34
36
48
23
3
6
9
10
3
5
16
.
19w
53
40
29
14
.
67
0
19
18
38 w
6
6
9
56
59
59
42
48
51
42 w
46
44
43
36
28
42
47
15
23
28
24
26
31
22
. .
.
7
12
25
23
63
26
44
80
46
31 w
20 w
35 w
21 w
38 w
27 w
53
61
35
10
40
48
43
7
8
38
44
62
56
36
'
37
16
50
33
29
16
18
49
36
21w
8w
54
46
18
45
55
26
18
48
50
41
57
37
48
50
55
48
48
37 w
44w
11
39
33 w
17 w
23 w
35 w
38 w
34 w
41 w
33 w
23 w
51 w
33 w
22w
50w
5w
Sw
Sw
32 w
32 w
14 w
54 w
54 w
42 w
43 w
45 w
14,292,220
477,340
221,680
23,530
156,830
126,480
955,790
91,290
61
14
24
23
35
17 w
19,910
19,610
7,540
7,080
14
20
16 w
28,360
41,360
281,940
717,870
865,720
46,570
114,820
8,880
698,990
56
32
32
33
18
75
23
27
42
11
38
6!
5
24
65
934,670
970
5.470
23,700
89,750
66,700
24
44w
28,270
488,590
1,189,100
89,140
5,156,440
166,520
100,860
95,000
2.818,520
174,960
32 w
24 w
32 w
8
.
II
41 w
45
10
15w
9
.
. .
H'
46w
54 w
31
48
3
18
79
86
.
40
28
24
21
58
72
0
8
4
2
4
24
37
15
74
63
28
32
26
34
26
17
15
39
46
20
9
41
30
22
46
37
33
27
29
21
55
70
3
3
4
9
2
.
34
36
34
4]
.
23
21
34
.
47
59
46
29
38
23
28
37
33
44
29
53
45
23
29
22
15
30
37
36
6
3
3
51
51
/7
13
32
20
54
43
55
59
26
40
10
. .
40
53
4
2
16
3]
22
3
20
56
31
37
34
26 w
27 w
44w
9
.
60
1989
63
52
30 w
41 w
42 w
80,890
29,570
379,360
46,030
52,540
16
7
3,078,460 I
161,820 I
895,230 1
317,170 1
787,990 I
809,230 1
2,300
2,340
23,750
3,590
2,150
2,100
16,840
9,480
99,300
12
15
27
14
1,413,2801 14,764,5101
1,389,560
17,580
40
19
47
53
. .
10
48
12
23
.
18 w
43,830
80,370
319,150
29,060
7,170
41
. .
23
12
16
. .
35
57
40
16
15,570
1965
17
1989
19
Services, etc.b
1989
1965
29
Manufacturinga
Industry
1965
PolandC
Algenac
Bulgaria
Agriculture
. .
64
64
62
63
65
43
67
60
67
43
62
67
69
63
58
63
56
S
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
2,003,700 1 19,981,5401
34,4701
453,320 t
10 w
20 w
14 w
40 w
37 w
35 w
30w
lOw
a. Because manufacturing is generally the most dynamic part of the industrial sector, its share of GDP is shown separately.
items. c. GDP and its components are shown at purchaser values. d. World Bank estimate.
9w
51w
42w
49w
209
dollars)
1970
Low-income economies
89,314 1
60,621 t
28,2691
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
II
32
33
14
IS
36
17
18
19
20
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesha
Sierra Leone
Madagascara
Nigeria
Uganda
Zairea
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
45
46
157
20
217
37
7
72
114
37
20
145
103
10
38
389
240
76
0
36
343
36
17
61
2
14
8
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myan,nar
Sudan
HetNam
Angola
Boliviaa
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen,Rep.a
47
48
49
50
SI
Zimbabwe
Philippinesa
Cbte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.a
Moroccoa
52
53
PapuaNewGuineaa
17
323
62
83
31
19
49
2
1,582
308
36
49
114
0
46
12
13
4
38
309
3
73
76
183
15
119
2,371
121
729
304
60
1,030
85
442
2,570
446
177
28
244
II
II
617
6
93
63
III
191
123
383
49
66
42
951
1,177
140
4340
58
48
1,919
115
5
125
223
42
26
91
757
50,052 1
31,1541
.
202
1,942
208
3,440
5,858
1,028
555
3,094
10
133
125
3,068
II
55
24
97
10
2
94
125
0
226
II
Ii
358
3
9
28
0
46
198
100
63
21
28
80,7671
49,426 r
10
64
1,9261 4,548
1,654 1 4,510 1
3701
3091
7031
5921
101 w
29
19
1,312
53
17
3,505
40
372
252
893
52
1,626
693
601
1,329
0
89
4
10
135
19
16
75
228
238
71
243
52
372
31
67
214
82
1,578
277
49
435
311
138
34
2,475
339
2,978
2,177
1,526
637
152
57
58
59
Cameroon
Perua
Ecuadora
Namibia
Paraguaya
364
1,351
401
387
. .
345
1,065
536
0
191
1,217
71
10
El Salvadora
Colombia
Thailanda
Jamaicaa
Tunisia
292
3,806
1,837
685
6,622
30,561
210
1,235
75
502
97
340
307
186
716
346
296
1,655
83
2
31
6
146
89
37
13
.
197
28
12
83
365
284
59
99w
84
102
109
106
63
85
47
95
320
87
1,427
121
III
33
3,000
890
1,472
87
80
124
88
40
79
95
56
817
89
97
90
651
0
22
630
27
33
209
3,877
341
306
90
513
248
172
8,543
515
1,378
149
240
212
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
19
20
50
42,817 1
24,693 1
664
10,429
3,295
1,012
3,679
93
245
3
337
48
556
258
214
3,996
462
345
789
272
34
69
70
208
207
260
1,854
125
258,932 1
129,238 1
2,356
271
14
301
Congo,PeoplesRep.a
210
16
410
4
238
56
63
64
65
66
101
103
223
49
112
416
55
62
421
829
54
61
146
34,000
251
1,274
832
87
94
128
93
6,033
2,208
9,681
1,648
83
22,032
339
89
93
96
2,361
25
1,014
33
116
85
107
301
98
97
83
89
90
97
93
86
115
77
113
5,263
584
9
198789
116 w
122 w
103 w
73
28
25
2
94
per capita
(1979-81 = 100)
57
20
517
107
83
3
21
Average index of
food production
59
89
105
120
10
Honduras
Guatemalaa
60
55
484
3,352
545
23
203
232
15
799
71,345
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesiaa
Mauritania
Afghanistan
0
20
6
135
Ghanaa
Togoa
Zambiaa
Guineaa
31
52
27
17
18
281
155
99
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
1,161
871
CentralAfncanRep.
39
92
40
770
3,048
744
333,934
692
21
2,076
121
36,705
22
64
86
26
37
6
420
23,916
1,1851
310 I
2,204
42
1,866
53
805
72 1
29
8,962
409
717
8,874
2,986
2,846
241 t
73
3,636
108
802
111
705
243
5,080
929
171 1
148
1,795
167
142
359
1970/71
83
186
473
579
13,749 I
1987/88
1988/89
6,002 r 5,235 1
531 1
1,5821
4,4201 4,7041
1974/75
424
573
76
118
431
498
1,633
364
535
15,014t
34
54
62
2,254
119
28,7631
Fertilizer consumption
(hundreds of grams
400
690
704
931
207
26
29
30
99,716 1
BurkinaFaso
Rwandaa
India
Chinaa
Haitia
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
27
28
1974
22,608 1
11,2941
11,314 1
Malia
Nigera
22
23
24
25
21
1989
1989
305,959 t
205,2781
LaoPDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chada
Bumndi
Cereal imports
(thousands of metric tons)
446
287
74
334
117
58
156
298
114
68
34
300
133
.
505
612
90
556
376
381
190
656
25
404
90
86
96
94
120
97
88
303
98
86
73
96
622
232
301
98
69
1,043
287
59
873
76
1,262
945
328
914
222
106
95
115
90
102
104
92
96
(millions of current
dollars)
71
Turkey
Botswanaa
Jordan
Panama
Chile0
72
73
74
75
76
CostaRicaa
PoIand'
Mauritius
77
78
79
80
Malayuiaa
Algeriaa
Bulgaria
Lebanona
Mongolia
81
Mexicoa
Argentinaa
Nicaraguaa
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
Venezuela1'
86
Hungary'
87
Uruguay
88
89
Yugoslavia
90
92
93
Portugal
94
Korea,Rep.'
95
Oman1'
96
97
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
South Africa
Brazil
Gabon'
91
tOther
100 tSaudiAnibia
101
102
Ireland
Spaina
103 tlsraelb
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingaporea
106
107
108
109
New Zealand'
Australia1'
United Kingdom
Italy1'
Netherlandsa
Ill tKuwait1'
112 Belgiuma
Austriaa
113
Francea
114
110
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
Canada
Germanya
Denmark
UnitedSlates1'
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan5
Switzerland
Average index of
food producrion
metric tons)
1970/71
per capita
(1979-81 = 100)
1987-89
1989
11,857
1,276
3,061
16
157
637
28
75
241
21
77
671
109
178
5
79
33
25
15
68
74
387
313
362
657
544
117
89
106
100
171
63
1,737
493
149
558
222
897
110
4,185
222
18,050
7,339
160
2,881
0
30
4,462
2,250
1,198
492
6,187
136
. .
199
19,594 I
18,124
826
1,362
4,392
1,010
268
2,654
4,635
27,810
4,048
773
2,212
60
7,229
353
34,563
2,120
40
.
992
24
2,076
208
1,296
192
50
6,500
284
216
1988/89
84
1,001
1,678
22
21
291
2,095
232
1,806
2,223
3,075
753
26
45
91
1,596
320
1,804
142
10
489
54
39
163
1,411
1,354
22
215
26
.
32
271 I
.
32
381
. .
31
.
465
15
186
. .
. .
1,497
485
485
2,595
420
115
113
106
. .
770
1,328
98
81
23
46
658
450
3,031
1,026
3,920
417
416
. .
60
880
2,404
. .
428
256
651 1
6,6341
46,909 I
16,4841
4,522 1
1,0101
365
135
575
29,501 z
1,274 1
2,1691
2,3941
1,9601
2,705 1
72,941 1
18,1551
6,150
3,307
18,160
6,0351
103 w
9,783 I
2,610 I
865 I
7,928 1
9101
9231
14,9381
9,404 1
25,193 r
11,5561
20,373
78,976 1
88
109,529 1
7,411 1
31,795 1
571,792
91
63
433
90
4,2081
671
184
541
65,426 1
97
100
422
98
1,580
52,0901
211,6001
103,077 I
116,812 t
107
170
92
4,891
556
97
14
870
1,381
2,679
1987/88
323
52
612
1,341
21,663
202
82,405 1
80,5271
1,8801
70
81
1974/75
1,226
10,267
200
1,515
465
18,661 1
23,513
31,341 I
2,485
408
1,861
579
15,5971
49,792 1
32,8841
20,4961
1,804
296
2,015
249
141,602 1
1,384
558
59
140
127
3,266
2,311
40
93
1,569
2,299
7,461
1,270
118
1989
357
2,893
209
7,050
4
1,023
1,816
649
354
28
44
1,758
2,450
234
.
.
. .
62
861
34
565
5631
87
86
121
100
96
1,542
109
100
397
1,301
109
98
758 1
341
761
1,712 1
541
1,058
1771
3511
4641
6471
1,2381
75,503 1
1,032
64,2241
11,2791
5,560
1,0291
1,4231
1,221
3,445
54
3,067
3,678
6,815
989
2,237
1
1
112 w
95 w
123 w
112 w
99 w
105 w
105w
99 w
98 w
123 w
295
62
184
482
640
4,675
1,176
657
44
97
682
925
2,500
18,333
86
92
190
7,086
107
10,402
7,540
26
2,908
7,649
7,745
232
2,631
896
7,493
219
559
.
897
2,157
2,993
8,365
1,827
30,579
9,155
8,101
7,199
379
2,224
1,890
826
5,932
597
238
920
992
1,221
3,165
4,585c
4,042
31,843
164
81
654
917
. .
481
115 tUnitedArabEmirates
1l6
of
3.383
Romania
(thousands
1974
1970
67
68
69
70
Cereal imports
(thousands ofmetric tons)
Fertilizer consumption
(hundreds of grwns
3,265
5,951
882
27,812
.
1,205
624
12,467
18,307
3,942
.
4,879
5,808
2,757
72,773
.
101
132
4004c
596
1,067
53
593
1,401
.
5,648c
2,426
2,435
286
3,555
1,901
6,877
750
5,098'
2,214
2,990
1,632
191
105
III
106
61
96
105
100
110
I 161
109
105
7,164
462
460
4,524
2,147
816
484
4,208
2,330
937
300
222
713
19,557
1,458
120
214
545
1,646
1,930
2,443
3,547
3,831
1,357
94
2,164
2,704
4,327
4,306
102
109
1,513
171
27,370
651
4,263
2,234
103
112
120
92
97
102
110 w
II
4641
1,2091
41,874z
10,5331
110 w
497 1
954 1
7,981 1 9,787 I
226,907 1
154,934 1
249,704 I
World
408 1
101 w
49 1
143 I
63 1
8,166 1
29,579 1
9,822 1
65,457 1
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. Value added in agriculture data are at purchaser values. b. Value added in agriculture data refer to net domestic product at factor cost. c. Includes Luxembourg.
Other economies
211
Energy production
1965-80
Low-income economies
China and India
Other low-income
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
6
7
La0PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bun.indi
2
3
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
20
Rwanda
India
21
China
22
23
24
25
Haiti
26
27
28
29
30
31
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
19
32
33
34
35
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
40
Sudan
41
VietNam
Liberia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
10.0 w
9.1 w
12.4 w
4.6 w
5.5 w
0.9 w
8.3 w
8.8 w
5.6 w
5.2 w
5.3 w
4.0 w
2.2
4.1
1.8
81
2.3
2.3
1.8
10
19.8
-34.7
7.5
7.3
6.0
3.4
0.0
3.7
16.7
18.2
0.4
4.1
18.4
11.3
4.2
8.0
6.2
0.0
1989
125 w
146 w
72 w
330 w
437 w
124 w
37
14
0.3
1965
7w
8w
6w
1989
4w
3w
6w
84
20
37
78
13
25
4
8
4
51
24
25
38
24
17
23
41
17
2
6
10.2
6.0
21
11
0.8
-0.6
109
II
3.5
12.9
1.6
5.5
3.7
34
76
40
135
4
0
3.6
1.6
74
25
73
9.4
0.0
8.9
0.3
3.2
2.2
38.6
8.2
7.0
2.6
14
24
16
14.0
12.5
10.5
15.2
3.1
40
0.0
4.0
17
11
10
5.8
6.1
100
40
226
2
2
2
24
5.5
5.0
7.8
5.8
7.8
9.8
8.4
4.5
3.5
9.9
5.5
178
24
6.7
0.7
2.2
7.8
6.5
3.9
17.3
-0.5
8.8
5.6
10.0
.
13.1
6.5
0.0
5.4
7.5
-0.5
1.9
0.5
6.2
4.5
17.7
-5.1
2.9
25.7
10.1
1.5
10.7
-2.6
-1.3
4.0
0.8
16.5
0.2
2.3
1.2
10.4
8.1
2.2
5.6
4.2
0.0
3.9
0.4
7.6
0.6
15.7
0.0
0.7
0.0
2.2
0.0
5.6
. .
9.9
. .
14.6
8.4
17.8
5.3
3.7 w
6.4 w
8.4
9.5
3.9
1.7
4.9
2.0
1.5
-2.6
3.5w
4.1 w
0.0
1.8
47
48
49
50
SI
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
-0.7
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuinea
7.6
7.9
Yemen,Rep.
9.5
10.7
-0.8
Senegal
5.3
-0.1
5.7
6.2 w
6.0 w
.
7.7
6.2
7.4
5.2
5.8
8.6
0.7
8.9
11.1
-0.1
10.9
2.5
5.9
0.0
11.5
6.3
4.5
Congo,People'sRep.
Syrian Arab Rep.
13.7
14.0
12.5
41.1
56.3
13.0
7.6
6.8
7.8
57
58
59
60
Cameroon
13.0
Pens
6.6
35.0
4.7
61
Paraguay
62
63
64
65
66
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
110
98
135
213
45
20
7
21
91
48
30
7.9
173
0
263
114
3
2
18
6
4
19
182
165
4.2
39
67
70
57
97
2.3
156
6.3
313
79
1.2
1,242 w
888 w
-0.3
-1.1
663 w
516 w
153
0
17
525
217
. .
101
168
127
124
336
244
2
13
25
56
231
7
5
896
8
13
0
3
141
520
648
2
9
441
160
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.3
12.4
90
212
12.5
6.3
5.5
-2.2
5.0
1.5
67
395
11.9
2.0
162
14w
13w
2
234
-1.9
9w
9w
10
10
13
4.0
4.2
4
3
30
II
170
211
193
203
246
636
150
6.2
3.4
13
4
12
71
6
2
51
106
2
4
21
7
6
6
129
372
14
36
22
76
27
464
56
111
12
II
11.4
9.7
4.6
84
226
14
26
7.0
6.0
2.0
2.7
140
226
754
13
413
10.1
6.1
11
8.5
6.3
82
703
170
331
-2.2
902
546
12
12
Jamaica
-0.9
Tunisia
20.4
-0.9
9.0
2.3
3.1 w
3.2 w
51
-7.5
1.0
2.2
591
2.7
3.7
9.4
30.5
5.0
1.0
34
36
-0.0
4.9
9.0
23.8
9.0
Note. For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
212
2.6
merchandise exports
1965
8.9
0.2
7.8
46
Ecuador
Namibia
1980-89
7.6
12.8
45
Honduras
Guatemala
of oil equivalent)
1965-80
4.4
43
Energy imports
as a percentage of
/980-89
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
42
Energy consumption
Energy consumption
6.1
4
10
24
14
Energy consumption
Energy imports
as a percentage of
merchandise exports
Energy consumption
per capita (kilograms
of oil equivalent)
1965-80
1980-89
1965-80
1980-89
1965
1989
1965
1989
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
4.3
8.8
9.2
2.4
8.5
9.5
258
28
9.3
9.2
2.9
5.8
3.0
837
423
773
1,636
836
12
16.4
7.3
2.2
6.8
4.2
61
a
49
54
CostaRica
8.2
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
4.0
2.1
6.6
0.8
5.9
6
4
9.7
4.5
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
36.9
5.3
6.7
7.5
11.9
6.1
12.5
1.3
15.2
4.1
3.6
Lebanon
2.0
-2.9
2.0
4.7
3.6
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua
3.5
3.4
6.5
6.3 w
2.1
172
2.8 w
881 w
-0.4
4.6
5.1
4.6
4.3
3.3
3.3
8.6
0.8
4.7
8.1
9.9
3.8
4.5
286
897
1.0
1.3
-0.9
1,825
765
3,106
779
2,776
3,374
2,241
1,155
1,019
5,349
4,945
3.5
7.2
10.7
506
238
1,470
1,832
14
6.0
2.5
5.2
222
615
2,556
3,049
2,046
399
1,536
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaiy
Umguay
88
89
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
90
91
92
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
Romania
93
94
95
96
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
tSingapore
106
New Zealand
107 Australia
108
United Kingdom
105
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
Canada
Gennany
Denmark
United States
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (exci. USSR)
6.9
1.8
2.6
2.5 w
-3.1
191
1.7
226
576
652
8.8
3.1
267
4.8
0.6
2,027
7.2
7.9
2.5
1.9
3.3
4.3
3.2
160
605
975
1.4
2.6 w
0.9
9.7
0.7
920
1,906
4,719
1,245
259
1,744
3.5
3.0
6.0
3.3
898
13.7
3.4
14.7
153
3.6
3.8
8.0
-4.4
1.0
0.0
8.9
6.6
3.2
3.0
4.2
0.9
0.6
3.6
4.1
5.5
9.5
12.1
23.0
0.6
8.8
30.5
-3.7
18.2
10.5
7.3
6.2
4.3
5.4
0.6
8.5
7.4
6.6
5.4 w
15.5 w
10.0 w
5.8 w
4.1 w
1.9w
3.9 w
1.8 w
5.1 w
6.2 w
3.1 w
2.5 w
2.7w
2.0w
3.1 w
2.1 w
7.6 w
11.5
0.1
0.4 w
1.6w
-5.1 w
-8.7
4.7
6.5
537
. .
1,890 w
2,595
2,432
1.2 w
1.0 w
6.5 w
3,641 w
3,748 w
1,397 w
7.2
3.9
9.8
1.4
1,759
1,504
2.9
901
1.6
1,574
413
4,867 w
5,182 w
2,131 w
4,307
2,499
2,204
2,019
4.7
6.8
10.5
6.1
3.6
1.3
0.2
0.5
1.8
670
2,622
3,287
3,481
1,568
3,134
1,629
6,165
5,282
5,291
3,624
2,721
15.4
-3.6
5.0
-1.6
-3.9
2.6
7.5
2.1
0.4
0.5
0.6
4.3
2.9
0.1
3,402
0.8
0.7
2,060
4,948
4,944
4,804
3,479
2,468
3,778
105
10,554
9,959
4,383
3,598
7,794
0.8
-0.4
4.0
-0.9
7.2
3.7
14.7
0.3
3.7
36.6
4.5
3.0
2.4
2.3
-0.1
-0.2
2.5
1.6
2.5
5.7
-0.1
2.6
1.1
4.9
3.8
12.4
-0.4
3.7
5.0w
0.0
44.0
0.5
5.0
6.4
7.7
4.1
0.5
5.1
4.1
6.1
3.1
4.6w
10.1
1.8
1.0
2.1
2.3
1.1
. .
6,007
3,197
2,911
6,535
4,162
2,233
4,650
1,474
2,501
8w
14w
14
12
13
14
7
3
21
0
59
13
18
16
12
l0
II
12
0
5
8w
7w
1,017w
642w
4.1
3.3
5.4
50
1.9w
-12.3
0.0
0.0
4
2
752
3,51d
909 w
514 w
-15.2
575 w
73 w
487 w
197 w
1,658 w
1,010 w
6.5
4.4
8.4
10.8
3.6
5.0
0.9
3.7
11
4
5
14
275 w
72 w
164 w
6.5
29
4.0 w
2.5 w
5.1 w
6.1 w
3.1 w
2.6 w
99w
6.9 w
5.7 w
9.4 w
5.7 w
5.7 w
6.9 w
6.1 w
3.1 w
3.0 w
6.5 w
3.6
1.0
614
3,333
369
1,288
1,718
313
226
1.788
713
2,319
42
6,228
5,547
8,940
3,484
3,913
10 w
7w
9w
8w
7w
11 w
11 w
6w
0
14
31
13
6
17
7
10
lOw
28 w
8w
19 w
5w
7w
lOw
10 w
10 w
0
5
19
10
6
15
6
6
13
16
13
12
10
10
16
10
7
8
5
6
13
8
16
12
11
11
7
10
3
19
16
2,455w
10 w
10 w
1,222 w
1,146 w
4.1
4.1 w
2.1 w
1.8 w
5w
3w
974 w
438 w
8.1 w
4.1 w
-0.3 w
5.9 w
a. Figures for the Southem African Customs Union comprising South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland are included in South African data; trade among
the component territories is excluded.
213
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladeshb
Lao PDRb
Malawi
Nepal
Chadb
Burundi
Food,
manufacturing (millions of
current dollars)
beverages,
and tobacco
Textiles and
1970
1988
1970
31
28
6
47
1970
1988
46,114:
38,393:
7,078:
227,368:
185,094:
Mali1'
Niger1'
25
Burkina Faso
Rwandab
India
65
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
SriLanka
32
33
34
Lesotho
Indonesi&'
Mauritania
35
Afghanistan
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
40
Sudan
41
VietNam
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
47
48
49
Zimbabwe
Philippinesb
50
Dominican Rep.b
Moroccob
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Bolivia1'
Cted'Ivoire
53
1,390
30
8
7,928
30,465c
2,989
213
982
Cameroon'
Pent1'
Ecuador1'
61
62
63
64
El SaIvador'
Colombia
Thailand''
65
Jamaica1'
Tunisia
Othera
Chemicals
1988
1970
59
22
1988
1970
. .
13
35
11
24
2
4
..
25
65
36
36
40
38
28
26
20
16
376
328
43,511
69
86
40
27
26
6
13
10
17
20
26
16
30
23
. .
6
4
10
31
2
7
4
13
22
21
6
.
53
::
34
29
14
65
13
10
21
3
13
20
0
27
2
14
5
17
19
8
32
28
33
11
38
141 ,583c
12
14
25
174
1,462
362
849
5,749
33
40
9
38
12
11
9
10
33
34
16
6
24
10
15
19
80
34
40
16
41
49
10
26
54
19
18
10
1988
28
19
36
12
87
252
528
25
106
181
1,149
23
28
29
47
27
85
321
994
984
49
15,574
26
10
33
23
13
11
. .
49
16
15
68,8131
35,612 1
.
135
500,413
202,745
.
568
33
34
35
32
29
17
20
12
17
26
27
22
25
24
10
10
40
32
32
32
141
939
51
48
19
15
9
6
293
1,327
9,834
24
39
27
74
35
16
8
16
5
15
11
13
1,622
149
275
641
743
3,894
35
91
340
615
198
1,430
1,708
6,101
305
2,156
79
662
119
99
194
1,487
1,130
221
121
962
8,149
14,760
685
1,411
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
214
41
135
167
SyrianArabRep.b
Namibia
Paraguay"
66
158
Liberia
Myannwr
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
36
88
30
53
275
16
17
18
19
24
III
92
Zaireb
Chinab
Haitib
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
48
16
15
21
22
23
46
22
543
1970
13
579
51
equipment
1988
165
163
and transport
clothing
l4
32
14
20
39,091
51
149
116
26
387
Sierra Leone
Madagascar'
Nigeria
Uganda
12
13
Machinery
Value added in
23
58
42
65
41
. .
. .
51
38
.
37
33
50
25
43
28
31
35
10
14
II
4
40
4
I
19
15
14
14
5
6
10
14
13
7
3
. .
14
4
4
37
28
35
12
18
27
29
22
20
38
. .
. .
. .
7
8
42
54
11
7
27
47
32
38
41
. .
56
16
40
36
31
30
30
20
43
46
29
29
13
. .
7
18
20
21
. .
15
17
18
26
15
18
10
13
11
13
29
29
36
36
31
10
20
13
33
47
manufacturing (millions of
current dollars)
67
68
69
70
Turkey
Botswanab
Jordan
71
Chil&'
72
73
74
75
76
CostaRicab
77
78
79
80
Malaysia"
Algeria"
Bulgaria
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua"
82
Panama'
Poland"
Mauritius
Mexico'
Argentina"
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela'
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary"
Uruguay
88
89
90
91
92
Yugoslavia
Gabon5
Iran, Islamic Rep.
93
94
95
Portugal"
96
97
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
TrinidadandTobago
Oman'
equipment
1988
1970
1988
1970
1988
1,930
16,793
99
619
329
26
18
15
16
14
. .
54
25
53
JO
14
5
.
127
21
41
2,092
.
26
8,449
5,750
500
682
419
46,932
18,646
5,446
1970
1988
11
45
41
6
8
5
5
8
8
8
3
11
7
5
23
12
11
48
20
47
12
19
8
16
51
6
24
6
32
15
18
Ii
13
3
13
14
28
20
9
23
22
22
II
17
26
18
32
20
20
17
Othera
Chemicals
1988
17
75
23
13
1970
.
30
52
44
62
30
57
55
28
28
31
36
12
18
14
12
34
40
38
41
13
54
39
35
47
9
4
159
27
19
53
14
2,140
3,914
12,373
19,046
30
22
15
10.429
98,880
13
13
13
16
12
14
14
1,576
34
31
10
37
14
49
23
39
45
39
39
. .
642
. .
9
17
II
12
20
II
10
10
22
28
21
10
10
30
18
10
14
10
16
23
6
25
7
6
20
18
32,492
22
1,501
198
.
1,880
.
81
1,642
325
331
10,695
357
30
13
21
15
13
32
45
44
26
70
39
46
48
42
38
31
37
38
18
9
46
12
10
34
8
36
18
16
23
13
13
10
10
26
11
19
17
15
II
32
11
39
36
64
20
21
20
25
13
II
40
36
26
14
14
10
16
50
50
25
19
15
14
13
16
23
16
33
24
29
22
7
11
16
30
31
13
10
45
8
2
41
36
22
39
39
33
4
10
28
52
12
51
27
15
16
4
4
43
9
9
24
19
45
46
31
13
24
10
13
12
13
32
32
43
37
3
5
8
7
7
27
25
3
23
13
14
54,212
319
1,500
.
39
38
33
7)70
East Asia
South Asia
116,441 1
3,595 1
37,466 1
10,357 1
728,404 1
18,133 I
250,728 1
52,644 1
34,7691
211,640/
38,653 1
644,505 I
637,343 I
5,631 1
372
785
242,284 I
Sub-Saharan Africa
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia'
101
102
103
Ireland
Spainb
(Israelt'
104 tHongKong
105 tSingapore"
106
107
108
109
New Zealand'
110
Netherlandu1'
Ill
Austtaliab
United Kingdom
Italy"
tKuwaitt'
112
Belgium"
Austriab
113
114
Francet'
115 tUnitedArabEmirates
116
117
118
119
Canada
Germany"
Denmark
UnitedStatesb
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan"
Switzerlandb
123
124
clothing
1970
12
20
Ronsania
121
122
Machinery
and transport
1988
Czechoslovaki&'
Korea,Rep."
Texti/es and
1970
Lebanon1'
Upper-middle-income
Food,
beverages,
and tobacco
103,254
6,606
1,0)9
.
19
. .
IS
15
1,013
10,781
41
379
7,406
12
1,777
7,123
24
25
13
41,697
140,879
192,884
45,236
2,089
33,809
33,723
202,734
2,126
16,924
70,888
2,929
253,711
377,173
18,088
865,605
9,047
35,739
29,016
8,545
120
8,226
4,873
68,201
.
2,588
2,416
73,339
Other economies
World
860,368 1
Oil exporters (cxci. USSR)
6,157 1
a. Includes unallocable data; see the technical notes.
38,742
22,370
13,941
831,779
16
10
18
13
8
17
19
7
20
13
17
17
12
16
12
12
13
10
8
9
38
22
19
26
26
30
10
40
36
38
36
38
86
81
9
6
14
36
40
45
44
44
42
16
14
13
9
22
6
4
23
32
24
12
12
8
8
8
8
31
10
10
13
15
8
10
13
19
10
8
7
30
20
23
34
20
31
26
7
9
8
41
23
35
10
34
23
23
6
7
38
11
46
38
40
39
46
9
7
49
46
51
53
8
10
49
40
42
48
38
9
13
10
10
32
40
38
46,844 1
b. Value added in manufacturing data are at purchaser values,
215
1970-80
Total earnings as a
percentage of value added
1980-88
1986
1987
1988
0.2
97
106
100
99
94
95
1970
1986
1987
1988
1970
1986
1987
1988
19
20
20
61
122
114
115
118
27
30
29
28
116
115
122
131
155
167
Low-income economies
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
-12.7
-5.1
-3.0
0.0
29
24
42
28
26
37
126
22
-o.
-0.8
Mali
Niger
-io.i
25
106
105
36
18
46
0.4
61
68
BurkinaFaso
21
22
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
26
27
28
29
30
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
31
32
33
34
35
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem,
41
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bunindi
20
40
LaoPDR
Rwanda
India
37
38
39
-4.6
Liberia
Myanmar
3.4
123
130
4.2
-3.3
-3.4
4.6
-0.1
5.0
124
116
153
157
97
102
106
0.4
.
3.4
127
22
10
47
49
15
50
44
21
19
49
.
44
.
131
42
51
165
146
193
133
44
186
182
85
7.8
170
14
34
1.7
102
6.0
144
1.7
99
109
105
70
17
26
Sudan
VietNam
132
130
32
35
34
115
116
19
31
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
0.0
-10.3
41
Egypt,ArabRep.
4.1
0.5
103
47
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Chte d'Ivoire
DominicanRep.
Morocco
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
57
58
59
60
Camemon
61
Paraguay
62
63
64
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
65
66
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
46
-4.9
1.6
-3.7
-0.9
-1.1
-0.9
100
98
4.0
120
145
100
.
28
24
56
44
43
36
21
21
35
26
76
-1.9
26
80
. .
98
25
102
41
41
40
-2.7
85
89
89
. .
22
19
19
2.6
-5.5
87
70
64
34
33
35
32
3.2
. .
3.3
-3.0
-1.3
2.4
-9.4
-0.2
3.2
1.0
6.3
30
86
103
116
142
191
116
112
121
52
63
95
95
70
l58
207
82
83
63
109
114
71
87
127
135
40
-3.2
65
89
34
27
35
-4.4
-3.6
2.9
43
54
.
95
98
114
li
95
80
18
18
27
38
36
35
28
25
16
17
15
23
24
24
-0.2
25
43
4.2
44
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
216
50
86
68
.
95
70
150
.
101
148
Growth rate
1970-80
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
77
78
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
67
68
69
70
79
80
81
82
6.1
1987
1988
1970
1986
1987
1988
1970
1986
1987
1988
-3.3
81
86
82
26
16
17
16
108
154
169
172
37
32
36
28
33
25
32
37
67
84
19
17
17
17
60
41
30
23
44
20
33
31
71
99
99
0.2
3.2
125
124
8.1
-1.7
98
99
1.8
1.2
(1980=100)
1986
-1.1
1980-88
-5.7
2.6
Total earnings as a
percentage of value added
Index (1980=100)
123
105
-1.0
-5.2
86
70
93
98
-1.5
1.4
III
71
103
72
2.0
4.4
133
130
140
97
-1.0
..
-10.0
24
34
44
30
29
45
16
.
.
56
22
23
43
20
44
20
139
77
90
72
112
103
69
68
106
136
111
125
21
19
18
71
30
29
30
96
120
..
210
25
28
118
121
138
182
49
48
71
41
114
124
112
120
116
113
98
89
97
191
..
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
3.8
0.1
106
2.7
0.0
0.0
2.2
101
113
1.0
88
89
90
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
1.3
-1.5
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
98
99
Iraq
Romania
Korea,Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
4.0
3.6
108
102
100
110
112
116
98
104
109
125
118
97
93
88
Ill
31
46
22
28
27
49
17
15
15
34
25
33
26
39
26
33
30
26
49
72
41
70
40
39
34
25
39
26
36
27
37
27
40
146
166
37
32
43
43
45
56
114
112
36
25
49
52
36
33
38
40
60
103
124
36
62
53
52
32
58
48
43
47
47
110
41
42
41
41
41
41
52
46
47
39
0.2
5.9
95
128
100
144
4.9
107
153
.
III
59
III
III
130
1.1
84
25
2.5
10.0
103
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, M.East, & N.Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
lOther
100 (Saudi Arabia
4.1
2.3
105
Ill
4.4
0.8
101
104
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
8.8
-4.5
65
6.4
4.5
124
93
135
119
107
72
137
105 tSingapore
3.0
5.2
148
146
148
1.1
-1.0
97
2.9
0.2
2.8
0.8
104
115
102
103
119
105
2.5
0.3
3.8
104
4.6
-0.1
100
123
100
110
101
102
103
106
107
108
109
Ireland
Spain
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
Ill tKuwait
112
Belgium
113
Austria
114
France
110
120
121
122
123
124
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
1.7
4.3
3.4
1.9
102
113
1.2
1.8
0.4
101
1.7
107
0.5
1.8
0.4
2.6
2.6
0.6
2.6
3.1
1.7
1.9
119
31
29
28
37
43
56
12
28
46
47
46
53
45
43
53
'14
39
37
36
37
49
60
35
46
59
35
34
56
100
108
100
110
103
107
104
113
104
107
100
115
107
112
102
118
109
113
103
122
110
117
46
56
47
52
47
50
32
37
112
73
III
. .
. .
124
117
119
121
51
126
129
139
68
110
65
72
107
74
118
113
106
126
113
108
118
116
60
106
103
108
63
116
124
74
45
117
116
117
122
46
56
57
3.5
2.5
0.1
32
37
63
57
43
53
44
42
51
121
122
. .
53
44
56
34
123
132
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
217
Low-income economies
China and India
Other low-income
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
-2.7
4.1 w
4.0 w
4.3 w
.
1980-89
1965-80
1980-89
7.5 w
7.2 w
8.3 w
7.6 w
9.8 w
1.5 w
5.1 w
6.5 w
2.2 w
0.9
-0.1
2.4
0.9
3.9
6.2
2.1
12.1
0.0
-2.7
-0.1
9.1
5.-
3.9
3.6
2.2
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
7.3
5.4
7.5
24
9li
0.5
3.0
-1.0
-3.3
2.0
0.6
1.2
13.9
-2.6
6.9
-2.3
-0.6
-4.8
1.5
14.7
-12.9
-5.7
a
12.7
8.1
7.0
0.7
4.0
1.9
6.6
3.3
1.9
3.0
5.2
2.7
10.8
1.8
7.3
-1.4
-0.9
India
2.9
8.7
6.2
4.7
2.5
4.5
2.6
3.3
0.3
5.6
1.8
6.3
8.5
China
5.6
9.3
1.9
10.6
-1.4
6.2
2.4
5.2
4.5
18
19
BurkinaFaao
20
21
22
Haiti
23
24
25
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
26
27
28
29
30
31
SriLanka
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
Rwanda
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
4.6
8.2
9.0
4.5
6.9
8.8
4.5
10.7
14.8
-3.8
7.2
2.4
0.4
5.7
10.4
-9.3
5.7
6.9
9.0
-2.9
-4.5
4.7
0.7
-0.1
1.9
7.5
0.3
5.1
4.5
2.7
-1.1
3.8
-2.5
-2.3
4.9
2.1
2.2
9.5
5.1
1.7
1.2
1.2
-5.4
-1.3
-5.4
-0.7
5.1
4.1
-3.6
1.1
8.3
4.1
12.4
11.4
10.0
-0.4
4.4
9.9
5.2
3.9
0.6
4.3
-3.5
1.3
3.5
1,7
10.9
Angola
Bolivia
34
7.2 w
6.7 w
11.5
17.8
16.1
19.2
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
4.4
6.4
5.9 w
L9 w
49 w
28 w
24 w
-0.7
4.4
6.8
-5.4
8.5 w
-0.3 w
75 w
-1.4w
-1.9
3.8
1.6
1.7
4.4
-11.6
11.3
1.7
3.6
2.9
0.6
3.9
5.1
-2.2
0.9
2.7
4.9
6.9
7.8
5.4
3.1
7.3
0.8
2.8
8.5
10.7
-7.8
-12.1
13.5
11.4
5.4
4.5
-1.7
-0.5
-2.4
-10.7
3.1
6.7
3.9
10.6
7.7
13.2
0.2
10.9
-6.3
0.1
-0.3
5.3
1.3
1.4
6.9
6.2
5.5
4.8
2.4
4.0
4.8
2.2
0.5
3.7
2.6
6.8
7.4
4.5
57
58
59
60
Cameroon
5.0
6.3
3.0
9.9
0.3
Ecuador
Namibia
12.2
61
Paraguay
5.1
62
63
64
65
66
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Thnisia
7.0
6.7
9.5
9.7
7.2
Pens
9.4
1.4
1.8
4.7
5.1
1.9
-3.0
6.4
-1.5
-2.2
4.3
4.8
3.1
3.6
5.6
0.1
3.6
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
218
13.7
8.2
2.9
3.2
2.3 w
46
56
-7.7
Afghanistan
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
52
53
54
55
0.1
1.4
1.8
Mali
Niger
51
0.4
. .
. .
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
6.4
1965 -80
16
17
42
43
44
45
6.8 w
8.6 w
3.8 w
LaoPDR
Malawi
15
41
67 w
1980-89
Gross domestic
investment
3.0
3.5
4.5
2.8
Uganda
Zaire
40
5.7 w
5.0 w
Private
consumption, etc.
4.1
4.9
7.2
-5.1
1.7
1.1
6.6
1.9
13.5
-4.5
-3.2
-7.0
-1.9
4.2
5.8
6.4
2.9
8.8
0.3
2.9
7.2
6.6
5.8
8.0
2.7
0.3
5.7
2.1
-3.1
3.7
3.5
4.6
-4.4
1.6
1.9
9.5
.
1965-80
67
68
69
70
71
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
6.1
12.0
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
86
87
12.5
10.2
1980-89
5.6
6.8
1965-80
8.8
21.0
1980-89
3.7
0.4
l.o
0.9
1.1
0.5
2.7
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
6.8
0.9
5.1
3.0
9.4
4.9
a
7.1
1.9
2.8
2.1
8.5
3.2
2.1
5.7
6.4
5.9
2.8
8.5
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
8.5
8.6
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Uniguay
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
90
5.4
-0.2
91
92
89
1965 -80
2.7
4.0
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
88
Gross domestic
investment
74
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
1980-89
Private
consumption, etc.
-1.3
2.5
4.0
i.4
0.3
4.6
3.3
3.1
10.4
15.9
-1.1
2.6
6.8w
3.2w
0.7
2.2
2.4
1.8
5.3
6.8
3.7
3.8
7.1
8.7
a
3.2
2.0
5.7
2.3
3.6
10.1
10.7
14.6
0.8
3.3
7.5
-1.8
-0.2
-3.5
4.0
6.8
8.9
1.4
3.4
1.2
6.6
8.0
7.7
2.5
5.7
. .
19.1
5.1
19.7
6.6
2.8
6.9w
7.0w
7.4w
4.6w
3.3w
1.1w
5.8w
8.7w
1.2w
3.1w
2.9w
2.6w
4.2
1.5
0.0
-7.3
9.4w
.
4.1
5.0
7.8
13.6
0.6w
-3.8
-4.5
11.3
0.7
7.0
8.0
-1.2
-7.9
-0.4
-4.9
6.5
14.1
11.5
12.1
2.0
3.7
8.1
1.3
15.0
-5.0
-7.8
0.7
6.2
5.0
2.2
2.6w
2.1
4.7
6.5
7.5w
-15.6
4.6
15.9
.
0.3
-7.7
-1.0
-2.7
11.6
18.4
7.3
2.9
5.3
-1.7
3.5 w
8.2w
2.0w
-3.9 w
Romania
6.2w
6.4w
2.6w
2.5w
2.6w
5.3 w
4.0 w
6.3 w
2.9 w
6.1w
4.0w
4.0w
0.7
6.4 w
5.4 w
3.6 w
8.6 w
11.1 w
9.9 w
4.3w
4.1w
-0.1w
1.4w
1.8w
8.1 w
3.1w
3.0w
3.7w
3.6w
-2.3 w
-2.0 w
4.2w
8.3 w
4.3w
tOther
100 lSaudi Arabia
101
Ireland
102
103
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
6.1
5.1
8.8
-6.4
4.9
7.7
0.5
5.3
10.2
7.1
20.0
4.6
4.7
5.9
9.0
1.1
0.5
0.5
3.6
3.6
1.3
4.0
2.3
3.6
3.4
6.9
2.1
1.5
1.6
11.9
-5.1
0.7
1.6
2.1
2.4
4.6
2.1
2.1
2.4
1.8
-5.0
. .
-8.7
7.:
3.6
5.3
5.6
1.5
2.0
1.7
1.2
3.3
3.8
2.3
3.3
3.7
2.8
1.6
2.3
1.9
1.2
3.8
4.0
4.6
3.0
2.9
4.4
6.3
3.2
6.2
1.4
6.9
3.7
4.2
4.7
4.2
2.9
2.0
5.7
4.7
4.4 w
3.7 w
2.1
1.5
1.0
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
4.8
0.8
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
4.1
5.3
5.5
5.2
7.3
3.6
3.2
2.6
2.6
2.9 w
2.7 w
3.5
3.7
1.6
3.8
116
117
118
119
122
123
124
-3.9
121
3.0
1.3
4.6
5.9
3.0
0.9
2.7
2.8
4.6
Netherlands
5.3
3.4
3.4
2.6
4.1
1.0
2.9
110
-2.3
2.8
4.8
3.5
Italy
27.5
6.3
3.7
5.9
8.6
13.3
1.5
0.9
3.4
5.0
2.3
3.5
Belgium
Austria
France
5.1
7.1
5.6
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
112
113
114
2.6
7.8
2.2
106
107
108
109
Ill iKuwait
. .
1.1
1.9
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
4.2 w
3.1 w
. .
.
a. General government consumption figures are not available separately; they are included in pnvate consumption, etc.
. .
219
General
government
consumption
1965
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
7
8
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bumndi
2
3
9
10
11
12
1989
Private
consumption, etc.
1965
1989
12w
70w
68w
77w
64w
62w
70w
25
95
II
26
10
12
69
93
23
77
74
84
83
11w
12w
9w
8w
9w
15
a
20
11
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
1965
19w
21w
14w
28w
31w
21w
13
13
15
11
11
21
21
12
1965
18w
20w
12w
12
16
8
8
1989
26w
30w
18w
-19
5
-5
-14
1
Exports of goods
and nonfactor
services
1965
7w
4w
16w
12
26
-13
19
18
10
22
12
85
84
70
91
75
12
11
30
13
13
13
0
12
12
8
21
13
13
26
13
26
2
16
79
18
27
12
10
19
15
80
67
10
10
17
11
3
2
24
15
6
21
6
12
4
10
83
16
84
83
78
64
10
7
10
16
17
18
Mali
Niger
10
10
6
5
12
13
19
Rwanda
India
14
14
12
84
90
90
81
76
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
14
61
59
24
36
25
36
8
15
11
10
85
61
72
12
14
21
25
2
15
13
13
31
19
17
8
90
70
76
87
87
II
8
13
26
27
28
29
30
CentralAfricanRep.
22
IS
87
21
-1
27
14
18
17
17
21
8
23
Ii
13
15
10
45
84
69
85
9
12
Ii
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
67
77
65
40
10
31
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
13
20
21
22
23
24
25
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Bhutan
Kantpuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
41
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
10
19
9
19
13
18
a
.
12
.
12
.
11w
lOw
.
74
109
87
54
79
27
42
11
17
. .
10
62w
66w
.
15
23
19
10
21
65
10
22
23
Honduras
Guatemala
10
16
15
13
13
64
73
84
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
14
21
IS
80
76
60
22
61
10
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
13
12
10
9
75
59
80
69
68
71
14
28
6
79
12
10
10
-121
-20
10
.
-I
21
64
75
82
-10
15
76
30
14
8
25
-9
17
34
13
PapuaNewGuinea
15
-6
-7
-4
24
26
24
-11
-10
. .
18
12
10
-11
50
22
76
19
19
45
28
27
19
12
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
-1
-8
20
15
21
-3
-6
-6
-4
. .
55
73
69
-5
-9
-8
-8
14
23
. .
70
14
12
19w
65
9
11
27
27w
23w
9
18
6
16
12
Cted'Ivoire
-6
-17
21w
24
Zimbabwe
Philippines
25w
22w
73
Senegal
19
22w
19w
75
13
16
-15
15
-13
-5
-6
-5
-2
-11
-7
14
15
16
17
9
13
79
-2
34
6
27
-38
37
-6
-5
26
50
-55
-3
-7
-6
-6
15
66
35
-26
-2
-13
-15
-12
-22
-13
27
11
-35
-11
. .
53
39
-8
-26
38
16
11
19
12
80
80
11
-2w
-2w
-4w
32
49
13
74
67
9
19
17
11
21
67w
71w
20
12
12w
12w
18
61
18
31
78
136
17w
15w
.
25w
25w
.
Ow
-1w
-5
-4
-4
21
18
11
24
21
18
13
18
19
37
18
30
25
35
32
23
11
18
41
11
27
22
14
15
10
17
13
13
5
10
-3
-17
13
18
34
20
22
19
Ow
9
7
22
27
2w
-4
-17
-5
Yemen, Rep.
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
14
10
9
.
10
8
15
14
17
61
75
79
75
72
69
71
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
220
22
25
67
Il
Il
71
99
14
85
85
14
13
17
1989
-53
-1
-14
12
-2w
14
19
13
78
Ow
19
17
-1w
-3
-4
0
0
14
82
92
balance
1965
16
19
19
81
BurkinaFaso
16
12
Resource
8
8
10
15
14w
11w
19w
17
10
Uganda
Zaire
13
14
1989
-2
11
84
100
74
89
21
1989
Gross domestic
savings
33
87
15
16
91
91
Gross domestic
investment
22
29
6
12
17
16
-1
-4
1
-8
-6
-20
-12
19
36
24
17
33
12
19
24
22
20
16
16
19
13
-1
31
-3
-3
-2
-1
-2
17
15
15
21
14
15
15
27
55
34
15
16
13
16
20
11
18
61
20
31
19
6
24
29
27
66
12
17
-1
29
23
26
14
19
16
33
19
36
23
47
45
-13
56
79
82
60
64
27
28
-2
-5
17
51
11
.
. .
-I
-4
6
11
-6
-10
4
-2
-4
-4
General
government
consumption
1965
1989
Private
consumption, etc.
1965
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
12
II
24
II
20
24
22
11
10
73
73
72
73
74
75
76
CostaRica
13
16
78
77
78
79
80
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua
67
68
69
70
71
82
Poland
Mauritjus
Mexico
Argentina
13
12
II
10
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
15
15
14
16
Lebanon
10
74
75
69
61
66
74
89
Gross domestic
investment
1965
1989
68
43
78
67
66
15
22
24
198.9
Gross domestic
savings
1965
11
36
14
23
35
13
21
33
21
36
67
17
19
18
12
22
19
8
8
16
16
30
24
34
31
32
19
31
42
22
74
21
30
31
16
16
63
67
66
20
24
33
17
29
71
71
20
19
52
53
20
22
63
. .
. .
21
1989
24
20
22
6
32
-2
18
15
74
1965
21
37
-13
18
81
1989
13
61w
59w
24w
27w
25w
30w
20w
24w
Venezuela
South Africa
10
25
28
13
21
65
11
20
26
22
26
34
27
22
25
27
26
26
30
26
26
Il
15
13
56
62
67
75
68
64
54
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
9
20
9
34
28
7
36
24
18
6
20
91
52
52
63
67
40
47
90
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
92
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
Iraq
99
Rosnania
86
87
88
89
II
II
II
TnnidadandTobago
13
12
Czechoslovakia
22
12
13
10
OECDmembers
(Other
100 tSaudiArabia
Ireland
102
Spain
103 (Israel
101
9
.
121
122
123
124
. .
50
69
15
29
26
18
50
IS
31
16
53
9
38
13w
21w
13w
23 w
23 w
35 w
25 w
25 w
77 w
65 w
69 w
14w
21w
18 w
7w
6w
21 w
28 w
24 w
19 w
13 w
68w
67w
21w
21w
22w
23w
14w
17 w
61 w
61 w
17 w
22 w
17 w
22 w
13 w
22w
17w
61w
61w
17w
22w
17w
22w
13w
14 w
19 w
57 w
54 w
25 w
23 w
27 w
28 w
48 w
18
17
32
14
34
14
21
21
48
21
60
35
15
25
tO
19
29
13
47
57
63
22
10
20
16
15
12
19
13w
14 w
9w
lOw
9w
9w
22 w
29
7
tO
II
14
14
18
13
16
20
19
.
21
21
19
18
15
80
64
60
65
61
59
58
46
58
59
64
62
60
46
22
23
29
36
27
29
35
71
22
23
26
35
32
26
10
22
23
43
28
23
123
22
13
21
12
18
20
24
21
23
20
19
19
19
22
23
31
22
28
22
40
17
23
59
15
17
18
64
59
58
19
. .
41
19
19
60
56
59
63
59
20
54
53
67
23
24
56
62
56
59
60
52
54
25
25
20
21
26
lB
16
18
12
11
72
68
65
64
20
9
13
26
3
3
-9
IS
27 w
64w
-1
21
14w
8w
-11
20 w
12w
34 w
22 w
29 w
20 w
8w
14
24
15w
13w
4w
26 w
10 w
-3
1w
-10
20 w
14 w
22 w
17 w
22 w
20 w
68 w
73 w
-2
11 w
14 w
62 w
73 w
57 w
69 w
59 w
67 w
11w
21
120
110
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
-3
-5
-7
37
30
35
36
34
25
20
16
23
18
116
117
118
119
66
52
27
9
68
83
-8
-5
21
-4
-2
-1
20
28
-4
43
35
21
-10
34
48
19
6
6
19
22
43
20
65
17
-2
15
53
33
28
26
30
26
13
-20
18
30
37
24
31
56
48
36
73
105 (Singapore
106 New Zealand
107 Australia
108 United Kingdom
109
Italy
30
61
11
48
26
30
22
14
12
Netherlands
Ill (Kuwait
112
Belgium
113
Austria
France
114
18
59
72
-19
29
12w
83
84
85
1989
-J
-1
-13
12w
Upper-middle-income
1965
18
36
18
Resource
balance
services
22
64
53
34
38
Exports of goods
and nonfactor
63
55
60
48
57
58
16
19
22
21
20
27
21
60
20
21
15
18
13
43
68
36
25
13
-1 w
1w
1w
-3 w
Ow
Ow
14 w
-3 w
-2 w
1w
-4 w
-2 w
3w
15w
1w
2w
23 w
21 w
69 w
1w
1w
2w
Iw
9w
37
67
19
34
135
34
-9
-3
-13
-7
191
-12
27
16
24
-1
-3
-1
19
58
56
73
40
23
Ow
4w
-1
10
-3
-4
8
8
-3
-3
-4
-1
-1
45
0
12
3
-1
I
0
IS
19
20
23
22
23
27
23
29
55
25
35
35
12
15
12
13
12
24
22
30
27
33
30
23
22
28
22
20
33
24
-1
32
41
41
-1
34
29
11
15
5
2
29
38
-1
12 w
21 w
26 w
22
29
28
30
25
23
22
21
28
30
29
Other economies
23 w
18 w
18 w
23 w
16 w
19 w
62 w
63 w
World
28 w
28 w
54 w
20 w
24 w
11 w
18 w
60 w
Oil exporters(excl. USSR)
a. General government consumption figures are not available separately; they are included in private consumption, etc.
19
19
29 w
0
0
2
1
-2
0w
9w
0
6
3
-1
-2
Iw
4w
221
Food
Total
Cereals
and
tubers
and
footwear
50
64
24
32
10
Clothing
Total
Other consumption
Transport and
communtcatton
Other
consumer
Fuel and
power
Medical
care
Education
17
10
Total
Automobiles
Total
durables
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
37
38
39
40
41
..
..
10
15
13
17
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
55
57
28
38
5
12
12
14
3
3
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
56
59
52
22
26
15
12
10
6
6
2
2
2
18
15
10
11
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
57
22
10
30
ii
ii
18
II
16
10
52
13
12
15
15
12
14
IS
16
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
..
36
31
34
35
..
59
33
..
14
8
LaoPDR
26
27
28
29
30
32
..
16
54
37
17
7
9
12
14
Zambia
Guinea
43
10
18
ii
12
4
4
14
20
14
13
28
13
6
.
48
21
3
.
13
.
15
25
22
4
.
..
15
2
.
60
3
.
ii
4
4
1.
Togo
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
0.;
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
47
48
49
Zimbabwe
Philippines
40
51
Cted'tvoire
50
51
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
40
46
40
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
24
35
30
30
12
21
10
22
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
33
29
12
30
39
37
7
5
28
27
24
5
6
tO
6
16
7
12
10
15
13
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
33
50
50
. .
15
II
12
11
13
20
14
13
10
3
19
5
5
5
12
II
4
10
4
8
10
19
10
6
. .
7
7
10
8
.
.
.
3
2
6
5
Note: For data compambility and coverage, see the technical notes.
222
11
.
39
36
42
10
Yemen,Rep.
12
9
22
12
4
6
18
14
20
16
23
4
4
15
. .
. .
21
14
13
3
11
9
6
21
22
15
20
20
3
17
3
3
15
7d
.
17
5C
11
1d
.
12
21
10
24
30
. .
13
13
17
3
7
22
1
18
Food
and
Clothing
and
tubers
footwear
Total
15
8
13
15
7
7
3
8
11
13
Cereals
Total
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
40
35
35
38
29
13
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
33
29
24
35b
35
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
23
Fuel and
Medical
power
care
Transport and
communication
Education
Total
Automobiles
6
7
5
8
5
II
0
0
19
11
10
12
5
4
13
19
Other consumption
Gross rents;
.fie1 and power
7
5
0
.
Other
consumer
Total
22
22
35
24
29
28
34
29
25
26
33
durables
6
5
9
9
4
.
.
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Umguay
23
26
35
25
88
89
90
27
93
94
95
96
97
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
Romania
91
92
9
.
31
7
7
10
10
9
7
II
10
37
2
5
10
5
7
12
11
17
8
9
13
11
12
10
. .
36
34
23
27
35
8
8
27
32
14
24
25
26
.
1
34
35
30
10
13
14
Il
. .
.
.
12
. .
. .
.
.
13
.
fOther
100
101
102
03
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
tSaudi Arabia
Ireland
. .
II
16
5
3
10
7
7
5
11
20
12
10
IS
2
2
11
6
5
14
21
17
19
2
2
2
2
14
2
2
4
4
13
18
. .
Spain
22
24
tlsrael
21
tHong Kong
12
tSingapore
New Zealand
19
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
12
13
12
. .
II
2
2
2
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
13
16
2
3
6
9
6
2
2
12
13
13
15
16
16
Germany
Denmark
UnitedStates
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (exel. USSR)
a. Data refer to either 1980 or 1985.
23
44
30
15
34
4
4
31
9
7
7
II
31
11
10
33
9
8
7
11
15
6
8
13
. .
5
13
5
4
33
18
28
5
5
3
3
10
13
.
3
3
3
.
36
31
26
29
32
31
33
14
19
II
11
15
14
14
10
10
32
34
32
34
15
38
16
17
17
8
8
.
14
13
13
14
7
7
12
6
9
15
5
12
18
19
13
10
21
7
9
10
6
7
5
6
14
17
10
13
19
13
14
. .
17
17
17
.
5
5
6
.
27
7
7
6
7
1. Excludes
government expenditure.
223
Defense
1972
Education
1989
1972
Housing,
amenities:
social security
and welfarea
Health
1989
1972
1989
1972
3.6
4.4
1989
Total
Economic
services
expenditure as
a percentage
of GNP
Other
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
. .
. .
22.9
39.0
21.6
39.3
30.1
52.6
22.6
40.5
25.9
46.5
13.7
19.7
13.5
35.2
33.1
36.9
49.0
37.9
25.8
Overall
surplus/deficit
as a percentage
of GNP
1972
1989
-t8
Low-income economies
2
3
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
....
14.4
17.3
5.5
11.9
23.3
5.1
Somaliab
Bangladesh1'
LaoPD
7
8
9
10
Malawi"
Nepal
Chad
Bumndi
11
SiermLeone
3.6
12
Madagabscar
3.6
40.2
23.1
11.1
13
14
15
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
16
Mali
Niger
17
18
19
20
14.8
. .
23.4
. .
15.5
9.1
. .
2.8
4.5
2.8
15.3
. .
14.0
15.1
6.1
8.0
9.0
26.2
17.2
Ghana'
30
Togo
Zambiat'
Guinea
3!
SriLanka
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kampuchea,De,n.
Liberia
40
Sudanb
VietNam
Myanmcsr
20.6
22.2
2.3
. .
..
..
5.0
0.4
5.0
. .
1.7
4.7
4.4
6.0
27
2.7
.
.
9.9
0.8
0.8
1.5
7.3
2.1
4.3
2.1
5.8
0.7
7.3
5.3
2.4
. .
9.8
5.5
5.3
4.2
3.6
9.3
2.1
1.9
27
28
5.0
25.6
26
. .
Rwanda
India
Pakistan
Benin
7.2
17.9
Kenya1'
15.8
12.3
10.0
11.5
China
Haiti
41
7.2
24.6
10.3
5.3
5.2
5.7
7.2
7.2
. .
14.8
BurkinaFaso
21
22
23
24
25
29
3.1
10.6
14.0
8.2
5.2
5.7
2.7
1.5
1.7
2.6
3.2
36.7
23.0
32.7
33.9
23.8
24.6
57.2
21.8
40.5
. .
35.9
.
.
.
.
48.3
32.7
31.4
36.6
56.2
56.2
. .
12.2
21.9
1.2
22.1
7.9
5.9
. .
11.2
55.7
22.0
5.0
19.9
37.6
21.9
46.9
51.3
1.1
25.7
19.9
0.0
19.0
8.6
5.4
.
13.0
22.4
8.3
7.4
3.2
11.1
0.0
3.1
0.0
18.6
. .
.
7.4
10.0
1.4
1.8
26.7
20.2
20.6
15.1
6.2
6.0
0.9
1.7
21.6
30.5
13.0
5.3
31.6
18.7
24.1
15.0
9.3
9.8
13.7
.
6.1
5.4
5.0
.
34.0
14.0
32.5
20.0
37.7 42.0
42.7
.
.
25.2
14.5
29.8
.
.
41.3
7&2
15.1
4.4
51.4
25.5
15.2
-10.5
-6.8
-4.6
0.3
0.3
-2.7
-3.2
-6.7
-3.9
-6.9
-4.4
-7.0
20.6
33.5
45.1
.
.
-5.8
0.4
-13.8
-2.6
-4.6
-5.1
-7.5
3.5
-2.5
-2.1
-4.2
5.7
45.7
.
. .
0.0
-2.6
25.7
19.5
19.5
6.4
17.7
31.1
24.1
57.2
2.0
10.7
16.9
46.6
1.3
19.2
31.2
24.8
7.4
33.2
28.0
21.5
21.0
15.1
4.1
39.2
. .
11.9
8.5
9.0
5.2
7.4
6.3
30.2
20.1
7.9
17.9
21.4
12.5
10.5
14.5
30.1
-8.1
7.0
2.6
15.5
3.9
3.2
28.1
. .
-6.0
-10.1
0.0
8.4
0.2
-6.2
-1.2
-2.7
-4.4
-2.0
-0.7
28.9
6.0
39.9
72.4
22.1
29.5
22.0
18.4
5.3
25.9
..
22.1
8.5
14.9
19.9
0.6
-1.9
13.7
. .
9.4
45.1
3.1
4.6
23.9
16.7
8.3
21.8
19.6
12.4
13.2
6.6
-1.4
-5.0
3.5
25.8
16.7
14.8
20.1
31.7
40.5
19.7
7.5
16.2
15.8
44.1
19.2
1.4
0.9
1.1
-0.8
.
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Zimbabwe
Philippinesb
10.9
16.3
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
85
12.3
56
SyrianArabRep
37.2
40.4
57
58
59
Cameroon
6.7
20.2
14.9
65
66
23.4
17.1
3.2
Pen,'
Ecuadorb
Namibia
Paraguay
El Salvadorb
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
4.7
.
19.2
17.0
/5.3
22.3
7.6
43
10.2
4.8
4.3
3.9
2.0
14.5
22.4
25.9
47.7
25.6
21.4
29.7
3.1
208
28.3
8.7
18.1
11.3
/0.4
12.0
23.6
27.5
15.6
23.4
5.5
4.5
1.4
.
1.5
3.4
5.5
4.5
39.9
8.7
1.8
0.8
.
2.0
30.9
28.9
25.0
6.7
40.8
15.7
177
204
-02
36.0
46.6
22.8
29.1
-3.9
29.0
16.1
9.9
18.2
29.0
22.6
13.4
23.6
17.6
16.1
.
12.0
.
26.7
20.9
11.6
14.2
.
12.1
11.4
3.5
3.0
18.3
26.7
19.6
9.5
32.7
39.1
13.1
8.9
6.6
10.4
27.9
21.4
17.6
10.9
7.4
7.6
5.2
14.4
15.0
39.0
26.9
10.5
20.2
17.8
19.9
19.3
3.7
6.3
7.0
25.6
20.4
23.5
30.9
12.8
13.1
16.7
4.9
5.7
30.5
. .
14.6
7.4
5.9
8.8
5.3
.
22.0
23.3
24.4
25.1
-9.1
13.4
27.3
23.1
-1.6
-6.9
-2.8
37.7
21.2
40.4
32.3
48.1
18.3
0.
40.2
26.2
98
168
.
18.8
3.6
.
43.8
183
7.3
13.8
17.6
8.4
15.7
222
9.8
354
118
3.0
9.4
247
146
17.6
2.5
Note.' For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
224
117
142
15.1
12.4
63
64
66
11.9
Cbted'Ivoire
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep
62
16.5
PapuaNewGuinea"
61
13.0
52
53
54
55
60
203
116
14.4
14.6
15.1
.
37.5
-2.8
-4.6
-0.9
-2.9
-2.2
-1.8
-0.9
-2.5
-3.3
-4.8
0.2
0.0
-3.5
.
-1.7
-1.0
-2.5
-4.2
0.8
-1.9
-0.7
3.1
-0.9
-4.5
Defense
Turkey
Botswanab
Jordan
Panama
Chile
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Education
Housing,
amenities;
social security
and welfare5
Health
Overall
surplus/deficit
as a percentage
of GNP
Total
Economic
services
expenditure as
a percentage
of GNP
Others
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
15.5
11.6
18.1
3.1
3.1
18.1
5.5
11.5
12.4
20.2
14.6
-2.2
-23.8
19.8
27.7
23.6
23.7
50.1
38.4
7.9
31.7
14.5
10.3
5.9
15.3
8.8
34.5
16.2
29.1
16.3
22.7
33.7
9.4
20.7
28.5
17.0
4.0
27.2
21.7
10.5
10.8
39.8
26.5
46.9
30.4
-4.6
10.0
42.0
28.0
26.6
24.2
19.8
12.4
25.9
3.2
6.0
3.8
15.1
2.9
0.0
33.5
0.0
15.7
20.1
15.3
19.1
10.1
21.2
11.4
17.2
33.0
25.9
-6.5
-13.0
-4.5
13.9
35.8
30.0
17.2
12.4
43.4
38.8
13.4
61.1
20.5
20.0
18.7
6.1
8.4
Cost.a Rica
Poland
2.6
1.7
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
0.8
4.5
1.0
10.0
8.6
4.1
. .
2.2
13.5
16.4
20.0
15.3
12.3
9.3
10.3
4.5
.
9.2
1.7
2.0
18.0
25.4
20.0
23.5
33.9
16.7
6.1
18.5
10.3
40.9
.
.
,
. .
.
.
16.6
4.0
10.3
18.6
11.7
26.5
30.1
27.1
-9.9
-5.8
-0.2
-2.3
-2.4
-1.2
-2.9
-1.5
-4.8
0.0
-4.9
-2.6
-9.4
.
. .
12.3
16.3
11.4
19.6
32.5
27.8
40.4
24.2
21.2
15.5
27.6
43.2
19.0
.
16.4
27.2
23.4
9.2
25.4
24.8
15.8
-4.0
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
88
89
Yugoslavia
Gabonb
16.7
90
Iran, IslamicRep
24.1
91
SouthAfrica
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
92
Portugal
Korea, Rep
Oman
Libya
Greece
Iraq
Romania
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
18.1
18.3
56.7
21.8
29.1
36.7
21.2
16.7
19.]
25.0
33.0
30.6
58.6
25.8
21.0
21.1
5.3
30.9
37.0
30.8
8.3
.
5.6
4.3
3.7
8.2
53.4
11.7
8.3
.
9.5
4.2
2.6
7.9
6.7
.
1.6
16.7
10.4
19.3
3.6
6.1
2.1
35.0
21.0
29.9
4.5
52.3
33.3
50.9
6.0
7.1
6.1
.
.
.
25.8
39.3
5.7
24.9
41.9
15.8
3.7
10.0
8.2
18.5
1.2
2.0
10.3
5.9
5.1
16.7
19.6
30.6
17.5
36.9
7.4
30.6
5.4
9.1
2.9
0.5
5.1
16.2
2.8
6.5
12.4
12.5
3.9
49.8
30.3
37.0
7.1
22.3
13.8
9.8
25.2
27.0
9.9
9.9
. .
9.5
9.1
5.0
25.1
9.8
14.9
7.6
17.2
5.9
3.0
23.3
39.3
24.9
21.0
18.0
62.1
19.7
11.8
25.7
23.6
.
26.4
11.7
27.5
31.4
43.3
16.9
25.6
24.4
61.8
47.8
13.1
1.6
48.6
-0.2
-4.2
-0.3
. .
-2.5
-0.4
-11.9
-4.6
-7.5
-14.9
-2.0
-1.7
0.3
-8.0
-4.5
-5.0
-3.9
-15.3
-9.9
0.2
-1.7
.
fOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
New Zealandt'
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
115 tUnitedArabEmiratesb
116
117
118
119
Canada
Germany
Denmark
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japanb
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
United SIssIes
6.5
42.9
26.1
8.3
7.1
11.8
5.1
10.1
0.9
0.0
.
.
17.5
7.1
15.4
10.4
10.4
17.0
35.7
27.3
28.5
27.2
7.8
5.2
14.8
12.7
9.9
21.2
4.8
8.9
12.5
15.7
16.9
19.0
12.5
4.2
2.6
7.3
7.0
12.2
3.6
16.1
2.9
8.3
6.8
5.0
8.4
6.7
3.3
19.9
15.2
15.0
15.5
10.2
35.3
5.8
14.2
16.7
6.3
24.4
7.6
4.7
2.7
6.1
43.9
7.3
11.0
14.0
12.1
9.2
6.9
16.5
15.0
3.5
2.9
8.7
1.5
0.7
16.0
3.2
9.2
12.5
6.1
9.7
5.4
24.6
6.5
5.1
7.8
14.8
15.3
8.7
14.1
9.9
9.1
15.1
12.4
7.3
32.2
4.2
1.8
13.5
12.1
5.5
14.3
11.3
11.6
7.4
1.5
1.7
10.1
12.8
4.3
7.6
21.0
3.9
25.6
20.3
26.5
44.8
38.1
14.2
41.0
53.8
.
6.9
6.1
5.5
18.3
1.2
12.9
10.6
12.3
1.0
10.6
10.6
35.3
46.9
41.6
35.3
44.3
28.4
39.9
10.0
39.5
17.5
10.0
8.6
3.6
9.9
16.0
33.8
29.3
34.8
38.6
40.6
16.5
14.4
9.0
11.1
6.7
18.4
9.1
11.5
8.2
16.6
18.9
11.2
14.5
20.5
43.9
48.3
40.7
3.6
37.0
49.4
37.8
29.3
55.9
36.5
39.6
18.3
19.5
11.3
11.3
10.6
6.9
9.8
10.1
6.5
4.3
10.8
7.5
6.9
8.0
8.0
27.3
20.4
39.9
30.8
0.9
18.7
40.1
16.4
11.4
.
30.5
26.5
24.8
27.1
37.8
28.8
26.6
23.7
23.7
27.9
16.8
18.8
26.3
36.5
43.9
49.1
16.7
31.1
20.2
31.8
29.5
41.0
34.4
39.3
29.6
32.3
3.8
15.5
20.1
24.2
39.6
32.6
10.1
23.3
19.1
19.8
27.9
24.3
35.0
12.7
13.3
20.6
14.3
11.6
13.1
17.5
8.0
15.4
18.4
10.6
10.4
13.7
27.9
20.2
12.8
57.9
34.3
13.8
32.7
19.6
-5.5
-0.5
-15.7
.
23.3
45.9
27.0
-4.2
34.6
-2.7
-8.7
47.9
54.5
31.0
50.7
39.3
42.6
13.0
1.3
0.3
0.0
1.3
-10.6
-4.5
-4.3
-0.2
-7.5
0.7
0.3
-1.9
-0.6
-2.9
-0.1
-1.3
29.0
41.8
23.0
40.6
29.3
42.7
16.5
0.7
2.7
6.9
2.2
0.5
17.4
23.l
-10.7
-4.0
-3.9
-1.5
-1.2
-4.1
4.2
-2.8
1.2
4.1
2.1
-1.5
-1.9
-1.0
-2.6
0.9
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. See the technical notes. b. Data are for budgetary accounts only.
225
Percentage
Tax revenue
Social security
contributions
Domestic taxes
on goods and
services
1972
1972
income,
profit, and
capital gains
1972
Total current
revenue usa
percentage of
Taxes on
Taxes on
1989
1989
1989
international
trade and
transactions
1972
Nontax
Other taxesa
1989
1972
GNP
revenue
1972
1989
1989
1972
1989
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia-'
Bangladesh"
6
7
LaoPDR
Malawi'
8
9
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
2
3
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
23.0
29.9
10.7
3.7
.
26.6
11.7
0.0
0.0
1.2
SierraLeonet'
Madagascar
32.7
26.3
0.0
13.1
Nigeriab
43.0
Uganda
Zaire
22.1
BurkjnaFaso
Rwanda
India
16.8
17.9
21.3
China
Haiti
Kenyab
Pakistan
35.6
13.6
Benin
11.7
44.2
5.5
35.9
10.8
.
15.0
. .
13.5
.
28.4
10.8
.
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.2
9.2
33.9
9.5
40
Sudan1'
11.8
41
VietNam
75.3
19.9
35.9
. .
43.6
33.4
. .
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
.
38.9
.
24.3
34.2
35.4
28.5
22.3
24.5
19.4
62.9
17.6
55.7
5.6
36.8
18.0
. .
. .
25.1
31.6
27.7
13.4
40.5
. .
. .
0.5
5.6
.
0.3
.
-14.4
6.5
.
0.4
.
48.1
0.9
S
9.5
13.7
5.3
16.2
6.5
9.9
10.8
13.0
8.5
3.6
11.6
16.0
5.2
10.8
11.5
3.1
19.5
14.7
47.4
0.0
13.7
3.6
8.8
21.2
9.5
6.2
9.0
9.9
15.7
5.3
9.4
13.5
18.9
10.2
8.1
13.2
.
18.1
.
23.9
.
9.4
25.2
8.6
9.8
11.4
10.2
15.4
8.7
22.7
18.0
12.5
15.1
13.1
13.8
22.3
17.8
0.2
0.1
1.1
11.5
.
6.4
7.8
22.2
30.2
0.1
4.9
15.6
4.2
23.2
11.0
2.1
9.5
3.5
4.1
8.7
11.3
10.6
21.6
21.6
5.7
1.4
8.3
11.2
8.3
10.1
20.0
0.1
71.2
0.7
3.1
0.0
2.3
0.0
4.6
11.4
. .
34.6
15.9
23.8
15.8
2.0
22.8
0.2
20.3
34.2
30.4
8.6
0.5
34.7
32.9
14.3
16.5
18.8
20.2
14.0
52.2
7.1
0.0
2.3
30.8
3.2
13.8
0.9
30.7
10.5
15.8
13.7
1.6
1.]
40.6
11.1
18.8
1.4
28.3
7.7
37.0
29.4
5.6
0.5
5.2
3.8
18.2
45.2
35.2
32.3
15.8
0.0
26.7
0.0
45.5
12.0
20.1
13.1
6.3
. .
0.0
41.7
0.0
. .
31.5
0.0
0.0
51.8
35.5
0.0
0.0
18.0
. .
13.4
14.1
28.7
. .
16.4
44.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
17.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
40.4
6.4
19.1
0.3
5.5
0.2
0.3
0.0
10.7
55.9
32.3
Liberia
Myanmar
44.6
25.7
11.0
36
37
38
39
42.4
33.6
14.6
29.9
26.3
32.8
14.3
. .
15.6
8.6
. .
19.1
12.7
12.3
18.3
36.1
11.9
0.0
0.5
19.0
20.5
35.4
28.6
8.2
15.8
30.5
46.2
24.2
26.5
0.0
4.4
0.0
2.2
20.0
36.7
45.2
40.3
. .
12.1
33.2
4.4
19.6
0.0
45.5
2.3
38.1
30.4
21.7
45.3
18.0
36.3
57.8
49.7
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
18.4
24.7
22.4
21.0
23.9
28.7
30.5
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
38.9
. .
20.8
29.1
18.1
22.5
29.8
. .
0.0
0.0
0.0
Mali
Niger
0.0
31.4
4.1
16.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
23.8
4.2
46.8
15.7
11.7
13.4
18.4
21.8
JZO
17.8
18.0
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42 Angola
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Zimbabwe
Philippines"
Cte d'Ivoire
DominicanRep.
Morocco
52
53
54
55
PapuaNewGuinea"
56
SyrianArabRep.
57
58
59
Cameroon
Pemt
Ecuadorb
Namibia
Paraguay
60
61
62
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
17.5
.
13.8
.
17.9
16.4
19.2
12.7
19.4
6.8
. .
14.2
0.0
24.5
45.3
26.1
17.8
18.9
44.6
.
18.1
.
. .
0.0
.
24.7
45.2
3.9
5.9
.
3.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
.
24.3
.
3.8
19.0
5.2
0.0
45.7
0.0
.
0.0
11.3
30.9
25.7
33.2
23.0
21.3
46.2
10.5
13.2
.
17.1
22.7
. .
41.7
13.2
14.3
. .
24.9
1.8
13.4
8.2
7.2
17.7
Z2
9.4
7.5
53.4
14.0
24.8
52.4
9.1
6.0
10.0
18.4
26.0
5.1
4.7
3.8
0.0
0.0
34.0
19.1
8.8
12.9
22.4
25.8
20.6
10.4
13.2
0.0
26.1
25.4
24.8
11.7
17.0
24.3
12.9
25.6
45.5
16.8
6.0
15.2
27.7
45.4
17.2
7.1
1.8
11.3
9.6
0.0
36.1
19.8
8.2
3.2
7.1
11.2
Thailand
Jamaica
12.1
66
Tunisia
15.9
..
12.9
..
0.0
13.7
0.0
.
7.1
..
11.1
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
,.
46.3
.
31.6
..
..
28.7
.
..
17.9
22.2
.
..
..
21.8
5,1
27.9
7.8
Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
20.1
..
35.0
12.8
17.2
18.5
12.2
0.0
0.0
,,
17.0
12.6
12.1
33.8
17.3
.
. .
12.4
28.2
26.2
26.5
.
14.0
14.0
18.3
2.1
7.2
10.7
13.2
20.2
54.5
6.4
1.7
6.1
. .
9.3
18.1
8.9
1.2
4.0
13.5
23.2
.
29.7
35.9
16.9
10.4
3.2
14.1
2.3
15.6
6.3
33.8
36.1
40.3
23.9
40.4
37.0
35.8
10.6
16.8
48.9
65
226
16.0
19.6
15.2
37.1
64
. .
El Salvador1'
Colombia
63
14.9
8.9
17.6
22.1
23.2
9.7
18.4
47.0
25.3
24.4
17.8
5.1
4.5
3.1
14.6
6.9
13.6
14.1
12.4
3.9
10.7
8.6
11.5
10.0
11.6
10.6
12.5
8.5
12.6
17.9
..
'
'
15.7
22.8
'
23.6
32.1
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
1972
1989
43.3
41.0
31.0
2.4
18.0
23.3
9.2
13.2
28.6
37.7
17.0
18.9
30.4
22.7
12.9
0.0
21.4
4.4
37.3
35.8
4.3
28.6
18.6
10.5
9.8
32.4
6.2
48.5
8.0
11.4
0.0
CostaRica
30.1
6.0
29.6
6.3
12.1
35.1
6.2
3.1
0.1
172
29.5
0.9
16.2
14.9
37.1
14.6
47.2
9.4
23.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.1
19.9
0.0
0.0
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
83
Venezuela
84
SouthAfrica
85
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
Yugoslavia
Gabonb
88
89
91
Nontax
revenue
Other ta.xesa
30.8
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
90
Social security
contributions
international
trade and
transactions
Turkey
Botswana5
Jordan
Panama
Chile
82
86
87
profit, and
capital gains
Iran,IslamicRep.
Trinidadandlobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
Iraq
Romania
Low- and middle-income
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
14.3
25.2
.
9.1
14.4
54.2
54.8
20.0
.
18.2
4.7
8.5
7.9
.
. .
0.1
43.4
0.8
.
23.3
32.2
.
24.2
30.4
20.9
56.7
22.4
20.3
40.2
13.6
.
27.9
18.0
2.7
. .
14.7
0.0
. .
12.2
9.5
6.4
7.8
20.2
6.1
20.0
44.9
14.6
5.3
10.4
31.3
.
6.7
3.1
.
22.0
.
4.9
7.8
39.0
3.7
41.7
0.0
32.4
0.7
10.7
10.9
5.3
3.0
2.6
2.3
4.4
0.0
14.0
35.5
.
0.0
0.0
21.2
1989
19.0
38.7
15.6
24.6
10.1
.
15.8
13.2
20.3
26.3
. .
21.2
14.5
6.2
2.3
18.9
.
17.2
63.6
43.9
1.4
16.9
2.6
7.6
5.5
0.8
12.6
23.6
12.2
72.1
. .
. .
12.0
. .
0.0
0.0
10.6
9.5
30.9
13.1
37.1
18.1
47.4
38.2
25.4
85.8
56.5
24.3
5.6
9.2
.
22.7
20.7
26.1
26.2
7.6
6.7
0.0
22.8
27.4
42.0
18.5
9.2
65.8
12.6
40.7
18.2
4.9
12.8
6.2
0.2
4.2
8.2
1.4
27.1
24.5
0.0
. .
. .
10.3
2.5
6.8
25.9
12.8
24.5
20.0
0.7
0.0
-19.3
2.9
2.0
26.7
-8.5
2.3
30.0
60.0
6.0
8.2
5.1
8.2
8.2
8.2
29.8
1.1
7.7
26.1
5.0
4.6
15.3
3.8
1.6
6.1
9.5
32.4
43.2
66.4
14.3
5.5
23.4
8.8
30.7
9.8
17.3
8.9
6.7
21.5
35.4
7.5
3.0
-0.2
-2.6
5.8
4.2
1.5
11.3
29.4
21.8
30.2
82.9
22.5
27.8
30.8
10.6
6.0
14.3
46.0
32.1
28.6
24.1
9.0
27.7
19.3
53.7
30.0
35.6
20.6
30.7
6.5
5.2
43.0
1972
17.7
52.0
9.8
1.6
1989
17.5
1972
.
.
7.1
1.2
0.4
3.1
7.7
24.4
6.0
48.5
14.3
37.3
13.9
36.2
16.0
10.5
71.1
.
28.6
15.6
14.0
20.0
34.8
23.7
29.0
0.0
22.4
. .
9.5
18.2
Total current
revenue as a
percentage of
GNP
Taxes on
Domestic taxes
on goods and
services
75.4
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, M.East, & N.Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
New Zealandb
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
Netherlands
Ill tKuwait
112 Belgium
113
Austria
114
France
110
28.3
34.0
15.9
22.7
40.0
38.0
. .
24.4
61.4
58.3
39.4
20.9
16.6
32.5
68.8
31.3
20.7
16.8
53.6
62.7
38.8
36.3
27.4
0.6
36.4
17.9
17.4
. .
9.0
38.9
0.0
13.3
32.1
38.4
23.4
20.0
8.1
.
116
117
118
119
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21.9
15.6
18.2
27.1
39.2
29.3
39.1
31.7
36.7
0.0
32.4
30.0
37.0
0.0
0.0
34.7
37.0
43.5
0.0
3.1
0.0
8.8 14.2
Canada
54.0 53.7
Germany
19.7
18.1
46.6
53.0
40.0 39.4
Denmark
5.1
2.8
59.4
52.5
United States
23.6
33.9
120
27.0 19.6
Sweden
21.6
30.1
121
Finland
30.0 33.0
7.8
9.4
122
22.6
14.6
20.6
26.0
Norway
Japanb
64.8
67.2
0.0
0.0
123
124
13.9
Switzerland
.
37.3
. .
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (exci. USSR)
a. See the technical notes. b. Data are for budgetary accounts only.
115 tUnitedArabEmiratesb
17.6
19.9
22.3
19.7
28.9
28.3
37.9
0.0
15.9
28.1
42.1
7.1
34.0
47.7
48.0
22.6
21.5
31.6
27.8
31.2
.
20.0
2.3
11.1
39.7
0.0
11.0
0.8
23.0
40.3
3.2
27.6
45.5
36.6
15.0
. .
2.8
19.5
26.2
22.0
31.1
29.3
21.9
0.4
23.3
26.2
28.8
19.6
7.6
16.7
10.0
4.1
5.2
1.7
3.2
0.7
10.0
10.5
7.1
15.0
15.5
11.1
31.4
45.7
4.5
3.2
2.1
0.6
15.0
10.0
0.1
5.4
2.3
2.3
2.8
10.0
12.5
10.8
7.7
0.0
3.4
1.5
1.3
0.2
1.0
5.4
0.3
0.0
3.3
10.2
3.5
16.7
2.7
2.0
4.6
4.3
1.5
3.1
1.6
1.3
5.4
10.6
11.1
10.0
. .
0.0
1.6
0.4
0.5
3.1
3.0
1.6
0.0
0.0
27.5
43.5
9.6
21.5
29.8
22.2
32.6
2.9
8.7
24.9
43.4
27.1
35.6
0.0
2.8
9.9
97.7
2.8
55.2
3.1
35.1
43.7
8.5
5.5
8.7
3.0
3.4
4.9
34.9
40.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
10.9
0.2
4.0
6.9
57.2
9.0
5.8
3.3
6.8
5.7
14.2
11.3
5.5
13.4
6.2
2.4
8.0
20.9
5.3
29.7
33.4
0.2
21.1
25.3
35.5
17.6
32.4
26.5
36.8
11.2
14.5
14.1
-0.6
0.0
0.8
2.8
2.5
4.7
5.8
0.5
1.1
0.5
1.4
46.8
29.4
40.2
38.2
49.0
66.1
3.5
0.1
1.6
30.1
19.7
31.3
0.8
8.9
4.4
1,0
1.5
6.8
2.6
11.2
4.7
8.0
6.6
.
1.3
20.2
29.0
42.3
20.1
44.4
31.1
43.3
227
nominal growth
rate (percent)
Average outstanding
inflation
as a percentage of GDP
(GDP deflator)
1980-89
1965-80
1980-89
1965
1980
1989
12.7
1l.
21.5
12.5
25.3
37.2
45.4
2.0
Lending rate
Deposit rate
/980
1989
1980
1989
4.00
4.50
17.00
25.00
12.00
11.50
7.50
11.33
31.00
Low-income economies
China and India
Other low-income
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
2
3
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
19.7
20.4
50.0
22.0
12
ri.
10.6
8.25
8.7
7.20
7.92
4.00
5.50
2.50
14.00
4.80
12.75
16.67
14.00
11.00
12.00
15.00
23.00
15.00
11.50
12.00
9.17
5.63
5.27
6.80
20.00
11.50
11.00
29.67
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
15.4
17.9
12.5
15.7
17.7
SierraLeone
Madagascar
15.9
12.2
28.5
53.2
23.2
28.2
77.8
62.7
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
14.4
18.3
17.1
19.0
15.3
10.9
6.1
12.5
3.8
6.9
17.9
13.3
13.8
9.7
15.8
17.0
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
20.3
18.6
14.7
17.3
25.5
7.8
. .
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
31
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
Afghanistan
19.6
12.2
9.8
17.5
12.7
14.6
13.7
4.2
17.6
8.4
20.5
21.9
20.0
33.4
21.6
13.3
17.5
3.6
11.7
15.8
20.6
22.3
21.5
18.6
54.2
21.4
18.6
7.8
17.8
14.6
108.1
. .
12.7
6.2
3.8
13.6
18.5
17.8
4.7
4.0
6.19
13.55
6.25
23.7
36.2
45.6
7.7
. .
33.5
9.9
26.1
5.7
6.8
10.00
36.8
38.7
66.7
33.2
37.8
37.5
9.1
5.75
21.1
18.8
7.5
13.71
9.53
9.38
7.13
6.7
43.9
5.2
38.3
5.50
7.50
16.50
9.53
11.44
10.50
19.00
12.50
25.58
9.38
9.50
18.39
16.43
12.82
18.60
19.00
11.00
13.17
18.75
40.7
10.6
29.0
32.6
34.0
15.4
15.5
18.5
32.3
35.3
36.6
43.9
30.2
21.9
24.6
5.7
14.4
13.2
20.5
26.8
Liberia
Myanmar
11.5
11.1
40
Sudan
21.6
37.0
41
VietNam
. .
.
.
14.1
32.5
.
17.0
10.8
13.2
8.3
. .
11.50
12,71
7.00
14.50
9.60
6.00
9.2
9.53
5.25
9.49
6.31
9.38
9.38
9.38
13.50
8.75
8.00
8.75
12.00
16.50
5.40
6.7
16.50
.
. .
6.50
. .
10.30
1.50
6.00
10.58
. .
13.00
1.50
8.75
21.70
12.00
13.00
15.00
6.77
17.25
6.00
9.00
. .
12.00
9.00
20.0
38
39
35.00
40.00
13.71
10.9
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
10.80
3.6
17.8
13.9
36
37
13.09
36.17
9.50
8.43
59.4
18.9
16.2
11.3
8.50
4.25
4.00
16.00
6.4
. .
13.5
20.3
22.0
1.5
33.67
21.3
18.1
8.4
5.9
45.9
7.3
28.9
54.4
20.7
14.0
14.6
9.1
9.3
12.7
25.9
20.3
12.7
. .
10.1
9.9
6.00
27.3
. .
17.8
16.9
6.70
25.9
42.8
26
27
28
29
30
32
33
34
35
35.0
18.40
8.00
13.82
8.00
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
51
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
. .
24.3
17.7
15.6
. .
306.0
10.9
35.3
15.3
16.2
52.2
26.6
21.7
91.7
23.6
392.2
21.8
7.2
54.6
50.7
19.0
25.8
21.8
21.1
30.5
10.9
14.8
3.7
20.4
18.1
16.1
5.7
18.5
15.7
25.8
14.5
8.4
14.8
16.3
14.2
12.0
15.0
10.0
15.4
15.2
16.5
SyrianArabRep.
21.9
19.8
24.6
Camemon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
19.0
25.9
22.6
9.2
193.0
11.7
18.8
15.6
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
26.5
17.9
. .
17.7
31.8
.
19.9
21.8
18.0
29.4
11.1
7.3
18.00
8.33
6.19
3.52
12.25
13.55
5.25
28.00
13.33
9.38
18.33
6.96
8.85
14.13
17.54
14.00
9.38
13.00
19.27
8.75
9.53
23.9
50.5
19.1
7.4
4.88
8.50
7.00
9.00
32.9
22.8
20.5
14.7
40.9
33.6
33.8
22.8
5.6
4.8
8.23
8.63
13.00
8.00
11.15
18.50
11.00
11.00
14.62
15.38
16.00
12.50
15.1
6.90
7.00
9.00
6.50
5.00
18.3
16.5
20.8
9.2
16.1
6.6
7.50
7.50
13.00
14.00
20.2
.
19.3
20.0
12.1
19.8
14.3
16.5
21.6
28.1
19.8
18.0
23.6
23.7
37.6
35.4
26.9
.
65.0
56.8
13.4
0.6
160.2
34.5
13.2
23.2
40.24
16.7
24.3
3.2
. .
. .
.
. .
12.00
65
17.2
25.1
24.3
18.5
10.29
66
17.4
15.5
30.2
42.1
7.5
2.50
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for yearu other than those specified.
228
11.67
21.3
27.70
9.50
19.04
7.37
9.00
30.08
19.00
18.00
13.00
7.25
28.21
15.00
25.56
9.87
67
68
69
70
1980
1989
41.4
10.95
12.1
5.00
53.45
5.58
25.67
8.48
50.00
7.67
26.
47.14
38.28
27.5
55.0
23.0
17.2
19.1
27.1
13.0
22.6
30.3
119.1
2.2
2.6
71
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
24.6
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
82
1989
1989
30.7
88.8
16.3
22.6
19.3
38.8
58.4
21.8
21.9
86.0
25.9
53.0
21.7
62.0
342.0
27.3
25.1
41.1
21.5
12.6
22.3
14.9
26.3
32.1
116.0
Lending rate
Deposit rate
1980
1980-89
1980-89
1980
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
81
inflation
(GDP deflator)
1965
1965-8.0
annual
Average outstanding
as a percentage of GDP
20.5
37.46
29.17
15.62
27.5
22.2
38.2
42.0
60.6
15.3
12.4
24.8
38.1
8.5
72.8
334.5
3.00
9.25
20.63
79.40
432.75
69.8
58.5
117.4
96.9
1.5
6.23
3.00
7.75
'7,54
'
21.00
11.06
36.25
8.00
12.90
28.10
16.67
16.13
54.00
430.38
7.00
5.2
1.5
16.2
640
15.0
83.4
176.1
15.4
22.1
43.0
49.5
32.0
54.0
18.4
39.86
7.50
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
SouthAfrica
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
22.9
15.1
17.4
14.0
16.5
56.6
20.6
43.4
46.5
31.2
43.0
16.2
59.1
15.2
50.5
24.0
21.6
21.3
54.5
32.0
14.0
5.4
1.5
7.6
61.4
28.0
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
65.8
25.7
25.2
28.4
133.0
43.6
5.8
TrinidadandTobago
23.1
9.0
Czechoslovakia
35.5
21.4
20.4
12.4
29.2
21.4
2.3
25.1
19.5
.
16.0
14.0
227.9
7.5
59.2
77.7
11.1
.
14.2
35.0
40.7
96.8
-1.0
96.3
31.7
98.7
50.3
19.2
5.1
13.8
28.6
-6.6
34.7
61.6
75.8
0.2
18.6
58.1
75.2
56.4
69.3
63.7
42.7
64.7
64.4
74.4
53.4
61.8
45.9
81.8
117.5
18.2
5.54
115.00
3.00
50.30
5.88
7.50
.
6.57
2.67
19.00
19.50
29.23
18.13
5,922.36
9.00
84.70
5,644.83
8.75
. .
22.57
9.50
19.83
.
.
9.00
13.00
66.62
11.50
12.50
127,58
4353.75
12.50
6.28
2.48
10.00
13.31
13.00
10.00
18.75
18.00
19.59
11.25
10.01
8.66
5.13
14.50
5.50
17.14
7.00
21.25
7.00
23.26
15.96
16.85
176.93
15.84
31.63
19.7
7.5
Romania
tOther
100 tSaudiArabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
(United Arab Emirates
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
32.1
16.1
19.7
60.0
.
9.4
6.1
10.0
106.0
16.4
. .
59.2
15.3
.
58.4
56.5
50.0
47.8
17.6
12.8
15.9
13.8
17.9
12.8
14.7
17.8
5.8
69.0
54.4
5.1
28.1
33.1
10.4
13.3
15.0
6.8
59.2
48.9
53.7
16.4
12.9
23.0
12.2
79.0
15.3
8.3
40.2
10.1
11.5
5.6
15.6
8.9
46.1
10.4
14.2
11.4
46.8
51.9
57.0
72.5
69,7
19.0
64.3
60.4
42.6
58.9
46.5
39.5
52.9
8.8
7.8
106.7
101.1
134.0
107.4
. .
9.2
10.7
14.7
12.8
15.0
7.1
7.3
9.9
11 .1
46.0
64.1
39.1
11.5
70.2
.
75.7
87.7
74.8
58.0
84.9
76.2
59.9
66.7
64.3
-5.2
8.1
9.4
12.00
13.05
117.1
7.1
7.8
6.1
10.3
14.13
12.70
1.9
1.1
5.96
4.50
7.69
5.00
6.25
9.47
4.6
12.87
12.09
2.7
7.95
10.80
13.07
-2.9
4.8
3.8
6.5
11.72
12.63
10.58
16.17
19.03
13.50
6.80
6.21
20.84
21.69
13.92
14.21
10.75
6.80
11.08
16.01
5.50
8.27
9.09
12.13
14.25
12.04
17.20
15.27
13.33
9,94
13.44
10.92
11.25
9.21
15.12
5.75
9.63
2.32
8.08
9.77
1.3
5.00
5.50
123.8
3.6
7.75
3.21
16.32
15.29
6.07
6.92
3.49
4.50
5.13
2.98
5.92
9.42
18.73
59.9
52.1
9.55
14.10
9.37
11.00
8.58
1.5
11.4
6.0
3.9
7.4
7.0
5.6
66.2
49.6
4.54
12.63
8.35
5.56
14.05
10.31
14.39
5.29
5.85
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
229
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
La0PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bunindi
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
I
2
3
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
20
Rwanda
India
21
22
23
24
25
China5
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
26
27
28
29
30
Zambia
Guinea
31
Sri Lanka
Lesothob
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
logo
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle.income
Exports
1989
imports
1989
120,136
68,061
52,075 1
131,918
78,355
53,563
1980-89
1965 -80
1980-89
5.6w
5.2w
10.0w
0.8w
4.3 w
3.0 w
9.1 w
5.3 w
-3.2 w
6.2w
-12.6
420
260
-0.5
-4.2
82
1,305
133
4.4
3,524
0.4
-8.2
-4.6
. .
267
505
5.1
156
137
78
580
435
187
2.9
11.2
137
189
340
312
0.6
3,600
652
1,993
-2.9
271
75
88
15,523
500
370
410
333
19,215
9.5
12.8
3.6
7.9
52,538
240
1,110
4,642
59,140
330
2,100
7,119
lii
431
11.1
3.0
.
-2.5
-2.2
-2.3
5.6
-3.8
0.8
-0.8
5.8
-1.8
.
-6.9
1.6
8.5
88
-1.3
-3.7
-2.6
5.6
3.1
1,347
430
873
-0.7
465
1,554
2,229
0.2
360
466
.
370
215
520
1,320
396,324 1
172,262 1
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen Arab Rep.
2,187
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
DominicanRep.
Morocco
1,300
7,747
55
1,281
1,100
323
830
56
SyrianArabRep.
57
58
59
817
2,565
600
16,360
370
765
.
9.6
4.0
-0.4
14.6
1.2
.
7.0
2.2
0.4
94
0
. .
104
101
11.6
98
100
6.9
133
86
-4.2
-2.9
-19.5
106
98
108
78
III
86
88
98
4.6
95
102
-8.2
-1.5
126
108
116
79
98
1.7
1.6
6.6
5.7
Ill
107
109
-0.8
10.9
3.5
167
143
96
121
101
104
11.7
109
-5.1
89
97
1.0
114
107
4.2
90
99
-4.8
-1.4
3.2
107
106
118
71
113
103
100
-1.2
2.3
2.4
3.4
8.5
-0.4
1.6
82
107
90
134
113
97
114
191
-2.0
1,390
1,670
-0.3
2.6w
4.3w
. .
0.3
-11.7
0.0
5.5w
5.2w
.
2.7
-0.8
-0.1
2.6
9.2
1.5
2.2
2.3
-15.9
-3.7
5.1 w
0.9 w
4.4w
0.2w
5.0
3.6
2.5
97
106
106
115
110 m
103 m
him
124
106
103m
-2.4
167
6.5
131
82
0.7
106
103
-7.4
100
95
0.4
-1.1
93
107
91
117
117
1,090
10,732
2,380
2,241
5,492
3.1
14.1
6.4
3,006
900
3,714
2,354
1,320
1,839
1,860
15.1
61
Cameroon
Pent
Ecuador
Namibiab
Paraguay
670
600
62
ElSalvador
1,140
63
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
610
5,739
5,010
25,768
8.6
1,806
-0.4
4,366
10.8
2,970
911
3,337
20,059
982
2,932
*
Data for Taiwan, China, are:
50,523
66,475
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
230
91
107
108
6.7
1,535
1,000
404
590
2,097
64
65
66
101
-7.6
1.3
3.1
1.2
60
94
117
4.4
1,073
615
7,434
1,150
0.4
6.4
-2.9
-9.0
-3.2
. .
217
400,367
183,853 1
102 m
103 m
102 m
-1.5
-1.0
-4.5
4.6
5.5
0.3
3.7
52
53
54
3.3
21,773
1989
107 m
103 m
107 m
940
472
1985
7.8
4.3
0.6
92
42
43
44
45
46
51
4.4
11.5
5.5
3.9
.
1,020
245
2.6
-2.4
9,000
273
2,302
250
-0.9
1.7
7.6
. .
(1987 = 100)
1965-80
680
1,100
840
92
Terms of trade
imports
Exports
5.7
2.9
7.6
5.0
6.5
.
2.5
4.6
0.6
3.1
2.1
4.8
-11.7
10.3
11.4
6.2
5.7
4.9
-3.3
5.6
1.6
0.4
5.0
-1.4
6.3
6.5
7.0
1.0
-1.6
1.4
9.8
8.5
4.4
110
109
2.2
88
80
2.7
111
0.1
III
-15.6
-1.5
-8.4
-1.8
108
145
125
81
120
107
90
84
101
-6.7
-3.2
139
111
153
3.7
-1.4
108
120
0.0
126
-3.3
140
12.8
2.7
5.3
4.1
8.4
91
-2.1
-1.9
1.1
4.1
10.4
-0.1
95
105
114
84
99
106
99
9.6
lOS
112
15.6
13.4
12.2
Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
88
102
Merchandise trade
(millions ofdollars)
&ports
Imports
1965-80
1989
1989
11626
15,788
926
297
8,190
2,119
11.2
964
71
Turkey
Botswanab
Jordan
Panama
Chile
-5.7
8.0
72
CostaRica
73
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
1,362
13,155
987
1,743
10,085
1,326
22,975
9,567
22,084
4,200
25,053
8,600
22,496
8,380
67
68
69
70
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
700
.
5.5
250
6,496
3.7
0.6
4.6
1.8
9.8
2.9
1,000
216,515 1
12,953
13,500
7,837
16,952
. .
-7.8
8.5 w
5.7 w
112
152
126
111
1.4
10.7
94
83
109
120
108
1.8
-4.7
-8.2
133
110
110
2.2
13.0
3.7
-5.8
117
174
97
88
5.2
5.7
5.8 w
5.6
8.2
-6.6
-1.6
11,000
516,460 1
30,884 I
195,268
23,395 1
141,379
112,0341
532,285
31,805
202,642 1
32,858
163,5961
84,433 1
-1.0w
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
140,081 I
114,839 1
-0.2 w
2,385,816 I
2,173,621 I
2,513,829 1
2,280,495 1
233,334 I
7.4 w
7.3 w
8.8 w
4.6
5.7
2.8
1.2
-2.6
0.4
6.6
1.6
118
92
104
89
124
87
110
121
105
108
21.6
6.5
-5.5
-5.1
-5.8
-14.2
95
140
160
156
3.4
27.2
11.7
13.8
3.7
15.2
8.2
10.4
85
103
. .
3.3
11.9
3.3 w
6.1 w
10.0 w
2.2 w
3.7 w
11.7
-9.0
4.1
5.2
3.5
5.4 w
5.0 w
1.4 w
-0.6 w
57 w
-5.9 w
10.0 w
6.2 w
5.8 w
3.6 w
7.2 w
1.3 w
6.7 w
4.1 w
7.6 w
3.8 w
1.7 w
3.9 w
3.9 w
4.1 w
2.4 w
5.1 w
4.6 w
4.2 w
11.7 w
25.9
4.8
4.4
6.2
7.0
3.5
1.1
4.1
152,403
140,691
197,714
149,503
5.1
1.0
1.4
118
119
104,220
6,295
99,336
38,854
190,186
9,600
113,230
268,601
26,592
491,512
8.0
18.5
7.8
8.2
8.5
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
107.799
11,476
100,737
32,444
172,561
15,000
114,066
340,628
27,997
346,948
120
121
122
123
124
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
51,497
23,265
27,030
275,040
51,444
48,920
7.7
7.7
6.2
2.7
3.7
4.5
8.3
4.7
3.5
4.4
11.8
5.2
5.1
6.1
3.3
0.8
5.4
7.2
5.4
6.4
6.0
4.4
2.5
5.3
5.3
2.3
1.7
1.8
3.1
-1.3
8.1
116
117
174
105
-0.7
-1.7
4.7
3.8
5.4
103 m
49,605
8,757
39,869
110 Netherlands
111 (Kuwait
Belgiumc
112
113
Austria
114 France
110
104 m
72,154
44,600
8,586
33,205
-0.2
-11.3
7.4
7.4
New Zealand
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
98
111
5.6
8.6
8.8
10.0
12.4
8.9
9.1
13,101
1.6 w
-4.3
11,400
10,735
28,731
8.1
Iraq
Romania
21,500
17,419
71,298
-0.1
98
99
26,200
20,693
44,450
-4.2
11.3
61,347
2,255
5,100
16,103
-8.0
12,798
62,283
3,933
6,760
7,353
19,043
1.3
7.8
9.3
Portugal
106
107
108
109
96
-9.5
93
94
95
96
97
8,818
1,203
2.8
14,799
950
9,550
1,222
14,277
104 tHongKong
105 tSingapore
1989
13,343
1,160
13,000
1,578
14,455
lOt
Ireland
102
Spain
103 (Israel
82
95
130
102
-1.9
10.5
4.7
1985
-1.0
-4.8
-1.5
4.7
9.7
9.1
0.1
2,281
224,062 t
212,195 1
6.0
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
TrinidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
(Other
100 tSaudiArabia
2.4
88
89
Oman
Libya
Greece
. .
18,281
Korea,Rep.
1980-89
7.4
1.4
34,392
9,605
1,599
92
7.7
3.1
Venezuela
South Africab
Brazil
Hungary
Umguay
91
1965-80
11.4
4.9
83
84
85
86
87
90
1980-89
7.0
3.1
7.7
Tems of trade
(1987 = 100)
Imports
E.oports
1.2
-3.7 w
-1.2 w
4.9 w
5.1 w
3.3 w
96
68
92
196
94
91
97
108 m
109 m
106 m
101 m
104 m
111 m
103 m
104 m
102 m
100 m
96 m
110 m
110 m
108 m
98 m
94 m
100 m
100 m
100 m
117 m
-9.9
176
92
3.3
8.4
4.8
11.0
97
91
105
100
107
102
100
5.8
3.4
99
88
5.0
111
5.0
4.3
103
3.3
101
175
97
84
98
100
122
103
95
94
87
4.3
3.0
4.5
2.9
100
77
97
90
96
102
-3.6
171
110
82
96
110
96
93
100
102
102
94
101
85
130
104
86
-6.3
4.9
5.9
8.2
4.9
24,611
23,632
207,356
11.4
4.6
4.9
8.8
3.4
4.5
8.2
3.5
4.9
2.9
5.4
58,150
6.2
3.8
4.5
4.1
3.2
6.8
94
5.5
3.0
71
89
96
99
Other economies
101 m
106 m
4.3 w
4.7 w
6.7 w
4.1 w
2,902,2761
3,046,114 1
World
91 m
171 m
-7.4 w
11.4 w
-2.4 w
2.0 w
86,874 I
119,1301
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. See the technical notes. b. Figures are forthe Southern African Customs Union comprising South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland; trade
between the component territories is excluded. c. Includes Luxembourg.
231
Food
1965
Fuels
1989
1965
10
7
5
3
2
17w
14w
5w
17
35
17
8
29
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
Lao PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
47
48
49
50
13
18
10
9
16
7
25
16
10
45
38
24
27
26
26
43
29
36
44
41
3
3
21
46
42
15
42
55
33
44
3
4
3
29
31
37
33
46
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
China*
21
20
23
36
47
42
13
16
16
41
46
40
12
0
17
14
12
53
18
50
22
36
36
22
7
5
21
19
28
37
55
3
2
2
39
25
3
4
12
4
10
31
47
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
31
9
23
26
44
47
9
16
29
11
3
2
14
44
32
40
30
13
13
15
40
11
18
26
4
4
5
6
22
. .
SriLanka
41
19
4
4
Lesothoa
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Zimbabwe
Philippines
13
20
23
9
17
23
9
2
3
25
34
14
32
38
38
43
40
30
45
5
2
5
2
17
17
42
34
53
2
2
2
29
33
32
39
40
25
49
48
45
12
36
27
34
46
10
1
26
50
30
69
37
39
56
38
18
29
47
37
41
35
29
63
.
.
18
15
24
16 w
17 w
18
20
28
37
3
4
20
8
11 w
13 w
. .
33
81
5
3
18
2
2
23
3
2
2t
52
33
9w
8w
10 w
8w
9w
8w
30 w
30 w
11 w
9w
39
58
47
15
41
43
30
35 w
31 w
34 w
37 w
35 w
40 w
39
54
42
28
40
31
36
37
29
18
27
10
4
21
3
5
24
34
23
15
38
26
34
55
18
20
25
36
14
13
52
53
54
55
56
25
57
58
. .
33
10
15
16
11
12
12
11
15
17
4
9
0
SyrianArabRep.
22
21
10
Camemon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibiaa
Paraguay
12
17
10
16
22
5
3
10
4
14
12
14
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
16
8
16
7
22
6
19
16
14
37
13
4
6
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
38
.
36
30
46
40
50
28
23
Il
20
30
30
18
28
31
33
37
2
3
2
3
40
32
45
56
50
44
43
36
25
26
29
34
2
1
16
29
34
44
47
53
45
41
42
28
41
33
36
51
44
2
5
7
26
34
34
44
36
46
23
37
33
9
9
48
35
49
42
40
10
28
45
30
32
37
33
7
4
8
14
15
41
41
28
34
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
232
34
45
44
44
33
Cted'Ivoire
34
44
42w
45w
37w
10
64
65
66
24
37
42w
62
63
33w
1989
11
61
34w
3
2
7
59
60
2
5
1965
9
15
19
20
20
51
20
1989
33w
32w
36w
34w
.
.
3
4
2
4
1965
19
Lower-middle-income
46
16
9w
lOw
6w
41
48
48
51
37
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
39 Myanmar
40 Sudan
41
VietNam
Middle-income economies
45
31
3w
1989
Other
manufactures
39
40
38
50
36
37
38
42
43
44
8w
12
33
1965
6
9
equipment
lOw
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
commodities
6w
19w
Machinery
and transport
6w
5w
7w
Low-income economies
1989
Sw
Other
primary
7
9
17
39
10
31
23
31
13
36
37
21
24
43
38
42
Food
1965
70
Turkey
Botswanaa
Jordan
Panama
71
Chile
72
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
67
68
69
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
Fuels
1965
1989
1965
1989
1965
10
13
37
26
37
33
19
16
18
23
15
21
17
21
12
35
18
41
42
45
30
38
48
4
17
29
28
54
15
30
12
20
35
10
3
5
7
16
2
10
4
9
10
21
27
27
11
12
11
29
.
28
.
14
14 w
10 w
12
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
16
16
16
12
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98 Iraq
99 Romania
Low- ai id middle-income
16
12
15
Sub-aharan Africa
East tsia
Souti iAsia
Euro pe, M.East, & N.Africa
tOther
100 tSaudiArabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHongKong
105 tSingapore
New Zealand
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
110 Netherlands
111 tKuwait
106
107
108
109
112
113
114
Belgiumb
Austria
France
115 tUnitedArabEmirates
116
117
118
119
Canada
Germany
Denmark
UnitedStates
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
12
10
26
13
20
lOw
1
12w
1
1
15
45
28
32
52
33
35
. .
17
19
30
31w
44
42
22
27
24
29
28
37
36
16
6
8
14w
lOw
4
8
50
25
22
5
21
30
11
12
17
14
10
9
21
14
19
19
11
17
22
0
49
6
2
4
6
10
18
26
27
17
13
21
20
28
47
36
38
37
40
20
40
25
29
44
39
8w
3w
31w
35 w
45 w
38 w
26 w
31 w
36 w
37 w
37 w
38 w
44 w
33 w
38 w
33 w
31 w
31 w
38 w
37
39
28
37w
39w
39w
38
54
59
8w
11 w
11 w
6w
1
17w
11w
11w
15 w
9w
11 w
8w
7w
29 w
28 w
35 w
26 w
34 w
10 w
12 w
8w
32 w
34 w
40 w
36 w
18 w
33 w
35 w
33 w
9w
9w
19w
19w
8w
8w
20w
20w
34w
34w
6w
0
12 w
4
7w
20 w
35 w
37
4w
9w
10 w
2w
7w
4
8
5
27
25
27
28
13
14
33
37
11
12
14
16
26
11
11
24
13
14
6
6
32
24
5
10
13
11
5
5
16
10 w
11 w
10 w
20
18
9
9
24
4
4
9
12
24
12
15
6
2
10
8
25
32
24
31
16
13
10
10
12
26
16
14
15
20
10
5
10
7
15
6
9
21
12
18
13
10
24
6
11
8
7
11
38
38
24
26
42
40
45
37
29
46
30
43
41
23
21
34
30
43
45 w
45
42
31
33
42
42
37
34
41
20
29
43
24
37
33
37
39
32
35
27
38
. .
40
46
42
44
36
40
48
44
9
20
5
9
40
53
13
31
10
6
5
25
30
41
34
35
39
36
40
40
36
34
43
32
37
39
14
31
11
31
43
53
15
12
8
11
20
10
II
20
12
10
11
11
11
30
10
8
10
11
12
23
16
6
20
21
38
9
18
35
38
9
24
17
43
39
8
10
11
30
38
38
30
8w
6w
9w
4w
9w
9w
9w
15
32
40
42
21
38
28
31
11w
23 w
26
43
34
27
52
35
17 w
17 w
16 w
25 w
lOw
10w
31
33
33
39
37
28
28
36
20w
20w
35w
47
11
12 w
42
32w
36
27
16 w
51
34w
24
9w
39
13 w
50
16
10 w
15 w
36
13
2
4
6
19w
36
37
34
34
34
7w
11
16 w
8
7
14
33
38
29
48
37
43
32
6
5
7
7
14
16
31
19
37
57
42
9
.
1989
40
34
35
Other
manufactures
21
88
89
92
equipment
1989
12
5
93
94
95
96
97
commodities
10
Venezuela
SouthAfricau
Brazil
Hungary
Uniguay
91
Machinery
and transport
1965
1989
83
84
85
86
87
90
Other
primary
14
32
40
Other economies
39 w
34 w
32 w
22 w
8w
10 w
9w
17 w
10 w
19 w
World
43 w
42 w
35 w
4w
31 w
4w
6w
17 w
15 w
3w
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. Figures are for the Southern African Customs Union comprising South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho, Botswanu, and Swaziland; trade between the component territories is
excluded. b. Includes Luxembourg.
233
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
7
8
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
2
3
9
10
11
12
13
14
SierraLeone
Madagascar
16w
22w
1989
25w
11w
43w
14
commodities
equipment
1965
60w
1w
1
94
84
96
28
..
..
99
94
13
41
14
6
94
90
65
86
20
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
40
20
India
10
21
China*
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
96
95
94
60
41
13
0
2
26
10 w
62
77
62
94
11w
13
11
10
..
..
..
1
5
84
90
93
3
6
21
85
5
99
0
0
60
38
0
6
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
2
4
4
10
88
98
19
0
7
3
0
71
0
0
47
63
38
3
6
47
70
10
35
12
66
54
52
62
31
99
43
43
47
94
0
45
43
53
5
21
34
35
SriLanla
Lesotho5
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
37
38
39
40
41
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
72
35
11
I
0
95
75
0
0
1
36
0
23
63
53
92
83
12
66
20
33
73
16
logo
54
40
14
85
33
5
73
4
2
0
58
71
29
94
99
22w
28w
12w
13
87
4w
1989
33
12w
32
1965
CentralAfrican Rep.
Ghana
Zambia
Guinea
46w
62w
26w
26
27
28
29
30
45
86
1989
Textiles and
clothing a
47
3
19
11
14
23w
25
4
32
16
17
18
19
1965
1w
85
6w
43
1989
84
100
86
86
65w
92
94
13
1965
Lw
0
0
4
72
1989
Other
manufactures
23w
18w
30w
15
25
Machinery
and transport
..
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
22
23
24
Other
primary
3
0
29
0
25
43
1
54
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
38
31
0
13
0
17
0
0
12
9
0
13
'
0
0
11w
11
0
0
15
20w
12w
13w
33w
28w
3w
2w
2
2
2
10
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
27w
22w
26w
29w
46w
62w
21w
32w
14w
42
43
44
6
93
95
80
76
17
15
27
72
4
35
8
71
88
4
20
2
46
15
18
8
9
I
10
43
52
7
65
42
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
*
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
19
17
11
12
10
40
23
PapuaNewGuinea
54
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
Syrian Arab Rep.
0
4
2
76
77
Cameroon
Peni
Ecuador
Namibiab
Paraguay
17
48
45
55
49
90
90
86
45
89
77
54
96
.
40
26
8w
91
28
30
0
0
5
4
2
5
9w
0
2
35
20
37
87
10
11
0
7
81
15
13
11
49
16
16
7
6
0
3
49
26
17
9
0
48
.
0
.
0
. .
2
.
92
92
ElSalvador
Colombia
2
18
79
16
49
11
43
15
15
24
39
6
2
0
11
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
82
75
86
28
16
41
26
58
31
23
51
11
31
19
60
13
29
28
15
36
54
57
25
15
26
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
234
84
93
88
55
8w
6
17
Other
primary
commodities
Fuels
minerals,
and metals
71
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
70
81
82
Upper-middle-income
1965
1989
1965
1989
89
26
61
33
35
45
60
44
63
7
19
57
10
78
33
89
84
69
14
38
4
32
15
27
18
6
5]
24
15
61
21
14
6
27
26
17
5
0
0
22
1
34
57
.
4
32 w
93
94
Korea,Rep.
15
95
Oman
Libya
Greece
iraq
tOther
100 fSaudi Arabia
108
109
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
110
Netherlands
111 tKuwait
Belgium'
Austria
France
Germany
Denmark
UnitedStates
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
19
60
39
37
2
2
96
25 w
52
.
24
.
14
.
1965
35
34
. .
. .
19
63
. .
1989
90
96
28w
13w
22w
25w
18w
37w
5w
12w
91
46
44
20
15
8
2
32
0
32
38
35
33
24
6]
83
25
95
29
7
37
31
3
20
30
3
6
14
33
37
12
24
28
33
21
10
0
0
0
5
0
88
84
69
89
62
4
6
2
87
99
97
13
95
98
34
25
1
78
4
55
19
38
7
35
11
3
0
4
0
36
59
55
3
3
48
15
5
52
9
6
30
58
56
. .
24
27
29
23
0
27
25 w
24 w
22 w
6w
21 w
43 w
33 w
26w
49 w
68 w
67 w
57 w
35 w
50 w
45 w
20 w
21 w
17 w
21 w
36 w
19 w
24 w
12 w
33 w
11 w
0w
1w
1w
12 w
9w
59 w
53 w
12 w
6w
34 w
33 w
29 w
9w
7w
27 w
98
91
26
63
51
28
5
10
2
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
112
113
114
Romania
106
107
64
. .
10
52
101
102
103
93
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
98
99
88
96
97
41
100
62
97
24
9
92
19
0
14
Venezuela
South Africat'
Brazil
Hungary
Umguay
91
1989
1989
Textiles and
clothing a
83
84
85
86
87
89
90
1965
Other
manufactures
equipment
1965
Turkey
Botswanab
Jonlan
Panama
Chile
67
68
69
Machinery
and transport
21 w
29w
1w
11 w
12 w
12 w
6w
30 w
31 w
3w
17w
1w
22 w
5w
20 w
12 w
15 w
40 w
41 w
26 w
2
32
6w
0w
2w
28 w
8w
1w
13 w
2w
20 w
33 w
12 w
3w
11 w
36 w
10 w
47 w
65 w
33 w
24 w
28 w
38 w
39 w
23 w
40 w
40 w
40 w
3w
7w
7w
5w
5w
4w
10 w
12 w
(1
29
29
40
6
9
52
4
4
6
39
15 w
7w
10 w
35 w
23 w
6w
36
27
23
87
37
60
73
21
18
44
94
9
67
35
10
47
24
26
5
5
19
10
27
8
7
42
30
40
42
47
40
52
15
3
12
25
0
21
21
1
35
0
20
20
26
42
3
55
52
41
9
32
18
10
10
73
9
14
12
12
32
98
96
9
5
11
11
17
21
18
13
7
8
13
8
8
19
35
19
15
4
4
6
6
32
16
46
22
37
10
35
14
21
2
3
56
10
12
17
31
30
28
7
2
91
55
27
23
40
28
7
7
37
25
34
35
2
63
55
55
45
.
0
12
12
10
.
4
0
7
8
5
39
49
25
43
22
42
24
41
21
39
34
4
3
4
2
43
29
41
52
65
32
60
60
32
2
2
17
13
33
45
34
61
10
28
21
2
5
Other economies
7w
6w
39 w
25 w
34 w
35 w
14 w
26 w
12 w
15 w
World
Iw
3w
5w
0w
1w
16 w
2w
92 w
80 w
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. Textiles and clothing is a subgroup of other manufactures. b. Figures are for the Southern African Customs Union compnslng South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho,
Botswana, and Swaziland; trade between the component territories is excluded. c. Includes Luxembourg.
235
manufactures by origin
(millions of dollars)a
1969
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
1,484t
865 t
619 t
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigena
Uganda
Zaire
12
13
14
15
6w
6w
4w
3
3
52
74
8
10
48
62
86
99
64
12
160
5
28
0
312
0
4
63
0
23
64
33
98
17
94
283
98
10
85
88
54
4
30
0
0
62
13
52
2
882
40
2
84
0
0
3
13
2
0
177
1
79
70
93
27
89
82
40
51
Others
9w
20
3
2
17
3w
45 w
45 w
43 w
Transport
equipment
6w
8w
1w
23
8Nepal
9Chad
11
40 w
40 w
42 w
Malawi
10
47,562 1
34,903 1
12,659
Chemicals
Electrical
machinery and
electronics
6LaoPDR
7
Textiles and
clothing
1989a
1w
78
16
16
28
5
16
17
18
19
Mali
Niger
20
India
60
8,125
40
21
25
39
54
26,778
389
10
15
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
124
16
19
2,357
81
71
18
97
26
27
29
30
Zambia
Guinea
31
Sri Lankba
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
37
38
39
40
Bhutan
22
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
28Togo
41
Kampuchea,Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
0
1
17
31
36
124
35
99
96
96
70
64
913
70
28
. .
4,612
33
0
55
62
36
17
17
22
3
46
1,291 I
155,938
64,526 I
0
3
1,670
27
4,307 t
0
0
0
I
46
4
0
2
3
63
95
70
7w
6w
25w
24w
250
19
10
32
570
68
61
9
5
7
3
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
51
Morucco
22
52
53
54
13
3
5
2
1
31
Yemen,Rep.
2
11
91
0
24
0
32
0
0
7w
7w
17w
23w
0
0
2
18
12
331
13
34
28
18
1,474
1,672
48
0
0
64
17
31
85
136
29
126
0
0
0
206
68
77
0
1
SyrianArabRep.
28
52
60
452
73
28
9
3
64
65
66
13
3
.
49
13
63
38
75
59
25
0
0
0
. .
27
116
57
23
24
33
2
63
14
62
16
41
30
62
15
903
8,197
765
1,494
14
1
II
16
46
97
38
77
86
34
78
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
236
75
25
81
63
231
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
99
4,291
56
ElSalvador
40 w
57
58
59
60
62
63
44w
0
4
61
37
65
82
111
Cted'Ivoire
DominicanRep.
2
7
2
4
55
43
29
2
0
11
Sudan
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
67
68
17
70
59
4
14
Value of imports of
manufactures, by origin
(millions of dollars)a
1989a
1969
67
68
69
70
71
'flirkey
Botswanab
Jordan
Panamac
Chile
14
II
64
20
663
81
393
89
21,306
1,658
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
34
7,761
226
374
90
91
92
TrinidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
Romania
tOther
19
44
15
0
3
3,016 I
19
565
136
163
18
380
8
127
37
102
Ireland
Spain
103 flsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 ISingapore
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgiumd
Austria
France
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
121
122
123
124
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
21
51
147
5
4
23
48
11
12
16
0
4
18
15
0
4
27
55
21
15
24
4
4
6
3
25
69
49
76
21
11
14
63
7w
48w
73
8
9
0
35
13
18
43
66
91,412:
26 w
653
3,505
11,674
2,504
324
3
3
15
71
14
7
23
9
20
5
10
3
14
78
65
44
53
43
28
0
90
10
10
44
7,195
89
7w
67
0
73
12w
31
9
16
18
26
57
390
365
313
2,642
9,803
42,601
0
0
39
26
5
19
21
46
152
15
59
307
3,893
0
55
6
2
0
93
9
6
31
19
7
69
59
390
138
511
142
l24
2,102
28
5,792
385 1
911 1
203,500
5,043
96,190t
2,167
949 t
12,497 1
42,841
43,424 1
1,2731
49,712
815 1
103,679t
100,8441
1,364,8331
1,262,6841
2,835:
102,149 1
100 ISaudiArabia
101
36
561
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
30
73
2,880
88
89
23
83
1,276
497
Venezuela
South Africat'
Brazil
Hungaly
Uruguay
19
230
83
84
85
86
87
37
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Upper-middle-income
21
70
CostaRica
82
5,313
72
73
74
75
76
81
Others
Chemicals
35
Electrical
machinery and
electronics
Transport
equipment
Textiles and
clothing
426
601
295
1,605
63
1,697
12,883
23,799
7,247
23,814
16,815
1,727
5,901
28 w
15 w
30 w
54 w
40 w
11 w
14 w
6w
5w
17 w
0
7
5
8
6w
9w
4w
3w
10 w
22 w
45 w
53 w
18 w
3w
45w
1w
7w
1w
42 w
37 w
49 w
19 w
13w
13w
11 w
11 w
18 w
5w
10
1w
14 w
9w
8w
59
25
6w
38
20w
it
6w
13w
lOw
19w
20w
48w
4w
51 w
51 w
56 w
19
21
30
56
48
14
7
10
65
41
14
44
31
4
4
6
22
37
54
58
48
55
58
94
437
9,381
6,749
88,190
95,052
18
16
10
8
4,857
59,605
30
225
40
27
9
10
6
20
19
9
17
12
63
23
46
27
25
8
14
40
10
21
11
13
4
20
39
45
49
62
53
19
61
5
12
19
30
75
58
46
6,557
1,379
7,448
.
7,499
19,517
1,219
19,238
65,999
22,605
108,863
607
70,015
236,407
14,952
184,431
3,314
36,500
972
886
14,432
7,845
174,094
39,230
7,064
3,201
722 I
12,725 1
7
4
7
2
15
2
4
2
10
8
9
8
21
3
22
10
4w
15w
12w
12
12
10
11w
46
26
47
61
58w
51 w
17 w
9w
12 w
12 w
1,581,0581
World
110,193 t
9w
40 w
36 w
2w
5,576 1
12 w
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
243 1
Note: Data cover high-income OECD countries only. a. Trade data are based on the UN Comtrade database, Revision I SITC for the year 1969 and Revision 2 SITC for
1989. b. Figures for Lesotho and Botswana are included with South Africa. c. Excludes the Canal Zone. d. Includes Luxembourg.
237
1970
1989
Net workers'
remittances
(millions ofdollars)
1970
1989
1970
1989
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
Lao PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
16
17
18
19
Mali
Niger
20
India
21
China*
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
22
23
24
25
CentralAfricanRep.
31
32
33
34
35
SriLanka
36
37
38
39
40
41
-32
-36
-6
_114a
.
Ghana
35
_1a
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
-158
_151a
-729
ll8
-37
-18
_234a
33
_2a
10
-3
-128
-20
-42
-368
-143
-412
20
-64
-2
0
7
_380a
_8la
_240a
_460a
i05
7538
-49
-4,530
-63
-587
-667
-1,351
11
19
-141
-22
-32
-21
-12
-81
-111
_793a
_378a
-628
72
65
21
_482a
-1,402
-107
_25a
-254
-29
-16
43
-46
_5a
_59a
_8la
4
-86
-705
_173a
-308
-11
-283
-254
418a
_736a
-317
-243
_327a
_233a
_8,038a
-4,701
-169
-868
-1,943
_159a
-24
-76
-14
108
107
-126
372a
l8a
-310
5
37
-71
_la
-376
-13
-1,368
lll
_3a
.
_16a
-63
-42
-67
-223
-546
-174
-1,540
_158a
-305
-217
.
-311
-118
-118
_204a
_945a
276
133
107
39
37
223
57
4
245
2,041
189
282
1.1
39
123
2.1
-40
19
4.6
4.4
-19
_27a
-81
43
-17
80
2,650
1,023
.
23,053
4.4
4
220
1.1
195
20
317
1,302
16
0.2
4.1
3.7
5.7
oa
147a
13
59
-3
86
Q
-4
-9
-3
-48
3
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
*
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cted'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
Papua New Guinea
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
Syrian Arab Rep.
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Thnisia
1,902
57a
-29
118
43
436
290
139
35
-21
515
0
338a
43
29a
.
-6
160
125
87
49
631
-18
-204
_1,2l6a
-148
-16
.34a
-264
_1,69la
-180
-423
_14a
_lO7a
-48
-38
-102
-124
-452
-66
_52a
26a
_983a
-138
-73
-205
-790
-103
-161
-1,465
-20
-399
_2,828a
_397a
-531
_l8Sa
-1,822
-1,044
,289a
-1,055
_89a
445
_239a
-662
-64
-275
-313
-68
-331
-65
-8
,53
784
-72
-418
-127
-578
-295k'
508
_532a
47
146
-8
_45
-69
-30
202
-113
.
-16
86a
-122
.
-19
_295a
353
_629a
.
-16
39a
-56
25
27
98
22
243
ii
4,254
30
190
-463
-293
-250
-153
-53
42
42
-2,455
-213
-159
-333
-296
-149
11,384
-88
-2,652
-369
-374
11,392
364
176
153,347 I
71,910 I
5
165
2,495
4.7
0.9
3.1 w
2.8 w
5i
1.7
22
31
0.2
280
1.7
1.7
360
255
2,398
2.0
306a
119
32
142
33
0.1
171
0.8
771
1.2
410
1,325
28
524
533
2.4
0.2
3.0
0.2
2.2
81
92
0.5
339
76
1,597
707
4.5
2.4
_3
-55
20
79
9
225
57
40
35
_11
-186
1,6
10.4
274
_86a
1.2
0.9
2.9
59
1.1
46
.
1.3
1.6
29
3.0
51
0
297a
ii
2.1
66
15,855
7,076 1
.
269
49
6,444
oa
.
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
238
36
138
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
0.5
3.7
2.8
0.2
-4
14
4.3
3.4
4.5
217
270
70
8,048
16
-66
. .
1.3
2.1
2
15
_2la
-11
-98
-1
-3
0.5
0.5
2.8
16
1.1
54
23
929
105
-26
123
-161
-98
-46
-3
-6
3.5
4.4 w
2.5
29
94
, .
_242a
-23
-3
-12
-68
1989
50,839
34,663 1
16,176
771
_58a
logo
Zambia
Guinea
_169a
-67
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
26
27
28
29
30
1989
3,613
1,023
2,590
Low-income economies
2
3
In months of
import coverage
Millions of dollars
21
18
447
3.7
242
459
64
207
454
3,862
10,508
. .
29
20
71
911
139
482
60
108
1,037
3.6
5.4
4.3
0.5
2.3
627
78,652
14.2
1989
-44
71
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
-74
77
78
79
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
80
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
67
68
69
70
81
82
966
366a
_82a
_3a
-20
39a
64
-905
-382
-985
-71
-5,447
-1,292
-145
-1,254
-91
. .
-1,068
-163
8
-125
Net workers
remittances
(millions of dollars)
1970
1970
1989
-57
_35a
173a
-95
-77
.
440
.
258
561
86
87
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
TrinidadandTobago
92
Czechoslovakia
93
94
95
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
96
97
98
99
771
119
3,500
0.6
3.9
-503
-1,872
16
746
3.7
2,504
1.5
4.1
1.9
-1,098
-160
-5,603
-1,292
-239
-1,254
321
355
178
46
756
682
542
6,740
3,217
667
352
8,733
3,086
-40
. .
. .
-448
-43
-617
-104
-1,215
-837
-25
-45
-372
2,496
1,579
-98
-1,253
1,040a
-861
2,427
-25
-55
-378
_572a
l53
75a
-507
-109
-2,476
-511
-104
146
1,038
156
_lS8a
-623
5,056
_141a
575
852
645
-1,823
-2,573
-422
_158a
-706
2,512
1,507
1,040
-87
-368
.
572a
145a
2,430
194a
-2,476
_I4la
143
-151
15
504a
3,379
0
-1,786
-134
-496
-424
-5,175
333
1,350
104
Romania
-23
-23
6,290
105
-8
758
Iraq
8,702
2,195
10,505
1,846
1,548
441
5,008
844
81,437 1
1,047
1,057
1,190
186
1,060
-1,404
8,779 t
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
Ill
112
113
114
71
-6,774
152
-4,275
-198
517
-228
79
-10,934
79
-562
1,148
-766
-1,153
-12,378
-2,162
New Zealand
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
1,985
800
-10,632
-75
-204
90a
116
117
118
119
Canada
Germany
Denmark
1,008
852
UnitedStates
2,330
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
-265
122
123
124
-16,181
-31,159
853a
717
Belgium"
Austria
France
-544
-240
-242
-2,039
-588
Netherlands
tKuwait
115 tUnitedArabEmirates
121
2,338
268
1.6
3,609
2.5
1,565
610
9.4
2.7
13
16,389
15,342
1,470
1,596
318
5,776
4,585
8.9
-1,414
-110,060
-5,179
-5,128
226
56,990
8,495
-183
.
-6,158
.
469
1,425
-1,999
-16,005
-24,227
-7,094
16
.
300
.
-49
904
4,962
38
-73
-22
-7
293
18
1,420
-641
-1,782
-13,722
-510
-1,192
-96,630
-3,922
-4,663
4,680
-160
-233
-200
2,170
203
4.46
.
2,800
960
1,899
67,721
1,007
60,280
8,511
204,186
9,707
67,513
14,874
65,836
44,062
47,950 t
3.2 w
2.4 w
3.4 w
3.5 w
3.3 w
3.3 w
18,590
4,201
2.7 w
3.1 w
3.1 w
4.0 w
7.6
2.0
47,770
5,684
6.5
3.3
858,580
801,066
57,515
8,105
9,534
100
698
1,851
452
2,407
853a
-94
-4,299
3.1
2,731
1,227
-72
-1,287
-213
-617
55,477
161
2,393
1,096
6,962
9,323
3,197
2,700
-14,091
1,990
225
-585
-222
-682
2,5
0.2
113
5,510 1
225
1.6
9.1
217
43
5,464
-572
-232
-777
1.1
472
tOther
100 tSaudiArabia
3.5 w
8.0
3.5
4,899
40
75,667 I
72,921 I
2,746 I
670
110
3.1
49
High-income economies
OECD members
106
107
108
109
3.6
19,468
2,028
2,885
1,453
6,581
102
103
2.9
4,636
405
101
3.5
19.5
2.5
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
89
90
88
1989
6,298
2,841
16
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
1989
392
-80
-163
1970
3,040
-1,087
In months of
import coverage
Millions of dollars
1989
273
_9a
_704a
_69a
-130
543
1,012
258
1,709
2,918
5,547
16,961
42,381
73,455
3,362
209
2,963
1,806
5,199
34,129
4,120
23.059
16,882
57,434
-1,366
.
-650
-3,992
.
-1,050
28
.
-23
. .
-313
-1,549
20,345
3,027
4,733
13,879
488
15,237
775
455
813
4,876
5,317
4,776
22,512
98,877
7,054
168,584
11,993
5,914
14,260
93,673
58,510
4.3
2.5
3.0
1.5
5.1
3.0
4.6
1.8
3.6
2.6
1.7
3.4
1.9
2.9
2.1
2.1
4.3
5.8
8.9
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. World Bank estimate.
95,135 1
1,062,7661
4,750 I
46,736 1
3.1 w
4.5 w
b. Includes Luxembourg.
239
Table 19. Official development assistance from OECD and OPEC members
OECD: Total net flowsa
1975
1970
1965
1985
1980
1986
1987
1989
1988
Millions of US dollars
101
Ireland
14
119
212
500
66
552
904
Australia
108 UnitedKingdom
109 Italy
110 Netherlands
112 Belgium
113 Austria
114 France
116 Canada
117 Germany
118 Denmark
119 United States
120 Sweden
472
60
70
102
10
752
96
456
147
182
196
120
608
378
79
2,093
880
11
971
337
4,023
599
59
3,153
38
117
Finland
1,689
205
4,161
566
48
122 Norway
11
37
184
244
458
1,148
121
123
124
Japan
Switzerland
Total
13
30
72
667
1,854
683
39
54
749
1,530
1,098
62
75
752
1,737
2,404
1,630
595
1,136
440
248
3,995
1,631
1,740
547
178
4,162
1,075
110
840
211
57
49
104
87
1,101
1,871
2,645
3,193
1,020
2,587
3,613
2,615
5,105
2,094
687
201
6,525
1,695
1,885
3,832
695
9,564
1,090
4,391
198
2,942
440
9,403
3,567
481
7,138
962
51
87
627
859
9,115
2,231
601
301
2,094
703
283
6,865
2,347
7,450
2,320
4,731
922
4,949
10,141
1,534
608
7,676
1,799
937
313
1,375
433
574
3,797
302
798
5,634
422
890
7,342
547
985
917
9,134
8,949
617
558
29,429
36,663
41,595
48,114
46,697
0.28
0.30
0.47
0.31
0.40
0.19
0.34
0.28
0.35
0.20
0.27
0.46
0.32
0.39
0.17
0.22
0.38
1.01
0.98
0.48
0.17
0.74
0.47
0.98
0.39
0.24
0.72
0.50
0.94
0.46
0.23
0.78
0.44
0.39
0.88
0.20
0.88
0.49
0.39
0.89
0.41
12
30
104
486
3,353
253
6,480
6,968
13,855
27,296
0.00
0.00
0.23
0.59
0.09
0.52
0.65
0.39
0.11
0.16
0.33
0.48
0.35
0.15
0.24
0.25
0.48
0.97
0.50
0.23
0.63
0.43
0.91
0.55
0.48
0.38
0.78
0.49
0.21
0.70
0.48
706
Ireland
0.53
0.47
0.10
Netherlands
Belgium
Austria
France
0.36
0.60
110
112
113
114
116 Canada
117 Germany
118 Denmark
119 United States
120 Sweden
121
Finland
122 Norway
123
124
Japan
Switzerland
0.41
0.16
0.33
0.26
0.41
0.75
0.59
0.21
0.62
0.54
0.40
0.13
0.58
0.19
0.02
0.32
0.38
0.32
0.38
0.06
0.40
0.58
0.27
0.82
0.18
0.44
0.74
0.27
0.78
0,22
0.47
0.80
0.24
0.86
0.40
0.43
0.89
0.23
0.85
0.16
0.27
0.09
0.32
0.23
0.15
0.66
0.23
0.19
0.87
0.32
0.24
1.01
1.17
0.29
0.29
0.30
0.11
0.76
0.19
0.61
0.46
0.07
0.66
0.45
0.31
0.26
1.09
0.31
0.31
0.21
0.86
0.59
1.13
0.32
0.32
0.31
0.42
0.94
0.15
0.97
0.63
1.04
0.32
0.30
National currencies
Ireland (millions of pounds)
106 New Zealand (millions of dollars)
107 Australia (millions of dollars)
108 UnitedKingdom(millionsofpounds)
109 Italy (billions of lire)
101
118 Denmark(millionsofkroner)
119 United5tates(millionsofdollars)
120 Sweden(millionsofkronor)
121
106
169
38
253
5,100
260
3,713
104
1,824
90
4,023
0
13
4
55
402
409
15
37
46
34
74
109
143
146
158
145
591
1,121
1,194
1,404
1.485
35
119
798
585
3,578
895
1,142
3,389
4,156
1,287
1,578
4,954
710
6,000
286
5,393
353
1,538
13,902
1,376
8,971
895
3,241
17,399
2,303
17,589
1,257
3,773
26,145
5,132
35,894
2,227
4,263
24,525
3,023
35,357
2,354
4,242
25,648
2,541
39,218
2,500
4,400
21,949
3,717
40,814
2,888
4,436
27,677
3,743
47,482
2,747
2,192
443
3,153
605
4,155
8,661
4,657
9,403
7,226
8,323
5,623
9,564
7,765
8,292
6,196
10,141
9,742
1,308
1,587
8,004
5,848
9,115
8,718
1,902
2,550
9,292
6,844
7,659
11,599
3,026
4,946
749
743
5,901
950
759
5,998
1,062
815
6,412
1,169
900
6,329
1,232
912
29
177
6,484
2,711
7,138
4,069
414
79
88
52
264
962
341
268
2,400
760
424
197
37
966
1,180
2,097
189
208
92
165
131
1,178
4,161
2,350
Summary
Billions of US dollars
6.5
27.4
7.0
24.7
29.1
27.3
36.6
29.4
39.3
36.7
41.2
41.6
41.6
48.1
44.8
46.7
43.6
1,350.3
2,040.0
3,959.3
7,393.5
8,490.0
10,387.0
12,050.0
13,480.0
13,950.0
0.35
0.35
0.36
0.33
89.06
100.00
107.36
106.99
13.9
Percent
ODAasashareofGNP
0.48
0.34
0.35
0.37
0.35
GDPdeflator'
240
23.66
28.24
47.65
74.62
74.92
1965
1970
1980
1975
1984
1986
1985
1987
1988
1989
Ireland
0.o
0.23
0.04
0. I
0.09
Netherlands
Belgium
Austria
France
0.08
0.56
0.06
0.12
0.10
0.24
0.30
0.14
0.02
0.26
0.07
0.10
0.10
0.14
0.12
0.04
0.13
0.02
0.12
0.20
110
112
113
114
116 Canada
117 Germany
118 Denmark
119 United States
120 Sweden
121
0.06
0.11
0.01
0.11
0.01
0.06
Japan
124 Switzerland
Total
1976
0.29
0.20
0.01
0.14
0.15
0.27
0.23
0.02
0.14
0.15
0.11
0.28
0.03
0.14
0.32
0.04
0.07
0.06
0.11
0.09
0.16
-0.07
0.06
0.03
0.08
0.10
0.io
0.16
0.15
0.32
0.20
0.31
0.31
0.14
0.10
0.01
0.04
0.14
0.14
-0.04
0.14
0.14
0.28
0.14
0.05
0.15
0.08
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.32
0.03
0.29
0.18
0.36
0.04
0.40
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.04
0.09
0.12
0.05
0.09
0.16
0.12
0.20
0.08
0.08
0.28
0.41
0.36
0.08
0.30
0.31
0.13
0.17
0.12
0.32
0.03
0.38
0.18
0.31
0.08
0.08
0.34
0.07
0.12
0.40
0.09
0.12
0.47
0.10
0.12
0.38
0.07
0.10
0.42
0.07
0.10
0.40
0,06
0.05
0.25
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.09
0.22
0.11
1980
0.05
0.30
0.24
0.03
0.08
0.11
0.03
0.06
123
0.03
0.00
0.05
0.09
0.09
0.24
0.31
0.02
0.10
0.24
Finland
122 Norway
0.oi
o.
0.04
1982
1984
1983
0.13
0.12
1986
1985
1987
0.31
0.23
1988
0.02
0.29
0.22
0.11
1989
Millions of US dollars
52
114
90
54
32
85
30
0
39
24
52
-72
69
-10
24
57
68
14
135
-72
-193
63
129
-22
-32
-21
-37
-28
3,259
2,630
3,517
169
88
715
87
108
351
771
122
2,888
316
2,098
997
3,194
1,020
82
37
1,171
UnitedArabEmirates
44
52
3,854
1,161
406
-10
2,791
706
1,028
376
864
5,682
1,140
1,118
15
-17
25
Total OPEC
Total DApECe
5,877
4,937
9,636
9,538
5,775
5,785
4,985
4,798
4,559
4,366
3,615
3,610
4,704
4,498
3,328
3,284
2,409
2,307
0.11
0.13
0.47
0.19
0.08
0.04
0.00
0.06
0.02
-0.01
0.03
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.02
96 Libya
98 Iraq
100 SaudiArabia
III Kuwait
115
45
8
58
139
129
125
Nigeria
Qatar
78 Algeria
83 Venezuela
90 Iran, Islamic Rep.
13
80
35
180
277
11
81
109
751
98
123
35
51
20
10
37
52
142
10
144
18
4
13
41
49
39
0.07
0.35
0.04
4.16
0.20
0.23
0.08
2.13
0.31
0.19
0.04
0.40
0.08
0.22
0.06
0.18
0.10
0.16
0.06
0.15
0.10
0.00
1.16
-0.08
-0.15
0.01
0.03
-0.04
0.66
0.76
5.95
4.82
8.95
1.16
0.15
0.13
2.50
4.34
2.22
0.51
0.10
0.24
0.34
0.25
0.52
-0.02
-0.05
-0.07
-0.05
-0.08
-0.05
2.69
3.83
2.98
3.17
0.45
4.67
2.91
0.41
3.88
1.23
0.07
2.70
1.26
3.20
3.95
0.32
0.96
0.82
0.76
0.95
0.63
1.81
1.70
1.60
0.61
1.39
1.80
1.10
Nigeria
Qatar
0.19
78 Algeria
13
83 Venezuela
90 Iran, Islamic Rep.
96 Libya
98 Iraq
100 Saudi Arabia
111 Kuwait
115 United Arab Emirates
Total OPEC
Total oApEce
7.35
2.32
4.23
2.36
4.87
3.52
4.06
1.85
3.22
0.41
1.46
0.54
-0.07
0.10
0.45
0.86
241
Millions of dollars
Low-income economies
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
Lao PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
12
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
13
Nigeria
14
Uganda
15
Zaire
16
Mali
Niger
11
17
18
BurkinaFaso
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
12,338 I
2,509 1
12,397 r
2,471 t
16,781 t
3,254 1
18,517 e
3,300 1
21,865 t
21,467 I
9,829 1
9,926 1
13,833 I
2,532 1
11,301 I
13,528 e
15,216 I
4,086 1
17,7791
4,101
17,366
211
259
364
558
350
1,200
300
715
487
353
1,152
51!
580
1,455
1,635
34
158
37
48
58
113
198
301
165
187
280
339
594
343
1,049
30
117
201
422
636
65!
893
634
970
681
882
982
433
1,592
16.2
141
34.8
47.9
26.5
43.2
37.3
22.5
24.9
16.0
23.5
24.5
28.4
10.5
12.6
188
198
68
102
99
321
304
69
279
627
120
320
339
3.0
1.1
363
576
397
637
23.7
8.4
6.6
366
353
427
470
281
298
252
2,097
296
284
238
1,874
57.2
39.8
32.4
22.6
371
34.5
11.0
0.7
1,989
2,227
2.0
147
198
455
970
1,462
218
572
879
809
1,408
95
138
138
162
967
1,119
247
31.1
41.1
10.2
104
139
196
189
474
543
141
66
61
66
87
183
153
48
137
315
316
59
163
188
32
182
312
325
448
215
321
175
184
150
161
189
165
380
304
372
307
284
181
211
1,840
1,673
1,592
2,120
245
1,839
669
798
940
1,134
134
135
153
175
400
411
749
77
438
735
86
801
93
114
198
198
347
394
488
239
19
Rwanda
India
21
22
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
26
27
28
CentralAfricanRep.
Ghana
Togo
110
216
203
371
176
373
112
110
114
174
126
199
182
29
30
Zambia
Guinea
217
239
328
464
430
68
123
119
175
213
478
262
388
346
31
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
473
108
744
176
466
484
94
603
209
570
502
598
558
88
711
225
107
108
118
1,246
1,632
1,830
182
184
36
37
38
39
Bhutan
Kampuchea,Dem.
40
41
14
175
7
17
45
72
195
95
13
18
24
40
42
41
40
17
13
13
14
97
416
945
78
367
898
19
65
25
133
147
Sudan
37
118
302
962
275
622
90
356
1,128
VietNam
106
109
114
Liberia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Senegal
11,1801
9,6201
III
11,432 I
11,760 C
13,317 1
14,5471
9,982 1
10,1561
11,142 I
12,115 C
7.9
26.0
10.3
101.8
1.9
19.4
10.3
13.6
8.3
12.6
28.5
2.1
12.0 w
17.4 w
0.6 w
1.3 w
140
432
1,578
652
14.4
60.8
30.9
90.5
1.8
14.0
13,722 I
11,337 1
11,628 1
10,973 1
159
394
1,537
568
75
95
92
131
135
172
1,463
323
1,794
368
202
1,791
295
322
1,716
567
318
1,773
641
273
854
266
27.9
4.5
831
13.8
1.9
439
409
4.4
118
481
443
34.9
20.2
18.!
87.5
9.5
5.2
9.6
4.7
125
207
785
186
93
403
333
190
259
272
263
283
322
258
380
83
135
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
108
813
322
286
65
98
71
241
152
235
89
641
610
110
728
684
57
58
Camemon
186
159
310
59
Ecuador
Namibia
316
136
213
292
203
60
129
297
64
0
15
61
Paraguay
51
50
50
66
62
63
ElSalvador
261
345
62
64
Colombia
Thailand
290
86
431
475
65
Jamaica
181
170
66
Thnisia
205
178
76
136
0
88
956
141
334
256
256
2.1
2.0
91
51.5
28.7
41.3
191
139
11.5
1.2
284
272
470
300
40.7
4.2
17
81
136
23
75
162
44
1.0
1.6
2.3
91
14.2
15.7
25.5
21.7
341
426
420
63
78
481
169
496
504
178
168
222
274
86.8
1.9
12.6
108.3
30.9
7.6
0.2
1.0
6.6
163
62
563
193
316
446
62
697
258
247
Note. For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
242
33.2
68.5
138
294
770
254
130
447
Peru
0.5
8.4
11.7
2.8
14.7
17.1
148
225
56
14.5
11.1
64.0
37.6
51.9
49.6
62.2
23.3
5.4
31.0
237
486
52
53
54
55
53.8
58
220
760
298
397
128
188
352
DominicanRep.
Morocco
2.3
451
937
208
429
156
100
398
51
18.5
18.6
174
Yemen, Rep.
Cted'Ivoire
14.2
38.5
72.2
5.6 w
59.2
11.6
32.0
38.9
8.9
202
140
182
142
673
49.4
2.2 w
0.6 w
198
236
198
115
101
17.4 w
1989
1,791
20
32
33
34
35
7.3 w
2.1 w
of GNP
77
366
399
264
95
33
759
702
918
440
224
272
147
321
3.1
4.0
2.2
2.5
Millions of dollars
As a percentage
of GNP
1989
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
356
104
787
47
0
242
179
339
269
122
2.2
102
102
151
162
133.1
687
72
96
538
69
564
376
156
579
415
280
52
40
22
40
-5
21
44
17
61
71.8
7.2
4.7
6.3
0,4
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
CostaRica
252
218
280
196
228
187
224
81.9
4.3
73
74
75
76
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
. .
41
132
36
28
144
57
97
215
53.8
83
6.7
2.7
0.0
0.4
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
139
153
8.0
6.3
0.4
0.3
1983
67
68
69
70
81
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Umguay
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran,Islamic Rep.
TrinidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
Iraq
Romania
Low- and middle-income
98
99
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, M.East, & N.Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
Other
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
110
Netherlands
Ill tKuwait
118
119
120
121
122
123
24
48
49
39
177
95
327
122
229
173
. ,
127
77
83
. .
120
114
102
1,560 1
1,451 I
1,6041
10
,
14
.
99
152
192
165
363
214
104
62
141
213
4
227
2,175 1
2,432 1
2,3861
655
II
16
.
19
. .
0.0
18
38
12.3
0.5
35
82
44
106
82
1.8
121.3
1.7
0.1
71
43
134
89
19
34
4.8
101
139
64
106
79
7.6
-9
-18
11
JO
-9
-0.2
0.2
0.0
78
5
84
16
16
II
II
13
II
19
35
37
33
10.8
2.5
3.3
0.1
0.1
26
33
91
10
0.3
4
3
11
19
76
61
13
16
79
27
43
97
-37
71
67
6
13
64
48
5
..
0.0
1.3
1,9291
0.1 w
1.1
. .
23,5181
7,7161
3,4281
4,623 I
4,9341
2,8181
4,266 I
2.0 w
.
41
.
5
21
189
. .
18
1.9
60.8
210
13
132
150
101
,
1.1
141
3
289
l61
171
0.2
178
. .
27
101
.
59
173
65
155
. .
56
252
88
0.2
6.5
123
.
. .
30,0981
33,0631
35,5871
33,0951
11,093 1
12,492 1
3,577 1
4,655 1
4,6841
5,222 1
5,861 1
4,2681
4,2161
6,1291
3,803 1
3,001 1
5,548 I
5,6301
5,247 1
4,146 1
6,0791
13,148 1
6,357 1
5,0281
3,3281
4,5291
5,8881
4,8881
3,7001
14,079 1
6,411 1
6,613 I
7,941 1
3,553 1
4,585 1
4,7491
..
1,831 I
..
2,4051
..
2,4981
. .
..
1,8401
..
1,6751
0.1
0.1
25,5931
9,0061
23,8291
3.9
3,697 I
8.5 w
27.7 w
4.1 w
5.4 w
11.4 w
8.8 w
1.1 w
7.9 w
0.7 w
1.7 w
0.6 w
0.4 w
6,226 1
12.3 w
0.6 w
1,3241
42.8 w
0.5 w
6,090t
44
36
29
31
22
19
16
1.1
0.0
1,345
1,256
22
1,192
23
264.4
18
1,251
19
1,241
14
1,978
20
1,937
4.0
2.6
0.0
15
41
24
29
23
22
95
35.4
0.3
2.0
0.0
34
115
-12
-6
-3.9
0.0
Belgium
Austria
France
115 tUnitedArabEmirates
116
117
Ireland
Spain
102
103 tlsrael
112
113
114
1989
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
13r
121
25,459 1
750 I
25,673 1
181
28,0161
181
32,6141
706 1
648 1
847 1
301
34,932 1
966 1
201
37,2821
34,419 1
692 1
881 t
8.7 w
3.3 w
1.1 w
0.2 w
243
Private
non guaranteed
1970
1989
1989
(millions of dollars)
1970
1970
1970
1989
Short-term debt
1989
1989
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
3,885
2,876
4,505
0
0
56
30
551
107
15
13
272
1,814
9,926
0
0
0
0
0
0
129
150
719
68
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
101
48
52
24
28
939
1,242
1,290
317
810
59
512
89
452
3,345
31,668
138
311
1,489
7,571
0
0
115
0
0
238
2,055
1,127
685
606
54,776
169
250
77
15
LaoPDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bunindi
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
122
3
33
37
38
39
40
41
40
0
0
105
165
406
0
0
225
628
17
.
867
440
1,057
3,607
32,832
1,809
8,843
97
759
95
643
85
0
0
1,478
108
71
45
1,578
756
652
1,566
4,689
62,509
0
0
88
0
0
908
6,907
44,857
41
632
77
641
138
415
933
41
37,043
684
4,001
14,669
1,046
24
642
488
2,279
946
4,095
0
10
0
7,838
.
40
319
3,064
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
J'ietNam
18
55
31
32
33
36
949
1,394
1,359
368
624
312
35
0
0
10,712
-
259
Zambia
Guinea
34
173
0
0
100
CentralAfricanRep.
logo
4,737
3,013
4,918
2,137
0
0
32
21
26
27
28
29
30
Ghana
245
1,967
30
0
0
33
0
0
0
317
4,238
103
312
40,851
1,777
0
461
0
4,626
0
40
2,497
27
10
46
121
35
46
737
38
29
0
0
75
164
900
1,879
61
148
79
0
366
394
10
139
608
69
7,026
0
.
299
17
31
884
158
106
4,045
0
0
298
8,261
1,091
0
0
496
5,690
18,509
1,177
716
3,078
1,186
6,874
2,176
5,101
324
53,111
2,010
-
2,157
802
-
165
.
77
2,770
79
2
.
371
124
1,761
4,171
12,965
3,324
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
47
48
49
50
51
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cbte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
52
PapuaNewGuinea
53
54
55
Honduras
Guatemala
90
106
Congo,People'sRep.
56
119
233
57
58
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Egypt,ArabRep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
- .
480
. .
200
252
302
7,806
316
49
0
0
161
31
1,081
33
2,568
22,992
8,156
0
919
11
68
783
4,071
0
69
0
29
1,177
370
3,281
19,507
141
15
105
200
28
123
850
1,370
2,823
2,089
3,535
3,934
173
19
958
0
0
0
0
165
84
110
0
35
73
12
10
407
330
770
1,268
11
229
625
256
212
712
36
1,781
102
-
131
856
193
-
3,708
12,669
9,421
.
14
0
0
9
1,799
49
.
378
1,589
158
.
423
3,951
2,816
558
294
113
545
10
14
758
325
4,859
. .
27
365
88
1,657
14,001
12,424
88
283
402
822
0
39
1,272
4,658
42
225
55
0
0
0
273
383
149
1,614
13
270
541
3,594
6,085
3,088
28,902
20,851
15,412
4,066
4,316
5,202
.
2,490
1,851
16,887
303
.
319
4,743
19,875
11,311
6,112
.
2,496
3,350
2,601
4,359
48,799
4,139
5,685
1,407
2,098
1,297
324
160
282
909
112
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical noses.
244
3,605
39,751
3,508
4,775
23,466
4,322
6,899
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
67
68
69
70
81
82
1970
1989
1,846
34,781
509
6,404
3,575
10,850
17
120
194
2,067
134
24
Private
nonguaranteed
1970
3,480
34,747
42
0
0
0
501
112
Short-term debt
(millions of dollars)
1989
1970
1970
1970
795
0
0
0
3,148
74
0
0
0
2
320
1,270
304
0
35
1989
1989
5,977
41,600
97
918
1,906
2,973
513
7,418
5,800
18,241
650
8,577
4,468
43,324
32
631
106
3,196
1,880
76,257
51,429
2,770
0
0
0
63
5,091
3,291
3,999
1,800
3,100
32
10,295
8,416
390
945
14,461
23,609
50
0
1,377
0
0
0
0
619
2,738
1,840
64
234
147
7,546
718
25,339
236
4,523
1989
48
0
832
95,642
64,745
18,576
26,067
-
286
520
1,659
9,205
998
2,284
33,144
6,008
0
105
18
2,423
456
202
18,576
3,307
477
3,481
0
686
135
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Umguay
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
88
89
90
91
92
TrinidadandTobago
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
98
99
Iraq
Romania
3,421
0
269
84,284
16,843
2,967
1,706
1,199
91
14,303
854
0
101
Czechoslovakia
Korea,Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
2,478
0
29
1,680
1,181
562
205
127
485
1,816
14,644
17,351
2,626
175
0
696
5,961
0
111,290
20,605
3,751
19,651
3,175
0
0
0
0
0
0
2,950
9,800
348
2,012
268
18,289
33,111
2,974
so
500
tOther
100 lSaudi Arabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105
106
107
108
109
tSingapore
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
112
Belgium
113
Austria
114
France
110
Ill
115
116
1l7
120
121
122
123
l24
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
245
Repayment ofprincipal
(millions of dollars)
(millions of dollars)
Long-term public
and publicly
guaranteed
1970
Long-term public
and publicly
guaranteed
Private
nonguaranteed
1970
1989
1989
1970
1989
Interest payments
(millions of dollars)
Long-term public
and publicly
Private
nonguaranteed
1970
Private
nonguaranteed
guaranteed
1989
1970
1989
1970
1989
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
28
51
4
0
6LaoPDR
7
8
Malawi
Nepal
40
1
9Chad
10
Burundi
II
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Uganda
Zaire
Mali
Niger
19
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
20
India
21
22
23
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
26
27
28
29
30
31
Sn Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
24
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
6
1
177
297
14
158
75
8
0
0
1,015
80
88
0
0
7
160
1,426
0
0
25
138
283
23
0
0
183
127
100
68
0
0
883
5,919
25
6,902
12
0
0
56
27
32
11
15
10
134
114
241
29
0
0
35
471
41
489
1,754
151
72
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
139
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
29
25
(1
0
3
37
7
174
9
27
29
0
0
0
3
2
0
0
0
3
19
II
0
0
99
0
0
59
38
4
471
88
28
69
22
40
0
0
223
0
0
30
31
14
113
0
0
0
0
20
1,270
10
28
27
0
37
1,613
25
0
0
309
0
0
187
14
14
16
0
289
0
0
0
0
18
16
14
2,820
0
0
0
0
6
2,401
2,508
0
0
0
0
207
779
12
77
0
446
34
33
0
6
136
24
0
0
0
12
0
0
2
14
2
35
91
II
67
0
0
29
4
33
63
32
0
0
12
195
30
0
59
183
14
5,963
0
0
1,329
52
0
0
4,234
61
55
0
868
0
0
25
0
77
0
ll4
42
66
434
0
0
0
9
65
351
138
90
257
66
0
441
5
404
96
.
215
237
15
0
13
0
21
0
0
135
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
33
0
0
0
107
7
2,527
25
21
454
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
158
12
61
10
0
2
12
.
0
0
3
17
11
14
0
7
22
53
174
0
20
4
0
0
13
0
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
2
.
II
20
22
0
.
2
.
121
69
0
0
46
12
12
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
51
Cted'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuinea
57
58
59
60
61
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
62
63
64
65
66
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
. .
. .
327
17
140
1,270
192
56
107
301
122
146
0
3
95
1,085
2,004
310
19
142
8
146
532
141
619
1,584
0
276
31
119
78
38
231
199
4
22
168
1,053
43
29
37
18
134
60
249
29
633
367
859
148
41
. .
56
241
13
136
950
35
26
1,620
19
900
529
76
37
609
15
8
12
4
24
192
150
102
186
2
292
III
171
20
183
133
182
10
285
20
0
68
3
2
20
0
0
90
94
6
0
0
20
74
43
86
6
0
0
0
0
6
31
272
0
0
113
0
0
11
82
62
131
240
181
100
107
233
119
39
5
16
437
43
7
73
91
63
Il
15
25
399
12
65
53
443
4
44
16
15
17
4
187
883
1,197
872
233
211
40
Figurea in italics are for years other than those specified.
18
376
54
0
Il
. .
202
76
186
1,275
15
301
107
164
89
910
30
47
86
1,708
1,397
159
667
59
51
6
78
23
6
16
2,079
0
177
16
253
24
0
169
165
1,061
7
77
234
9
5
157
175
14
74
29
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notea.
246
. .
55
397
2,525
Disbursements
(millions of dollars)
Long-term public
and publicly
guaranteed
1970
1989
331
6
IS
67
408
4,276
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
30
30
2
772
128
273
2,880
482
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
45
313
67
68
69
70
64
1,030
1
669
Long-term public
and publicly
Private
non guaranteed
1970
1
0
0
0
247
Interest payments
(millions of dollars)
Repayment ofprincipal
(millions of dollars)
guaranteed
1989
432
0
0
0
846
Long-term public
and publicly
guaranteed
Private
non guaranteed
1970
1989
1970
128
0
3,441
36
200
0
0
24
166
568
41
21
131
20
0
0
542
1970
1989
2
0
60
0
1,080
0
0
26
207
162
767
39
7,104
1,319
0
0
67
217
1,133
1,851
1970
1989
268
0
42
0
2,607
0
0
2
7
254
270
0
78
0
5
1,800
216
1989
1,009
0
0
48
1,086
70
475
344
674
47
2,440
1,443
428
69
121
1,456
5,024
12
0
675
0
47
35
2,221
5,221
9
0
592
0
22
25
20
44
282
il
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaly
Uruguay
216
1,239
67
42
578
25
160
892
0
37
2,185
2,245
900
0
850
3,260
200
0
295
13
256
0
47
179
26
171
465
0
837
0
170
9
797
63
10
92
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
Iraq
81
82
52
33
1
30
0
0
603
424
Private
non guaranteed
10
0
0
793
200
88
0
40
1,987
13
564
1,757
135
3,619
0
16
1,185
273
89
0
2
747
0
0
55
204
858
73
1,135
107
32
0
239
0
2,157
3,856
22
7
99
1,749
5
5
45
562
375
1,646
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Romania
128
5
18
444
3,335
2,100
559
26
20
32
0
180
1,798
0
63
198
1,651
157
29
71
.
1,012
1,381
226
los
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 (Singapore
106
New Zealand
107
Australia
United Kingdom
108
109
Italy
110
Ill
112
113
114
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
121
122
123
124
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
247
Private
non guaranteed
1989
1970
1989
1970
Official grants
1970
1989
553
422
544
278
767
Nelforeign
direct investment
1970
1970
1989
Aggregate net
Aggregate net
resource flows
tranfers
1970
198.9
1989
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
2
3
9
tO
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
40
6
9
4
37
125
87
0
0
-2
213
77
68
3
1
60
5!
136
79
8
10
18
85
23
3
955
50
214
-5
Uganda
Zaire
0
0
0
0
Mali
23
161
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
11
594
4,307
0
0
0
0
0
0
109
84
54
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
Bolivia
95
756
76
193
7
2
65
68
0
215
-297
41
316
80
48
0
0
0
5
191
36
0
383
222
38
1,730
0
0
134
-2
0
461
-4
41
-
10
.
2
30
.
51
DominicanRep.
Morocco
52
PapuaNewGuinea
53
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
14
67
3
14
0
0
0
83
-3
34
361
18
26
32
23
344
249
11
246
351
195
112
272
13
285
215
16
10
751
164
10
195
146
5,402
559
2,447
6,211
3,696
425
1,400
9
69
170
102
85
64
479
703
1,597
-2
395
17
241
13
405
1,099
228
137
129
15
7
104
507
79
106
263
-65
310
76
437
58
200
278
317
86
510
-1,647
-8
146
126
171
17
30
28
0
0
16
24
76
458
16
10
-2
0
0
0
378
634
80
97
444
18
90
84
371
171
504
244
304
220
42
99
-20
33
-9
-5
-29
482
144
94
72
20
110
167
115
179
186
37
80
0
278
275
. .
115
17
4
0
0
-3
0
0
4
130
22
24
29
30
-49
21
166
39
20
117
114
34
238
144
1,586
12
It
102
32
106
135
17
-37
-15
154
0
25
-25
91
9
7
200
65
25
-4
-76
121
2
2
24
26
178
188
12
386
900
II
44
-207
683
150
259
421
56
130
6
2,082
13
-50
571
29
735
24
-t
15
83
734
48
26
57
243
3,201
215
360
14
84
-23
36
259
29
-12
447
93
3,137
-41
171
50
13
693
473
636
336
1,469
32
41
14
13
8
10
187
29
173
10
44
16
0
275
375
197
129
27
109
43
26
33
52
14
16
12
10
23
31
131
200
42
212
38
87
17
727
545
664
347
1,607
II
26
80
0
94
190
311
23
7
60
297
0
0
0
0
155
130
44
205
4
42
4
79
9
50
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
10
157
-14
144
49
ElSalvador
203
78
384
408
95
165
134
12
15
13
375
Cbted'Ivoire
Cameroon
Pens
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
37
264
975
49
SyrianArabRep.
17
28
20
40
14
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
0
0
30
0
0
-86
-1
0
0
CentralAfricanRep.
48
7
11
4,500
28
16
23
52
0
0
101
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
187
163
132
-5
31
16
31
-70
59
80
89
24
323
648
200
333
2,773
402
492
23
19
14
16
254
636
. .
200
-61
223
182
16
1,548
254
386
-9
379
76
33
102
134
-487
268
314
55
684
230
232
17
18
109
136
48
-20
41
45
35
-213
-112
61
559
480
44
41
70
4
112
522
1,505
672
234
710
670
598
574
.
-231
83
218
149
-412
. .
126
-1
13
21
13
159
79
2
174
99
261
1,642
22
87
9
42
143
243
-9
-10
123
113
546
1,650
-1,503
62
21
6
175
-122
42
ItO
161
16
28
74
318
685
3,293
274
416
-1
28
4
39
43
15
-59
235
34
371
-16
-266
5
61
-48
-75
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
248
-3
Zimbabwe
Philippines
62
63
64
65
66
68
841
47
48
61
0
0
46
57
58
59
60
0
0
4
0
54
55
56
164
123
120
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42 Angola
43
44
45
13
139
174
99
1,946
67
68
69
70
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
CostaRica
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
81
82
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Private
nonguaranteed
Official grants
1970
1970
1970
1989
203
6
12
198.9
835
29
830
-2
0
0
163
0
0
44
242
-1
101
206
576
9
24
-3
10
0
0
-402
297
139
440
61
-435
-4
-2
-765
279
-197
0
.
10
.
1989
1970
68
68
58
1989
30
-79
259
134
26
115
-7
19
59
2
323
27
11
83
0
18
56
55
94
45
0
.
28
264
174
662
41
-160
53
77
380
11
0
12
Ii
73
26
2,241
1,028
1,846
-59
.
163
15
-23
77
7
41
318
407
21
49
24
1970
1989
1,729
226
932
202
20
-1,041
-122
51
679
16
51
172
-706
966
-20
245
31
38
-409
24
-1,176
92
33
692
2,026
50
147
621
99
379
1,182
-264
-92
-201
219
-7,123
-1,572
-1,481
-2,052
12
78
11
1989
280
33
-714
1970
Aggregate net
transfers
Aggregate net
resoarce flows
663
129
102
41
0
42
21
Net foreign
direct investment
45
428
15
192
583
-429
64
418
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaly
Uruguay
88
89
90
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
TrinidadandTobago
92
Czechoslovakia
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
636
-1,076
594
700
0
-10
138
-626
261
0
17
66
782
125
-55
-21
13
-8
10
4
27
-10
Portugal
-45
1,178
-1
81
Korea,Rep.
246
-1,756
25
49
0
Oman
Libya
Greece
184
.
. .
Iraq
Romania
0
0
-908
26
.
119
65
1
1,770
0
1
262
26
-1,160
-2,193
719
1159
0
-7,725
-466
98
-18
-643
158
-177
-2,017
-1
80
15
116
25
83
36
81
32
16
-106
15
1,546
-31
1,744
453
456
2,870
-1,253
-65
66
374
-3,417
-42
. .
139
50
752
172
.
184
.
.
24
-1,620
-1,620
-1,725
102
103
Ireland
Spain
(Israel
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
IKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
(United Arab Emirates
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (exci. USSR)
249
1980
Low-income economies
95.3 w
70.5 w
106.9 w
apercentage of
exports of goods
and services
GNP
1989
1980
1989
214.1 w
130.8 w
322.2 w
13.7 w
5.3 w
27.0 w
32.3 w
15.9 w
71.0 w
1980
1989
9.8 w
6.5 w
11.4 w
20.2 w
14.7 w
27.4 w
426.8
50.6
7.6
186.1
202.8
53.3
4
5
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
260.8
85.5
305.9
163.3
72.1
10.3
30.2
180.1
754.3
18.1
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
155.6
242.3
32.2
221.7
202.2
40.2
31.5
9.0
42.7
33.5
119.5
154.1
119.3
22.9
779.8
389.6
664.9
371.0
39.0
96.6
13.2
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
227.5
132.8
88.8
103.4
135.7
45.5
34.5
19.6
16.3
105.2
5.1
79.4
29.6
30.2
24.0
21.7
5.9
4.2
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
22.1
72.9
171.3
208.9
100.8
2
3
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
136.2
334.1
252.0
345.6
94.8
28
29
30
logo
108.3
180.1
Zambia
Guinea
201.0
201.9
31
SriLanka
32
33
34
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
123.4
19.5
27
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
94.2
306.7
1,744.7
416.8
931.4
2,253.4
437.6
1,116.4
411.3
330.5
488.7
416.7
182.2
415.2
259.5
148.6 w
155.4 w
. .
11.9
152.6
91.4
43.5
36.7
81.9
7.7
34.1
19.9
0.9
14.7
6.4
7.8
167
11.8
27.7
3.2
15.6
28.0
16.0
8.3
9.5
5.2
32.9
17.2
4.2
22.5
52.0
21.3
77.0
21.5
15.0
32.1
9.4
9.8
1.6
1.8
11.7
14.1
46.1
14.2
1.6
12.5
48.9
5.2
12.3
9.0
25.3
18.2
11.3
15.2
4.3
5.8
8.8
19.8
12.0
1,5
13.9
17.3
17.8
4.5
6.7
20.1
14.9
7.2
9.4
10.9
12.8
4.8
30.4
9.2
26.1 w
25.4 w
23.1 w
26.6 w
165.5
14.9
49.5
58.8
31.5
328.4
161.5
13.3w
12.8 w
.
31.3
20.5
29.4
11.6
21.1
53.9
65.3
182.2
63.3
3.8
26.5
28.3
25.3
26.0
26.3
40.9
53.1
98.4
32.7
32.2
1.5
18.2
13.0
12.0
17.0
29.2
61.5
14.9
97.0
21.0
73.7
72.5
32.6
215.0
47.1
13.8
34.3
6.6
11.2
21.4
7.9
13.1
19.0
10.5
11.4
27.0
12.4
3.7
6.6
6.2
7.7
11.9
224.3
432.2
392.3
36.8
51.0
53.8
44.2
73.5
15.2
17.3
117.0
46.5
33.9
6.8
36.2
95.0
50.3
38.6
10.4
14.3
10.3
14.6
2.0
4.7
9.0
169.7
226.4
463.9
51
212.5
160.7
133.8
223.8
52
53
54
55
56
66.1
152.0
63.6
145.2
82.3
57
58
59
60
Camemon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
136.7
207.7
201.6
121.8
183.1
20.7
61. i
18.6
11.9
ElSalvador
Colombia
71.1
117.1
177.3
208.3
87.1
188.0
136.7
25.9
20.9
25.9
76.5
41.6
32.1
7.5
16.0
18.7
19.0
14.8
16.6
4.7
45.9
11.6
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
303.0
171.1
363.9
13.0
9.9
17.1
15.6
4.6
18.4
4.7
8.1
19.9
15.9
7.9
3.6
17.1
96.3
129.3
96.0
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
250
11.1 w
12.9 w
35.0
20.8
28.6
3.4
45.4
62
63
64
65
66
1.5
102.2
159.0
93.2
70.6
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cole d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Momcco
61
8.6
4.2
5.0
0.6
6.5
7.9
35.2
6.0
4.4
5.7
25.4
25.5
4.3
9.7
65.7
. .
5.5
7.6
3.5
62.8
93.3
3.1
4.8
12.6
5.1
13.1
223.0
65.0
210.7
394.8
2.3
12.9
4.6
6.2
22.3
4.9
27.8
15.6
17.0
4.2
7.9
65.8
59.9
91.2
488.9
333.6
320.7
253.6
5.7
10.9
3.3
3.3
11.0
14.3
24.4
29.7
93.4
90.9
258.2
208.4
162.2
78.5
1.7
13.8
2.8
336.0
343.8
239.2
453.6
292.8
46.1 w
67.7 w
6.9
0.7
4.1
4.9
36.1 w
37.7 w
2.1
4.8
26.4
18.0
184.4 w
227.4 w
3.2
9.1
46.9
71.9
643.7
1,234.4
11.6
18.5
33.3
23.2
6.7
125.7
17.1
4.9
23.2
10.8
11.2
12.0 w
9.7
34.2
71.7
28.0
5.7 w
21.1
1.5
73.5
39.0
59.4
213.2
9.8w
8.1w
4.7
20.9
50.2
42.5
36.5
158.8
85.3
1989
4.7w
2.6w
38.7
16.5
77.3
294.1
242.4
303.5
1980
23.1
203.0
111.8
269.9
499.4
19.6
50.2
109.5
31.7
interest payments as a
percentage of exports
of goods and services
45.8
34.1
133.8
71.9
15.9
26.4
22.6
9.4
10.8
6.9
6.3
19.3
6.1
11.8
8.5
1980
a percentage of
exports of goods
and services
GNP
1989
1980
1989
332.9
17.8
79.2
70.3
192.5
190.0
26.5
246.0
257.8
187.7
34.3
53.8
23.2
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
224.5
54.9
80.6
259.2
242.4
236.2
262.9
57.2
264.0
537.0
59.5
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
44.6
130.0
64.5
248.8
48.4
28.0
47.1
422.3
2,652.9
104.9
67
68
69
70
81
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaty
Umguay
16.2
92.3
45.2
16.4
41.5
30.3
1980
1989
32.1
14.9
1.9
8.4
11.5
78.3
43.1
3.5
19.6
0.1
27.5
1.1
181.2
142.5
91.2
66.3
41.0
51.2
29.0
49.5
37.3
39.6
36.1
51.6
56.8
6.3
27.1
14.6
68.9
4.0
4.8
10.4
19.1
8.6
12.7
3.4
21.5
26.5 w
27.1 w
18.5 w
14.0 w
131.9
211.5
42.1
79.9
27.2
25.0
13.8
20.3
304.8
95.9
301.6
161.0
31.2
44.8
63.1
18.5
18.8
31.3
26.3
29.4
33.8
10.5
10.6
15.5
11.7
15.3
7.2
6.3
5.8
8.6
16.5
26.2
20.8
14.5
62.2
169.1
25.6
39.2
101.8
17.7
11.9
92
. .
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
99.2
130.6
15.4
94.3
44.7
98
99
Iraq
Rornania
8.7 w
34.0 w
76.5
5.3
3.7
25,7
17.7
127.7 w
170.5
91
10.5
139.4 w
103.1
90
0.0
16.8
119.7
19.2
9.4
9.8
104.4
88
89
4.3
6.0
19.0
1989
14.1
1.7
11.7
14.6
5.2
5.9
27.4
20.8
17.9
9.1
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
87
1980
28.0
24.1
74.5
46.5
86
Interest paymentt as a
percentage of exports
of goods and services
24.6
.
107.0
14.0
.
53.9
.
40.4
48.7
41.4
11.2
39.0
27.6 w
26.8 w
16.7 w
17.3 w
35.7 w
35.1 w
37.9 w
41.2 w
96.9 w
23.7 w
29.6 w
55.5 w
45.8 w
54.0 w
15.8
6.8
. .
12.3
18.3
19.7
6.4
1.6
8.9
18.2
11.4
.
10.5
6.6
12.7
1.8
3.8
80.3
134.4 w
96.8 w
89.5 w
162.7 w
115.3 w
12.6
202.8 v
191.7 w
362.0 w
90.2 w
272.8 w
185.9 w
288.5 w
195.8 w
292.7 w
21.8 w
10.9 w
13.6 w
12J w
19.0w
38.5 w
36.0 w
22.4 w
22.1 w
15.5 w
24.8 w
24.1 w
31.0 w
28.5 w
11.0w
10.7w
5.7 w
10.2 w
7.7w
6.7w
5.1 w
12.3 w
8.1w
9.9w
20.3 w
18.6 w
17.6 w
16.3 w
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
Ireland
102 Spain
103 1Israel
110
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
111 tKuwait
112
113
114
Belgium
Austria
France
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
251
Average
interest rate
(percent)
Commitments
(millions of dollars)
1970
1989
32,958 1
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bunindi
2
3
9
10
13
14
15
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
16
17
Mali
Niger
18
19
BurkinaFaso
11
12
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Rwanda
India
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
128
1,023
4.4
1.2
0.0
0.0
2.8
0.8
0.8
32
39
20
0
1.2
3.0
3.8
2.8
5.7
2.9
0.6
40
29
43
40
37
7.1
14
19
2.4
28
1.1
12
24
41
10
1.0
25
40
36
50
34
33
9
8
9
9
31
35
10
8
9
6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
27
9
9
954
246
2.3
136
7,771
0.8
2.5
6.4
6,817
7.8
4.8
2.6
951
60
716
2,125
1.5
28
29
27
8
12
7
0.1
0.0
0.0
10.7
0.8
38
33
36
7
32
8
10
10
9
0.0
4
9
9
2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5
2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7
5.6
37
189
1.8
1.6
31
32
104
51
3
567
2.0
2.0
4.5
4.2
2.9
183
36
37
1.4
17
9.1
1.8
27
3.7
27
3.2
20
29
28
6.1
34
21
2.5
11
27
7
8
7
7
13
0.0
17.1
37.8
0.8
4.3
2.8
1.2
9.5
0.3
0.0
15
35
31
21
32
2.8
10
20
1.4
0.0
3.7
0.6
0.0
0.2
1.2
3.8
2.1
21
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.1
0.0
7.3
38.3
0.4
5.3
143
7,068
21
10
10
10
10
0.0
2.7
0.0
0.0
19
530
1.6
0.0
0.0
10.6
1.5
0.7
3.0
5.5
2.6
6.0
10
10
10
16
4.9
5.2
2.4
10
5
7
1.1
1.2
258
11
12
272
81
0
0.1
34
249
292
86
56
22
258
557
68
10
29
86
1,613
50
0.2 w
1989
20.5
25.5
17.9
27
39
111
1.3
1.2
1.2
1970
8
5
25
23
65
12
7w
5w
8w
81
1989
261
1970
22 w
17 w
26 w
39
38
40
37
0.7
2.9
2.3
6.0
3.8
6.5
1989
41
10
17
1970
. .
163
113
341
182
12
14
1.0
1.0
12
48
13
6.7
4.1
0.0
0.0
Sudan
98
216
1.8
1.1
2
.
VietNam
51
52
53
54
55
1.5
3.9
14.3
8.2
3.5
0.0
31.0
5.7
47,810 I
34,2791
.
6.2 w
5.9 w
. .
0.0
171
71
20
137
187
1,410
7.3
5.8
2.4
4.6
91
312
6.4
75
4.1
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
31
153
93
14
260
3.7
2.8
4.4
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
42
685
608
590
4.7
7.4
6.2
Tunisia
24
771
7
.
23
50
125
78
.
7.6 w
74 w
.
435
2,572
512
66
39
10
0.0
.
0
20
38
0.0
0.0
11,3
16
17
10
0.0
15.0
16 w
17 w
15 w
15 w
5w
5w
2.7 w
52.6 w
1.4w
48.2w
. .
48
28
21
23
15
9
7
13
11
20
19
19
14
17
2
5
5
19
0.0
8,092 1
5,402 1
1.9
5.3
65
323
1,464
297
202
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
4.0
6.5
3.9
1.7
2.4
7.6
5.0
7.3
5.2
7.1
28
20
32
27
5w
5w
.
8
5
6
6
8
7
18
19
19
14
16
22
30
26
9
20
7.4
5.7
29
7.5
20
17
15
13
5
3
0.0
26.0
43.0
3
6
5.8
6.3
7.5
5.9
6.8
25.5
9.1
1.6
14
0.0
0.0
0.0
3
3
6
6
4
.
0.8
9.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.3
1.7
32.3
64.3
25
17
0.0
12
33
5.4
23
21
363
106
24
144
2,893
1,344
222
1,388
4.7
6.0
6.8
6.0
9.0
21
19
16
14
0.0
0.0
14
15
28
16
4
4
19.5
10.9
10.7
5.2
7.5
28.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.7
7.9
7.2
29.2
40.1
31.7
60
3.5
53.1
0.0
0.0
14
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
252
(years)
29 w
Liberia
Myanmar
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'tvoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
64
22
0
interest rates, as a
(years)
5.6 w
7.0 w
4.4 w
47
48
49
50
62
63
284
294
601
106
3.2 w
1989
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
61
21
14,587 t
18,371 t
. .
. .
grace pen ad
Afghanistan
42
43
44
45
46
56
CentralAfrican Rep.
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
57
58
59
60
3,331 t
1970
Average maturity
0.0
0.0
0.0
34.0
3.8
46.0
34.3
24.1
20.2
67
68
69
70
ilirkey
71
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
81
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungalya
Uruguay
88
89
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
90
92
TrinidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
93
Portugal
94
Korea,Rep.
95
Oman
Libya
Greece
91
96
97
98
99
1989
3.6
0.6
3.7
6.9
6.8
7.9
5.0
5.2
0.0
19
13
39
16
24
10
18
15
12
16
244
247
76
2,994
234
5.6
0.0
0.0
7.9
8.1
9.3
19
18
15
5
2
1,451
6.1
5.7
12
13
5
3
. .
4,674
38
77
36
436
111
361
736
14
84
378
6,500
7.3
. .
15
2.9
. .
23
265
2,691 I
13,531 I
188
1,582
. .
(years)
8.2
5.4
8.3
8.5
7.9
8.2
.
12
12
19
12
7.3
.
28
0
24
21
.
15.3
0.0
18.4
4w
6.0 w
63.8 w
7.6
8.9
12
2.6
87.1
11.8
0
3
0.0
0.7
71.0
64.4
72.9
3.3
0.0
12
33
135
10
16
7.4
.
4.3
5.8
.
14
6.1
10
731
.
0.0
17
11
4w
12
48.1
32.3
79.3
83.2
8.7
7.1
3,705
1,409
0.0
2.8
19.8
17
7.1
5.1
59
691
47.5
64.0
14 w
34
.
7.5
0.0
6.0
5.7
0.0
18
71
0.0
0.0
15 w
199
40
30.5
13.8
27.3
60.2
69.5
8.0 w
13
9
1989
0.9
0.0
0.0
4.9
1970
6.7 w
8.5
8.5
8.8
1989
7.1
7.0
0.0
7.9
29
3,063
2,323
453
1,439
1970
1970
489
494
(years)
1989
1989
S58
grace period
Average maturity
1970
1970
58
0
Average
Average
interest rate
(percent)
Commitments
(millions of dollars)
17
19
24
.
6.7
8.3
7.7
0.0
47.2
18
20
4
6
0.0
1.2
31.2
27.1
54.1
. .
12
.
69.4
10.5
Iraq
6.6
Romania
80,7681
9,663 t
21,2131
5.1 w
3.6 w
4,370 I
11,556 I
23,501 1
14,835 t
4,979 I
20,083 1
12,377 1
1,903 t
1,6891
2,052 I
2,363 1
18w
6w
4w
5w
7w
6w
7w
4w
4w
1.7 w
0.9 w
0.5 w
0.0 w
1.0 w
4.0 w
43.3 w
19.5 w
35.7 w
12.5 w
36.8 w
68.3 w
4w
5w
3.8w
61.3w
6w
8w
6w
2.7 w
4.8 w
7.0 w
6.7 w
3.9 w
6.8 w
5.6 w
7.5 w
8.2 w
21 w
26 w
23 w
32 w
22 w
14 w
14 w
10 w
14 w
6.8 w
7.4 w
15 w
15 w
5.0w
19w
27 w
18w
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
Ireland
Spain
103 tlsrael
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
tKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. Includes debt in convertible currencies only.
253
Hypothetical size
of stationary
population
Population (millions)
20001
2025a
1965-80
1980-89
Low-income economies
2.3 w
2.2w
2.5w
2.0 w
1.7 w
1.9 w
1.5 w
2.7w
2.6w
2.7
3.0
3.1
3.0
2.6
3.1
15
21
3.4
3.3
3.1
49
6
72
34
9
2.1
111
139
196
3.1
3.6
2.5
2.7
12
18
24
6
5
7
8
10
27
37
14
16
21
2.9
2.4
2.0
2.7
3.4
2.6
2.4
24
54
580
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
2.5
2.7
Lao PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
1.9
2.9
2.6
2.7
1989
2,9481 3,633 1
1,9461 2,3001
1,0021 1,3331
24
(millions)
5,201 1
2,950
2,251 1
41
159
87
435
66
140
39
295
17
72
60
29
39
1.9
2.9
3.5
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
2.0
2.5
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.2
2.6
10
3.1
3.2
3.5
11
16
114
160
29
298
17
25
51
3.1
3.0
34
48
86
2.1
2.5
3.4
11
11
2.1
2.6
3.0
3.3
2.9
2.6
3.3
2.3
3.2
20
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
74
1,876
21
22
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
2.2
1.4
1,890
1.7
1.9
3.9
26
CentralAfricanRep.
1.9
27
28
29
30
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
2.2
3.0
3.0
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
41
2.5
2.9
2.8
833
1,007
24
24
23
24
1,350
1.4
2.1
1,114
1,294
1,597
12
3.4
3.2
3.0
24
110
34
155
6
11
21
2.7
3.1
14
4
20
7
35
63
3.3
3.6
2.8
4
8
12
8
9
24
1.5
2.7
3.4
3.5
3.7
2.5
SriLanka
1.8
1.5
1.1
17
19
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.7
2.1
2.4
2.7
2
178
2
Bhutan
Kampuchea,Dem.
Liberia
Myanenar
Sudan
VietNam
1.6
0.3
2.1
2.4
3.0
3.2
3.0
2.3
2.1
2.1
41
3.0
2.8
2.8
2.1
2.2
24
65
3.6
3.1
2.7
2.1
3.2
3.2
. .
4.1
1.7
1.6
2.8
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
2.3 w
2.5 w
2.1 w
2.3 w
1.9w
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
2.8
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.5
3.0
3.4
3.0
2.8
47
48
49
Zimbabwe
Philippines
3.1
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
3.5
2.5
4.1
2.3
2.7
1.8
50
2.8
4.1
2.7
3.8
1.8
2.5
2.6
2.4
3.2
2.8
2.8
3.4
2.5
3.5
2.7
2.8
3.2
2.3
2.7
51
Cted'Ivoire
2.1
2.9
2.3
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuinea
57
58
59
60
61
Cameroon
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
3.1
2.4
2.8
3.1
62
63
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
2.8
2.5
2.9
1.4
Jamaica
Tunisia
1.3
2.1
64
65
66
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
Peru
2.9
3.4
3.6
3.2
2.0
1.9
1.3
2.5
2.0 w
7
9
7
12
11
213
3
1,1041
682 t
3
51
33
83
1,3541
842 1
51
2025a
1989
2025a
35.5 w
31.4 w
43.3 w
26.9 w
22.3 w
32.8 w
60.0w
65.3w
63.3 w
53.6 w
67.3 w
62.6 w
4.4.0
37.7
43.2
37.7
39.7
26.3
52.9
50.6
50.3
51.2
52.7
59.0
46.6
46.7
45.9
44.6
44.0
46.5
43.0
41.8
46.3
37.0
43.0
29.0
37.2
41.4
53.1
43.2
46.2
40.5
35.1
35.2
53.7
50.3
50.2
49.1
51.3
56.3
61.7
61.3
57.0
62.0
38.5
44.3
24.1
50.4
50.4
51.7
49.4
58.6
52.9
58.7
53.4
68.4
66.9
55.8
46.7
52.2
49.8
66.4
64.0
64.6
62.4
63.2
62.6
47.6
48.6
46.1
40.6
34.4
46.6
41.3
47.1
45.3
48.3
44.7
37.1
50.8
54.9
54.7
50.8
114
518
50.3
45.3
47.4
42.3
46.7
47.9
49.2
46.2
33.7
32.8
35.4
38.5
40.4
54.8
50.2
51.3
63.5
61.4
58.8
56.8
21.0
29.2
23.3
42.4
62.3
53.2
59.3
52.4
66.0
66.0
68.2
55.0
32.8
56.7
62.9
13
IS
18
52
34
24
4
282
5
28
6
371
14
32.5
43.2
36.8
44.4
40.1
6
70
57
11
96
106
44.8
37.5
44.8
119
167
40.1
48.6
32.6
24.0
33.7
24.2
51.9
36.2 w
37.9 w
26.4w
58.7 w
57.5 w
65.0w
40.1
31.1
113
44.8
43.9
39.2
46.9
48.2
52.3
52.9
56.5
50.6
48.8
56.8
64.6
67.6
57.9
54.1
25.4
23.9
51.5
56.4
48.8
58.4
55.2
68.7
68.4
57.6
68.0
67.9
56.3
51.7
51.5
51.0
67.8
66.9
66.4
57.8
61.3
1,9541
1,2241
27
49.1
65
27
120
26.3 w
58.4
52.1
55.7
17
10
13
20
29
45.8
60
101
12
73
18
11
2.3
25
32
48
137
85
15
72
40.1
48.9
38.1
41.0
2.4
7
12
20
33
3
18
16
36
69
41.2
45.0
45.7
45.0
48.3
27.6
5
9
2
Il
II
2.9
2.8
3.4
3.7
2
6
4
10
69
50
26
7
46.9
38.4
40.1
45.6
16
41.1
37.0
23.8
24.0
31.2
30.2
49.3
13
33
37
19
10
16
51
64
1.3
64
83
103
44.7
35.9
33.4
0.5
2.1
2
8
10
14
19
27.7
22.2
21.6
20.9
23.7
52.1
32
55
6
38
2.1
2.2
3.0
2.8
2.1
1.6
4
5
16
27
56.1
62
11
12
21
10
65.9
58.9
56.2
279
10
62
10
3.2
59.5
54.4
20.7
31.0
31.9
33.9
33.4
7
51
7
12
69.1
40.1
27.2
14
1.8
3.2
3.7
54.3
59.2
57.2
21
60
76
15-64 years
1989
10
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
254
119
164
0-14 years
16
86
20
38
37
46
18
33.8
38.4
24.4
39.6
44.1
39.5
23.2
25.9
28.1
28.9
39.2
34.9
49.0
58.1
56.3
51.2
55.4
60.0
61.9
59.2
57.5
63.2
68.5
62.5
68.8
65.8 w
59.5
68.4
68.4
64.4
63.7
67.4
67.9
68.2
67.9
68.3
1965 80
2025a
58.2
3.1
1.6
2.1
1.8
85
103
142
38.1
1.4
1.1
32
36
44
185
54
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
2.5
3.1
2.2
17
31
24
-0.4
52
8
43
78
9
37.8
2.8
22
33
0.5
2.6
3.0
0.2
1.7
1.6
2.6
1.9
3
38
4
16
9
4
15
19
23
44
49
40.9
46.1
25.9
28.4
55.6
51.3
67.9
66.4
33.4 w
38.5
38.2
35.5
26.6 w
23.3
25.3
22.8
60.7 w
63.6 w
67.5
1.8 w
2.8
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.3
1.7
147
-0.2
11
3
24
423 t
512 /
19
24
35
45
178
10
730/
34
65
236
45
96
304
10
II
19.7
17.7
25.9
20.0
57.9
57.9
60.1
66.9
62.7
25
28
30
23.1
38.7
18.6
38.2
38.8
22.2
19.1
67.7
56.5
53.0
60.7
64.9
62.1
57.5
56.9
65.8
62.9
16.5
18.0
65.9
68.7
51.7
51.4
66.6
63.4
66.0
58.5
56.7
60.6
3.1
1.2
1.7
1.3
92
Czechoslovakia
0.5
0.3
0.3
93
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
0.4
0.6
0.4
2.0
1.2
4.7
4.2
0.4
0.9
3.9
3.6
0.2
42
3.6
4.3
0.7
Iraq
3.4
1.1
3.4
0.5
18
Romania
3.6
0.4
2.3 w
2.7 w
2.2 w
2.4 w
1.9 w
2.5 w
2.1 w
3.2 w
1.6 w
2.3 w
2.0 w
2.1 w
1.9 w
3.2 w
1.5 w
4,053 1
4,987 I
7,155 1
4801
1,5521
679t
1,822 I
1.9w
1,131/
2.0 w
1.8w
4331
4211
Severely indebted
2.4 w
2.1 w
1.8 w
554t
High-income economies
OECD members
0.9 w
0.8 w
2.8 w
0.7 w
0.6 w
2.4 w
0.6 w
0.5 w
1.8 w
830 1
773 1
58 1
4.6
5.0
14
21
Ireland
102 Spain
103 fIsrael
1.2
0.4
0.4
4
39
1.0
3.7
0.3
0.4
2.8
2.0
1.7
1.8
Canada
Germany
Denmark
UnitedStates
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
77
420
16
16
18
19
10
11
11
11
47
53
56
10
21.3
26.4
45.9
2
6
46.0
10
14
10
36
10
19.5
36.8
39.5
15.4
26
24
48
27
85
46.6
23.5
32.0
20.0
50.7
66.2
63.6
63.6
1,3111
2,3071
1,9591
8131
7001
35.7 w
46.8 w
29.8 w
38.7 w
35.4 w
36.6 w
26.7 w
37.4 w
21.5 w
25.8 w
29.5 w
23.6 w
59.7 w
50.6 w
64.8 w
57.4 w
58.3 w
58.9 w
65.2 w
59.4 w
66.9 w
67.5 w
62.5 w
67.1 w
9261
36.6 w
24.4 w
58.6 w
66.4w
965 1
862 1
103 1
20.5 w
19.7 w
32.1 w
17.8 w
16.8 w
26.4 w
60.7 w
60.6 w
61.9 w
45.1
27.2
20.9
31.8
36.3
19.7
16.2
21.2
21.6
15.9
23.7
23.4
22.4
18.0
18.7
18.1
17.5
14.3
66.8 w
67.1 w
61.9 w
51.8
61.6
66.8
60.2
69.6
70.8
67.4
66.9
65.5
68.7
69.2
62.5
67.1
67.3
66.1
59.7
64.9
59.8
60.5
60.6
67.4
67.9
69.5
67.5
66.1
60.7
60.7
58.8
60.2
61.1
19.0
16.9
17.6
16.3
17.1
15.7
15.8
64.6
67.6
64.4
69.3
68.2
59.3
58.8
61.0
58.8
58.3
25.8w
20.2 w
64.8w
63.5w
32.6 w
44.9 w
25.4 w
34.8 w
61.1 w
51.9 w
64.6 w
60.9 w
23
1,396/
533t
5131
673t
884/
813 1
711
41
43
4
43
7
7
1.5
0.9
1.2
1.0
0.8
4
23
31
89
5
41
9
6
4
4
24
62
17
19
59
0.0
58
61
55
46
0.5
4.4
0.4
15
16
16
14
3.1
0.3
0.3
0.7
0.1
0.1
0.2
2
10
10
0.4
0.4
56
59
10
8
63
0.1
16.5
1.3
4.6
0.9
0.0
0.0
2.3
0.8
26
29
62
32
7.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
1.0
7
63
-0.1
62
0.0
0.8
249
272
309
3
31
61
4
319
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.0w
2.0 w
3.0 w
1.0w
0.7w
3231
3491
1.8 w
3.4 w
1.6 w
3.1 w
5,2061
6,220 /
373 /
0.5
0.3
0.6
66.9
61.6
63.9
158
6
6
1.4
0.3
44.0
33.6
23.4
67.1
53
57
58
0.9
61.1
14
TrinidadandTobago
Netherlands
(Kuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
67.4
68.5
64.5
1.9 w
0.2
0.5
52.1
3.5
2.4
2.4
0.4
0.7
1.4
0.2
0.2
61.1
2.0 w
1.6
1.3
1.8
58.3
66.3
62.3
66.8
68.3
65.0
91
New Zealand
Australia
UnitedKingdom
Italy
65.1
65.1
90
104 tHongKong
105 tS/ngapore
19.4
59.9
63.4
67.6
68.9
63.1
67.2
65.7
0.6
2.8
3.3
101
44.0
40.4
3.1
2.7
3.4
0.7
3.7
3.5
tOther
29.9
25.3
32.7
21.9
21.3
25a
2.6
3.1
0.6
39
0.9
3.6
122
123
124
23.6
25.7
17.9
0.4
0.9
121
0.4
121
59.6
2.4
0.7
1.0
92
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
110
111
112
113
114
22.1
19.7
18.9
22.9
21.5
0.8
68
2
5
88
106
107
108
109
36.2
25.1
29.8
2.7
4
2
13
-0.1
0.6
98
99
60.7
48.9
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Venezuela
SouthAfrica
Brazil
Hungary
Uniguay
96
97
35.1
47.3
35.6
35.4
30.7
23.1
CostaRica
Upper-middle-income
95
1989
1.3
1.6
55
15-64 years
2025a
1.7
3.5
83
84
85
86
87
94
0-14 years
1989
1.7
77
78
79
80
89
(mi/lions)
2.6
2.6
72
73
74
75
76
81
82
2000a
1989
2.0
2.6
2.8
2.4
71
1989_2000a
population
2.4
3.4
3.3
2.2
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
67
68
69
70
1980-89
Hypothetical size
of stationary
Population (millions)
57
5
5
123
129
7
131
121
265 /
4041
8,524 /
692 /
19.0
17.0
17.8
36.1
18.2
17.8
20.3
15.4
21.3
15.9
30.9
21.1
22.2
16.9
15.1
17.2
14.3
15.3
18.0
17.5
19.4
19.2
21.6
15.3
17.3
59.1
64.9
63.0
65.1
61.3
61.5
62.7
63.0
61.2
61.0
a. For the assumptions used in the projections, see the technical notes.
255
(per] 000
(per] 000
population)
population)
1965
Low-income economies
42 w
41 w
46w
1989
1965
1989
31 w
26 w
40 w
16 w
14 w
21 w
10 w
17
18
17
8w
13w
49
43
49
50
47
46
52
47
48
27
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
37
21
18
14
LaoPDR
47
23
17
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burandi
45
56
46
45
47
54
41
26
24
28
24
19
15
19
31
23
22
23
16
51
47
46
47
49
51
19
16
14
2
3
8
9
10
44
48
20
23
26
15
Women of
childbearing age
as a percentage of
all women
1965
/989
Assumed year
/965
1989
2000a
33 w
3.2 w
5.5 w
2.5 w
4.7 w
47
45
43
45
44
46
6.8
5.8
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.4
7.5
6.5
6.2
7.3
6.8
4.9
6.6
3.6
2040
2050
2040
2045
2015
6.1
7.8
47
44
45
45
47
46
45
6.7
7.6
5.7
5.9
6.8
6.0
7.4
4.6
6.6
6.6
2040
2050
2025
2040
2045
47
47
45
44
47
46
44
44
43
45
6.4
6.5
6.5
6.6
7.3
6.1
6.5
5.8
5.6
6.6
5.4
2045
2030
2035
2045
2035
45
44
45
43
49
6.5
7.1
7.0
7.0
7.1
6.4
7.5
6.5
8.3
6.2
4.1
7.3
6.3
7.6
3.0
2050
2055
2045
2055
2015
56
6.4
48
6.1
2.5
4.9
6.7
6.6
6.4
46
45
45
44
47
46
50
6.0
6.0
6.4
21
Mali
Niger
Burkina Faso
Rwanda
India
50
48
48
52
45
50
27
29
26
20
17
17
31
20
11
46
45
47
45
48
38
21
7
13
45
45
20
10
41
21
12
15
43
41
45
49
22
36
46
46
46
10
22
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
44
44
8.0
7.0
6.8
26
CentralAfricanRep.
15
13
47
45
46
46
45
46
44
44
44
45
4.5
6.8
6.5
6.6
5.9
5.8
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
42
45
49
49
48
24
27
28
34
47
50
49
46
33
42
43
47
53
21
41
27
18
12
53
45
20
26
47
47
47
47
49
45
4.9
5.8
5.5
6.5
7.1
42
44
46
40
47
48
47
47
46
46
48
5.9
6.2
6.4
45 w
45 w
16
17
18
19
20
21
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
SriLanka
36
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
37
38
39
40
41
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
41
52
48
51
47
52
48
24
18
19
18
22
20
14
29
21
13
19
29
39
23
17
20
20
44
30
44
18
42
44
44
43
45
46
13
18
7
7
14
6
9
51
8.0
6.8
7.4
6.9
5.1
3.9
7.3
3.6
3.4
2.7
6.4
2.7
48
7.1
4.7
3.6
47
44
44
45
48
6.2
7.4
6.7
5.7
7.7
5.1
4.0
5.3
4.1
4.3
6.5
3.9
17
12
Cted'Ivoire
52
Dominican Rep.
Momcco
47
52
53
54
55
56
43
36
39
39
48
45
20
II
17
46
42
48
17
18
8
15
16
57
58
59
Cameroon
40
44
20
12
Pens
45
45
31
16
13
9
7
22
8
12
35
13
25
22
22
30
11
8
6
66
38
44
22
10
9
16
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical noses.
256
7
7
43
50
42
46
45
43
43
5.5
6.5
6.6
47
44
43
46
41
42
50
49
44
48
5.2
6.7
6.8
6.6
4.1
6.0
4.7
44
46
43
44
42
43
53
54
6.7
6.5
6.3
5.7
7.0
4.7
2.9
2.5
2.5
4.0
51
49
6.1
2035
2030
2035
2040
2045
15
9
5
5
40
74
11
27
13
62
45
6.3
7.5
23
27
10
16
51
65
2035
6.5
7.7
55
41
5.4
6.4
7.0
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
5.5
6.8
47
48
49
50
46
43
1995
2025
2005
2050
6.6
4.8
47
49
41
4.5
2.4
6.8
6.5
6.5
5.9
4.2
Senegal
ElSalvador
2.1
6.6
43
62
63
64
2.5
5.7
3.3
6.8
46
48
44
Egypt,ArabRep,
21
19
13
44
45
46
46
6.1
3.9 w
19
61
6.7
6.5
6.4
29
60
5.5
5.9 w
47
42
32
45
53
32
43
36
6.7
45
49
46
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
5.3
5.1
47
46
43
45
47
Angola
Bolivia
8w
8w
44
50
45
48
2000
2035
2035
2035
2035
6.3
3.1 w
3.2 w
42
51
5.2
37 w
13 w
14 w
49
5.2
5.4
55 w
29 w
30 w
42
4.2
49 w
49 w
24
32
37
30
50
30
36
2.1
5.8
6.7
18
37 w
40 w
Yemen,Rep.
6.9
7.0
6.0
5.2
2.9
5.4
2.9
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
43
51
6.6
6.1
6.4
3.9
6.4
4.0
14
9
15
7
32
39 w
45
15
1987
6.3 w
6.3 w
6.3 w
47
13
14
15
rate of]
51 w
53 w
46 w
48
47
12
Married women of
childbearing age
using contraception
(percent)b
46 w
46 w
46 w
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
11
of reaching
net
reproduction
3.1
2035
2010
2035
2015
58
2045
2030
2015
2045
30
38
12
2055
2015
2010
2045
2010
2020
6.3
5.5
2020
2025
2025
2045
2035
5.9
2.8
3.0
4.8
4.0
2040
2010
2015
2030
2030
3.8
2.2
2025
2000
2.1
2.1
1995
1995
2.8
2010
43
44
50
36
41
23
46
44
45
47
63
66
55
50
(per 1000
population)
1965
1989
2000a
rate of!
1987
15
19
21
45
45
50
44
45
5.7
6.9
8.0
3.6
4.9
2.7
2010
3.1
5.2
77
33
52
53
5.7
2.9
2.6
2.2
4.8
2015
2035
2000
2000
52
6.3
2.5
3,1
2.1
4.8
2.3
2.1
1.8
6.7
3.1
1.9
3.4
2.8
3.7
5.2
3.0
3.7
1.9
41
53
53
29
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
77
80
81
40
36
43
25
34
23
11
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
45
26
17
15
10
36
45
23
18
28
11
20
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
40
50
30
36
12
5
8
15
12
18
8
12
16
16
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
82
83
84
Venezuela
85
86
87
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
88
89
90
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
TrinidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
92
93
94
95
96
97
SouthAfnca
Portugal
Korea,Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
Iraq
Romania
Low- and middle-income
98
99
40
43
49
33 w
35
40
27 w
42
40
39
29
13
21
12
17
21
31
46
33
34
27
12 w
10
15
22
15
18
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
110
Netherlands
Italy
Ill tKuwait
112
113
114
Belgium
Austria
France
115 tkinitedArabEmirates
25
16
14
10
11
23
35
12
16
10
11
9
6
50
49
44
44
24
17
45
44
45
42
47
45
43
50
48
55
51
47
6.3
2.1
2.4
2.3
44
44
45
6.3
7.4
51
46
2.1
1.9
42
46
43
48
6.2
5.9
7.2
4.8
5.4
3.7
4.2
3.4 w
3.6
4.3
3.3
3.0 w
2.7
51
46
2005
65
1.8
1.8
1.8
2030
73
1995
49
47
47
52
48
2.3
2.0
5.7
6,1
2.8
2.1
50
48
2.8
2.7
2.0
6.1
5.4
2030
2045
2055
2.3
2.0
2030
42
46
46
48
46
47
45
6.1
6.1
4.1
7.1
4.3
2.4
2.0
3.4
2.4
49
3.1
1.6
57
4.9
7.2
1.8
7.1
7.4
2.3
7.2
1.9
6.1 w
6.6 w
6.2 w
6.3 w
4.8 w
5.8 w
6.7
5.9
5.8
1.5
1.6
6.2
5.1
2.1
51
15
16
18
9
8
10
45
50
44
48
15w
46w
50 w
23 w
10 w
15 w
11w
7w
20 w
11w
14 w
10 w
12w
2.1
1.7
1.8
1.8w
3.3 w
6.0 w
2.3 w
3.4 w
3.7 w
2.6 w
2.8 w
1.9 w
3.9 w
6.6 w
2.7 w
4.4 w
4.1 w
44w
7w
45 w
45 w
47 w
46 w
45 w
10 w
10 w
8w
8w
9w
9w
6w
45 w
47 w
47 w
45 w
49 w
50 w
50 w
51 w
42
20
22
21
16
12
26
27
22
12
8
6
6
45
42
49
46
45
42
49
49
49
56
31
18
19
14
10
6
9
9
12
10
23
20
18
16
15
45
45
47
45
48
59
52
53
48
49
20
48
12
27
53
52
17
12
12
18
11
14
13
11
II
Il
47
45
44
43
43
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.8
14
6.8
4.6
3.7
47
53
3.1
12
10
II
47
47
45
12
47
48
50
1.7
1.4
1.5
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.9
18
11
10
10
54 w
48w
47 w
50 w
48
48
48
5.6 w
2.8 w
2.7 w
5.0 w
7.3
4.0
2.9
3.8
4.5
4.7
3.6
3.0
2.9
2.7
3.0
7.4
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.5 w
3.6 w
1985
5.9
2.1
2040
2030
59
2.9
1.6
2.3
1.6
1.6
2005
2030
72
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.3
1.9
2.2
1.4
1.9
1.4
1.5
1.6
3.7
1.6
2.7
1.5
10
18
II
19
15
46
52
2.5
2.6
2.9
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
16
13
47
48
19
11
19
12
10
56
48
47
49
48
50
50
2.4
2.4
2.9
2.0
2.6
2.0
12
13
12
10
10
2.0
17
18
10
10
10
7
10
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
20w
18w
8w
lOw
47 w
47 w
2.7w
2.4w
2.1 w
35 w
49 w
27 w
43 w
14 w
20 w
9w
11 w
46 w
44 w
a. For assumptions used in the projections, see the technical notes for Table 26.
notes.
2030
3.2 w
18
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
70
7.1
21
45
2030
2030
2040
2050
2030
53
1.8w
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
122
123
124
2005
1.7 w
116
117
118
119
121
2010
2020
3.5 w
23
14
41
2020
2025
47
47
42
2015
2020
2030
5.6
11
53
51
18
14
78
45
48
49
49
7
5
68
4.8 w
44
46
43
44
47
2005
2030
2030
2005
2005
50 w
50
49
46 w
9
9
Ireland
Spain
106
107
108
109
42
44
48
8w
10
100 tSaudiArabia
103 tlsrael
9
7
8
13
12 w
102
10
28 w
14 w
13 w
24 w
101
12
II
II
30 w
47 w
23 w
33 w
30 w
28 w
tOther
6
6
8
16
41 w
48 w
39 w
45 w
33 w
40 w
37 w
20 w
19 w
34 w
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, M.East, & N.Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
(percent)'
1989
196.5
79
Married women of
childbearing age
using contraception
1965
1989
78
Totalfertrlits' rate
Assumed year
of reaching
net
reproduction
1989
1965
67
68
69
70
Women of
childbearing age
as a percentage of
all women
1990
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2010
2030
2030
2030
2020
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
2030
76
78
3.0 w
50 w
3.5 w
5.2 w
45 w
6.1 w
5.2 w
6.9 w
b. Figures include women whose husbands practice contraception; see the technical
257
Population per
health staff
Nursing person
Physician
/965
1965
1984
(percent)
1985
1984
birth weight
(percent)
1985
2,180 w
1,650 w
3,670 w
9,750 w
2,930 w
28,130 w
5,890 w
1,650 w
14,890 w
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
18,000
70,190
21,700
36,840
8,100
78,770
24,980
16,080
6,730
Lao PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
24,320
47,320
46,180
72,480
55,910
1,360
11,340
30,220
38,360
4,880
40,980
87,650
4,680
3,390
10
13,610
21,030
7,320
4,380
12
14
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
16,840
10,620
13,620
9,780
6,440
4,470
3,650
6,160
3,130
1,090
12
13
14
15
25
62
14
10
25
10
208
201
16
17
Mali
Niger
18
19
BurkinaFaso
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1,350
460
1,680
3,690
1,700
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
1,600
14,350
13,280
1,010
7,130
10,050
2,910
15,940
3,000
1,610
13,210
1,930
9,910
2,540
2,280
CentralAfricanRep.
34,020
13,740
23,240
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
Bhutan
37
Kampuchea,Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
51
Morocco
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
62
63
64
65
66
47,050
5,820
20,060
31,700
36,530
Cted'Ivoire
DominicanRep.
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
5,520
18,610
9,460
11,900
22,410
12,560
11,860
23,500
3,800 w
5,010 w
3,220
4,700
9,490
73
105
147
2,133
2,196
1,887
2,374
2,383
2,637
2,009
2,078
171
2,180 w
2,910 w
6,700
6,570
3,360
1,806
2,101
2,166
121
141
99
94
2,343
2,135
2,039
2,013
2,034
17
207
20
167
130
135
118
1,843
1,930
1,841
1,660
30
180
190
141
150
95
2,103
2,061
1,786
2,104
90
1,931
2,632
17
13
158
112
149
166
30
94
2,045
68
106
112
2,169
1,911
1,973
1,797
1,976
2,200
2,145
100
86
2,016
1,912
2,345
2,042
2,006
2,209
2,133
2,026
2,042
25
10
15
17
20
14
63
142
128
178
14
10
1,700
12,120
1,760
4,760
12,640
5,370
3,690
14,210
5,400
6,070
1,510
2,180
.
1,260
1,380
900
1,260
590
1,020
2,480
.
171
134
89
20
16
15
18
97
.
15
17
15
36
24
7
10
1,000
69
15
2,680
18
14
. .
1,210
1,050
1,640
620
1,530
8,250
950
880
670
850
.
890
5,830
900
2,320
176
122
160
.
97 w
104 w
1,970
2,290
2,030
2,000
90
76
140
20
96
64
123
206
3,820
3,990
2,030
2,440
.
121
191
10
2,110 w
2,150 w
157
120
156
28
20
57
.
16
9
34
50
25
20
19
10
12
37
2,572
1,996
2,233
104
43
51 w
51 w
103
72
149
110
145
46
2,044
1,896
2,334
143
128
112
129
114
42
92
1,834
69
2,066
59
66
1,903
1,972
55
2,046
2,236
2,195
115
44
90
79
. .
2,830
1,300
890
930
660
710
490
370
35
15
IS
55
38
28
120
86
88
49
145
46
2,500
7,160
1,240
6,290
1,990
8,000
2,050
2,150
4,970
340
.
51
33
89
60
10
.
12
2,336
2,452
1,994
61
32
2,482 w
2,407 w
1,843
1,854
73
610
132
106
68
82
125
192
160
145
160
197
2,271
2,270
22
2,670
2.528
1,917
1,853
1,000
55
27
13
9
2,319
2,307
2,110
1,550
. .
. .
1,980
66
1,460
3,000
1,040
820
2,340
137
1,850
1,650
2,164
2,024
1,796
1,796
2,304
2,181
125
143
130
112
145
1,852
2,253
1,976
2,375
28
43
23
980 w
1,020 w
990
1,140
70
149
117
100
87
2,330
124
127
166
1,260
1,180
3,670
183
142
1,290
.
950
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
258
200
IS
11,370
8,010
26,720
1,670
1,240
740
9,350
3,740
10,190
17,790
1,540
770
20,640
3,000
3,730
4,990
5,820
4,110
24
34
9,730
13,150
3,300
2,300
19,490
31,580
.
148
10
24,430
15,770
VietNam
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
61
11,380
20,460
8,700
7,150
39
14
18
17
4,900
1,750
2,331 w
2,407 w
2,182 w
1,632
1,658
2,151
1,736
1,925
1,800
20
1988
1965
1,988 w
2,001 w
1,960 w
1,704
1,802
1,800
1,410
1,984
II
39
70 w
58 w
94 w
137
133
112
128
106
31
27
47
1989
179
165
138
165
144
15
900
3,360
6,210
4,150
7,450
6,500
32,390
28
58
74
59
25,390
39,670
265,250
35,090
2,520
Rwanda
India
124 w
114 w
146 w
530
51,510
65,540
73,960
72,480
4,880
36
40
4!
5,390
5,490
1,530
8,980
12,940
34
35
38
39
11,110
5,370
5,970
2,100
3,950
34,740
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
31
32
33
29,530
6,050 w
4,420 w
10,300 w
61
101
16
2,834 w
2,738 w
1,725
2,086
3,213
1,989
2,322
2,232
2,255
2,365
2,357
2,820
2,236
2,164
2,352
2,512
3,168
1,990
2,325
2,123
1,882
2,586
2,16!
2,269
2,338
1,859
2,175
2,415
2,561
2,287
2,572
2,964
2,134
2,232
2,150
1.889
2,816
Births
Physician
67
68
69
71
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
72
73
74
75
76
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua
70
82
Lebanon
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaty
Uruguay
90
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
TnnidadandTobago
92
Czechoslovakia
93
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
94
95
96
97
98
99
Iraq
Romania
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
101
02
Ireland
Spain
103 tlsracl
104 tHongKong
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
Italy
110
Netherlands
Ill tKuwait
112
113
114
Belgium
Austria
France
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
Other economies
World
Oilexporters (exci. USSR)
1984
2,900
27,450
4,690
2,130
2,120
2,010
1,390
800
3,930
2,080
600
6,200
8,590
600
1,010
730
2,560
2,190 w
1,210
2,050
2,500
630
1965
6,900
1,120
17,710
1,800
1,000
1,230
1,600
600
960
630
490
410
2,030
980
610
1,900
1,242
370
1,500
1,320
11,770
410
2,030
320
1,390
1,160 w
2,070 w
700
560
490
1,930
2,340
280
1985
1965
1989
1965
1988
78
52
75
61
2,670
172
112
114
3,080
2,269
2,907
2,468
2,584
/984
1985
1,030
700
Nursing person
1965
attended by
health staff
(percent)
Population per
1,270
390
370
450
190
83
56
39
53
22
97
101
19
93
72
17
42
16
65
82
58
21
55
154
22
69
2,307
31
13
64
57
3,440
2,494
2,333
2,398
90
880
980
1,010
300
160
IS
82
100
40
30
56
99
530
10
15
930 w
113
121
87 w
50 w
2,593 w
65
35
2,319
2,615
2,415
3,170
2,812
12
124
1,210
73
104
68
59
240
590
170
99
10
880
39
47
22
1,200
550
850
760
4,270
560
200
260
270
1,110
260
. .
72
92
16
9
153
152
3,890
3,810
540
2,790
2,840
950
280
1,240
2,680
23,790
3,860
710
410
1,160
1,700
690
350
5,000
760
1,740
570
8,150 w
33,200 w
5,600 w
6,220 w
4,100 w
2,380 w
4,990 w
26,640 w
2,400 w
3,510 w
2,940 w
940 w
870 w
4,430 w
13
65
62
14
191
1,160
. .
. .
2,970
6,420
580
390
65
60
76
24
98
90
15
90
100
17
42
26
140
850
12
119
44
67
27
2,150
2,988
2,962
3,357
65 w
107 w
35 w
95 w
58 w
50 w
2,122 w
2,034 w
1,943 w
2,058 w
2,668 w
2,451 w
2,468 w
2,011 w
2,596 w
2,116 w
3,131 w
2,724 w
93 w
51 w
9w
8w
27 w
2,513 w
3,082 w
3,100 w
2,323 w
2,805 w
25 w
24 w
65 w
1,842
3,569
1,660 w
1,180 w
470 w
450 w
810 w
470 w
420 w
2,440 w
140 w
130 w
280 w
9,400
950
740
680
6,060
340
78
148
67
170
/40
800
400
320
350
1,070
1,220
300
1,250
260
110
240
8
8
7
4
25
38
27
27
1,900
820
720
870
1,850
1,310
580
440
230
600
570
150
200
790
860
790
700
720
830
450
640
330
390
320
270
270
590
350
380
. .
770
640
740
670
910
1,300
790
970
710
80
110
.
99
99
98
7
5
26
20
19
7
7
20
36
2,286
3,266
3,015
3,350
3,104
2,892
3,459
3,322
3,252
3,566
3,090
2,796
3,354
3,132
14
64
24
28
22
15
103
24
24
24
7
8
10
180
.
390
6
.
500
230
190
60
70
100
390
310
. .
100
440
450
660
700
180
60
60
180
. .
340
410
270
8
10
8
9
9
99
190
310
2,768
2,791
2,537
100
96
99
6
7
19
4
4
4
5
13
17
17
18
II
100
100
. .
25
3,398 w
3,417 w
2,945 w
10
7
1,020
510
380
400
470
. .
1,803
2,832
3,699
3,543
3,138
2,899
200
.
3,382
2,878
9
6
1,830 w
2,567
2,254
3,384
3,699
1,230 w
3.505
2,396
3,100
2,960
3,564
3,045
117 w
157 w
95 w
147 w
106 w
94 w
100
2,770
3,244
1,805
2,219
2,497
3,396
11
1,880 w
2,170 w
1,530 w
2,720 w
1,200 w
1,020 w
3,601
34
5,010 w
5,410 w
4,130 w
8,380 w
3,130 w
2,100 w
2,990 w
2,547
3,035
2,709
138
1,660
2,520
2,458
2,361
2,910
400
96
99
2,686
2,726
3,614
450
50
99
2,782
3,451
2,679
3,135
3,118
23
36
77
600
1,640w
1,683
3,100
1,982
2,277
2,254
2,588
2,367
3,292
2,212
2,570
3,207
82
1,080
310
510
(per capita)
9
8
6
6
8
4
7
3,239
3,218
3,478
3,310
2,709
3,128
3,103
3,393
3,236
3,552
3,447
3,514
3,577
3,666
2,880
3,125
3,036
2,679
3,504
3,007
3,170
3,253
2,848
3,547
510w
530 w
300w
290w
30 w
24w
3,129w
3,358w
6,060 w
4,200 w
4,490w
3,720 w
1,630 w
92 w
54 w
2,390 w
5,450w
900w
149w
86w
2,114w
2,669 w
2,491 w
16,870w
259
Primary
Female
Total
1965
Low-income economies
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
37w
1988
95w
108w
68w
1965
1965
1988
37w
43w
25w
15
12
13
2
2
2
59
28
66
26
1988
20w
25w
9w
Sw
1965
0
0
49
59
49
13
18
40
44
20
34
26
110
30
98
27
72
86
51
70
32
4
65
57
2
5
4
30
3
17
13
IS
29
50
29
65
32
67
70
53
97
21
40
18
59
24
50
45
95
8
5
19
16
19
22
2
2
14
Mali
Niger
Burkina Faso
Rwanda
India
24
16
17
21
24
66
74
23
30
32
64
99
83
27
41
13
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
89
134
126
24
50
54
40
34
83
44
80
91
40
40
20
44
19
23
93
5
4
28
12
19
63
21
43
16
2
5
2
CentralAfrican Rep.
Ghana
56
69
55
53
67
73
101
28
11
13
39
24
97
46
51
66
78
92
31
30
19
19
93
94
72
107
112
86
105
123
117
43
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Bumndi
SierraLeone
Madapascar
Nigena
Uganda
Zaire
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
Bhutan
KampucheaDem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
11
32
10
62
77
76
11
12
53
13
16
7
77
41
71
29
119
52
48
50
65
43
57
57
32
114
65
5
7
71
12
1
16
35
4
7
0
20
35
103
49
. .
65
100
15
21
.
62
70
55
64
. .
16
..
37
17
19
11
5
3
50
41
49
73
54
32
50
51
18
27
64
100
44
74
30
72
43
10
11
23
. .
. .
81 w
101 w
25 w
54 w
22 w
54 w
7w
17 w
42
43
44
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
39
73
75
91
40
59
Yemen,Rep.
13
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'tvoire
Dominican Rep.
Momcco
51
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuinea
57
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
SyrianArabRep.
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
110
113
60
87
57
128
110
.
101
67
92
111
41
87
69
16
126
111
.
35
103
53
15
15
35
18
58
20
10
42
71
40
19
71
12
19
0
74
12
11
36
30
9
35
65
13
106
77
108
10
9
7
114
78
110
79
45
94
52
94
99
111
75
90
91
117
88
116
51
10
32
21
10
28
57
13
47
102
27
25
17
2
21
21
16
57
8
3
26
26
70
.
104
56
2
.
13
29
13
29
17
29
17
31
17
115
17
14
56
16
56
11
109
91
103
28
63
44
68
38
14
16
4
33
33
73
19
.
.
91
. .
78
83
90
. .
33
60
36
47
36
37
54
39
55
27
30
28w
29w
31
47
81
28
39
43
42
47
53
39
80
102
16
100
98
69
79
86
74
106
65
50
9
50
95
36w
38w
.
99
96
51
87
80
114
87
105
105
83
8
18
104
73
53
82
84
78
89w
89w
9
9
102
48
37
4
28
56
28
50
48
1
.
6
41
6
12
71
. .
44
80
50
116
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
260
49
103 w
37
20
53
89 w
14
70
24
52
47
40
57
100
. .
20
100
.
33
41
35
23
34
42
. .
57
23
88
17w
41
65
4
4
4
5
29
7w
18
38
42
47
67
42
53
56w
26
46
23w
30
37
0
0
55w
79
37
66
26w
85
40
39
102w
.
62
32
71
33
86w
26
60
60
29
83
40
104w
.
27
58
92w
37
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
90
33
63
38
46
52
26
45
23
61
43
41
. .
25
48
40w
42w
45
26
50
35
67w
0
0
1988
11
2
3
1965
3w
22
6
30
12
56
1988
1975
0
0
26
1988
2w
2w
1w
29w
34w
20w
LaoPDR
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
41
68
36
66
1965
6
25
4
31
SriLanka
36
37
38
39
40
105w
119w
75w
37
32
34
35
1988
Tertiary (total)
Female
Total
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
31
33
73w
83w
49w
Primary net
enrollment
(percent)
Secondary
26
32
39
35
66
26
51
31
90
30
25
72
73
34
36
45
35
19
34
97
85
56
29
30
Female
Total
Tertiary (total)
Female
Total
1965
1988
1965
1988
1965
1988
1965
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
101
65
117
83
113
46
34
116
71
83
119
16
3
33
33
102
124
106
102
99
104
101
38
34
34
72
CostaRica
73
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
106
104
100
100
101
92
105
117
101
111
102
90
68
102
84
53
102
93
97
69
67
68
69
70
71
74
75
76
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
77
78
79
80
81
82
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
69
102
99
98 w
102
87
103
17
28
28
7
103
104
54
26
66
14
41
81
53
53
74
25
42
83
53
53
78
57
62
75
22
5
55
20
66
92
43
69
18
1975
1988
1965
1988
84
31
58
97
46
40
28
18
87
94
90
90
38
30
52
24
20
92
96
85
18
3
82
95
99
2
7
6
11
99
27
28
34
47
20
32
18
22
32
16
23
14
2
15
41
57
53
17
14
25
77
96
89
91
43
23
28
76
96
58
13
22
8
65
95
76
32
34
31
32
13
31
96
31
21
17
94 w
103 w
28 w
58 w
24 w
58 w
6w
16 w
80 w
90 w
32 w
26 w
94
107
27
54
28
59
27
81
89
34
26
108
101
106
104
II
71
28
24
13
15
48
Yugoslavia
Gabon
106
134
13
18
109
88
108
100
106
108
44
77
46
94
103
94
65
80
59
109
11
18
53
11
36
29
82
85
34
35
42
35
59
34
25
96
15
16
97
122
38
71
14
16
45
72
79
63
116
93
99
100
40
90
100
94
97
94
Portugal
84
126
104
100
83
99
127
110
102
109
102
49
95
41
93
74
96
87
14
97
28
39
47
101
45
100
79
22 w
42 w
18 w
101
105 w
67 w
128 w
90 w
98 w
107 w
Severely indebted
97 w
High-income economies
OECD members
104 w
104 w
88 w
24
108
fOther
Ireland
102
Spain
103 flsrael
104 tHongKong
115
95
103
73 w
96 w
97 w
60 w
123 w
76 w
92 w
108 w
103 w
93 w
100 w
19w
27 w
103 w
103 w
89 w
105 w
106 w
75 w
102 w
103 w
86 w
61 w
63 w
37 w
65
101
71
11
108
95
106
III
(Singapore
106 New Zealand
107
Austmlia
108 United Kingdom
109 Italy
105
106
112
95
110
104
116
109
106
134
117
105
Netherlands
Ill (Kuwait
112 Belgium
113 Austria
114 France
99
92
115 fUnitedArabEmirates
116
117
118
119
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
120
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
105
98
100
106
106
107
93
100
102
114
104
105
105
97
114
95
99
110
100
104
99
92
110
110
105
106
104
103
108
105
133
104
97
4w
23 w
24 w
32 w
100
29
24
91
100
99
32
100
32
62
28
97
97
36
23
14
79
84
23
10
10
22
23
39 w
42 w
29 w
42 w
24 w
18
63
5
6
18
37
4
10
37
32
80
14 w
36 w
14 w
41 w
26 w
55 w
52 w
46w
37 w
60 w
48 w
ii
27 w
19w
3w
Ow
1w
4w
8w
4w
36
27
31
8w
2w
5w
89 w
47 w
100 w
14 w
17 w
84w
86 w
42 w
35 w
34 w
27 w
28 w
25 w
55 w
8w
19 w
81 w
89 w
34 w
27 w
93 w
95 w
62 w
44
59 w
61 w
32 w
21 w
21 w
7w
40 w
41 w
17 w
88 w
88 w
72 w
96 w
96 w
65 w
25 w
25 w
28 w
19 w
19 w
20 w
51
98
38
48
29
105
83
50
29
94 w
96 w
59 w
35
102
111
13
42
12
25
91
32
34
100
56
89
100
22
16
27
34
25
51
87
20
74
25
76
92
29
27
69
87
99
41
74
70
10
88
15
26
19
61
101
83
76
66
84
16
12
41
76
11
36
29
23
26
100
100
98
97
97
29
22
28
95
45
75
62
66
47
117
61
104
32
52
75
52
81
102
79
100
17
92
57
43
72
52
15
33
82
31
59
98
9
18
105
107
100
99
101
113
56
80
94
104
104
56
105
99
100
83
94
107
98
67
62
55
0
17
68
106
92
108
99
0
26
92
116
96
96
35
89
98
40
60
72
13
11
13
31
40
35
30
25
96
101
62
90
60
100
97
102
89
100
97
76
64
108
94
80
62
100
87
101
82
37
95
81
103 w
105 w
103 w
100 w
70 w
98 w
77 w
90 w
29 w
23 w
85 w
50 w
104 w
87 w
74 w
37 w
98 w
81 w
31 w
54 w
40 w
29 w
7w
46 w
34 w
9w
16 w
12 w
11
1w
100
98
100
79
83
91
100
90
17
20
100
93
97
14
II
101
11 w
92
68
92
97
100
87
35
19
62
32
31
95
98
82
21
54 w
105
99
46
14
2w
31
32
34
23
88
14
23
39
84
34
23
96
88
2
2
14
63 w
31 w
JO]
111
87
84
93
77
87
44
85
42
95
44
78
78 w
41 w
88 w
68 w
85 w
98 w
100 fSaudiArabia
104
Iran,IslamicRep.
122
123
124
105
115
114
90
24
69
26
63
76
1988
106
Romania
121
99
99
36
36
104 w
Iraq
101
105
102
97
23
59
74
1965
94
90
Korea,Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
99
103
106
96
104
122
1988
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
95
Primary net
enrollment
(percent)
Secondary
Primary
22
13
31
23
21
17
20
30
18
15
11
21
18
26
24
17
17
11
11
95
25
21
100
100
20
16
100
96
100
23
21
16
29
22
99
84 w
73 w
96 w
12 w
10 w
91 w
88 w
33 w
33 w
26 w
27 w
261
1989
Current
international
dollars
1989
20 percent
Second
quintile
Third
quintile
Fourth
quintile
Highest
20 percent
Highest
lOpercent
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
2
3
9
10
II
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
2.6
2.3
3.6
3.2
660
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
3.0
3.9
2.6
3.4
6.2
540
700
1,290
Mali
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
2.4
2.5
520
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
32
33
34
35
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
36
Bhuean
37
38
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
7.2
. .
330
490
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
SriLanka
41
960
31
40
1.6
4.7
29
30
39
5.0
27
28
1.6
1985_86c
10.0
. .
13.7
17.2
21.9
37.2
23.2
. .
3.8
4.5
3.0
4.7
l983c
12.3
8.1
16.3
22.0
41.4
26.7
5.3
5.2
8.1
8.2
6.5
5.0
.
620
980
1,070
1,700
1,040
l9848S
. .
. .
. .
7.8
11.2
15.0
20.6
45.6
31.3
. .
l987_88c
6.5
10.9
15.7
22.3
1985_86e
4.8
8.5
12.1
18.4
. .
. .
8.8
12.4
16.0
44.6
29.1
4.7
4.3
900
11.2
10.5
2,160
I987
56.1
43.0
41.3
26.5
48.0
52.7
32.1
36.3
21.5
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
15.8
45
46
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
47
48
Zimbabwe
Philippines
9.9
10.8
49
50
Cted'Ivoire
44
51
52
53
54
55
56
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
Papua New Guinea
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
Syrian Arab Rep.
61
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
62
63
64
65
66
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
57
58
59
60
.
. .
15.3
6.5
3,160
1,830
10.2
8.8
11.0
8.2
7.0
13.1
12.5
. .
. .
. .
5.0
9.7
8.0
14.8
13.1
2,280
1,700
.
2,590
1985d
l986_87c
.
.
22.0
21.3
l9h485
. .
9.8
13.0
16.4
21.4
39.4
25.4
1979-81
5.5
8.6
12.2
l8.7
55.0
40.8
l985_86c
4.4
8.5
13.7
21.5
51.9
35.8
l988e
4.0
.
.
16.4
12.8
2,650
14.0
10.0
2,070
. .
. .
16.0
20.2
19.8
18.0
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
262
.
-
1,340
.
. .
4,190
.
3,720
1988c
5.4
. .
13.5
20.8
8.7
9.9
14.4
. .
21.2
53.0
.
37.1
49.2
33.4
Current
international
dollars
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
1985
1989
1989
21.8
22.3
16.1
19.3
4,610
3,990
24.5
24.8
. .
24.0
4,980
6,030
29.1
L.oss'est
Year
..
Second
quintile
. .
1985-86
2.5
Third
Fourth
quintile
quintile
6.5
11.8
Highest
20 percent
20.2
Highest
lOpercent
59.0
42.8
..
1986e
1987e
3.3
9.7
8.3
14.2
13.2
18.0
20.7
22.9
54.5
35.2
38.8
21.0
1987e
4.6
9.3
13.9
21.2
51.2
34.8
1987e
4.7
9.2
14.0
21.5
50.6
34.2
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaiy
Uruguay
88
89
90
29.2
92
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
33.8
98
99
Iraq
91
31.2
.
30.0
27.9
25.7
.
21.4
6,200
37.2
32.5
. .
. .
2.4
1983
1983e
10.9
5.7
15.3
1987e
6.1
11.0
5,320
. .
10.7
18.7
.
16.5
18.6
22.8
.
62.6
32.4
46.2
18.7
42.8
26.6
40.0
24.5
23.5
31.3
33.5
23.7
4,430
.
24.1
7,700
6,720
.
35.5
34.2
7,090
40.9
46.0
41.3
51.2
8,540
10,600
1980-81
15,660
1979
1980
6.9
6.0
5.4
1982-83
1981-82
5.1
5.1
1985
1979
1986
4.4
1983
6.9
Romania
tOther
00 tSaudi Arabia
101
102
Ireland
Spain
103 lisrael
104 tHong Kong
05 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
75.7
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
60.9
Italy
65.6
68.2
56.9
69.0
68.0
67.3
65.9
Netherlands
Ill tKuwait
112
Belgium
113
Austria
114 France
115 tUnited Arab Emirates
116 Canada
117 Germany
Denmark
118
119 UnitedStates
120 Sweden
121
Finland
122 Norway
Japan
123
124 Switzerland
110
61.7
71.1
66.1
64.7
66.1
69.3
66.1
66.3
70.0
92.5
73.8
74.2
100.0
76.9
69.5
84.4
71.5
11,780
14,290
14,070
13,920
13,630
.
13,680
13,710
14,480
.
1:
5.8
6.8
1979
9.9
14.6
16.2
17.5
18.2
16.7
17.9
23.2
24.5
21.6
21.4
23.2
24.8
25.0
23.5
23.7
10.8
11.1
11.5
12.0
13.2
7.9
13.7
. .
6.3
11
17.3
17.8
15.2
. .
1978-79
. .
12.5
12.1
10.8
11.8
12.7
1981
100.0
20,690
1985
75.7
73.6
83.5
75.9
15,670
15,230
17,280
15,710
1981
1981
5.4
4.7
8.0
6.3
1979
1979
1982
6.2
8.7
5.2
12.0
11.0
13.2
12.1
12.8
13.2
11,7
23.0
23.5
6.8
25.3
38.3
36.0
5.7
41.0
17.2
1987
1984
28.7
25.8
23.3
23.8
19,230
15,220
14,340
42.2
39.5
12.1
92.9
73.5
69.3
48.9
44.7
18.6
. .
39.6
47.0
17.7
17.8
18.4
17.4
24.6
17.4
18.4
18.9
17.5
16.4
24.5
25.5
25.3
23.1
22.1
24.1
25.6
25.0
40.8
21.5
25.5
40.2
38.7
38.6
41.9
36.9
37.6
36.7
37.5
24.1
23.4
22.3
25.0
20.8
21.7
21.2
22.4
29.8
44.6
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. ICP refers to the United Nations' International Comparison Program. Data for 1985 are preliminary Phase V results; those for 1989 are estimated from the t985
values. b. These estimates should be treated with caution; see technical notes for details of different distribution measures. c. Data refer to per capita expenditure. d. Data refer to household expenditure. e. Data refer to per capita income.
,
263
As a percentage of
total population
1965
3.5 w
2.9 w
4.9
26
10.2
13
4.9
5
20
6
31
11.3
36
5.2
6.9
La0PDR
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
18
12
4
S
6
7
8
9
tO
Ii
1965-80
36 w
42 w
25 w
Low-income economies
17w
18w
1989
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
14 w
4
9
2
/980-89
Urban
1990
1990, as a percentage of
/990
3w
3w
1w
25 w
6w
38
29
10
21
31
II
3.6
7.7
5.4
4!
51
8
8
5
8.1
54
. .
3.8
32
32
56
26
27
56
27
42
3.7
8.2
49
47
53
28
23
32
37
2.3
3.7
4.3
8.9
4.6
5.2
12
0
4
27
4.3
4.9
5!
24
3.2
11
4.2
6.9
6.2
5.7
22
55
24
89
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
46
33
25
49
25
2!
20
30
45
2.3
1.3
7.1
10.6
5.4
7.7
17
17
17
83
39
. .
6.0
3.9
5.2
22
-0.5
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Bhutan
Kampuchea,Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
11
. .
22
2!
45
Sudan
VietNam
13
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42w
40w
25
22
22
4.6
8.1
6.6
6.6
4.9
7.5
4.8
6.2
3.2
5.9
.
12
42
23
10
33
.
.
2.4
3.9
3.4
26
88
47
57
32
35
22
22
14
23
13
23
30
32
35
30
8
8
61
17
17
49
28
53
40
61
33
52
53
6
II
22
24
13
20
32
45
9
7
14
18
51
16
31
36
12
17
33
II
38
28
3.3
6.6
47
48
49
50
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Cte d'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
32
23
35
32
27
42
40
59
47
6.0
4.0
7.6
16
8.2
5.5
3.5
4.0
33
37
52
20
7.3
11
6.0
3!
3.8
32
4.7
4.2
44
51
14
18
31
4.3
4.5
5.5
3.4
4.8
4.4
32
35
23
68
32
5
15
9
7.6
4.3
4.7
4.6
3.8
6.1
3.1
16
41
4.5
5.3
4.6
21
44
69
22
3.2
3.7
25
II
21
IS
2.8
4.0
57
51
37
13
52
2.0
3.0
4.7
2.4
2.9
52
53
54
55
PapuaNewGuinea
Honduras
Guatemala
Congo, People's Rep.
26
34
56
SyrianArabRep.
40
43
39
40
50
57
58
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
16
40
52
37
70
55
27
47
54
5.2
4.3
3.5
4.5
5.1
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
264
10
5.8
4.3
3.1
Yemen,Rep.
38
40
27
16
6
6.4
Senegal
Tunisia
44
25w
23w
3.1
13
41
18w
17w
2.7
39
54
41w
41w
28
E!Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
42w
41w
46
62
63
64
65
66
14w
16w
51
17
26w
31w
13
36
3.4w
3.5w
41
61
16
6
3.8w
3.7w
40
59
60
39
58w
53w
Egypt,Arab Rep.
32
6.1
Angola
Bolivia
51
50
4!
42
43
44
45
46
14
17
18
9
9
10
10
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
34
23
38
25
7
4
3.7
16
25
19
5.1
27
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
17
19
20
6
24
52
23
SriLanka
82
31
32
33
5.4
6.3
6.2
Rwanda
India
23
12
47
5.2
5.2
5.7
4.7
4.6
19
30
4.1
7.5
26
18
. '
2
13
29
26
27
28
29
10
4
13
20
43
BurkinaFaso
24
31
18
23
24
25
38
30
9w
9w
9w
6.3
7.4
6.5
5.6
17
18
9
68
27
38
1990
4.4
7.2
22
7w
8w
5w
10
19
19
21
31w
29w
34w
52
13
7
20
41w
42w
37w
36
Mali
Niger
16
/965
6.1
26
Total
1990
6.6
32
24
35
10
39
12
13
14
15
1965
5.3
7.4
6.4
8.0
6.9
16
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
15
12
17
Urban
Thin!
10 w
10.7
5.3
10,8
5.5
30
47
17
28
16
29
12
8
.
.
28
30
46
39
.
.
58
. .
60
.
37
50
41
49
23
30
19
19
29
28
22
27
20
17
17
. .
38
66
39
57
20
27
13
35
37
14
20
Urban population
As a percentage of
total population
67
68
69
70
71
1965-80
Urban
1990
/980-89
1965
1989
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
34
4
46
44
72
60
26
4.1
12.5
6.0
10.1
67
53
85
4.4
3.4
2.6
4.6
2.9
2.3
Costa Rica
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
38
47
3.3
Population in cities
1990 as a percentage
of
Total
Urban
Total
1990
1965
1990
41
35
14
38
53
37
42
10
/965
1990
22
26
32
20
36
33
39
42
28
36
36
6
62
32
72
28
24
34
18
15
. .
23
36
41
53
45
49
22
32
40
42
10
16
24
21
22
23
4
9
10
12
14
19
10
38
IS
.
50
61
3.5
1.9
37
55
76
4!
2.5
72
4.4
0.4
3.0
86
2.2
1.8
77
10
36
32
41
26
38
46
50
42
43
42
4.6
51
3.9
4.9
4.9
22
23
67
2.5
1.2
20
52
59
4.5
4.0
4.6
2.9
4.6
42
44
22
. .
26
36
44
15
26
44 w
66 w
4.1 w
3.3 w
17 w
11 w
43 w
40 w
19 w
28 w
Venezuela
South Afiica
Brazil
Hungary
Uruguay
70
47
50
84
59
74
4.8
3.2
4.3
2.7
25
2!
34
24
3.7
3.5
II
6
2
40
48
29
30
47
43
61
1.9
1.2
20
33
19
81
85
0.7
0.8
39
43
53
45
43
27
IS
35
20
39
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, tslamic Rep.
Trinidad and Tobago
Czechoslovakia
31
21
3.5
7.3
5.2
5.6
2.4
2.9
6.4
4.9
3.8
II
12
16
23
51
55
45
56
68
77
1.7
II
15
II
93
94
95
96
97
Portugal
24
33
1.8
2.0
46
15
44
Il
16
Korea,Rep.
32
4
26
71
5.8
7.5
9.8
3.6
8.7
6.5
36
41
26
4
74
46
69
24
50
2.0
1.2
55
34
55
59
65
55
28
45
34
98
99
21
9
40
29
20
21
21
18
41 w
30 w
48 w
35 w
36 w
33 w
29 w
30 w
34 w
36 w
45 w
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
81
Mongolia
Nicaragua
Lebanon
82
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
9!
92
Oman
Libya
Greece
37
30
10
1.4
16
.
2
33
45
12
57
22
26
12
43
41
12
69
62
Iraq
51
71
30
38
52
5.3
2.9
4.4
Romania
1.2
18
24 w
3.7 w
5.8 w
3.0 w
3.9 w
3.4 w
3.9 w
6.8 w
6.0 w
15 w
31 w
9w
8w
6w
9w
3w
2w
38 w
53 w
42 w
28 w
47 w
26 w
54 w
71 w
3.4 w
3.1 w
22 w
23 w
11 w
16 w
49w
64w
3.0w
71 w
72 w
63 w
77 w
77 w
77 w
24w
II w
15w
High-income economies
OECD members
3.7w
1.4w
9w
44w
42w
37w
10 w
45 w
8w
39 w
37 w
54 w
36 w
39
49
23
29
61
76
57
78
81
tOther
100 tSaudiArabia
101
102
103
Ireland
Spain
1Israel
104 tHongKong
19w
18w
1.2 w
3.8 w
0.9 w
0.8 w
3.0 w
8.5
6.6
17
13
2.1
0.7
46
26
2.2
3.5
1.2
2.0
17
12
13
91
tI
89
94
2.1
1.7
00
94
105 tSingapore
106 NewZealand
107
Australia
108
United Kingdom
109 Italy
100
100
84
86
89
1.6
1.6
1.2
1(10
0.8
12
100
10
Netherlands
IKuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
86
79
83
87
62
69
28w
27 w
26 w
42 w
28 w
28 w
47 w
23
26
43
90
28
45
100
16
81
22
41
94
100
100
100
(00
. .
60
34
33
59
26
37
50
28
26
51
23
25
8
53
10
7
50
18
100
16
55
16
78
14
53
1.2
1.2
44
58
67
53
60
75
0.3
0.4
23
34
1.0
21
0.7
60
1.9
2.1
1.0
19
7
Other economies
52 w
65 w
2.3 w
1.5w
6w
World
Oil exporters (exci. USSR)
36 w
30 w
49 w
50 w
2.6 w
5.5 w
4.5 w
5.1 w
14 w
23 w
77
21w
42
0.9
2.6
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
24 w
84
120
121
122
123
124
9w
19 w
33 w
14 w
13
77
119
9w
79
77
72
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
116
117
118
11 w
4.1
41
73
4w
9w
6w
14
23.7
51
67
13w
0.2
78
77
86
87
75
93
10 w
1.4
1.3
112
113
114
53 w
14
0.6
0.5
5.0
0.2
0.7
0.6
78
43w
37w
0.3
1.0
1.2
8.2
III
24
2.0
89
95
97
58
74
110
19
48
14 w
12
13
0.4
0.8
1.5
1.1
0.7
0.2
0.4
1.1
1.0
47
20
.
10
27
IS
-
51
30
.
47
26
.
37
39
19
31
27
38
15
31
49
48
19
17
20
27
23
34
16
IS
26
20
28
19
27
IS
29
35
30
13
20
20
12
.
13
27
36
37
36
25
27
4w
25w
23w
13 w
15 w
6w
11 w
39 w
30 w
33 w
30 w
14 w
10 w
16 w
16 w
265
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
20
45 w
56 w 43 w
54 w
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Somalia
Bangladesh
193
188
176
204
162
214
208
39
50
49
36
42
47
46
479b
2,000b
51
41
37
45
47
46
371P
1,100
52
600
La0PDR
163
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
237
183
251
48
47
187
52
45
48
700
40
50
49
47
450
300
1,500
300
36
37
38
39
40
41
203
225
38
48
102
118
45
51
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
Zaire
239
264
44
31
162
155
151
143
180
174
34
45
43
52
54
171
161
47
45
50
42
40
44
42
Mali
210
208
239
231
210
209
39
38
49
40
45
44
49
51
37
35
37
42
59
46
59
47
50
45
43
71
56
44
46
47
41
52
49
44
46
36
56
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
Ghana
Togo
Zambia
Guinea
173
148
154
128
249
187
180
. .
Zimbabwe
Philippines
Yemen,Rep,
Cted'Ivoire
Dominican Rep.
Morocco
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Cameroon
Pent
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
66
154
130
136
112
224
41
142
114
133
173
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
47
48
49
50
65
31
125
98
139
154
118
22
128
80
196
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt. Arab Rep.
Senegal
61
190
188
134
Sri Lanka
Lesotho
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
42
43
44
45
46
62
63
64
51
178
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
51
49
39
38
41
35
42
CentralAfricanRep.
35
227
146
43
45
40
44
51
26
27
28
32
33
34
197
52w
42
40
40
Kenya
Pakistan
Benin
31
Congo,People'sRep.
SyrianArabRep.
El Salvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Tunisia
28
146
95
218
48
51
54
47
57
61
55
53
41
55
40
46
40
56
44
43
34
64
50
45
39
35
73
58
63
48
63
40
46
46
49
41
48
55
63
52
47
43
36
35
51
46
49
53
52
52
43
63 w
63 w
234
37
47
50
42
47
56
123
175
162
114
140
194
44
52
59
47
48
60
47
141
75
66
46
57
66
159
83
103
44
57
55
87
51
69
63
54
40
54
48
72
73
87
87
44
55
51
66
170
58
80
183
50
47
54
67
65
57
68
47
52
57
47
67
56
75
141
34
45
66
16
80
50
39
23
53
66
40
29
61
58
67
52
64
65
64
.
84
71
63
.
.
85
93
.
94
64
54
62
62
51
65
60
46
59
40
73
80
68
76
84
82
45
75
88
82
81
.
75
.
64
67
60
67
77
67
82
88
97
99
62
97
86
78
91
.
73
70
89
.
71
26
82
78
59
56
59
97
94
54
15
30
19
27
37
35
42
42
46
35
51
49
63
44
51
74
34
62
19
. .
71
70
42
78
80
63
90
45
34
26
39
19
31
93
125
93
70
102
100
106
153
. .
67
99
75
99
96
.
86
157
.
31
17
59
80
81
52
94
60715
18
31
29
58
37
64
43
30
60
57
73
56
39
17
6
10
47
44
38
27
44
84
77
84
49
46
48
69
57
.
95
48
89
74
68
65
55
69
40
66
32
70
39
39
. .
79
11
44
23
41
. .
26
33
57
30
110
78 w
79 w
.
480
500
85 w
82 w
78 w 90 w
79 w 87 w
83 w
80 w
85
S3O
93
88
92
68
64
57
14
150b
80
.
56
69
29
68
5/
87
76
83
70
79
94
19
104
44
162
42
63
31
66
61
27
60
59
. .
77
.
78
83
.
83
64
280
92
59
64
68
59
69
44
49
55
44
63
55
60
64
56
65
303
310
220
59
85
469
70
75
71
67
72
68
75
67
53
57
59
74
130
56
56
57
75
51
67
270
71
69
76
38
33
86
100
75
80
110
l,000'
89
57
41
35
87
82
82
52
77
51
104 w
100 w
87
1,000
82
81 w
71 w
327'
89 w
89 w
74
41
51
80
71
95
47
87
58
86
66
82
70
. .
73
51
95
97
89
97
89
69
79
100
82
95
84
35
73
90
. .
Figures in italics are for years other than those specified
66
14
78
63
62
82
96
71
11
55
83
63
54
63
60
66
64
75
67
54
77
42
44
48
48
54
64
51
85
28
33
84
65
110
78
64
99
38
60
27
44
40
76
476'
67
. .
45
63
66
42
.
61w
61w
60w
23
56
52
75
49w
76w
. .
1988
..
65
.
600
1,070b
60
1965
40w
42w
34w
59
Secondarya
1988
1965
68 w 56 w
68 w 54 w
50
55
88
51
50
89
65
30
119
59 w
58 w
72
60
46
87
67
72 w
74 w
39
82
84
140
41
56
56
59
173
40
45
88
59
600
1,680"
59
49
64
50
49
57
5l0'
53
34
42
48
72w 73w
800
60 w
63 w
121
1984
75w
60
45
136
107
82
1970
63w
90
61
119
91
800b
46
.
1984
47
Primary
Male
49
1970
69
54
181
70
44
340
48
61
69
54
57
55
49
161
99
250
41
43
43
39
Female
600
210
500
98
211
144
46
47
58
195
69
420k'
82
Percentage of cohort
persisting to grade 4
61w
64w
170
Note; For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
266
1989
145 w
23
24
25
29
1965
63w 48w
66w 50w
134 w
China
Haiti
30
1989
SOw
22
21
1965
Male
98w
74w
Female
Maternal mortali
(per 100(100
live births)
1980
92w
71w
Low-income economies
Male
1989
85
.
91
96
88
96
69
67
29
28
76
70
28
69
64
46
91
76
88
93
89
99
86
102
100
92
99
94
102
89
.
52
75
57
68
97
121
82
37
74
Education
Under 5
mortality rate
(per 1000 live births)
Female
1989
Male
1989
Thrkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
76
42
64
22
20
83
55
72
73
74
75
76
CostaRica
19
17
21
23
77
78
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
67
68
69
70
71
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
79
80
81
82
Nicaragua
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
90
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaty
Umguay
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
92
86
87
88
89
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
43
31
71
30
26
22
30
53
42
1965
1965
1989
55
49
52
65
63
69
69
69
75
75
52
46
49
207
300
57
64
65
65
70
68
66
72
63
77
75
72
73
74
63
66
59
58
63
73
67
67
66
68
26
72
66
75
56
49
66
60
61
69
31
60
95
51
14
19
73
64
79
69
94
84
51
57 w
68 w
46
36
85
64
17
23
55
12
99
92
85
59
91
76 w 97 w
82
61
49
58
55O
78
23
29
55
67
65
63
150
28
56
56
90
.
97
99
75
55
63
74
75
64
69
27
91
41
51
12415
80
52
63
67
63
69
68
73
75
78
96
78
73
67
64
80
62
72
67
IS
34
48
69
60
74
65
73
51
61
66
68
51
13
83
25
91
34
53
91 w
178 w
50 w
121 w
85 w
67 w
72 w
13 w
11 w
37 w
89
72
70
52 w
43 w
55 w
45 w
60 w
60 w
60 w
74 w
55
43
65 w 50 w
53 w 41 w
70 w 52 w
58 w 46 w
68 w 56 w
70 w 56 w
68 w 56 w
79 w 67 w
74w
80w 68w
74 w 62 w
81
8
72
73
11
12
109
10
13
73
73
10
21
12
81
71
76
80
61
74
71
73
72
73
73
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
121
122
123
124
11
59
8
8
10
II
II
13
75
73
75
74
81
99
99
94w 96w
94 w
94 w 94 w
93
91
93
76
96
98
7
10
76
96
94
99
98
97
97
98
.
96
96
11
95
97
. .
97
92
87
99
96
. .
13
94
86
101
42
94
79
29
63
233
66 w
56 w
83 w
78 w
86 w
. .
54 w
70 w
95 w
80 w
98 w
88 w
95 w
90 w
94 w
95 w
89 w
96w
59 w
100w
66 w
87 w
80
95
13
93
93
70
66
101
101
29
.
98
92
94
80
99
111
96
100
95
95
94
94
108
94
108
94
93
101
99
92
93
96
96
. .
94
96
. .
73
76
79
81
82
66
11
7
94
99 w
94w
93
63
85
95
98
100
119 w
95
104 w
110 w
66
94
15
70 w
59 w
72 w
50 w
93
85
100
98
98
99
100
100
100
99
93
99
52 w
36 w
50 w
34 w
88 w
77 w
90 w
93 w
. .
75
72
99
99
147
98
72
71
39
90
95
95
80
99
87
94
95
76
98
94
68
69
104
72
72
81
87
114
91
70
67
73
75
92
59
78
79
68
100
159
107
195
81
85
95
97
98
74
76
74
44
67
71
94
121
81
86
39
194
72
79
119
96
93
92
96
96
tOO
109
87
93
197
110
94
107
168
111 w
127
99
92
90
95
97
97
69
95 w
92
69
74
72
97
.
tOt
76
180
98
98
80
98
93
99
11
89
172
85
92
56
69
11
95
. .
18
10
95
91
96
81 w
97w
74
74
75
13
99
89 w 95 w
59 w 86 w
72 w 87 w
94 w 96 w
79 w
97 w
71
13
48 w
90 w
75 w
93
.
65 w 79 w
69 w 74 w
78 w
73 w
78 w
45 w
86 w
64 w
75 w
95 w
96 w
94 w
33
61 w
66 w
Il
71
24
93
89
64
68
68
68
68
79
97
90
77
78
80
79
80
13
96
96
180
68
74
74
74
73
68
66
68
100
92
96
46
97
92
10
15
76
65
74
73
75
96
91
84
90
8
11
8
11
78
99
90
tSingapore
106 New Zealand
107
Australia
108 United Kingdom
64
79
99
97
98
71
71
99
78
74
74
98
84
10
II
92
96
82
100
107
89 w
98
94
97
99
52
98
12
62 w
49 w
67 w
58 w
64 w
64 w
63 w
73 w
73 w
70 w
62
89
92
97
99
88 w
.
15
12
47
69
69
58
82
95
96
63
UnitedStates
90 w
104
16
120
84
45
Canada
Germany
Denmark
45
65,
54
99
103
262
97
80
94
. .
96
105
106
217
53
53
60
95
. .
106
60
110
67
58
94
tOO
62
93
65 w
52
67
73
91
88
103
67
69
94
95
1988
37
77
40
98
61
100
94
93
90
1965
99
58 w
50
116
117
118
119
95
100
94
92
96
96
73
65
69
74
76
68
115 fUnitedArabEmirates
69
72 w
19
32
10
9
95
99
95
65
54
59
72
72
17
15
107
93
96
97
61 w
15
Netherlands
(Kuwait
Belgium
Austria
France
100
90
22
Il
112
113
114
97
97
99
72
129
tjsrael
104 tHongKong
Ill
90
92
68
64
66
77
80
78
80
110
91
45
12
Italy
92
64
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
105
89
96
92
97
83
48
77 w
21
Spain
93
99
97
90
65
16
Ireland
89
90
67 w
50
73
74
74
101
102
103
1988
66
129
72
63
TrinidadandTobago
30 w
75
9
9
1965
98
95
49
44
tOther
1984
81
52
68
100 tSaudiArabia
1970
97
95
99
90
140
32
1984
76
97
90
97
86
70
.
Secondarya
1970
61
171
124
Romania
Male
49
27
Iraq
62
Female
63
66
151
105
23
38
88
Maternal mortality
(per 100,000
live births)
1980
1989
22
87
.
Male
Female
Percentage of cohort
persisting to grade 4
94
.
96
96
90
96
96
96
96
96
94
94
82
104
67
/03
95
97
105
95
104
95
95
95
96
115
95
101
24 w
Other economies
33 w 72 w 74 w 65 w 66 w
99 w
93 w 109 w
100 w
95 w
75 w 58 w 67 w 55 w
64 w
World
68 w
85 w
86 w 58 w
67 w 83 w 70 w 83 w
74 w
84 w 74 w 95 w
47 w
119 w
135 w
59 w 83 w
48 w 59 w 46 w 56 w
Oil exporters (excl. USSR)
a. See technical notes. b. Data refer to maternal mortality in hospitals and other medical institutions only. c. Community data from rural areas only.
107
112
103
99
99
102 w
74 w
77 w
267
Total area
1980
Total
Area
(thousands
of square
kilometers)
1981-85
Closed
Asa
percentage
of total
Number
Total
Closed
0.10
0,08
0.10
0.00
68.73
25
119.13
13.4
0.04
0.08
0.00
0.97
20
0
8
land area
Total
(cubic
kilometers)
Asa
percentage of
totat water
resources
Total
Domestic
Industrial
and
agricultural
Low-income economies
Mozambique
Ethiopia
Tanzania
4
5
Somalia
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
7
8
Malawi
Nepal
Chad
Burundi
9
10
II
91
9
15
1.20
0.88
1.30
0.14
0.08
136
43
84
2
1.30
1.50
1.00
0.00
0.0
10.67
11.3
21
19
7.0
0.1
9.59
1.14
0.00
Il
0.84
0.80
0.01
0.84
135
0.0
21
7
103
0.06
1.01
10.31
3
31
1.4
1.8
60
4.00
0.50
3.70
0.06
1.50
3.00
0.10
9.60
1.1
13.32
88.27
18
8.76
16.54
7.39
2.62
131.70
154
272
420
9
44
14
14
SierraLeone
Madagascar
Nigeria
Uganda
15
Zaire
148
60
1,776
16
17
Mali
73
Niger
BurkinaFaso
Rwanda
India
26
47
12
13
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
China
Haiti
Kenya
Pakislan
Benin
132
640
378
0.36
0.67
0.80
0.05
0.48
1,150
978
0
0.00
0.02
11
0.39
0.09
0.67
0
24
25
39
26
27
28
29
30
Guinea
107
31
32
SriLanka
Lesotho
33
Indonesia
Mauritania
Afghanistan
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Bhutan
Kampuchea, Dem.
Liberia
Myanmar
Sudan
VietNam
1,058
1.56
22
0
0.01
1.82
.
0.03
0.03
0.03
.
0.02
0.19
0.07
0.01
0.05
0.22
0.02
0.40
21
0.55
0.72
0.12
0.70
0.86
17
17
0.58
0.58
0
1,169
6
1,139
9.20'
900a
0.13
0.01
12
21
21
0.01
0.01
126
75
20
20
319
0.25
0.46
359
36
87
17
17
3
295
30
0.36
.
477
0.30
0.46
6.77'
5.04
101
88
1.73
l.73a
536
668
0.94
0.44
0.87
29
440
0
Senegal
Yemen, Rep.
110
0.50
0.00
Zimbabwe
Philippines
0.80
319
6.77
0.04
0.0
6.2
0.0
0.7
0.76
2.21
0.48
0.81
22.50
40
43
53
13
48
36
28
162
167
211
205
0.99
0.16
2.68
0.18
0.10
228
18
210
22
155
7
6
6
149
13
6.7
3.9
0.37
16.30
3.63
0.20
0.70
0.7
1.36
1.3
7
2
10.5
288
4.4
0.29
0.15
0.15
380.00
79.04
0.08
30.95
75.83
8.44
179
2
30
57
0.8
0.3
5.4
9.8
7.6
39.04
11.75
4.63
63.59
0.13
6.3
5.1
6
19
1
8.5
8.6
0.1
7.40
0.07
38
11.4
140.67
14.83
1.42
141
2
4
0.2
8.76
0.00
18.6
0.0
2.7
0.2
7.8
1.4
0
3
35
20
7
17
0
0
13
159
156
44
20
35
14
41
1
23
612
92
14
1,658
30
14
6
6
17
18
594
462
46
48
2,053
26
28
434
11
35
35
19
40
6
12
25
21
27
35
18
460.00
0.04
16
1.09
153.40
0.11
0
33
0
13
21
2,032
0.07
0.30
0.09
0.36
0.74
86
54
32
115
12
104
6.30
0.05
16.59
0.73
26.11
15
10
493
27
503
34
96
12
84
10
52
473
1,436
57
14
417
1,422
15
69
54
5
3
10
66
39
96
1,079
70
1.31
1.73
81.16
8.58
13
3.4
56
2.6
0.7
4.5
0.7
56.40
9
0
11.3
1.36
19
7.1
1.22
129
32
29.50
693
13
1.7
6.2
11.4
10
0.7
0.71
2.97
11.00
37
0.0
5.2
0.9
0.10
1.34
0.3
29
99
1,675
44
20
22
0.02
0.52
0.13
3.96
18.60
5.07
1.4
15
0
0
103
15
7
14
1,089
11
81
II
23
15
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
SI
Angola
Bolivia
Egypt,Arab Rep.
198
Cted'lvoire
95
98
95
45
Dominican Rep.
Momcco
32
6
IS
52
53
54
55
56
PapuaNewGuinea
57
58
59
60
61
Cameroon
Peru
Ecuador
Namibia
Paraguay
62
63
64
65
66
ElSalvador
Colombia
Thailand
Jamaica
Honduras
Gualemala
Congo,People'sRep.
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
382
40
45
213
342
38
44
213
233
706
147
184
197
1.17
. .
1.43
5.10
0.04
0.13
0.23
0.90
0.90
0.22
0.00
0.00
l.43a
2.90
0.04
27.60
5.21
19.58
5.50
2.98
0.22
0.90
0.90
0.22
13.53
0.00
0.07
5.80
0.99
12
10
15
13
10
0
4.0
12
3.6
4.3
38.4
0.0
1.90'
1.00a
697
143
2.70
3.40
0.30
2.12
2.70
3.40
1.90
11.21
2.8
0.05
8.90
0.05
8.20
0.22
56.14
46.77
0.00
0.45
7
35
75
5.4
0.0
0.3
41
517
464
157
92
240a
0.02
0.05
0.02
.
17.02
54.83
106.19
.
22
13
.
0.48
1.24
0
0
97
4
43
184
18
1,202
84
10
201
37
166
1,118
191
0.0
165
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
268
8.90
48.37
6.85
21.77
0.00
1.1
9.1
0.73
0.04
3.34
0.40
6.10
5.56
0.14
0.43
1.00
5.34
31.90
0.32
2.30
18
125
Ill
568
68
453
501
15
53
23
30
430
25
508
7
20
139
20
449
30
294
471
18
487
13
12
127
3l
418
14
16
56
39
561
77
111
5
17
238
522
72
94
241
179
17
224
73
105
18
599
24
575
157
11
146
53
325
42
283
15
Forest area
(thousands of square kilometers)
Annual
deforestation
1981-85
Total area
1980
Turkey
Botswana
Jordan
Panama
Chile
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Total
Closed
202
326
89
0
0
42
76
42
76
Closed
Total
Total
of total
(cubic
kilometers)
Number
100.25
0.93
0.36
0.50
0.36
13.0
15
9
7
14
119.83
69
042a
0.42a
6.10
25
75
0.20
.
18
Poland
Mauritius
Mexico
Argentina
Malaysia
Algeria
Bulgaria
Lebanon
Mongolia
Nicaragua
87
16
86
0
484
445
0
463
445
0.00
210
210
2.55
2.55
18
IS
33
0.40
. .
0.00
95
95
45
Ass
percentage
246
CostaRica
37
Area
(thousands
of square
kilometers)
6.15
.
0.00
5.95
45
1.21
1.21
319
2.45
1.25
. .
21.93
0.04
55.83
109.75
11.01
4.97
1.29
0.04
3.18
0.43
land area
0.3
17.7
1.0
17.3
16.0
15.60
0.09
0.45
1.35
16.80
0.36
54.20
27.60
17
7.2
2.0
2.9
4.0
3.4
0.2
39
1.2
14.18
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.75
0.55
0.89
39
13
8
1
41
1.30
16.80
12.0
47
69
Asa
percentage of
total water
resources
9.42
3.00
4
I
30
Domestic
Total
317
98
173
744
1,625
779
472
415
76
5
50
89
98
31
Industrial
and
agricultural
241
93
123
654
1.528
748
397
348
847
964
589
15
901
1,059
76
66
54
95
765
176
16
7
16
2
161
35
125
1,600
112
30
30
1,488
16
271
272
370
92
241
242
277
Upper-middle-income
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
Venezuela
South Africa
Brazil
Hungaiy
Uruguay
Yugoslavia
Gabon
Iran, Islamic Rep.
TnnidadandTobago
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Korea, Rep.
Oman
Libya
Greece
98
Iraq
99 Romania
Low- and middle-income
93
94
95
96
97
339
3
5,145
3,575
16
16
105
91
206
205
. .
0.15
0.20
0.01
0.15
38
2
28
46
44
30
49
0
26
49
0
2
58
25
. .
76
6
17
0.00
1.52
18
8.08
0.24
25.61
2.36
0.00
0.03
28.28
364.81
25.69
12.66
122
625
84
100
2
4
108
8.77
0.30
10.36
17.53
5.58
0.54
1.55
5.34
. .
. .
5.5
0.2
27
. .
. .
46
66
0
18
6.20
63
4.10
9.20
35.04
5.38
0.65
19.86
12
9.8
4.8
2.4
30
67
43
152
160
36.26
0.16
0.01
. .
86.19
58.02
200,96
5.11
2
3
61
4.1
6.8
2.2
387
404
212
502
166
65
91
45
241
14
393
63
37
330
1,362
54
1,307
149
40
109
374
0.0
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.1
4.1
121
457
227
51
6.95
6.8
5.7
0.3
340
39
0.06
45.40
0.15
5.80
10.50
10.70
0.43
2.62
3.1
15.8
221
14
379
87
292
16
1,062
298
159
17
12
561
262
721
39
58
903
265
545
222
663
42.80
25.40
43
4,575
137
4,437
12
1,144
92
1,053
2.33
0.79
45.25
106
2
41
88
321
145
177
267
1,174
447
43
224
1,033
375
17
22
33
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia
South Asia
Europe, M.East, & N.Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Severely indebted
High-income economies
OECD members
tOther
100 tSaudi Arabia
10!
102
103
Ireland
Spain
tlsrael
104 tHong Kong
105 tSingapore
106
107
108
109
New Zealand
Australia
United Kingdom
110
Netherlands
Italy
Ill tKuwait
112
113
114
Belgium
Austria
France
122
123
124
Canada
Germany
Denmark
United States
Sweden
Finland
Norway
Japan
Switzerland
0
95
1,067
22
81
4
0
8
38
151
0
4,364
72
5
69
1
0
72
417
20
64
3
0
7
38
139
0
2,641
70
5
2,960
278
232
2,096
87
253
76
239
II
. .
.
.
. .
. .
199
.
1
47
0
15.94
45.01
0.00
338.85
27.57
2.82
129
73
8.06
47.62
24.01
11.6
1.51
17.07
.
1.21
5.1
110
19
0.00
0.84
790.40
1.59
244
0
311
1.90
.
4.8
0.19
10.5
1.20
17.80
28.35
4.8
10.6
4.3
4.4
0.0
2.6
19.3
8.2
0.0
3.7
86
58
396
68
34
65
15.5
61
19
6.4
3.0
11.3
6.7
8.6
4.3
2.6
32
0
84
141
71
.
38
174
14.47
0.01
9.03
3.13
16
379
1,306
507
983
1,023
10
72
917
40.00
0.42
42.20
41.22
22
140
417
728
429
1,752
26
668
1.46
II
467.00
3.98
3.70
2.00
19
289
2,162
479
774
0
20
6
489
98
923
502
157
115
56.20
107.80
3.20
24
30
.
849
101
138
51
6
101
79
116
46
204
457
405
845
972
4
816
338
612
47
381
196
67
87
1,556
259
172
93
601
202
1,903
307
681
392
766
387
Other economies
World
Oil exporters (cxci. USSR)
a. Data are for the periods as follows: India 1983-87, Indonesia 1979-84, Myanmar 1975-81, Viet Nam 1976-81, Philippines 1981-88, Cameroon 1976-86, Thailand
1985-88, Costa Rica 1973-89. b. See the technical notes for alternative estimates.
269
Technical notes
This fourteenth edition of the World Development
Indicators provides economic, social, and natural re-
groups of economies.
The main criterion of country classification is gross
national product (GNP) per capita. With the inclusion
of four new World Bank members, Bulgaria,
Box A.1 Basic indicators for economies with populations of less than 1 million
GNP per capita5
Average
Population
(thousands)
mid-1989
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Area
(thousands
of square
kilometers)
Guinea-Bissau
The Gambia
Equatorial Guinea
Guyana
So Tome and Principe
Maldives
Comoros
Solomon Islands
Kiribati
Western Samoa
Cape Verde
Vanuatu
Swaziland
Tonga
960
849
407
796
120
36
11
28
215
210
458
313
2
29
69
163
361
152
761
12
17
98
growth rate
Dollars
(percent)
1989
1965-89
180
240
330
340
340
420
460
580
700
700
780
860
900
910
1,650
Fiji
740
18
16
Belize
23
17
18
19
20
St. Lucia
184
148
94
437
163
67
1,720
1,810
1,900
3,010
4,230
350
256
695
249
422
b
b
9
14
11
5,830
6,350
7,040
11,320
15,500
254
377
103
21,070
24,980
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Grenada
Suriname
Seychelles
Malta
Barbados
Cyprus
The Bahamas
Qatar
Iceland
Luxembourg
American Samoa
Andorra
Antigua and Barhuda
38
50
78
Aruba
Bahrain
Bermuda
Brunei
Channel Islands
Djibouti
Dominica
Faeroe Islands
French Guiana
French Polynesia
Gibraltar
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Guam
Isle of Man
Macao
Martinique
Mayotte
Netherlands Antilles
3
b
.
60
489
60
249
142
b
6
c
c
c
c
411
23
82
47
90
193
e
e
c
1965-80
0.7
.
8.1
7.9
2.5
0.5
.
.
.
.
.
9.0
.
1.8
10.3
2.5
7.1
1.2
3.2
7.2
2.4
.
12.2
3.5
11.0
1.1
.
6.4
3.4
6.1
20.0
18.3
6.4
10.5
5.5
9.7
9.7
4.3
11.9
7.5
5.6
2.4
3.6
.
6.2
3.4
2.0
5.5
6.0
6.1
5.3
7.7
.
53.2
14.1
2.1
1980-89
-1.6
c
c
Average annual
rate of inflattona
(percent)
26.8
34.8
4.3
4.4
expehitfaency
at birth
(years)
1989
40
44
46
64
66
66
64
56
67
67
68
71
69
67
70
73
75
76
68
70
. .
-1.3
8.1
6.7
.
Total
1985
83
85
69
.
.
61
.
34
19
.
10
18
.
.
.
36
75
77
48
6.1
75
0.5
12.6
.
.
72
31
56
341
134
67
b
342
448
338
69
b
1
19
2
9
New Caledonia
189
162
169
2
1
.
c
c
c
27
90
4
16
10
15
9.1
-5.1
. .
32
69
63
4
74
.
75
64
55
66
. .
(percent)
Female
1985
61
55
78
75
72
. .
Adult illiteracy
..
..
..
74
73
.
72
76
.
77
69
.
.
.
3,301
Puerto Rico
.
c
. .
.
75
584
53 Reunion
d
. .
.
3
.
72
54 St. Kitts and Nevis
41
b
.
.
6.4
d
69
55 St. Vincent and the Grenadines
113
b
e
1.9
10.9
5.8
70
56 Virgin Islands (U.S.)
b
109
.
74
c
. .
Note: Economies in italics are those for which 1989 GNP per capita cannot be calculated. figures in italics are for years other than those specified. a. See the technical note for Table I. b. Less than 500 square kilometers. c. GNP per capita estimated to be in the high-income
range. d. GNP per capita estimated to be in the upper-middle-income range. e. GNP per capita estimated to be in the lower-middle-income
range. f. Population is more than I million.
.
.
.
.
.
271
Former
German
Democratic
Albania
Population (millions)
Urban population (percentage
of total)
Life expectancy at birth (years)
Crude birth rate (per 1,000
population)
Republica
Cuba
1965
1989
1965
11
32
66
35
72
58
67
35
24
34
9
2,100
5.4
87
1965
USSR
Korea
1989
1965
1989
1965
17
17
12
21
232
288
74
76
73
70
77
74
45
57
60
70
52
69
66
70
18
17
12
44
22
18
18
12
10
420
270
2.4
24
1989
1989
14
13
530
1.9
870
440
3.0
1,150
4.4
2.5
1.8
6.5
2.4
480
2.5
25
6
.
26
38
12
63
27
28
28
14
27
34
2,376
2,741
2,373
3,103
84
87
92
96
98
99
82
119
121
29
17
25
12
33
3,203
3,890
2,298
3,193
3,205
3,386
108
72
113
73
111
104
109
105
105
86
103
103
113
101
36
108
100
100
105
111
108
121
22,402
12
15
25
307
Note: For data comparability and coverage and definitions, see the technical notes for the appropriate main table. Figures in italics are
for years other than those specified. a. Not included in the "other economies" country group in the main tables.
tam. Rebasing does involve incorporating in private consumption whatever statistical discrepancies
arise for expenditure. The value added in the services
sector also includes a statistical discrepancy, as reported by the original source.
With some exceptions, use of 1987 rather than 1980
values as country weights does not greatly alter the
group indexes and growth rates reported here. Most
exceptions relate to oil exporters and reflect declining
shares of group GNP, trade, and so on from 1980 to
1987. This is most notable for Sub-Saharan Africa,
with the dramatic decline in Nigeria's weight. In contrast, changing the base year for country series themselves, as described above, is likely to alter trends
significantly. Differences of half a percentage point a
year in growth rates could be quite common; larger
changes may occur for economies that have undergone significant structural change, such as oil
exporters.
272
All growth rates shown are calculated from constant price series and, unless otherwise noted, have
been computed using the least-squares method. The
least-squares growth rate, r, is estimated by fitting a
least-squares linear regression trend line to the logarithmic annual values of the variable in the relevant
period. More specifically, the regression equation
takes the form log X, = a + bt + e where this is
equivalent to the logarithmic transformation of the
compound growth rate equation, X = X0 (1 + r)t. In
added claimed by residents. It comprises GDP (defined in the note for Table 2) plus net factor income
from abroad, which is the income residents receive
from abroad for factor services (labor and capital) less
similar payments made to nonresidents who contributed to the domestic economy.
In estimating GNP per capita, the Bank recognizes
that perfect cross-country comparability of GNP per
capita estimates cannot be achieved. Beyond the clas-
Organization. Area is the total surface area, measured in square kilometers, comprising land area and
inland waters.
GNP per ca pita figures in US dollars are calculated
according to the World Bank Atlas method, which is
described below.
exchange rate is judged to diverge by an exceptionally large margin from the rate effectively applied
age of the exchange rate for that year and the ex-
change rates for the two preceding years, after adjusting them for differences in relative inflation between
273
dollars.
The average annual rate of inflation is measured by
currency and terms of trade fluctuations have affected relative income levels. For this reason the
iP,
[e,_
P1
+ c,_,
P1
+ e,j
e_Zt)
where
Yt
Pt
e,
N,
P1
Because of problems associated with the availability of comparable data and the determination of conversion factors, information on GNP per capita is not
shown for some economies.
The use of official exchange rates to convert national currency figures to US dollars does not reflect
the relative domestic purchasing powers of currencies. The United Nations International Comparison
Program (ICP) has developed measures of real GDP
on an internationally comparable scale, using purchasing power parities (PPPs) instead of exchange
rates as conversion factors. Table 30 shows the most
recent ICP estimates. Information on the ICP has
been published in four studies and in a number of
other reports. The most recent study is Phase V, parts
of which have already been published by the European Communities (EC)covering Europe and Africaand the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The ICP figures reported in Table 30 are preliminary and may be revised. The United Nations and its
regional economic commissions, as well as other international agencies, such as the EC, the OECD, and
the World Bank, are working to improve the meth-
274
imports are measured in grain equivalents and defined as comprising all cereals in the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC), Revision 2, Groups
041-046. Food aid in cereals covers wheat and flour,
bulgur, rice, coarse grains, and the cereal component
of blended foods. The figures are not directly comparable because of reporting and timing differences. Cereal imports are based on calendar-year data reported
by recipient countries, and food aid in cereals is based
on data for crop years reported by donors and international organizations, including the International
Wheat Council and the World Food Programme. Furthermore, food aid information from donors may not
correspond to actual receipts by beneficiaries during a
given period because of delays in transportation and
recording, or because aid is sometimes not reported
to the FAO or other relevant international organiza-
Partially rebased, chain-linked 1987 series in domestic currencies, as explained at the beginning of
the technical notes, are used to compute the growth
July to June.
The average index of food production per capita shows
Summary measures given for value added in manufacturing are totals calculated by the aggregation
method noted at the beginning of the technical notes.
available.
Four indicators are showntwo relate to real earnings per employee, one to labor's share in total value
added generated, and one to labor productivity in the
manufacturing sector. The indicators are based on
(wages and salaries) cover all remuneration to employees paid by the employer during the year. The
payments include (a) all regular and overtime cash
payments and bonuses and cost of living allowances;
(b) wages and salaries paid during vacation and sick
leave; (c) taxes and social insurance contributions and
ness partners, and unpaid family workers; they exclude homeworkers. The data refer to the average
number of employees working during the year.
Tables 8 and 9. Growth of consumption
and investment; structure of demand
GDP is defined in the note for Tables 2 and 3, but for
these two tables it is in purchaser values.
General government consumption includes all current
technical notes.
Gross domestic investment consists of outlays on ad-
tion in low- and middle-income economies). As mentioned, medical care and education include government
as well as private consumption expenditure. Transport
and communication also includes the purchase of automobiles, which are reported as a subitem. Other consumption, the residual group, includes beverages and
tobacco, nondurable household goods and household services, recreational services, and services (including meals) supplied by hotels and restaurants;
carry-out food is recorded here. It also includes the
separately reported subitem other consumer durables,
reasons the data presented, especially those for education and health, are not comparable across countries. In many economies private health and education services are substantial; in others public services
represent the major component of total expenditure
but may be financed by lower levels of government.
Caution should therefore be exercised in using the
data for cross-country comparisons. Central government expenditure comprises the expenditure by all
government offices, departments, establishments,
and other bodies that are agencies or instruments of
prices and incomplete national accounting for subsistence activities also contribute to low food shares.
category are calculated from series in national currencies. Because of differences in coverage of available
derly, the permanently disabled, and the unemployed; family, maternity, and child allowances; and
the cost of welfare services, such as care of the aged,
the disabled, and children. Many expenditures rele-
cluded elsewhere; for a few economies it also includes amounts that could not be allocated to other
components (or adjustments from accrual to cash
accounts).
Total expenditure is more narrowly defined than the
quasi-monetary liabilities of a country's financial institutions to residents other than the central government. For most countries, monetary holdings are the
sum of money (IFS line 34) and quasi-money (IFS line
35). Money comprises the economy's means of payment: currency outside banks and demand deposits.
Quasi-money comprises time and savings deposits
and similar bank accounts that the issuer will readily
exchange for money. Where nonmonetary financial
institutions are important issuers of quasi-monetary
liabilities, these are also included in the measure of
monetary holdings.
The growth rates for monetary holdings are calculated from year-end figures, while the average of the
year-end figures for the specified year and the previous year is used for the ratio of monetary holdings
to GDP.
shown net of refunds and other corrective transactions. Taxes on income, profit, and capital gains are taxes
ever, of limited international comparability partly because coverage and definitions vary, and partly because countries differ in the scope available to banks
for adjusting interest rates to reflect market
conditions.
Since interest rates (and growth rates for monetary
3 (mineral fuels, and lubricants and related materials). Other primary commodities comprise SITC Section 2 (crude materials, excluding fuels), less Division
imports.
shown.
Tables 15 and 16. Structure of merchandise
imports and exports
Manufactured goods are the commodities in the S tandard International Trade Classification (SITC), Revision
1, Sections 5 through 9 (chemical and related products, basic manufactures, manufactured articles, ma-
chinery and transport equipment, and other manufactured articles and goods not elsewhere classified),
excluding Division 68 (nonferrous metals). This definition is somewhat broader than the one used to define exporters of manufactures.
The major manufactured product groups reported
are defined as follows: textiles and clothing (SITC Sections 65 and 84), chemicals (SITC Section 5), electrical
machinery and electronics (SITC Section 72), transport
equipment (SITC Section 73), and others, defined as the
(factor and nonfactor) as well as inflows of unrequited transfers (private and official) and (b) imports
of goods and services as well as all unrequited transfers to the rest of the world.
The current account balance (before official transfers) is
requited transfers as akin to official capital movements. The difference between the two balance of
payments measures is essentially foreign aid in the
form of grants, technical assistance, and food aid,
which, for most developing countries, tends to make
current account deficits smaller than the financing
requirement.
Net workers' remittances cover payments and receipts of income by migrants who are employed or
expect to be employed for more than a year in their
new economy, where they are considered residents.
These remittances are classified as private unrequited
transfers and are included in the balance of payments
ODA from high-income OECD countries were converted at 1987 prices using the dollar GDP deflator.
This deflator is based on price increases in OECD
countries (excluding Greece, Portugal, and Turkey)
measured in dollars. It takes into account the parity
changes between the dollar and national currencies.
OECD.
and assistance. The disbursements shown in this table are not strictly comparable with those shown in
Table 19 since the receipts are from all sources; disbursements in Table 19 refer only to those made by
high-income members of the OECD and members of
OPEC. Net disbursements equal gross disbursements
less payments to the originators of aid for amortization of past aid receipts. Net disbursements of ODA
are shown per capita and as a percentage of GNP.
long-term loans.
Disbursements are drawings on long-term loan commitments during the year specified.
Repayment of principal is the actual amount of princi-
repayment of principal on public, publicly guaranteed, and private nonguaranteed long-term debt. Of-
grants (excluding technical assistance), and net foreign direct investment. Aggregate net transfers are
equal to aggregate net resource flows minus interest
payments on long-term loans and foreign direct investment profits.
Population growth rates are period averages calculated from midyear populations.
country of origin.
the sum of principal repayments and interest payments on total external debt (as defined in the note
stationary.
debt.
Tables 2 and 3.
Total debt service as a percentage of goods and services is
Commitments refer to the public and publicly guaranteed loans for which contracts were signed in the year
cohort. Mortality, fertility, and migration are projected separately and the results are applied iteratively to the 1985 base-year age structure. For the
specified. They are reported in currencies of repayment and converted into US dollars at average annual official exchange rates.
Figures for interest rates, maturities, and grace periods
projection period 1985 to 2005, the changes in mortality are country specific: increments in life expectancy
and decrements in infant mortality are based on previous trends for each country. When female secondary school enrollment is high, mortality is assumed to
The estimates of the size of the stationary population are speculative. They should not be regarded as pre-
prediction.
Married women of childbearing age using contraception
ing person are derived from World Health Organization (WHO) data and are supplemented by data ob-
The crude birth rate and crude death rate indicate respectively the number of live births and deaths occurring per thousand population in a year. They come
from the sources mentioned in the note to Table 26.
Women of childbearing age are those from age 15 to
49.
as
well as
stitutions. Sometimes smaller private and rural hospitals are excluded, and sometimes even relatively
primitive local facilities are included. The coverage is
therefore not always comprehensive, and the figures
should be treated with extreme caution.
Babies with low birth weight are children born weigh-
ing less than 2,500 grams. Low birth weight is frequently associated with maternal malnutrition and
tends to raise the risk of infant mortality and lead to
poor growth in infancy and childhood, thus increasing the incidence of other forms of retarded development. The figures are derived from both WHO and
UNICEF sources and are based on national data. The
data are not strictly comparable across countries since
they are compiled from a combination of surveys and
administrative records that may not have representative national coverage.
children.
The primary pupil-teacher ratio is the number of pu-
Agriculture Organization.
The data in this table refer to a variety of years, generally not more than two years distant from those specified; however, figures for females sometimes refer to
a year earlier than that for overall totals. The data are
mostly from Unesco.
The data on secondary school enrollment are calculated in the same manner, but again the definition of
secondary school age differs among countries. It is
most commonly considered to be 12 to 17 years. Late
entry of more mature students as well as repetition
expenditure.
The first column presents preliminary results of the
UN International Comparison Program (ICP), Phase
V, for 1985. ICP recasts traditional national accounts
through special price collections and disaggregation
of GDP by expenditure components. More comprehensive ICP results are expected to be available by the
These quantities are indeed comparable internationally, but they do not add up to the indicated
GDPs because they are calculated at a different set of
prices.
tive prices.
This table provides some basic indicators disaggregated to show differences between the sexes that IIlustrate the condition of women in society. The measures reflect the demographic status of women and
their access to health and education services. Statistical anomalies become even more apparent when social indicators are analyzed by gender, because re-
males than for males in some lower-income economies. This suggests differential treatment of males
and females with respect to food and medical care.
Such discrimination particularly affects very young
girls, who may get a smaller share of scarce food or
receive less prompt costly medical attention. This pat-
different national definitions of what is urban, crosscountry comparisons should be made with caution.
The summary measures for urban population as a
opportunities, conscription into the army, or migration in search of work. In addition, since the numbers
in these columns refer mainly to general secondary
education, they do not capture those (mostly males)
enrolled in technical and vocational schools or in fulltime apprenticeships, as in Eastern Europe.
All summary measures are country data weighted
by each country's share in the aggregate population.
Sometimes smaller private and rural hospitals are excluded, and sometimes even relatively primitive local
facilities are included. The coverage is therefore not
toward including environmental data in the assessment of development and the planning of economic
strategies. It provides a partial picture of the status of
forests, the extent of areas protected for conservation
or other environmentally related purposes, and the
availability and use of freshwater. The data reported
here are drawn from the most authoritative sources
available, cited in World Resources Institute's World
Resources 1990-91. Perhaps even more than other data
data in this field. The data refer to any year from 1977
supplemented by the
to 1984.
square kilometers, having peaked in 1987 and declined greatly thereafter. By 1990, cumulative de-
these data.
Internal renewable water resources data are subject to
ity within a country both seasonally and geographically. Because freshwater resources are based on
long-term averages, their estimation explicitly excludes decade-long cycles of wet and dry. These data
are compiled from national, international, and professional publications from a variety of years. In the
absence of other measures, estimates of sectoral withdrawals are modeled when necessary (based on information on industry, irrigation practices, livestock
populations, crop mix, and precipitation). Data from
small countries and arid regions are thought less reliable than those from large countries and more humid
zones. These data do not include freshwater created
by desalination plants.
Annual withdrawal refers to the average annual
flows of rivers and underground waters that are derived from precipitation falling within the country.
The total withdrawn and the percentage withdrawn of
the total renewable resource are both reported in this
table. The total water withdrawn for use can exceed
the total renewable resource of a country for two reasons. Water might be withdrawn from a lake or river
shared with another country, or it might be withdrawn from an aquifer that is not part of the renewable cycle. Domestic use includes drinking water, mu-
forestation (both recent and historical) within the Legal Amazon totaled 415,000 square kilometers.
Deforestation outside the Legal Amazon also occurs,
ture reserves, national parks of national or international significance (not materially affected by human
activity), natural monuments and natural landscapes
289
Data sources
Production
and domestic
absorption
UN Department of International Economic and Social Affairs. Various years. Statistical Yearbook. New
Fiscal and
monetary
accounts
International Monetary Fund. Government Finance Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 11. Washington, D.C.
. Various years. International Financial Statistics. Washington, D.C.
UN Department of International Economic and Social Affairs. Various years. World Energy Supplies.
Statistical Papers, series J. New York.
IMF data.
Core
International Monetary Fund. Various years. International Financial Statistics. Washington, D.C.
UN Conference on Trade and Development. Various years. Handbook of International Trade and
international
transactions
York.
. Various years. Energy Statistics Yearbook. Statistical Papers, series 1. New York.
UN International Comparison Program Phases IV (1980) and V (1985) reports, and data from ECE,
ESCAP, Eurostat, OECD, and UN.
FAO, IMF, UNIDO, and World Bank data; national sources.
External finance
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Various years. Development Co-operation.
Paris.
1988. Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Developing Countries. Paris.
IMF, OECD, and World Bank data; World Bank Debtor Reporting System.
Human and
natural
resources
Bulatao, Rodolfo A., Eduard Bos, Patience W. Stephens, and My T. Vu. 1990. World Population
Projections, 1 989-90 Edition. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Institute for Resource Development/Westinghouse. 1987. Child Survival: Risks and the Road to Health.
Columbia, Md.
Mauldin, W. Parker, and Holden J. Segal. 1988. "Prevalence of Contraceptive Use: Trends and
Issues." Studies in Family Planning 19, 6: 335-53.
Sivard, Ruth. 1985. WomenA World Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Priorities.
UN Department of International Economic and Social Affairs. Various years. Demographic Yearbook.
New York.
Various years. Population and Vital Statistics Report. New York.
Various years. Statistical Yearbook. New York.
1989. Levels and Trends of Contraceptive Use as Assessed in 1988. New York.
1988. Mortality of Children under Age 5: Projections 1950-2025. New York.
1989. Prospects of World Urbanization. New York.
1989. World Population Prospects: 1988. New York.
UN Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Various years. Statistical Yearbook. Paris.
1988. Compendium of Statistics on Illiteracy. Paris.
UNICEF. 1989. The State of the World's Children 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
World Health Organization. Various years. World Health Statistics Annual. Geneva.
1986. Maternal Mortality Rates: A Tabulation of Available Information, 2nd edition. Geneva.
Various years. World Health Statistics Report. Geneva.
World Resources Institute. 1990. World Resources 1990-91. New York.
FAO and World Bank data.
290
In the time it takes to read this paragraph, about a hundred children will be bornsix in
industrial countries and ninety-four in developing countries. Some countries in the developing world have increased their standard of living more than fivefold in the past forty years,
but many others have made little progress. Today, more than one billion people, or a quarter
of the people in developing countries, live in abject poverty on less than one dollar a day.
No matter what the outlook in the industrial economies, the world will find lasting prosperity and security only if the developing countries can raise their standard of living. This is the
challenge of development, the subject of this fourteenth annual World Development Report.
The task of development is daunting. Yet history shows that rapid and sustained
progress is possibleeven in countries with few endowments other than resourceful people. There has been enormous variation in the performance of developing countries, and
there is no single formula for development. The Report shows, however, that policies on
several frontsto promote investment in people, successful entrepreneurs, greater openness
These policies form the basis for an emerging consensus in favor of a "marketfriendly" strategy for development. The Report describes this strategy and what both developing and industrial countries, as well as multilateral aid and finance agencies, can do to
ensure that it succeeds. And it goes further: it shows the complementary ways in which
markets and governments can pull together.
A main theme of the Report is how the various aspects of market-friendly development interact. Investing in people spurs entrepreneurs' productivity all the more powerfully
180 countries and territories. These data will also be available on diskette for use with
________
personal computers.
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