Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Online Manual Table of Contents
USERS GUIDE
Frontispiece
Terms and Conditions
Precis
Table of Contents
Section 1 : Introduction
Section 2 : Getting Started
Section 3 : Problem Solving with FLAC
Section 4 : FISH Beginners Guide
Section 5 : Miscellaneous
Section 6 : Bibliography
COMMAND REFERENCE
Frontispiece
Table of Contents
Section 1 : Command Reference
Online Contents - 2
FISH IN FLAC
Frontispiece
Precis
Table of Contents
Section 1 : FISH Beginners Guide
Section 2 : FISH Reference
Section 3 : Library of FISH Functions
Section 4 : Program Guide
FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION
Frontispiece
Precis
Table of Contents
Section 1 : Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Section 2 : Two-Phase Flow
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Frontispiece
Table of Contents
Section 1 : Structural Elements
Online Contents - 3
OPTIONAL FEATURES
Frontispiece
Precis
Table of Contents
Section 1 : Thermal Option
Section 2 : Creep Material Models
Section 3 : Dynamic Analysis
Section 4 : Writing New Constitutive Models
Online Contents - 4
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS
Frontispiece
Precis
Table of Contents
Slope Stability for a Cohesive and Frictional Soil
Axisymmetric Modeling of Post-Pillar Mining
Cemented Backfill Pillar Performance
Undrained Cylindrical Cavity Expansion in a Cam-Clay Medium
Post-Peak Pillar Behavior and the Effects of Backfill Confinement
Full-Scale Test Wall in Sand
Stresses around a Pressurized Concrete Tunnel
Displacements near the Face of an Advancing Shaft
Simulation of Pull-Tests for Grouted Cable Anchors
Slope Stability Analysis of a Rock Slope
Analysis of a Concrete Diaphragm Wall
Multi-Stage Tunnel Excavation and Support
Embankment Loading on a Cam-Clay Foundation
Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation
Earthquake Loading of a Pile-Supported Wharf
Pile-Supported Highway Embankment
Lined Tunnel Construction in Saturated Ground
Seismic Analysis of an Embankment Dam
Online Contents - 5
VERIFICATION PROBLEMS
Frontispiece
Precis
Table of Contents
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Elastic Medium
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite, Transversely Isotropic, Elastic Medium
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Mohr-Coulomb Medium
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Hoek-Brown Medium
Spherical Cavity in an Infinite Elastic Medium
Strip and Circular Footings on a Mohr-Coulomb Material
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of a Jointed Rock Sample
Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium with Anisotropic Stresses
One-Dimensional Consolidation
Steady-State Fluid Flow with a Free Surface
Unconfined Flow toward a Riverbank
Transient Fluid Flow to a Well in a Shallow Confined Aquifer
Plastic Flow in a Punch Problem
Poroelastic Response of a Borehole
Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on a Cam-Clay Sample
Circular Footing on a Semi-Infinite Elastic Medium
Brazilian Test
Compression of a Poroelastic Sample Mandels Problem
Estimating Limit Loads in High-Friction Materials
Slope Failure Due to Surcharge Load in Weightless Material
Undrained Embankment Loading
Online Contents - 6
FLAC-GIIC REFERENCE
Frontispiece
Table of Contents
Section 1 : FLAC-GIIC Reference
PROGRAM GUIDE
4-1
4 PROGRAM GUIDE
4.1 Linked-List Sizes and Offsets
As mentioned in Section 2.5.7, FISH programs have access to some of FLAC s linked-list data
structures. The global pointers to these data structures are provided as FISH scalar variables. The
sizes of the various data blocks and the offsets of items within the blocks are contained in a series
of files supplied with FLAC. These files have the extension .FIN (for Fish INclude file); they
provide symbolic names for sizes and offsets and current numerical values (which may change in
future versions of FLAC).* The .FIN files serve two purposes: first, they document the meanings
of the various data items; second, the files may be CALLed from a data file they automatically
execute and define appropriate symbols. The symbols are all preceded by the $ sign, so that they are
invisible to the casual user who gives a PRINT sh command. The FISH programmer may simply
use numbers for offsets (as done in the example of Section 2.5.7), or the programmer may use the
symbols provided in the .FIN files. It is better to specify offsets in symbolic form because the
resulting FISH program will work correctly with future versions of FLAC, in which offsets and
block sizes may be different. (Every effort will be made by Itasca to retain the same symbolic
names in future versions of FLAC.)
The following list provides the names of FISH scalar pointers and filenames for each type of data
structure.
Table 4.1
Global pointer
app pnt
att pnt
ieb pnt
int pnt
str pnt
trac pnt
udm pnt
Filename
app.fin
att.fin
ieb.fin
int.fin
str.fin
trk.fin
udm.fin
Data structure
lists of APPLY data
lists of ATTACHed points
data associated with IEB
interface list data
structural data
data associated with TRACK logic
user-defined model data
By calling .FIN files, some memory overhead is incurred, since all the offsets for a particular data
structure are stored in memory; typical additional memory requirement is between 500 and 1000
words per file.
4-2
FISH in FLAC
;Control block
;------------;
0
Link to next control block
$kicext = 1
;Spare extension (can be used by FISH)
$kicapt = 2
;Pointer to list of "A-side" nodes
$kicbpt = 3
;Pointer to list of "B-side" nodes
$kicatp = 4
;Type of A-side contact: 0 = grid; 1 = beam.
$kicbtp = 5
;Type of B-side contact: 0 = grid; 1 = beam.
$kicfri = 6
;Friction angle in degrees
$kiccoh = 7
;Cohesion (stress units)
$kicbon = 8
;Tensile strength
$kicglu = 9
;1 if glued; 0 if not
$kicid = 10 ;ID number
$kicks = 11 ;Shear stiffness (stress/disp)
$kickn = 12 ;Normal stiffness
$kictph = 13 ;Tan(friction angle)
$kicdil = 15 ;Tan(dilation angle)
$kicxxx = 15 ; Unused
;Node block
;---------;
0
$kidext = 1
;
$kidi
= 2
$kidj
= 3
$kidadd = 4
$kidfn = 5
$kidfs = 6
PROGRAM GUIDE
$kidun =
;
=
$kidslf =
$kidseg =
$kidrlk =
$kidbfl =
$kidrat =
;
;
;
$kidlen =
$kidsxx =
$kidsxy =
$kidsyy =
$kidx
=
;
$kidy
=
$kidass =
$kidasd =
$kidand =
end
$int fin
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
4-3
In order to illustrate the way this file is used, the example of Section 2.5.7 is repeated, but with
symbolic names substituted for offsets given previously as integers. The program operation is
identical.
Example 4.2 Accessing FLACs data structure via a .FIN file
set log
set echo off
call int.fin
set echo on
g 10 11
m e
prop dens 2000 sh 1e8 bu 2e8
m n j=6
ini x add 2.5 y add -0.9 j=7,12
int 4 aside from 1,6 to 11,6 bside from 1,7 to 11,7
int 4 kn 5e8 ks 2.5e8 fric 10
set grav 10,5 large
fix x y j=1
step 1
def make list
ip = int pnt
4-4
loop while ip # 0
imem(ip+$kicext) = get mem(3) ;get storage buffer
ip = imem(ip)
end loop
end
make list
def save data
while stepping
ip = int pnt
loop while ip # 0
;scan interfaces
ii = imem(ip+$kicext)
loop nside (1,2)
;scan 2 sides
caseof nside
case 1
ispt = imem(ip+$kicapt)
case 2
ispt = imem(ip+$kicbpt)
endcase
loop while ispt # 0 ;scan nodes on one side
if abs(fmem(ispt+$kidfn)) > fmem(ii) then
fmem(ii)
= abs(fmem(ispt+$kidfn))
imem(ii+1) = ispt
imem(ii+2) = step
end if
ispt = imem(ispt)
end loop
end loop
ip = imem(ip)
end loop
end
def sho data
ip = int pnt
loop while ip # 0
ii
= imem(ip+1)
s1
= max-Fn = +string(fmem(ii))+,
ig
= imem(imem(ii+1)+2)
jg
= imem(imem(ii+1)+3)
s2
=
g.p.(+string(ig)+,+string(jg)+)
s3
= at step +string(imem(ii+2))
?? = out(s1+s2+s3)
ip
= imem(ip)
end loop
end
step 500
sho data
FISH in FLAC
GRID GENERATION
3-1
3 GRID GENERATION
3.1 General Comments
Unlike many modeling programs based on the finite element method, FLAC organizes its zones (or
elements) in a row-and-column fashion, like a crossword puzzle. We refer to a particular zone
by a pair of numbers its row and column numbers rather than by an arbitrary ID number, as
in finite element programs. Although the numbering scheme resembles that of a crossword puzzle,
the physical shape of a FLAC grid need not be rectangular: the rows and columns can be distorted
so that the boundary fits some given shape; holes can be made in the grid; separate grids can be
stuck together to create more complicated bodies. Furthermore, the zones can vary in size across a
grid. This section describes the various ways in which FLAC grids can be made to fit the physical
shapes that are to be modeled.
When fairly simple shapes are to be modeled, FLAC s grid scheme is very easy to use and interpret.
For one thing, printed output (such as a list of zone stresses) is arranged on the page in a way that
corresponds closely with positions in physical space. In contrast, finite element output is arranged
arbitrarily. The advantages tend to vanish, however, as the objects to be modeled become more
complicated. Some degree of skill is needed to set up complex grids.
With any numerical method, the accuracy of the results depends on the grid used to represent the
physical system. In general, finer meshes (more zones per unit length) lead to more accurate results.
Furthermore, the aspect ratio (ratio of height to width of a zone) also affects accuracy. When creating
grids with FLAC, it should be kept in mind that the greatest accuracy is obtained for a model with
equal, square zones. If the model must contain different zone sizes, then a gradual variation in
size should be used for maximum accuracy; this factor is important enough that a special option is
provided in the GENERATE command whereby zone sizes can be arranged to increase or decrease
by a constant ratio along any grid line. As a general rule, the aspect ratio of a zone should be kept
as close to unity as possible: anything above 5:1 is potentially inaccurate. Section 3.2 in the Users
Guide provides some guidelines for choosing zone sizes and shapes and some justification for the
rules just given. The purpose of this section is to show the reader what tools are available for grid
generation and how to use them effectively.
The discussion and examples provided in this section use the command-line approach to data input
to FLAC. You are encouraged to work through the examples in this section to become familiar with
the principles used for grid generation in FLAC.*
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Theory\3-Grid with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided
for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter, open a
project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project
file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree
Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
3-2
Creation of grids, especially for complex model shapes, is greatly assisted by the graphical interface
(the GIIC see Section 2.2.1 in the Users Guide and the FLAC-GIIC Reference volume). All
the operations described in this section can be achieved via the GIIC. In addition, a grid library,
which contains grid objects commonly used in geomechanics, is provided: dam, retaining wall,
tunnel, etc. The library objects are a useful starting point to construct a model.
GRID GENERATION
3-3
p,q
It produces a grid of square zones, with p-zones in the x-direction and q-zones in the y-direction.
The intersections of mesh lines are called gridpoints. By default, the x-coordinates of the gridpoints
are 0, 1, . . . , p, and the y-coordinates are 0, 1, . . . , q. Note that there are (p + 1) vertical mesh lines
and (q + 1) horizontal mesh lines.
In order to stretch, shrink or shift the grid in the x- or y-directions, the initialization command,
INITIAL, can be used to modify the coordinates, using the parameters mul or add. The input line
ini
x mul 2
x add 10
shifts the whole grid by 10 units in the x-direction. Combinations of these operations can be entered
on a single line. For example, the input line
ini
x mul 2,
y mul 2,
x add 10
will enlarge the existing grid by a factor of two and then shift it ten units in the x-direction. Note
that negative multiplication factors should not be used on coordinates because the sense of the
grid will be reversed, causing negative zone areas. This will trigger an error message later on, when
a STEP command is given.
The INITIAL command can also be used to relocate individual gridpoints or all the gridpoints along
a row or column. For example, the nonuniform grid of Figure 3.1 can be produced with the data
file in Example 3.1.
Example 3.1 Creating a nonuniform grid with INITIAL commands
grid 5,4
model elastic
ini x=0.7 i=2
ini x=1.5 i=3
ini x=2.5 i=4
ini x=3.5 i=5
ini y=1.4 j=2
ini y=2.4 j=3
ini y=3.3 j=4
3-4
Figure 3.1
The command
initial x=0.7 i=2
sets all x-coordinates on the vertical grid line i=2 equal to 0.7 units. Similarly, the command
initial y=2.4 j=3
sets all y-coordinates on the horizontal grid line j = 3 equal to 2.4 units. Note that the command
MODEL elastic is not necessary for the process of changing coordinates, but it is given in order to
render the grid visible when it is plotted via a PLOT grid command. If no model is specified, a
null model, which plots as an empty space, is assumed.
An effect similar to that of Figure 3.1 can be obtained with less effort by using the ratio parameter
with the GENERATE command in Example 3.2.
Example 3.2 Creating a nonuniform grid with the ratio keyword
grid 5,4
model elastic
gen (ratio 1.2, 0.8)
GRID GENERATION
Figure 3.2
3-5
In this grid, the widths of successive zones in the x-direction are increased by a factor of 1.2, and
the heights of successive zones in the y-direction are increased by a factor of 0.8 (i.e., decreased).
On the matter of syntax, the brackets enclosing the ratio keyword and its parameters are optional:
they are simply included for cosmetic reasons (see Section 1.1.1 in the Command Reference).
The GENERATE command has many more options than implied by the previous example. There are
two main forms of the command. The first form produces quadrilateral zoning, in which a region
between two i-lines and two j -lines is distorted into a quadrilateral shape. The general form is
gen
The four pairs of coordinates denote the four corners of the quadrilateral region of space taken in a
clockwise direction starting with the gridpoint with the lowest i and j numbers in the range. Intermediate points are distributed with even spacing along each i-line and j-line. If a non-rectangular
geometry is required, then the ratio keyword can be used in a manner similar to the one used in the
previous example. The commands in Example 3.3 produce the grid of Figure 3.3:
Example 3.3 Creating a non-rectangular geometry
grid 6,6
model elastic
gen same -2.0,4.0
6.0,7.0
10.0,0.8
(ratio 1.2,0.8)
3-6
Figure 3.3
Note the use of the same parameter for the first corner, which stays in its original place (at the
origin). In this case, no range is given, which causes FLAC to apply the generation logic to all
gridpoints.
When range parameters are given to the GENERATE command, several different quadrilateral regions
can be created within the grid, as Example 3.4 illustrates (see Figure 3.4).
Example 3.4 Creating two differently zoned regions
grid 10 8
mod elas
gen 0,-40 0,0 100,0 100,-40 rat=1,0.8 j=1,4
gen same 50,45 100,45 same i=4,11 j=4,9
model null i=1,3 j=4,8
Figure 3.4
GRID GENERATION
3-7
The region to the left of the slope is excavated by declaring the appropriate zones to be null.
Before moving on to the second form of the GENERATE command, it should be stressed that almost
any grid can be constructed by moving individual gridpoints, so that the grid conforms to the
required external and internal shapes. For example, the horseshoe-shaped tunnel of Figure 3.5 can
be constructed by moving appropriate gridpoints and deleting the interior zones, using Example 3.5.
Example 3.5 Creating a tunnel with INITIAL commands
grid 7 7
mod elas
ini x=2.3 y=4.7 i=3 j=6
ini x=4.7 y=4.7 i=6 j=6
mod null i=3,5 j=3,5
Figure 3.5
3-8
line
circle
arc
table
x1,y1 x2,y2
xc,yc rad
xc,yc xs,ys theta
n
where x1,y1 and x2,y2 are the start- and end-points of the line, xc,yc are the center coordinates of
arc or circle, rad is the circle radius, xs,ys are the starting coordinates of the arc, and theta is the
counterclockwise angular span of the arc in degrees. The value n of the table keyword refers to a
table of (x,y)-coordinates that has been prepared using the TABLE command.
The horseshoe-shaped tunnel in Figure 3.6 is created by the sequence of commands in Example 3.6.
The tunnel is similar to that in Figure 3.5, but the grid is much finer:
Example 3.6 Creating a tunnel with the GENERATE arc command
grid 20 20
mod elas
gen arc 10 10 15 10 180
mark i=6,16 j=6
mark j=6,11 i=6
mark j=6,11 i=16
mod nul, region=(6,6)
Note that only the top of the tunnel is created with the arc keyword; the affected gridpoints are
marked, as explained above. In order to excavate the material in the tunnel with one command,
a contiguous series of marked gridpoints must exist all around the tunnel. To do this, the MARK
command is used three times. The region keyword then causes all zones within the region bounded
GRID GENERATION
3-9
by marked gridpoints to be converted to null; to address the region, any zone within the region
can be mentioned in this example, it was (6,6). Although the region logic was used to change
the constitutive model, it can also be used to change the properties within the region or initialize
variables, such as stress e.g.,
prop shear=1234.5, reg=7,7
ini sxx=-1e6 reg=8,8
These commands change the shear modulus and set the x-stress, respectively, within the region.
Figure 3.6
The keyword circle is used in a way similar to the way arc is used, in order to create an enclosed
circular region. Note that is possible to produce an ellipse by first stretching the grid, then creating
a circle, and finally returning the grid to its original shape. Figure 3.7 shows the result of giving
the commands in Example 3.7
Example 3.7 Creating an ellipse
grid 20 20
m e
ini x mul 2
gen circle 20,10,5.5
ini x mul 0.5
mod nul reg=10,10
3 - 10
Figure 3.7
The GENERATE line command relocates gridpoints that lie along the track of a single line with given
endpoints. At this stage, it should be noted that gridpoints will not, in general, attach themselves to
the endpoints of a line or an arc unless existing gridpoints lie very close to the given endpoints. For
example, if two lines are supposed to meet at a common point, a nearby gridpoint should be moved
there first. Figure 3.8(a) illustrates the effect of two lines with a common endpoint but lacking a
corresponding gridpoint. The data file is given in Example 3.8.
Example 3.8 Relocating gridpoints with GENERATE line commands
g 8 8
m e
gen line 2.0,0.0 3.3,4.6
gen line 3.3,4.6 8.0,6.0
GRID GENERATION
3 - 11
(a)
Figure 3.8
(b)
(c)
By moving gridpoint (4,6) to the common point with an INI command, we get the intended grid of
Figure 3.8(b), as illustrated by Example 3.9.
Example 3.9 Moving common gridpoints
g 8 8
m e
; relocate g.p. to common point
ini x=3.3 y=4.6 i=4 j=6
gen line 2.0,0.0 3.3,4.6
gen line 3.3,4.6 8.0,6.0
The grid may be further improved by adding a GENERATE adjust command. Figure 3.8(c) shows
how the changes in the shape of adjacent zones are made less abrupt.
If a surface that consists of many connected line segments is needed, then the GENERATE table
command is often useful. For example, the grid of Figure 3.8(b) may be produced directly by the
sequence in Example 3.10.
Example 3.10 Relocating gridpoints with the GENERATE table command
g 8 8
m e
table 1 2.0,0.0
gen table 1
3.3,4.6
8.0,6.0
Here we pre-define the sequence of points by means of a table, and then invoke the same table in the
GENERATE command. Sometimes the GENERATE table command is not very clever at relocating
gridpoints near the joints in the line segments, so some manual help may be needed. The GENERATE
table can be used almost like a boundary element specification, since only a list of boundary points
3 - 12
is needed. The grid of Figure 3.9 is produced from the data set in Example 3.11; note that the last
point is identical to the first point, in order to generate a closed curve.
Example 3.11 Creating a complex grid with TABLE commands
g 35 35
m e
table 1 7.7,21.6 7.9,24 8.7,27 10.9,30.1 14,31.5 17,32 20,31.6
table 1 23,30.5 25.6,28 26.9,25 26.9,21.4 26.1,18.9 24.5,17
table 1 22,15 20.8,14.2 20,13 19.6,12 19.6,9 14.8,9
table 1 14.8,12.8 15.6,15 17.1,16.9 20,19.4 21,21 21.4,23
table 1 21,24.7 20,26 18,27 17,27 15,26.3 13.8,25.2 13,23
table 1 13,21.6 7.7,21.6
gen table 1
gen circ 17.3,5 2.5
m n reg=18,13
m n reg=18,5
Figure 3.9
When generating internal boundaries with the line or table options, it is important to note that at
least two zone widths should lie between neighboring line segments. Otherwise, unpredictable
things happen. For example, the excavated region of Figure 3.9 is about five zones in width
the generation process is well-behaved. If it is necessary to have very thin gaps between lines
GRID GENERATION
3 - 13
of relocated gridpoints, then it is advisable to zone up this region by hand, and do the rest with
several applications of the GENERATE command. There are some geometries that just cannot be
constructed with an array of quadrilaterals when the required detail is fine enough. The question
to be asked is: Is the detail really necessary to the overall problem?
The automatic generation scheme is not foolproof: there are some circumstances in which the
resulting grid is not what was intended. In general, the boundary generators should only be used
when many gridpoints lie along the desired boundary; the scheme is not appropriate for relocating
only two or three gridpoints at a time. In this case, the points should be moved individually by using
INITIAL x, y commands, as described previously. Even when most of the gridpoints on a surface are
relocated satisfactorily by the automatic generator, the two endpoints may have to be adjusted by
hand with the INITIAL command, especially if they lie on an outer boundary. This is the case in
the next section, which is concerned with accommodating interfaces in a grid.
3 - 14
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
GRID GENERATION
3 - 15
The two badly placed endpoints can be moved, with the commands in Example 3.13, to produce
the grid in Figure 3.10(c).
Example 3.13 Adjusting gridpoints along the joint
ini
ini
x=5.0
x=0.0
y=14.0
y=5.0
(i=6, j=14)
(i=1, j=8)
Finally, the top block is moved down to meet the bottom block, and the two blocks are joined by
an interface using the commands in Example 3.14 (see Figure 3.10(d)).
Example 3.14 Joining the two blocks
ini y (add) -2.0 i=1,2 j=8,21
ini y (add) -2.0 i=3 j=10,21
ini y (add) -2.0 i=4 j=13,21
ini y (add) -2.0 i=5 j=15,21
ini y (add) -2.0 i=6 j=16,21
interface 1, ASIDE from 1,4 to 6,14
The adjust operation is then applied to the central part of the interface example; the ends are left
alone by MARKing the appropriate gridpoints, using the commands in Example 3.15. (Recall that
marked gridpoints are ignored by the GENERATE command.)
Example 3.15 Final adjustment to the grid
mark j=1,4
mark j=17,21
gen adjust
Figure 3.10(e) illustrates the result of this operation. When several interfaces are needed, the
following procedure should be followed. First, determine the number and shape of discrete blocks
that are bounded by the set of joints. Second, allocate part of the FLAC grid to each of the blocks,
making sure that there is a buffer strip of at least one zone in width between blocks. Then, generate
the required geometry for each block separately. Finally, move the blocks together, if this has not
already been done in the generation phase. This process is explained more fully in Section 4.3.
3 - 16
GRID GENERATION
3 - 17
Two sub-grids may be attached together even if the number of gridpoints on the opposing boundary
paths are not equal. However, the number of segments on one side must be an integral multiple
of the number of segments on the other. The term segment here denotes the chord joining two
adjacent gridpoints on a boundary. For example, there may be 3 segments (4 gridpoints) on the
first side and 6 segments (7 gridpoints) on the second side. In this case, the first, third, fifth and
seventh gridpoints on the second side will be attached perfectly to their counterparts on the first
side. The remaining gridpoints on the second side are slaved to the nearest two perfectly attached
gridpoints on the same boundary, using linear weighting for forces and velocities. In the general
case, every Nth gridpoint is attached perfectly to its opposing counterpart, where N is the integral
ratio of segments between the two sides.
Two boundaries may be so attached even if the opposing gridpoints are not at the same location,
but a warning message will be issued for each pair that does not coincide. In this case, the slaved
gridpoints still function as described above, but the weighting factors will be derived from the
slaves projection onto the chord joining the two nearest perfectly attached gridpoints. Great care
should be taken when setting up attached boundaries in which the gridpoint spacing varies; a plot
or printout should always be made to verify that the attachment has been done as intended. The
command PRINT attach lists both perfectly attached groups and slaved gridpoints. The PLOT attach
command only indicates perfectly attached gridpoints.
Example 3.17 illustrates the use of the ATTACH command when joining boundary paths with unequal
numbers of gridpoints. The example is unrealistic, but it serves to illustrate how a complicated series
of connections can be made. In particular, the attachment of the lower, right-hand sub-grid illustrates
that two or more ATTACH commands may be needed if the integral ratio varies along a boundary
path that is to be attached. In this case, part of the boundary has a two-to-one ratio and the remainder
has a three-to-one ratio. Thus, two ATTACH commands are needed, even though the two opposing
sub-grid boundaries are contiguous. After stepping, the results exhibit reasonable symmetry (see
Figure 3.12), which illustrates that coarse grids are adequate for regions that are remote from strain
concentrations.
Example 3.17 Demonstration of generalized ATTACH
;
Note that the example is contrived, for illustration only
grid 40,20
model elas i=1,20 j=1,20 ; Create large region
model elas i=21,30 j=11,20
model elas i=26,30 j=1,5
; Create 1st medium-size region
model elas i=36,40 j=11,15 ; Create 2nd medium-size region
model elas i=36,37 j=1,2
; Create small region
prop dens 2000 shear 1e8 bulk 2e8 ; (disregard warning messages!)
;
Move regions to correct places ...
ini x mul 2 y mul 2 x add -30
i=26,31 j=1,6
ini x mul 2 y mul 2 x add -40 y add -10 i=36,41 j=11,16
ini x 30.0 i=36
j=1,3
ini x 34.0 i=37
j=1,3
ini x 40.0 i=38
j=1,3
3 - 18
from
from
from
from
from
from
26,1 to 31,6
36,11 to 36,16
36,1 to 36,2
36,2 to 36,3
36,3 to 37,3
37,3 to 38,3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 15:53
step
5203
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
X-displacement contours
-4.00E-04
-3.00E-04
-2.00E-04
-1.00E-04
0.00E+00
1.00E-04
2.00E-04
3.00E-04
4.00E-04
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
0
1E 1
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
GRID GENERATION
3 - 19
tunnel. However, it is difficult to extend this approach to multiple tunnels that interact with each
other. Example 3.18 creates a grid that is constructed such that each tunnel has its own fine grid
for good local accuracy, but the interactions and boundary conditions make use of the coarse grid.
Figure 3.13 shows the grid.
Example 3.18 Multiple tunnels with fine and coarse grids attached
grid 77 50
mod elas
prop dens 2000 she 5e8 bulk 1.5e9
mod null i=21 28 j=13,20 ; region 1
mod null i=16,23 j=27,34 ; region 2
mod null i=39,46 j=22,29 ; region 3
mod null i=1,60 j=46,50 ; ... not used
mod null i=61
; carve out inserted blocks
mod null j=17
i=61,77
mod null j=34
i=61,77
; Now insert blocks ...
gen 20.0,12.0 20.0,20.0 28.0,20.0 28.0,12.0 i=62,78 j=1,17
gen 15.0,26.0 15.0,34.0 23.0,34.0 23.0,26.0 i=62,78 j=18,34
gen 38.0,21.0 38.0,29.0 46.0,29.0 46.0,21.0 i=62,78 j=35,51
attach as long from 21,13 to 29,13 bs long from 62,1 to 78,1
attach as
from 21,13 to 29,13 bs
from 62,1 to 78,1
attach as long from 16,27 to 24,27 bs long from 62,18 to 78,18
attach as
from 16,27 to 24,27 bs
from 62,18 to 78,18
attach as long from 39,22 to 47,22 bs long from 62,35 to 78,35
attach as
from 39,22 to 47,22 bs
from 62,35 to 78,35
gen circ 24.0 16.0 2.0
mod null reg 70,9
gen circ 19.0 30.0 2.0
mod null reg 70,26
gen circ 42.0 25.0 2.0
mod null reg 70,43
ini sxx=-1e6 syy=-3e6 szz=-2e6
fix x i=1
fix x i=61
fix y j=1 i=1,61
fix y j=46 i=1,61
solve
plo xdisp fill int 2.5e-4 grid hold
3 - 20
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.500
15-Apr-04 15:57
step
1520
-2.933E+00 <x< 6.293E+01
-1.043E+01 <y< 5.543E+01
3.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
Figure 3.13 Multiple tunnels with fine and coarse grids attached
Using a biaxial initial stress field, the resulting x-displacement contours are shown in Figure 3.14.
For comparison, the same geometry was set up with a uniform grid, using the same mesh size as
the fine region of Figure 3.13 throughout. The results, shown in Figure 3.15, are very similar to
those of the Figure 3.13 grid, but the execution time is more than 4.5 times slower.
GRID GENERATION
3 - 21
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
15-Apr-04 15:57
step
1520
-3.333E+00 <x< 6.333E+01
-1.083E+01 <y< 5.583E+01
3.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
2.500
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 2.50E-04
Minimum: -1.25E-03
Maximum: 1.25E-03
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
Figure 3.14 x-displacement contours for fine and coarse grids attached
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
15-Apr-04 16:01
step
2095
-3.333E+00 <x< 6.333E+01
-1.083E+01 <y< 5.583E+01
3.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
2.500
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 2.50E-04
Minimum: -1.25E-03
Maximum: 1.25E-03
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
3 - 22
It is not meaningful to apply velocity boundary conditions or fix conditions to slaved gridpoints,
because such gridpoints are controlled by their nearest attached neighbors. However, forces may
be applied to slaved gridpoints.
If all zones surrounding an attached gridpoint (slaved or not) are set to the null model, the attach
condition will still persist, even though such gridpoints will not participate in calculations. However,
if real models are restored to the null zones, the previous attach conditions will be reactivated. There
is no way to unattach gridpoints.
GRID GENERATION
3 - 23
3 - 24
The FISH program consists of a user-defined function called donut which, when invoked with the
appropriate settings, produces the grid shown in Figure 3.16. See Section 3 in the FISH volume
for other types of grid generation FISH functions.
INTRODUCTION
1-1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
FLAC is a two-dimensional explicit finite difference program for engineering mechanics computation. This program simulates the behavior of structures built of soil, rock or other materials
that may undergo plastic flow when their yield limits are reached. Materials are represented by
elements, or zones, which form a grid that is adjusted by the user to fit the shape of the object to
be modeled. Each element behaves according to a prescribed linear or nonlinear stress/strain law
in response to the applied forces or boundary restraints. The material can yield and flow, and the
grid can deform (in large-strain mode) and move with the material that is represented. The explicit,
Lagrangian calculation scheme and the mixed-discretization zoning technique used in FLAC ensure that plastic collapse and flow are modeled very accurately. Because no matrices are formed,
large two-dimensional calculations can be made without excessive memory requirements. The
drawbacks of the explicit formulation (i.e., small timestep limitation and the question of required
damping) are overcome to some extent by automatic inertia scaling and automatic damping that do
not influence the mode of failure.
Though FLAC was originally developed for geotechnical and mining engineers, the program offers
a wide range of capabilities to solve complex problems in mechanics. Several built-in constitutive models that permit the simulation of highly nonlinear, irreversible response representative of
geologic, or similar, materials are available. In addition, FLAC contains many special features
including:
interface elements to simulate distinct planes along which slip and/or separation can occur;
plane-strain, plane-stress and axisymmetric geometry modes;
groundwater and consolidation (fully coupled) models with automatic phreatic
surface calculation;
structural element models to simulate structural support (e.g., tunnel liners,
rock bolts, or foundation piles);
extensive facility for generating plots of virtually any problem variable;
optional dynamic analysis capability;
optional viscoelastic and viscoplastic (creep) models;
optional thermal (and thermal coupling to mechanical stress and pore pressure)
modeling capability;
optional two-phase flow model to simulate the flow of two immiscible fluids
(e.g., water and gas) through a porous medium; and
1-2
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1-3
Dr. Peter Cundall developed FLAC in 1986 specifically to perform engineering analyses on an
IBM-compatible microcomputer. The software is designed for high-speed computation of models
containing several thousand elements. With the advancements in floating-point operation speed and
the ability to install additional RAM at low cost, increasingly larger problems can be solved with
FLAC. For example, FLAC can solve a model containing up to 30,000 elements of Mohr-Coulomb
material on a microcomputer with 24 MB RAM. The solution speed for a model of this size is
roughly 14 calculation steps per second on a 2.4 GHz Pentium IV microcomputer.* The speed is
essentially a linear function of the number of elements; a model of 15,000 elements would require
half the runtime to process the same number of calculation steps.
For typical models, consisting of 15,000 elements or fewer, the explicit solution scheme in FLAC
requires approximately 4000 to 6000 steps to reach a solved state. Thus, a 15,000 element model
run on the Pentium described above would require roughly 3 minutes to perform 5000 calculation
steps. Consequently, typical engineering problems involving several thousand elements to model,
which once required access to a mainframe computer to solve, can be solved with FLAC on a
microcomputer in a matter of minutes.
A comparison of FLAC to other numerical methods, a description of general features and new
updates in FLAC Version 5.0, and a discussion of fields of application are provided in the following
sections. If you wish to try FLAC right away, the program installation instructions and simple
menu-driven and command-driven tutorials are provided in Section 2.
1-4
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1-5
1-6
Users Guide
Structures such as tunnel liners, piles, sheet piles, cables, rock bolts, reinforcing strips or yielding
props, that interact with the surrounding rock or soil, may be modeled with the structural element
logic in FLAC. It is possible to examine the stabilizing effects of supported excavations or to
examine the effects of soil or rock instability on surface structures.
FLAC contains a powerful built-in programming language, FISH, which enables the user to define
new variables and functions. FISH is a compiler; programs entered via a FLAC data file are
translated into a list of instructions stored in FLAC s memory space; these are executed whenever
a FISH function is invoked. FISH was developed in response to requests from users who wanted
to do things with FLAC that were either difficult or impossible with the existing code. Users can
write their own functions to extend FLAC s usefulness. For example, FISH permits:
user-prescribed property variations in the grid (e.g., nonlinear increase in modulus with depth);
plotting and printing of user-defined variables (custom-designed
plots);
implementation of special grid generators;
servo-control of numerical tests;
specification of unusual boundary conditions; variations in time and
space;
automation of parameter studies; and
specification of user-defined constitutive models.
An extensive plotting facility is built directly into FLAC. This allows the user to generate plots (either
on the screen or to a hardcopy device) of virtually any problem variable in the FLAC model. Several
variables can be plotted as overlays on a plot of the model, or histories of their change as a function
of calculation step can be plotted. The history plots are especially helpful to ascertain when an
equilibrium or failure state has been reached, and to monitor the change in variables during transient
calculations, such as groundwater flow, or dynamic calculations, such as earthquake motion. As
mentioned above, plots can be custom-designed via FISH to meet the users need. Examples are
given in Section 3 in the FISH volume.
The basic version of FLAC can be operated in menu-driven or command-driven mode, and the user
can easily switch back and forth between the two modes if desired. The menu-driven mode is easy
to use with point-and-click mouse operation and is designed to emulate expected Windows features.
This mode provides access to all commands and facilities available in FLAC.
Two executable codes are provided as part of the basic version of FLAC: a single-precision version
and a double-precision version. The single-precision version runs approximately 1.5 to 2 times
faster than the double-precision version. However, for situations in which the accumulated value of
a variable after many thousands of calculational steps is much larger than the incremental change
in the variable, single-precision limitations will prevent further changes in the variable. For this
reason, the double-precision version is the default code when FLAC is loaded, and is recommended
INTRODUCTION
1-7
for general use. Users, at their discretion, may choose to switch to the single-precision version to
run FLAC Version 5.0 (see Section 2.1.3).
1.3.2 Optional Features
Five optional features (for dynamic analysis, thermal analysis, two-phase flow analysis, modeling
creep material behavior, and adding new constitutive models as dynamic link libraries (DLLs)) are
available as separate modules that can be included in FLAC at an additional cost per module.
Dynamic analysis can be performed with FLAC, using the optional dynamic calculation module.
User-specified acceleration, velocity or stress waves can be input directly to the model either as
an exterior boundary condition or an interior excitation to the model. FLAC contains absorbing
and free-field boundary conditions to simulate the effect of an infinite elastic medium surrounding
the model. The dynamic calculation can be coupled to the groundwater flow model; the level of
coupling is discussed in Section 1.3.3.
There is a thermal analysis option available as a special module in FLAC. This model simulates the
transient flux of heat in materials and the subsequent development of thermally induced stresses.
The thermal model can be run independently or coupled to the mechanical stress calculation or pore
pressure calculation, either in static or dynamic mode. (The coupling interactions are described in
Section 1.3.3.)
FLAC can perform fluid-flow and fully coupled simulations in which two immiscible fluids (with
optional capillary pressure) are present within a porous medium. This optional feature extends the
facility of the basic groundwater flow model; the components of the formulation are described in
Section 1.3.3.
There are six optional material models that simulate viscoelastic and viscoplastic (creep) behavior
available: the classical viscoelastic (Maxwell) model; a two-component power law; a reference
creep formulation (the WIPP model) implemented for nuclear waste isolation studies; a Burgercreep viscoplastic model; a WIPP-creep viscoplastic model; and a crushed-salt constitutive model.
All six models are available in the creep module. A FLAC grid can be configured for both a creep
calculation and a dynamic calculation. However, both modes cannot be active simultaneously
because of the widely different timesteps.
New constitutive models can be added to FLAC as dynamic link libraries (DLLs) that are written
in C++ and compiled as separate files. The DLLs can be loaded in FLAC whenever needed, via the
MODEL load command. By implementing this optional feature, users can access new constitutive
models from Itascas web site. An advantage of these models is that they run at nearly the same
speed as built-in models, and noticeably faster than FISH constitutive models.
1-8
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1-9
Thermal-Groundwater Flow Coupling The thermal calculation may be coupled to the groundwater flow calculation by making pore pressures a function of temperature change. Volumetric
strain can arise from thermal expansion of both the fluid and the grains within a saturated matrix.
Pore pressure change results from this volumetric strain, as well as from mechanical volumetric strain. Groundwater flow can also influence heat transfer; an advection model that takes the
transport of heat by convection into account is provided. The advection model can also simulate
temperature-dependent fluid density and thermal advection in the fluid.
As with mechanical properties, groundwater properties can be made a function of temperature
change by accessing temperature and property values via FISH.
1 - 10
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1 - 11
1 - 12
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1 - 13
An interface may be removed using the INTERFACE n remove command. See Section 1 in the
Command Reference.
Each line may be assigned a user-specified color for history and table plotting. See Section 1 in the
Command Reference.
The x- and y-displacement of structural elements can be assigned initial values individually or as a
group (via STRUCT node n <range n1 n2> initial xdis v1 ydis v2). See Section 1 in the Command
Reference and Section 1.1.5 in Structural Elements.
1.4.9 New Example Applications and Verification Problems
Five new examples have been added to the Example Applications volume:
Example Application 14 Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation
See Section 14 in the Examples volume.
Example Application 15 Earthquake Loading of a Pile-Supported Wharf
See Section 15 in the Examples volume.
Example Application 16 Pile-Supported Highway Embankment
See Section 16 in the Examples volume.
Example Application 17 Lined Tunnel Construction in Saturated Ground
See Section 17 in the Examples volume.
Example Application 18 Seismic Analysis of an Embankment Dam
See Section 18 in the Examples volume.
Two new verification problems have been added to the Verification Problems volume:
Verification Problem 20 Slope Failure Due to Surcharge Load in Weightless Material
See Section 20 in the Verifications volume.
Verification Problem 21 Undrained Embankment Loading
See Section 21 in the Verifications volume.
1 - 14
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1 - 15
It is possible for users to create their own constitutive models via FISH. Researchers can test their
assumptions of material behavior directly in the code, bypassing the effort of writing a separate
numerical program to test their theory. FISH provides the user with great flexibility in designing
models to represent complex material behavior.
In addition, analyses of highly deformable engineering materials can be made with the large-strain
logic in FLAC. For example, the problem of extrusion of a copper billet through a die has been
studied using FLAC (see the reference for Cundall and Board (1988) in Section 6).
1 - 16
Users Guide
Introduction
This section introduces you to FLAC and its capabilities and features. An overview
of the new features in the latest version of FLAC is also provided.
Section 2
Getting Started
If you are just beginning to use FLAC, or are only an occasional user, we recommend
that you read Section 2. This section provides instructions on installation and operation of the program, as well as simple tutorials on menu-driven and command-driven
operation to guide the new user through a FLAC analysis.
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Miscellaneous
Various information is contained in Section 5, including the FLAC runtime benchmark and procedures for reporting errors and requesting technical support. Descriptions of utility files to assist with FLAC operation are also given.
Section 6
Bibliography
Section 6 contains a bibliography of published papers describing some uses of FLAC.
INTRODUCTION
1 - 17
Command Reference
Section 1
Command Reference
All of the commands that can be entered in the command-driven mode in FLAC are
described in Section 1 in the Command Reference.
FISH in FLAC
Section 1
Section 2
FISH Reference
Section 2 in the FISH volume contains a detailed reference to the FISH language.
All FISH statements, variables and functions are explained and examples given.
Section 3
Section 4
Program Guide
Section 4 in the FISH volume contains a program guide to FLAC s linked-list data
structure. This is provided for advanced users to have more direct access to FLAC
variables.
1 - 18
Users Guide
Section 2
Section 3
Grid Generation
Section 3 in Theory and Background presents a general guide to the principles of
grid generation in FLAC. This includes procedures to adjust and grade the mesh and
to attach sub-grids to produce an accurate solution. Several examples are also given.
Section 4
Interfaces
The interface logic is described and example applications are demonstrated in Section 4 in Theory and Background. A discussion on interface properties is also
provided.
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Section 1
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
The formulation for the groundwater flow model is described, and the various ways
to model groundwater flow, both with and without solid interaction, are illustrated
in Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
Section 2
Two-Phase Flow
Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction contains a description of the formulation
and example applications of the optional two-phase flow model.
Structural Elements
Section 1
Structural Elements
Section 1 in Structural Elements describes the various structural element models
available in FLAC.
INTRODUCTION
1 - 19
Optional Features
Section 1
Thermal Option
Section 1 in Optional Features describes the thermal model option, and presents
several verification problems that illustrate its application, both with and without
interaction with mechanical stress and pore pressure.
Section 2
Section 3
Dynamic Analysis
The dynamic analysis option is described, and considerations for running a dynamic
model are provided in Section 3 in Optional Features. Several verification examples
are also included in this section.
Section 4
Verification Problems
This volume contains a collection of FLAC verification problems. These are tests
in which a FLAC solution is compared directly to an analytical (i.e., closed-form)
solution. See Table 1 in the Verifications volume for a list of the verification
problems.
Example Applications
This volume contains example applications of FLAC that demonstrate the various
classes of problems to which FLAC may be applied. See Table 1 in the Examples
volume for a list of the example applications.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
All of the components of the GIIC (the graphical interface for FLAC) are described
in the FLAC-GIIC Reference.
1 - 20
Users Guide
INTRODUCTION
1 - 21
1 - 22
Users Guide
(+1) 612-371-4711
(+1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
We also have a worldwide network of code agents who provide local technical support. Details
may be obtained from Itasca.
INTRODUCTION
1 - 23
1.9 Reference
Marti, J., and P. A. Cundall. Mixed Discretization Procedure for Accurate Solution of Plasticity
Problems, Int. J. Num. Methods and Anal. Methods in Geomech., 6, 129-139 (1982).
1 - 24
Users Guide
4-1
4-2
Users Guide
4.2 Tutorial
This section is intended for people who have run FLAC (at least for simple problems) but have not
used the FISH language; no programming experience is assumed. To get the maximum benefit
from the examples given here, you should try them out with FLAC running interactively. The short
programs may be typed in directly. After running an example, give the FLAC command NEW to
wipe the slate clean, ready for the next example. Alternatively, the more lengthy programs may
be created on file and CALLed when required.
Type the lines in Example 4.1 after FLAC s command prompt, pressing <Enter> at the end of
each line.
Example 4.1 Defining a FISH function
def abc
abc = 22 * 3 + 5
end
Note that the command prompt changes to Def> after the first line has been typed in; then it changes
back to the usual prompt when the command END is entered. This change in prompt lets you know
if you are sending lines to FLAC or to FISH. Normally, all lines following the DEFINE statement
are taken as part of the definition of a FISH function (until the END statement is entered). However,
if you type in a line that contains an error (e.g., you type the = sign instead of the + sign), then
you will get the FLAC prompt back again. In this case, you should give the NEW command and
try again from the beginning. Since it is very easy to make mistakes, FISH programs are normally
typed into a file using an editor. These are then CALLed into FLAC just like a regular FLAC data
file. We will describe this process later; for now, well continue to work interactively. Assuming
that you typed in the above lines without error and that you now see the FLAC prompt flac:, you
can execute the function abc,* defined earlier in Example 4.1, by typing the line
print abc
The message
abc =
71
should appear on the screen. By defining the symbol abc (using the DEFINE ... END construction,
as in Example 4.1), we can now refer to it in many ways using FLAC commands.
For example, the PRINT command causes the value of a FISH symbol to be displayed; the value is
computed by the series of arithmetic operations in the line
abc = 22 * 3 + 5
* We will use courier boldface to identify user-defined FISH functions and declared variables
in the text.
4-3
This is an assignment statement. If an equal sign is present, the expression on the right-hand side
of the equal sign is evaluated and given to the variable on the left-hand side. Note that arithmetic
operations follow the usual conventions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done
with the signs +, -, * and /, respectively. The sign denotes raised to the power of.
We now type in a slightly different program (using the NEW command to erase the old one):
Example 4.2 Using a variable
new
def abc
hh = 22
abc = hh * 3 + 5
end
Here we introduce a variable, hh, which is given the value of 22 and then used in the next line.
If we give the command PRINT abc, then exactly the same output as in the previous case appears.
However, we now have two FISH symbols; they both have values, but one (abc) is known as a
function, and the other (hh) as a variable. The distinction is as follows.
When a FISH symbol name is mentioned (e.g., in a PRINT statement),
the associated function is executed if the symbol corresponds to a
function; however, if the symbol is not a function name, then simply
the current value of the symbol is used.
The following experiment may help to clarify the distinction between variables and functions.
Before doing the experiment, note that FLAC s SET command can be used to set the value of any
user-defined FISH symbol, independent of the FISH program in which the symbol was introduced.
Now type in the following lines without giving the NEW command, since we want to keep our
previously entered program in memory.
Example 4.3 SETting variables
set abc=0 hh=0
print hh
print abc
print hh
The SET command sets the values of both abc and hh to zero. Since hh is a variable, the first PRINT
command simply displays the current value of hh, which is zero. The second PRINT command
causes abc to be executed (since abc is the name of a function); the values of both hh and abc
are thereby recalculated. Accordingly, the third PRINT statement shows that hh has indeed been
reset to its original value. As a test of your understanding, you should type in the slightly modified
sequence shown in Example 4.4, and figure out why the displayed answers are different.
4-4
Users Guide
At this stage, it may be useful to list the most important FLAC commands that directly refer to
simple FISH variables or functions. (In Table 4.1 below, var stands for the name of the variable or
function.)
Table 4.1 Commands that directly
refer to FISH names
PRINT
SET
HISTORY
var
var = value
var
We have already seen examples of the first two (refer to Examples 4.3 and 4.4); the third case is
useful when histories are required of things that are not provided in the standard FLAC list of history
variables. Example 4.5 shows how this can be done. Example 4.5 shows how the total load on the
top platen of a triaxial test sample can be stored as a history.
4-5
step 500
plot hold his 1 vs -2
Note that the FISH variable load is equal to the sum of four other variables, given by yforce.
The variable yforce is an example of a grid quantity that is available within a FISH program:
there is a complete list of these in Sections 2.5.3 and 2.5.4 in the FISH volume. Grid variables
are simply pre-defined names of quantities that relate to the FLAC grid. In our example, yforce
is the y-component of the unbalanced gridpoint force; each instance of yforce must be followed
by grid indices, or a pair of numbers denoting a particular gridpoint. In the example, the indices
(1,7), (2,7), (3,7) and (4,7) refer to the four gridpoints at the top of the sample. The
derived variable load, which is the sum of the four top forces, is calculated whenever history
points are taken (every ten steps, by default). At the end of the run, we simply plot out the history
of load (history 1) just like any other history. In a similar way, we may use FISH functions to plot
out a history of any quantity we wish, no matter how complicated the formula to describe it might
be.
In addition to the above-mentioned pre-defined variable names, there are many other pre-defined
objects available to a FISH program. These fall into several classes; one such class consists of
scalar variables, which are single numbers for example:
igp
izones
jgp
jzones
clock
unbal
pi
step
urand
This is just a small selection; the full list is given in Section 2.5.2 in the FISH volume. For example,
we could have replaced the number 7 in the function load with the pre-defined variable jgp, to
make the program more general (i.e., so that it would work for any grid size vertically, rather than
just a grid of 7 gridpoints).
Another useful class of built-in objects is the set of intrinsic functions, which enables things like
sines and cosines to be calculated from within a FISH program. A complete list is provided in
Section 2.5.5 in the FISH volume; a few are given below:
abs(a)
absolute value of a
4-6
Users Guide
cos(a)
cosine of a (a is in radians)
log(a)
base-ten logarithm of a
max(a,b)
returns maximum of a, b
sqrt(a)
square root of a
An example in the use of intrinsic functions will be presented later, but now we must discuss one
further way in which a FLAC data file can make use of user-defined FISH names.
Wherever a number is expected in a FLAC input line, you may
substitute the name of a FISH variable or function.
This simple statement is the key to a very powerful feature of FISH that allows such things as
ranges, applied stresses, properties, etc. to be computed in a FISH function and used by FLAC
input in symbolic form. Hence, parameter changes can be made very easily, without the need to
change many numbers in an input file. As an example, let us assume that we know the Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio of a material. Since FLAC needs the bulk and shear moduli, we may
derive these with a FISH function, using Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2):
G=
E
2(1 + )
(4.1)
K=
E
3(1 2)
(4.2)
Coding Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) into a FISH function (called derive) can then be done as shown in
Example 4.6, below.
Example 4.6 FISH functions to calculate bulk and shear moduli
new
def derive
s_mod = y_mod / (2.0 * (1.0 + p_ratio))
b_mod = y_mod / (3.0 * (1.0 - 2.0 * p_ratio))
end
set y_mod = 5e8 p_ratio = 0.25
derive
print b_mod s_mod
Note that here we execute the function derive by giving its name by itself on a line; we are not
interested in its value, only what it does. If you run this example, you will see that values are
computed for the bulk and shear moduli, b mod and s mod, respectively. These can then be used,
in symbolic form, in FLAC input, as shown in Example 4.7.
4-7
bulk=b_mod
shear=s_mod
The validity of this operation may be checked by printing out bulk and shear in the usual way. In
these examples, our property input is given via the SET command i.e., to variables y mod and
p ratio, which stand for Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, respectively.
In passing, note that there is great flexibility in choosing names for FISH variables and functions;
the underline character ( ) may be included in a name. Names must begin with a non-number and
must not contain any of the arithmetic operators (+, , /, * or ). A chosen name should not be the
same as one of the built-in (or reserved) names; Table 2.1 in Section 2.2.2 in the FISH volume
contains a complete list of names to be avoided, as well as some rules that should be followed.
In the above examples, we checked the computed values of FISH variables by giving their names
to a PRINT command explicitly as arguments. Alternatively, we can list all current variables and
functions. A printout of all current values is produced by giving the command
print fish
We now examine ways in which decisions can be made, and repeated operations done, in FISH
programs. The following FISH statements allow specified sections of a program to be repeated
many times:
LOOP
ENDLOOP
The words LOOP and ENDLOOP are FISH statements, the symbol var stands for the loop variable,
and expr1 and expr2 stand for expressions (or single variables). Example 4.8 shows the use of a
loop (or repeated sequence) to produce the sum and product of the first 10 integers.
Example 4.8 Controlled loop in FISH
new
def xxx
sum = 0
prod = 1
loop n (1,10)
sum = sum + n
prod = prod * n
endloop
end
4-8
Users Guide
xxx
print sum, prod
In this case, the loop variable n is given successive values from 1 to 10, and the statements inside
the loop (between the LOOP and ENDLOOP statements) are executed for each value. As mentioned,
variable names or an arithmetic expression could be substituted for the numbers 1 or 10.
A practical use of the LOOP construct is to install a nonlinear initial distribution of elastic moduli
in a FLAC grid. Suppose that the Youngs modulus at a site is given by Eq. (4.3):
E = E + c z
(4.3)
where z is the depth below surface, and c and E are constants. We write a FISH function to install
appropriate values of bulk and shear modulus in the grid, as in Example 4.9.
Example 4.9 Applying a nonlinear initial distribution of moduli
new
grid 20 10
model elas
def install
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
yc
= (y(i,j)+y(i+1,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1))/4.0
zz
= y(1,jgp) - yc
y_mod = y_zero + cc * sqrt(zz)
shear_mod(i,j) = y_mod / (2.0*(1.0+p_ratio))
bulk_mod(i,j) = y_mod / (3.0*(1.0-2.0*p_ratio))
end_loop
end_loop
end
set p_ratio=0.25 y_zero=1e7 cc=1e8
install
Again, you can verify correct operation of the function by printing or plotting shear and bulk moduli.
In the function install, we have two loops the outer loop (with index i) scans all columns in the
grid, and the inner loop (index j) scans all rows. Inside the loops, yc is calculated as the approximate
centroid of each zone (i.e., the average of the y-coordinate for the four surrounding gridpoints). We
assume that the datum (or ground surface reference point) is the top, left-hand gridpoint; then, the
depth of any zone centroid below surface is computed as zz. This is then inserted into the formula
for Youngs modulus given previously, using constants E and c, which have the FISH names y zero
and cc, respectively. Grid values for bulk modulus and shear modulus are calculated as in a previous
example. The variables y( ), shear mod( ) and bulk mod( ) are grid variables. (Recall that we talked
4-9
about another grid variable, yforce( ), earlier.) Here, we set properties directly from within a FISH
function, rather than with a PROP command as in our earlier example.
Having seen several examples of FISH programs, lets briefly examine the question of program
syntax and style. A complete FISH statement must occupy one line; there are no continuation lines.
If a formula is too long to fit on one line, then a temporary variable must be used to split the formula.
Example 4.10 shows how this can be done.
Example 4.10 Splitting lines
def long_sum ;example of a sum of many things
temp1 = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5 + v6 + v7 + v8 + v9 + v10
long_sum = temp1 + v11 + v12 + v13 + v14 + v15
end
In this case, the sum of 15 variables is split into two parts. Note also the use of the semicolon
in line 1 of Example 4.10 to indicate a comment. Any characters that follow a semicolon are
ignored by the FISH compiler, but they are echoed to the log file. It is good programming practice
to annotate programs with informative comments. Some of the programs have been shown with
indentation that is, space inserted at the beginning of some lines to denote a related group of
statements. Any number of space characters may be inserted (optionally) between variable names
and arithmetic operations to make the program more readable. Again, it is good programming
practice to include indentation to indicate things like loops, conditional clauses and so on. Spaces
in FISH are significant in the sense that space characters may not be inserted into a variable or
function name.
One other topic that should be addressed now is that of variable type. You may have noticed,
when printing out variables from the various program examples, that numbers are either printed
without decimal points or in E-format that is, as a number with an exponent denoted by E.
At any instant in time, a FISH variable or function name is classified as one of three types: integer,
floating-point or string. These types may change dynamically, depending on context, but the casual
user should not normally have to worry about the type of a variable, since it is set automatically.
Consider Example 4.11.
4 - 10
Users Guide
Name
---aa
bb
cc
dd
ee
haveone
The variables aa, bb and cc are converted to integer, float and string, respectively, corresponding
to the numbers (or strings) that were assigned to them. Integers are exact numbers (without decimal
points) but are of limited range; floating-point numbers have limited precision (about six decimal
places) but are of much greater range; string variables are arbitrary sequences of characters. There
are various rules for conversion between the three types. For example, dd becomes a floating-point
number, because it is set to the product of a floating-point number and an integer; the variable
ee becomes a string because it is the sum (concatenation) of two strings. The topic can get quite
complicated, but it is fully explained in Sections 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 in the FISH volume.
There is a further language element in FISH that is commonly used the IF statement. The
following three statements allow decisions to be made within a FISH program.
IF
ELSE
ENDIF
4 - 11
These statements allow conditional execution of FISH program segments; ELSE and THEN are
optional. The item test consists of one of the following symbols or symbol-pairs:
=
>
<
>=
<=
The meanings are standard except for #, which means not equal. The items expr1 and expr2
are any valid expressions or single variables. If the test is true, then the statements immediately
following IF are executed until ELSE or ENDIF is encountered. If the test is false, the statements
between ELSE and ENDIF are executed if the ELSE statement exists; otherwise, the program jumps
to the first line after ENDIF. The action of these statements is illustrated in Example 4.12.
Example 4.12 Action of the IF ELSE ENDIF construct
new
def abc
if xx > 0 then
abc = 33
else
abc = 11
end_if
end
set xx = 1
print abc
set xx = -1
print abc
The displayed value of abc in Example 4.12 depends on the set value of xx. You should experiment
with different test symbols (e.g., replace > with <).
Until now, our FISH programs have been invoked from FLAC either by using the PRINT command,
or by giving the name of the function on a separate line of FLAC input. It is also possible to do
the reverse that is, to give FLAC commands from within a FISH function. Most valid FLAC
commands can be embedded between the following two FISH statements:
COMMAND
ENDCOMMAND
There are two main reasons for sending out FLAC commands from a FISH program. First, it is
possible to use a FISH function to perform operations that are not possible using the pre-defined
variables that we already discussed. Second, we can control a complete FLAC run with FISH. As
an illustration of the first use of the COMMAND statement, we can write a FISH program to connect
a number of beam segments to the surface of an elastic material. When many beam elements are
required, it becomes tedious to type many separate STRUCT commands, each with different grid
indices. However, with FISH, we can send out the commands from within a loop and adjust the
grid indices automatically each time around the loop, as illustrated in Example 4.13.
4 - 12
Users Guide
After entering these statements, you should do a printout of structural data to verify that seven
beam segments have been created and that they are connected to appropriate gridpoints. In this
example, we use variables i1 and i2 as parameters to the function place beams. These denote
the starting gridpoint i-index and the ending i-index, which are given values by the SET command.
Note that the STRUCT commands sent out from the FISH function have parameters that are symbolic
(as we explained previously), with values that are modified for each circuit of the loop. One further
thing to note we create a FISH variable jtop that is equal to the built-in scalar jgp. We cannot
use the name jgp directly as an argument to the STRUCT command because jgp (and all the other
pre-defined names) is only recognized within a FISH function.
You can now step FLAC to determine the equilibrium state for the above problem (which models a
single load acting on the beam), or you can type in the additional set of lines given in Example 4.14;
this illustrates the second use of COMMAND mentioned previously. The idea here is to produce a
movie without having to give many PLOT commands manually.
4 - 13
By executing the function grid movie, we create a movie with 10 frames, showing the progressive
deformation of the grid. When FLAC has stopped stepping, the movie file beam load.dcx can be
viewed with the movie viewer, MOVIE.EXE, located in the ITASCA\Shared\Utility directory.
In general, when making movies, you should give a fixed WINDOW and a fixed scale (in this case,
magnification), so that auto-scaling is inhibited.
We have now covered some of the aspects of the FISH language and how it interacts with FLAC. A
complete guide to the language is contained in Section 2.2 in the FISH volume and some examples
are provided in Section 3 in the FISH volume. There is also a useful example of FISH programming
in Section 1.4 in Theory and Background.
4 - 14
Users Guide
1-1
1-2
presented a method of deriving difference equations for elements of any shape: this method, also
described as the finite volume method, is used in FLAC. The erroneous belief that finite differences
and rectangular grids are inseparable is responsible for many statements concerning boundary shapes
and distribution of material properties. Using Wilkins method, boundaries can be any shape, and
any element can have any property value just like finite elements.
1.1.2 Explicit, Time-Marching Scheme
Even though we want FLAC to find a static solution to a problem, the dynamic equations of motion
are included in the formulation. One reason for doing this is to ensure that the numerical scheme
is stable when the physical system being modeled is unstable. With nonlinear materials, there is
always the possibility of physical instability e.g., the sudden collapse of a pillar. In real life, some
of the strain energy in the system is converted into kinetic energy, which then radiates away from
the source and dissipates. FLAC models this process directly, because inertial terms are included
kinetic energy is generated and dissipated. In contrast, schemes that do not include inertial
terms must use some numerical procedure to treat physical instabilities. Even if the procedure is
successful at preventing numerical instability, the path taken may not be a realistic one. One penalty
for including the full law of motion is that the user must have some physical feel for what is going
on; FLAC is not a black box that will give the solution. The behavior of the numerical system
must be interpreted. Some guidelines are provided in Section 3.9 in the Users Guide to assist in
doing this.
The general calculation sequence embodied in FLAC is illustrated in Figure 1.1. This procedure
first invokes the equations of motion to derive new velocities and displacements from stresses and
forces. Then, strain rates are derived from velocities, and new stresses from strain rates. We take
one timestep for every cycle around the loop. The important thing to realize is that each box in
Figure 1.1 updates all of its grid variables from known values that remain fixed while control is
within the box. For example, the lower box takes the set of velocities already calculated and, for each
element, computes new stresses. The velocities are assumed to be frozen for the operation of the
box i.e., the newly calculated stresses do not affect the velocities. This may seem unreasonable
because we know that if a stress changes somewhere, it will influence its neighbors and change
their velocities. However, we choose a timestep so small that information cannot physically pass
from one element to another in that interval. (All materials have some maximum speed at which
information can propagate.) Since one loop of the cycle occupies one timestep, our assumption of
frozen velocities is justified neighboring elements really cannot affect one another during the
period of calculation. Of course, after several cycles of the loop, disturbances can propagate across
several elements, just as they would propagate physically.
1-3
Equilibrium Equation
(Equation of Motion)
new
velocities and
displacements
new
stresses
or forces
The previous paragraph contains a descriptive statement of the explicit method; later on, a mathematical version will be provided. The central concept is that the calculational wave speed always
keeps ahead of the physical wave speed, so that the equations always operate on known values that
are fixed for the duration of the calculation. There are several distinct advantages to this (and at
least one big disadvantage!): most importantly, no iteration process is necessary when computing
stresses from strains in an element, even if the constitutive law is wildly nonlinear. In an implicit
method (which is commonly used in finite element programs), every element communicates with
every other element during one solution step: several cycles of iteration are necessary before compatibility and equilibrium are obtained. Table 1.1 compares the explicit and implicit methods.
The disadvantage of the explicit method is seen to be the small timestep, which means that large
numbers of steps must be taken. Overall, explicit methods are best for ill-behaved systems e.g.,
nonlinear, large-strain, physical instability; they are not efficient for modeling linear, small-strain
problems.
1-4
Implicit
Matrices are never formed. Memory requirements are always at a minimum. No bandwidth
limitations.
Since matrices are never formed, large displacements and strains are accommodated without
additional computing effort.
1-5
1-6
of a mass, m, to the
applied force, F , which may vary with time. Figure 1.2 illustrates a force acting on a mass, causing
motion described in terms of acceleration, velocity and displacement.
.. .
u, u, u
F(t)
m
Figure 1.2
d u
=F
dt
(1.1)
1-7
where
ij
u i
=
+ gi
t
xj
(1.2)
= mass density;
= time;
xi
gi
ij
In this equation, and those that follow, indices i denote components in a Cartesian coordinate frame,
and summation is implied for repeated indices in an expression.
1.2.2 Constitutive Relation
The other set of equations that apply to a solid, deformable body is known as the constitutive
relation, or stress/strain law. First, strain rate is derived from velocity gradient as follows:
1
eij =
2
where eij
u i
uj
u i
+
xj
xi
(1.3)
(1.4)
:=
In general, nonlinear constitutive laws are written in incremental form because there is no unique
relation between stress and strain. Eq. (1.4) provides a new estimate for the stress tensor, given the
1-8
old stress tensor and the strain rate (or strain increment). The simplest example of a constitutive
law is that of isotropic elasticity:
ij := ij + ij (K 23 G) ekk + 2Geij t
where ij
t
(1.5)
(1.6)
where
ij =
uj
1 u i
2 xj
xi
(1.7)
The adjustment of Eq. (1.6) is only done in large-strain mode and is, in fact, applied before Eq. (1.5).
Stress adjustments due to other finite strain components are not made.
1.2.4 Boundary Conditions
Either stress or displacement may be applied at the boundary of a solid body in FLAC. Displacements
are specified in terms of prescribed velocities at given gridpoints: Eq. (1.2) is not invoked at those
gridpoints. At a stress boundary, forces are derived as follows:
Fi = ijb nj s
(1.8)
where ni is the unit outward normal vector of the boundary segment, and s is the length of the
boundary segment over which the stress ijb acts. The force Fi is added into the force sum for the
appropriate gridpoint, described later in Section 1.3.5.
1-9
ui
a
b
Fi
b
(1)
(2)
ni
ni
S
c
d
(a)
Figure 1.3
(b)
(2)
(1)
(a)
ui
(c)
1 - 10
s
where
ni f ds =
(1.9)
ni
xi
ds
f
dA
xi
A
f
dA
xi
(1.10)
ni f ds
(1.11)
S
For a triangular sub-element, the finite difference form of Eq. (1.11) becomes
<
f
>=
< f > ni s
xi
A s
(1.12)
where s is the length of a side of the triangle, and the summation occurs over the three sides of
the triangle. The value of < f > is taken to be the average over the side.
1 - 11
(1.13)
(1.14)
where the summation is over the sides of the triangular sub-zone, and (a) and (b) are two consecutive
nodes on a side. Note that the expression Eq. (1.13) is identical to that derived by exact integration
if there is a linear variation in velocity between nodes.
Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14) can be used to derive all the components of the strain rate tensor based on
nodal velocities. (The exception is for the plane stress calculation: the out-of-plane strain rate
is not directly calculated in FLAC.) Similarly, the strain tensor is derived by substituting nodal
displacements for velocities in Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14).
For the purposes of printing and plotting, the term maximum shear strain means the radius of the
Mohrs circle in the xy-plane, as illustrated in Figure 1.4.
es shear strain
maximum
s hear
s t rain
exy
eyy
Figure 1.4
exx
en direct strain
Thus, for conditions of two-dimensional plane-strain analysis, the maximum shear strain, , is
defined as
1 - 12
1/2
2
1
2
exx eyy + 4exy
2
(1.15)
This is the equation used for calculating the maximum shear strain values, ssi (strains derived from
displacements; average value of sub-zones), and ssr (strains based on velocities; average value of
sub-zones), accessed by the PRINT, PLOT and HISTORY commands, or via FISH, when running in
plane-strain mode.
In three dimensions, a measure for maximum shear strain, , is given by the square root of the
second invariant of the strain deviator tensor, J2 i.e.,
= J2 =
2
2
1
2
2 + e2 + e2
exx eyy + eyy ezz + (ezz exx ) +exy
yz
zx
6
(1.16)
Eq. (1.16) is used in the calculation for shear strain values, ssi and ssr, when running in axisymmetry
mode. The three-dimensional values can also be obtained when running in plane-strain mode by
using the keywords ssi3d and ssr3d in place of ssi and ssr. Note that the three-dimensional measure
of shear strain, Eq. (1.16), does not degenerate to the two-dimensional form, Eq. (1.15), when the
out-of-plane components of strain are zero (i.e., when ezz = eyz = exz = 0).*
Additional FLAC zone variables are available to access strain rates and strains (see Strain Calculations in Section 2.5.3 in the FISH volume). Volumetric strain rate, vsr (= exx +eyy +ezz ), and
volumetric strain, vsi (= exx +eyy +ezz ), are provided. FISH functions fsr and fsi calculate all the
tensor components for the full strain rate and strain increment tensors.
The following simple example (Example 1.1) demonstrates the application of these variables and
functions to monitor strains in an unconfined elastic material subjected to gravity loading. The
shear strain rates and shear strains, and volumetric strain rates and volumetric strains, calculated
from the tensor components, are compared to ssr, ssi, ssr3d, ssi3d, vsr and vsi in Example 1.1.
Example 1.1 Test of FISH strain measures
;--- Test of FISH strain measures --conf ext 6
grid 5 5
m e
pro d 1000 s 1e8 b 2e8
* For plane-stress mode, the maximum shear strain values are not conventional: ssi and ssr values are
produced using Eq. (1.15) and do not include the out-of-plane strain, ezz ; ssi3d and ssr3d values are
produced using Eq. (1.16) assuming the out-of-plane strains are zero. However, the out-of-plane
strains are not zero for plane-stress analysis; they are dependent upon the constitutive model, and
only available internally within each model.
1 - 13
set grav 10
fix x y j=1
cyc 100
def qqq
array ar(4) ai(4)
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
dum
= fsr(i,j,ar)
dum
= fsi(i,j,ai)
ex_1(i,j) = sqrt((ar(1)-ar(2))2 + 4.0 * ar(4)2) / 2.0
ex_2(i,j) = sqrt((ai(1)-ai(2))2 + 4.0 * ai(4)2) / 2.0
ex_3(i,j) = ar(1) + ar(2) + ar(3)
ex_4(i,j) = ai(1) + ai(2) + ai(3)
; ssr in 3D formulation
_arav = ex_3(i,j)/3.
_rar11 = ar(1) - _arav
_rar22 = ar(2) - _arav
_rar33 = ar(3) - _arav
_arj2 = (_rar11*_rar11+_rar22*_rar22+_rar33*_rar33)/2.+ar(4)*ar(4)
ex_5(i,j) = sqrt(_arj2)
; ssi in 3D formulation
_aiav = ex_4(i,j)/3.
_rai11 = ai(1) - _aiav
_rai22 = ai(2) - _aiav
_rai33 = ai(3) - _aiav
_aij2 = (_rai11*_rai11+_rai22*_rai22+_rai33*_rai33)/2.+ai(4)*ai(4)
ex_6(i,j) = sqrt(_aij2)
endLoop
endLoop
end
qqq
;--- to test, give the following commands, line by line, & compare
; print ssr
ex_1 zon
; print ssi
ex_2 zon
; print vsr
ex_3 zon
; print vsi
ex_4 zon
; print ssr3d ex_5 zon
; print ssi3d ex_6 zon
1 - 14
em =
a + e a + e b + e b
e11
22
11
22
2
(1.17)
a
a
eda = e11
e22
(1.18)
b
b
e22
edb = e11
a
e11
em + eda
=
2
b
e11
=
em + edb
2
a
e22
=
em eda
2
b
e22
1 - 15
(1.19)
em edb
=
2
Similar adjustments are made for triangles c and d. The component e12 is unchanged. The above
formulation is for plane-strain conditions only. In axisymmetry, all three direct strains are used to
derive the mean stress, em .
1.3.3.3 Stresses from Strain Rates
The constitutive law (Eq. (1.4)) and rotation adjustment (Eq. (1.6)) are then used to derive a new
stress tensor from the strain-rate tensor. Mixed discretization is invoked again, but on the stresses,
in order to equalize isotropic stress between the two triangles in a pair, using area weighting:
o(a)
(a)
where o
o(b)
:=
(a)
(b)
A(a) + o A(b)
A(a) + A(b)
(1.20)
1 - 16
(1)
1
(2)
ij nj S (1) + nj S (2)
2
(1.21)
Recall that each quadrilateral element contains two sets of two triangles. Within each set, the forces
from triangles meeting at each node are summed. The forces from both sets are then averaged, to
give the nodal force contribution of the quadrilateral.
1.3.3.5 Equations of Motion
At each
node, the forces from all surrounding quadrilaterals are summed to give the net nodal force
vector,
Fi . This vector includes contributions from applied loads, as discussed in Section 1.2.4,
(g)
and from body forces due to gravity. Gravity forces Fi are computed from
(g)
Fi
= gi mg
(1.22)
where mg is the lumped gravitational mass at the node, defined as the sum of one-third of the masses
of triangles connected
to the node. If a quadrilateral zone does not exist (e.g., it is null), its stress
contribution
to
F
is
omitted. If the body is at equilibrium, or in steady-state flow (e.g., plastic
i
flow),
Fi on the node will be zero. Otherwise, the node will be accelerated according to the
finite difference form of Newtons second law of motion:
(t+t/2)
u i
(tt/2)
= u i
(t) t
Fi
(1.23)
where the superscripts denote the time at which the corresponding variable is evaluated. For largestrain problems, Eq. (1.23) is integrated again to determine the new coordinate of the gridpoint:
(t+t)
xi
(t)
(t+t/2)
= xi + u i
t
(1.24)
Note that Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24) are both centered in time: it can be shown that first-order error
terms vanish for central difference equations. Velocities exist at points in time that are shifted by
half a timestep from the displacements and forces.
1 - 17
(1.25)
1 - 18
where P
E k
This form of damping overcomes difficulty (2) above, and partially overcomes (1), since, as a
system approaches steady state (equilibrium or steady-flow), the rate of change of kinetic energy
approaches zero and, consequently, the damping power tends to zero.
Local Damping In order to overcome all three difficulties, a form of damping, called local
nonviscous damping, is used in FLAC in which the damping force on a node is proportional to the
magnitude of the unbalanced force. The direction of the damping force is such that energy is always
dissipated. Eq. (1.23) is replaced by the following equation, which incorporates the local damping
scheme:
(t+t/2)
u i
(tt/2)
u i
(t)
Fi
(Fd )i
t
mn
(1.26)
where
(tt/2)
(t)
Fi sgn u i
(Fd )i =
(1.27)
Fd is the damping force, is a constant (set to 0.8 in FLAC), and mn is a fictitious nodal mass,
derived in Section 1.3.5.
This type of damping is equivalent to a local form of adaptive damping. In principle, the difficulties
reported above are addressed: body forces vanish for steady-state conditions; the magnitude of
damping constant is dimensionless and is independent of properties or boundary conditions, and
the amount of damping varies from point to point (Cundall 1987, pp. 134-135).
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 illustrate typical FLAC results for a problem that involves a suddenly applied
compression on the end of a
column which is fixed at the opposite end. Figure 1.5 shows the
maximum unbalanced force ( Fi ) in the model plotted against number of steps; Figure 1.6 shows
the y-displacement at the center of the column, just beneath the applied load. Examination of the
unbalanced force history shows the progression toward equilibrium (zero unbalanced force). Small
oscillations of the system occur as the solution evolves. The damping effects are less evident in the
plot of displacement history, which displays a slightly over-damped response.
Note that local damping may also be used for dynamic simulations. See Section 3.4.2.4 in Optional
Features.
1 - 19
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 10:03
step
600
5.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Max. unbal. force
X-axis :
Number of steps
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
01
Figure 1.5
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 10:03
step
600
7.000
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 2, 1)
X-axis :
Number of steps
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
01
Figure 1.6
1 - 20
Combined Damping A variation on local damping is also provided in FLAC for situations in
which the steady-state solution includes a significant uniform motion. This may occur, for example,
in a creep simulation or in the calculation of the ultimate capacity of an axially loaded pile. This
damping is called combined damping. Combined damping is more efficient at removing kinetic
energy compared to local damping for this special case.
The damping formulation described by Eq. (1.26) is only activated when the velocity component
changes sign. In situations where there is significant uniform motion (in comparison to the magnitude of oscillations that are to be damped), there may be no zero-crossings, and hence no energy
dissipation.
In order to develop a damping formulation that is insensitive to rigid-body motion, consider periodic
motion superimposed on steady motion:
u = V sin(t) + u
(1.28)
where V is the maximum periodic velocity, is the angular frequency and u is the superimposed
steady velocity. Differentiating twice, and noting that mu = F ,
F = mV 2 sin(t)
(1.29)
sgn(F ) for the damping force in Eq. (1.26) to obtain the same damping force, if the motion is
periodic:
Fd = |F |sgn(F )
(1.30)
This equation is insensitive to a constant offset in velocity, since F does not involve u . In practice,
Eq. (1.30) is not as efficient as the local damping force term, Eq. (1.27), if the motion is not strictly
periodic. However, the combination of both formulas in equal proportions gives good results:
Fd = |F | sgn(F ) sgn(u)
/2
(1.31)
This form of damping should be used if there is significant rigid-body motion of a system in addition
to oscillatory motion to be dissipated. For this reason, combined damping is the default damping
mode for creep analysis. See Section 2.5.10 in Optional Features for further discussion and an
example application of combined damping. Combined damping is found to dissipate energy at a
slower rate compared to local damping based on velocity, and therefore local damping is preferred
in most cases.
Rayleigh Damping For dynamic simulations, Rayleigh damping is available: this is described
in Section 3.4.2 in Optional Features.
1 - 21
Hysteretic Damping Hysteretic damping is also available for dynamic analysis. This form
of damping allows strain-dependent modulus and damping functions to be incorporated into the
simulation (see Section 3.4.2 in Optional Features).
1.3.5 Mechanical Timestep Determination: Solution Stability and Mass Scaling
As described previously, the explicit-solution procedure is not unconditionally stable: the speed of
the calculation front must be greater than the maximum speed at which information propagates.
A timestep must be chosen that is smaller than some critical timestep.
The stability condition for an elastic solid discretized into elements of size x is
t <
x
C
(1.32)
where C is the maximum speed at which information can propagate typically, the p-wave speed,
Cp , where
Cp =
K + 4G/3
(1.33)
m
k
(1.34)
where m is the mass, and k is the stiffness. In a general system, consisting of solid material
and arbitrary networks of interconnected masses and springs, the critical timestep is related to the
smallest natural period of the system, Tmin :
t <
Tmin
(1.35)
It is impractical to determine the eigenperiods of the complete system, so estimates are made of the
local critical timestep. This is described below.
Since FLAC is designed to supply the static solution to a problem, the nodal masses may be regarded
as relaxation factors in the motion equation, (Eq. (1.26)): they can be adjusted for optimum speed
of convergence. Note that gravitational forces are not affected by this scaling of inertial masses (see
Eq. (1.22)). The optimum convergence is obtained when the local values of critical timestep are
equal i.e., when the natural response periods of all parts of the system are equal. For convenience,
1 - 22
we set the timestep to unity and adjust nodal masses to obtain this value, assuming a safety factor
of 0.5 on critical timestep (since it can only be estimated).
Using Eq. (1.32) for a triangular zone of area A and estimating the minimum propagation distance
for the zone as A/xmax , we obtain
t =
A
Cp xmax
(1.36)
(1.37)
2
(K + 4G/3)xmax
A
(1.38)
Taking the gridpoint mass (mgp ) of a triangle as one-third of the zone mass,
mgp =
2
(K + 4G/3)xmax
3A
(1.39)
Finally, the nodal mass of each FLAC gridpoint is the sum of all the connected triangle gridpoint
masses:
mn =
(K + 4G/3)x 2
max
6A
(1.40)
where the additional factor of two comes from the inclusion of two sets of overlaid zones in the
summation.
The effect of objects such as structural elements and interfaces is included by adding to the summation of Eq. (1.40) equivalent masses computed according to Eq. (1.34), assuming that t = 1;
each mechanical element connected to a grid node contributes an extra mass to the summation as
follows:
mstruct = 4k
(1.41)
1 - 23
where k is the diagonal term corresponding to the structural node. The factor of 4 accounts for
the fact that higher oscillation modes are possible for a system of connected springs and masses, in
contrast to the single element, which has one period.
For computational reasons, the reciprocal of mn is stored in the FLAC grid. Hence 1/mn is printed
out when the command PRINT gpm is given.
1 - 24
ux
x
(1.42)
2 ux
xx
=
2
x
t
(1.43)
We assume the bar to be unconfined laterally. The bar is discretized into, say, 50 equal finite
difference zones (or elements), and numbered as illustrated in Figure 1.7.
The central finite difference equation corresponding to Eq. (1.42) for a typical zone i is given by
Eq. (1.44). Here the quantities in parentheses e.g., (t) denote the time at which quantities are
evaluated; the superscripts, i, denote the zone number, not that something is raised to a power.
i
xx
(t) = E
i
ui+1
x (t) ux (t)
x
(1.44)
velocities,
displacements
zone
1
1
2
2
stresses
i -1
3
3
1 - 25
i -1
i
i
i +1
i +1
gridpoint
Figure 1.7
t
ix
2 )u
(t
or, rearranging:
u ix (t +
t
2 )
= u ix (t
t
2 )
t
2 )+
1 i
i1
(t)
xx (t) xx
x
t i
i1
(t)
xx (t) xx
x
(1.45)
(1.46)
t
2 )
t
(1.47)
In the explicit method, the quantities on the right-hand sides of all difference equations are known;
therefore, we must evaluate Eq. (1.44) for all zones before moving on to Eqs. (1.46) and (1.47),
which are evaluated for all gridpoints. Conceptually, this process is equivalent to a simultaneous
update of variables (rather than a successive update in some other method, in which old and new
values are mixed on the right-hand sides).
Eq. (1.44) is encoded into the function constit:
def constit
loop i (1,nel)
sxx(i,1) = e * (xdisp(i+1,1) - xdisp(i,1)) / dx
end loop
end
1 - 26
Note that we have to use double indices to identify grid variables because FLAC s arrays are
two-dimensional; however, we just set the second index to one.
Eq. (1.46) is encoded into the function motion:
def motion
loop i (2,nel)
xvel(i,1) = xvel(i,1) + (sxx(i,1) - sxx(i-1,1)) * tdx
end loop
end
Note that the last (right-hand) gridpoint is implicitly fixed, because its velocity is not changed.
Eq. (1.47) translates to dis calc:
def dis calc
loop i (1,nel)
xdisp(i,1) = xdisp(i,1) + xvel(i,1) * dt
end loop
end
Time is implied in these functions according to Eqs. (1.44), (1.46) and (1.47). Note that if the
program is halted at any stage, the variables correspond to different points in time for example,
velocities are shifted by half a timestep from displacements.
The above functions are invoked sequentially in the main function scan all, which is executed every
time FLAC does one step:
def scan all
while stepping
time = time + dt
constit
motion
bc
dis calc
end
During execution of this function, time is incremented by t. Function bc supplies one-half of
a cycle of an inverted cosine wave to the left-hand end of the bar; at all later times, the applied
velocity is zero. The pulse is cosine-shaped in order to limit its high frequency components. When
modeling wave propagation in a numerical grid, a common rule-of-thumb is that there should be at
least ten elements within the shortest wavelength to be propagated.
The function start-up supplies initial values for all variables and calculates t based on a given
fraction of critical timestep. Variables defined in start-up are shown below.
1 - 27
Name within
equations
E
x
c
t
f
t/(x)
= 2f
Meaning
number of elements
Youngs modulus
density
element size
number of wavelengths per element
amplitude of velocity pulse
fraction of critical timestep
wave speed
timestep
duration of input pulse
frequency of input pulse
The complete program is stored in the file BAR.DAT (Example 1.2): this may be called from
FLAC in the normal way.
1.4.1 Experiment 1
We initialize variables by executing start-up, then take enough timesteps to accumulate 50 time
units. Histories of velocity are requested at three points along the bar, spaced at distances of 10
units. After the run is finished, the histories may be plotted by the command
plot his 1,2,3 vs 4
1 - 28
The resulting picture is reproduced as Figure 1.8. The time delay between pulses should correspond
to T
= L/c, where L is the distance between history points, and c is the velocity of sound in the
bar ( E/ ). In our case, there should be a time delay of 10 units between pulses.
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 1, 1)
0.800
X velocity
( 10, 1)
X velocity
( 20, 1)
0.600
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.400
0.200
0.000
12
16
20
24
(10
01
Figure 1.8
It is instructive to rerun the simulation with different parameters. For example, the timestep may
be changed (by altering frac), to demonstrate that the solution is almost insensitive to timestep,
provided that frac is less than 1. (Caution! If you set frac at a value greater than 1, then be prepared
to limit the simulation to only a few steps, since numerical instability will cause the magnitude of
the grid variables to exceed the computers limits and cause FLAC to crash.)
Some other suggestions for experiments are:
(1) different end conditions (e.g., free; the program can be run for longer times to
observe reflections);
(2) nonlinear constitutive model (Caution! t may need to be revised); and
(3) tension cutoff, with free end to simulate tensile spalling.
1 - 29
1.4.2 Experiment 2
We now modify the program so that it more closely resembles the solution embodied in FLAC. We
add damping and solve a static problem with body forces. With body forces (e.g., gravitational
acceleration gx in the x-direction), Eq. (1.43) becomes
xx
2 ux
=
+ gx
x
t 2
(1.48)
If we add the extra term into Eq. (1.46) and split it up so that acceleration (u ix ) is defined separately,
then:
u ix =
1 i
i1
xx (t) xx
(t) + gx
x
u ix (t +
t
2 )
= u ix (t
t
ix t
2 )+u
(1.49)
(1.50)
The damping in FLAC is unusual, because it is designed to vanish for steady motion (e.g., so that
body forces do not retard the motion of a region that is flowing plastically with constant velocity).
We provide a force that always opposes motion: its sign is always opposite to the current velocity.
The magnitude of this damping force is proportional to the acceleration of a gridpoint. Hence, it
will vanish for steady-flow, or equilibrium. Thus revised, Eq. (1.50) becomes
u ix (t +
t
2 )
= u ix (t
t
2 )+
u ix |u ix | sgn(u ix ) t
(1.51)
1 - 30
Note that we build the left-hand boundary conditions into the function by setting the stress to zero at
this end and using half the element size. New variables are grav, for gx , and dfac, for the damping
factor, : these are defined in start-up, and other unused variables are deleted. The number of
elements is reduced to 10 in order to allow fast execution. The revised FISH program is available
as data file BARG.DAT (Example 1.3).
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 10:56
step
200
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 1, 1)
5.000
X displacement( 6, 1)
4.000
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
01
Figure 1.9
When FLAC is run with this data file, the plot shown in Figure 1.9 may be made, giving displacement
histories at the left-hand end and the middle of the bar. The system is seen to converge to equilibrium
in a time that is about twice the natural period of the bar. An elastic system is usually underdamped
with this type of damping. Figure 1.10 records the final displacement profile, which shows the
parabolic distribution caused by gravity loading.
1 - 31
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 10:56
step
200
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+01
0.000E+00 <y< 4.982E+02
4.500
4.000
3.500
Linear Profile
Y-axis :
X-disp
X-axis :
Distance
From ( 0.00E+00, 0.00E+00)
To ( 1.00E+01, 0.00E+00)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
1 - 32
1 - 33
his nstep=2
start_up
print ncyc ;Note! following number of steps will be taken
;
Hit Esc key to halt.
step ncyc
ret
;Use the following command to see histories: PLOT HIS 1,2,3 vs 4
1 - 34
;--- ... damping and gravity are included, as well as free surface
def motion
loop i (1,nel)
if i = 1 then
dxl
= dx / 2.0 ;half element for free surface
sleft = 0.0
;zero stress to left of surface
else
dxl
= dx
sleft = sxx(i-1,1)
end_if
accel
= (sxx(i,1) - sleft) / (ro * dxl) + grav
dxv
= (accel - dfac * abs(accel) * sgn(xvel(i,1))) * dt
xvel(i,1) = xvel(i,1) + dxv
end_loop
end
;--- displacements are derived from velocities --def dis_calc
loop i (1,nel)
xdisp(i,1) = xdisp(i,1) + xvel(i,1) * dt
end_loop
end
his xdis i=1 j=1
his xdis i=6 j=1
his nstep=2
start_up
step 200
;
plot his 1,2
;
plot xdis line 0,0 10,0 11
ret
1 - 35
1.5 References
Cundall, P. A. Adaptive Density-Scaling for Time-Explicit Calculations, in Proceedings of the
4th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics (Edmonton, 1982), pp.
23-26 (1982).
Cundall, P. A. Distinct Element Models of Rock and Soil Structure, in Analytical and Computational Methods in Engineering Rock Mechanics, Chapter 4, pp. 129-163. E. T. Brown, Ed.
London: George Allen and Unwin, 1987.
Cundall, P. A. Explicit Finite Difference Methods in Geomechanics, in Numerical Methods
in Engineering (Proceedings of the EF Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics,
Blacksburg, Virginia, 1976), Vol. 1, pp. 132-150 (1976).
Desai, C. S., and J. T. Christian. Numerical Methods in Geomechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1977.
Frydman, S., and H. J. Burd. Numerical Studies of Bearing-Capacity Factor N , J. Geotechnical
& Environmental Engineering, pp. 20-28 (January, 1997).
Malvern, L. E. Introduction, in Mechanics of a Continuous Medium. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969.
Marti, J., and P. A. Cundall. Mixed Discretisation Procedure for Accurate Solution of Plasticity
Problems, Int. J. Num. Methods and Anal. Methods in Geomechanics, 6, 129-139 (1982).
Nagtegaal, J. C., D. M. Parks and J. R. Rice. On Numerically Accurate Finite Element Solutions
in the Fully Plastic Range, Comp. Mech. in Appl. Mech. & Eng., 4, 153-177 (1974).
Otter, J. R. H., A. C. Cassell and R. E. Hobbs. Dynamic Relaxation (Paper No. 6986), Proc.
Inst. Civil Eng., 35, 633-656 (1966).
Wilkins, M. L. Fundamental Methods in Hydrodynamics, in Methods in Computational Physics,
Vol. 3, pp. 211-263. Alder et al., Eds. New York: Academic Press, 1964.
1 - 36
GETTING STARTED
2-1
2 GETTING STARTED
This section provides the first-time user with an introduction to FLAC. Getting Started contains instructions for program installation and start-up on your computer. It also outlines the recommended
procedure for applying FLAC to problems in geo-engineering and includes simple examples that
demonstrate each step of this procedure.
If you are familiar with the program but only use it occasionally, you may find this section (in
particular, Section 2.6) helpful in refreshing your memory on the mechanics of running FLAC.
More complete information on problem solving is provided in Section 3.
FLAC can be operated in command-driven or graphical, menu-driven mode. For most of the
examples in this manual, input is entered and results are viewed using the command-driven mode.
We believe this is the clearest way for you to understand the operating procedures for FLAC.
As explained previously in Section 1.1, the command-driven structure allows FLAC to be a very
versatile tool for use in engineering analysis. However, this structure can present difficulties for
new or occasional users. Command lines must be entered as input to FLAC, either interactively via
the keyboard or from a remote data file, in order for the code to operate. There are over 40 main
commands and nearly 400 command modifiers (called keywords) which are recognized by FLAC.
The menu-driven mode is an easy-to-use alternative to the command-driven procedure. All the
commands in FLAC can be accessed by point-and-click operation from the graphical mode. We
call this mode the GIIC for Graphical Interface for Itasca Codes; eventually, the GIIC will operate
with all Itasca software.
Getting Started contains the following information.
1. A step-by-step procedure to install and start up FLAC on your computer is given in
Section 2.1. This includes the system requirements for operating FLAC (Section 2.1.1),
the installation procedure (Section 2.1.2), a description of the components of the FLAC
program and related files (Section 2.1.3), the memory allocation (Section 2.1.4), utility
software and graphics devices (Section 2.1.5), start-up and operation procedures (Section 2.1.6), identification of version number (Section 2.1.7) and installation test (Section 2.1.8).
2. This is followed in Section 2.2 by instructions on running FLAC. Section 2.2.1 introduces
the GIIC and provides a tutorial on running FLAC in menu-driven mode (Section 2.2.2).
Section 2.2.3 describes the procedure for running FLAC in the command-driven mode,
and includes a tutorial (Section 2.2.4) to help you become familiar with common input
commands.
3. There are a few things that you will need to know before creating and running your own
FLAC model i.e., you need to know the FLAC terminology. The nomenclature used
for this program is described in Section 2.3. The definition of a FLAC finite difference
grid is given in Section 2.4. You should also know the syntax for the FLAC input language
when running in command-driven mode; an overview is provided in Section 2.5.
2-2
Users Guide
4. The mechanics of running a FLAC model are described in separate steps; in Section 2.6,
each step is discussed separately and simple examples are provided.*
5. The sign conventions, systems of units and precision limits used in the program appear
in Sections 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9, respectively.
6. The different types of files used and created by FLAC are described in Section 2.10.
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\UsersGuide\2-BeginnersGuide with the extension .DAT. A project file is
also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in
this chapter, open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and
selecting the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top
of the Record pane, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots
created.
GETTING STARTED
2-3
2-4
Users Guide
GETTING STARTED
2-5
Figure 2.1
In addition to the executable files, two sets of dynamic link libraries (DLLs) are provided. One set
of DLLs is used to access the various graphics formats in FLAC. The other set corresponds to two
built-in constitutive models: the Finn model and the Hoek-Brown model. All of the DLLs are
located in the \ITASCA\FLAC500\EXE directory.
All files related to the GIIC for FLAC are stored in the \ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI directory.
2-6
Users Guide
Both the single- and double-precision executable codes are described as Windows-console applications because they operate in a text mode in Windows. Both codes communicate with the GIIC
via the JAVA(TM) Runtime Environment. The user can switch from the graphics mode to the text
(command-driven) mode by pressing the File / Exit GIIC button in the graphics mode, and return
to the graphics mode by typing
giic
Figure 2.2
GETTING STARTED
2-7
As a guide, Table 2.1 summarizes the approximate maximum numbers of zones (of Mohr-Coulomb
material) that can be created for different sizes of available RAM, in the double-precision version
of FLAC.
Table 2.1
Available RAM
(MB)
24
48
64
128
30,000
60,000
80,000
160,000
2-8
Users Guide
Figure 2.3
Graphics software can assist in the production/presentation of FLAC results. FLAC s MOVIE option
allows graphics images to be stored and later displayed in series. A movie viewer is contained in
the \ITASCA\Shared\Utility directory.
2.1.6 Start-up
The default installation procedure creates an Itasca group under Programs on the users Start menu
in Windows. The Itasca group contains the FLAC > FLAC 5.00 shortcut that can be used to start the
code.*
To load FLAC, simply click the FLAC 5.00 button. The first time you load FLAC you will be asked to
specify a customer title. This title will appear on all hardcopy output plots generated from FLAC.
The title can be changed at any time by selecting the File / Customer Title Information...
menu item in the GIIC, or by using the SET cust1 and SET cust2 commands from the command
line.
FLAC will start up in command-driven mode, and then immediately switch to the graphics mode.
The graphics mode may take a few seconds to initialize while the JRE is being loaded to run the
GIIC. The initialization time can be affected by other programs running in the background. If you
notice a significant delay in the initialization of the graphics mode, it may be necessary to close
other Windows applications. When loaded, the FLAC window appears as shown in Figure 2.4.
The serial number for your version of FLAC is displayed in the Console pane. Press Cancel to
close the Model Options dialog, and then press the Console tab to view the Console pane, as shown
* Be sure that the FLAC hardware key is attached to the LPT1 or USB port on your computer.
GETTING STARTED
2-9
in Figure 2.5. The customer title, options available, memory allocated (see Section 2.1.4) and
precision limits (see Section 2.1.3) for FLAC are also listed in this view.
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
2 - 10
Users Guide
where:
I
is an integer that is incremented when minor modifications are officially released as an update to the current version.
In addition to the version number, sub-version numbers are also used to identify minor changes
to FLAC that have been made since the official version was released. Users may access the latest
sub-version of the current version of FLAC via the Internet. (Contact Itasca for further information.)
However, FLAC with a sub-version number greater than that of the officially released version should
be used with caution, because not all features have been fully tested.
The version number is given in the title bar at the top of the FLAC window, see Figure 2.4. The
FLAC version number (and the version numbers for the GIIC and JAVA(TM) Runtime Environment
associated with this version of FLAC) are provided in the About FLAC dialog, accessed from the
Help / About FLAC menu item.
The FLAC version number can also be obtained by typing the command
print version
GETTING STARTED
2 - 11
project
2 - 12
Users Guide
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
GETTING STARTED
2 - 13
2 - 14
Users Guide
You can use the View menu to manipulate any view pane (e.g., translate or rotate the view, increase
or decrease the size of the view, turn on and off the model axes). The View menu is also available as
a tool bar that can be turned on from the Show menu. The View tool bar is shown on the Model-View
pane in Figure 2.8.
An overview of the GIIC operation is provided in the Help menu. The menu also contains a list of
Frequently Asked Questions about the GIIC and an index to all GIIC Help files.
Figure 2.8
The text field with the flac: prompt located at the bottom of the Console pane allows you to
enter FLAC commands directly from the GIIC. The Console pane will echo the commands that
you enter. You should not need to use the command line at all; it is provided as a shortcut in case
you prefer to type a command rather than use the graphical interface. A status bar is located at the
bottom of the main window and displays information related to the currently active view or tool.
There is also a Fish Editor pane available in the GIIC that allows you to create new FISH functions,
edit existing functions and specify FISH parameters. This window can be opened from the Show
menu.
A Model Options dialog box will appear every time you start the GIIC or begin a new model
project. The dialog is shown in Figure 2.8. This dialog identifies which optional modes of analysis
GETTING STARTED
2 - 15
are available to you in your version of FLAC. (Note that dynamic analysis, thermal analysis, twophase flow analysis, creep models and C++ user-defined models are separate modules that can be
activated at an additional cost per module.) The FLAC Configuration Options must be selected at
the beginning of a new analysis, while the User Interface Options (structural elements, advanced
material models and factor-of-safety calculation) can be included at any time in the model run.
You can select a system of units for your analysis in the Model Options dialog. Many parameters
will then be labeled with the corresponding units, and predefined values, such as gravitational
magnitude and properties within the material database, will be converted to the selected system.
The selection for system of units may be changed after the analysis has begun. However, care must
be taken that all units are still consistent.
If you are a new user, or only intend to perform a simple static analysis, we recommend that you
click the OK button in the Model Options dialog to access the basic FLAC features. In this case, only
the null, isotropic elastic and Mohr-Coulomb models are active, and a static, plane-strain analysis
is performed in the GIIC. If you wish to come back later in the analysis and, for example, add
structural elements, click File / Model Options in the main menu. This will reopen the Model
Options dialog. Check Include Structural Elements? and click OK . A Structure tab will be added to
the modeling-stage tab bar, and structural elements can now be included in your model.
The final model option that can be selected is the format for the project record that is used in the
Record pane. Two types of format are provided: a List Record format and a Project Tree Record
format. The List format is a simple record with independent save files. Each save file includes a
record of all the commands needed to generate the state. The Project Tree format shows changes
between save files. Save states are displayed in a tree structure.
The Model Options dialog is shown below in Figure 2.9 with the following model options selected:
groundwater configuration option with automatic adjustment of total stresses for external porepressure change (CONFIG gw ats), structural elements user-interface option, Project Tree Record
format and SI system of units.
2.2.1.2 Changing GIIC Preferences
After you have selected which Model Options you wish to have operating during your analysis,
you can save these preferences, so that these selections are active each time you enter the GIIC.
Also, you can save your preferences for the look-and-feel of the GIIC on start-up. You can select
which resource pane you wish to have open, as well as the size of this pane and the Model-View
pane. Preferences for the GIIC appearance can be changed. Open the Show menu in the main
menu to change the look-and-feel of the GIIC panes and tool bar. Once you are satisfied, click
File / Save Preferences in the main menu. The GIIC start-up preferences are stored in the file
STARTUP.GPF, located in the ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI directory.
2 - 16
Users Guide
Figure 2.9
Build
tab, and
Alter
tab.
Next, material models and properties are assigned to the zones in the model,
using the tools accessed from the Material tab.
Boundary and initial conditions are applied via the
In Situ
tab.
The Utility tab provides tools to monitor model variables and access existing
FISH functions.
The Settings tab allows model global conditions to be set or changed during
the analysis.
All plotting facilities in FLAC are accessible via the
Calculations are performed using tools from the
Run
Plot
tab.
tab.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 17
Note that model conditions can be changed at any point in the solution process by re-entering a
modeling-stage tab. For example, model properties can be changed at any time via the Material
tab, and pressure or stress alterations can be made via the In Situ tab. Also, if you select structural
elements in the Model Options dialog, a Structure tab will be included in the modeling-stage tab bar
to access structural support for the model.
When you click on each of the modeling-stage tabs, a tool bar that provides access to model tool
panes in which you can perform operations related to that tool will appear. The Build tab tool bar is
shown in Figure 2.8. Next, a simple tutorial is given to provide an introduction to the model tools
and to help you become acquainted with the GIIC operation.
2.2.2 A Simple Tutorial Use of the GIIC
In this section we provide a simple tutorial to help you get started using the GIIC. The tutorial
demonstrates the use of several modeling tools to create and solve a simple geotechnical problem.
The example is a circular tunnel excavated at a shallow depth in rock. Two rock types are evaluated:
a strong rock and a weak rock. We excavate the tunnel instantaneously and monitor the movements
of the rock around the tunnel for both rock types. This tutorial is similar in scope to the commanddriven tutorial presented in Section 2.2.4, and is provided to allow you to compare command-driven
versus menu-driven operation of FLAC.
To begin, start up the GIIC by following the procedure given in Section 2.1.6. (If you have loaded
FLAC by double-clicking on the FLAC icon in the Itasca group, the GIIC will start up automatically.)
We are performing a simple, static, plane-strain analysis, so we click the OK button in the Model
Options dialog to access the basic FLAC features. (See Figure 2.8.) By default, the Project Tree
Record format is selected.
When beginning a modeling project, the Project Save dialog will appear so that we may set up a
project file for our exercise. The dialog is shown in Figure 2.10. We are asked to assign a project
title and filename for this project. We click on ? in this dialog to select a directory in which to save
the project file. We save the project as TUNNEL.PRJ. (Note that the .PRJ extension is assigned
automatically.) The location of the project file and the project filename appear in the Project File
dialog, as shown in Figure 2.10. The project file contains the project record and allows access to
all of the model save (.SAV) files that we will create for the different stages of this analysis. (See
Section 2.10 for a discussion of the differences between a model save (.SAV) file and the project
(.PRJ) file.) We can stop working on the project at any stage, save it and reopen it at a later time
simply by opening the project file (from the File/Open Project menu item); the entire project and
associated model save files will be accessible in the GIIC.
2 - 18
Users Guide
GETTING STARTED
2 - 19
We next create the circular tunnel by shaping the grid to fit the tunnel boundary. To avoid errors in
calculation of gridpoint masses, all grid shaping should be done before the computational process
begins; these errors may occur if the grid is shaped after computational stepping (see Section 2.6.1
for further discussion). Grid shaping is done by clicking on the Shape button from the Alter modelingtool tab. A plot of the grid appears with a set of tools that we can use to add shapes to the grid. We
select the Circle radio button, move the mouse to a position on the grid corresponding to the tunnel
center, and press and hold the left mouse button while moving the mouse. A circle tool will appear
with two boxes, one at the centroid and one along the circle periphery (see Figure 2.12). We can
move the circle and adjust its radius by pressing and holding the left mouse button while the mouse
is positioned within each box. Alternatively, we can select values for the centroid coordinates and
the circle radius with dialogs that open when we right-click the mouse while it is positioned within
each box. The circle in Figure 2.12 is centered at x = 5.0, y = 5.0 and has a radius of 2.0 m.
Circle
button active
When we press Generate , the grid is deformed to fit the boundary of the circle, and the corresponding
GENERATE command is displayed in the Changes sub-pane to the left of the grid plot, as shown
in Figure 2.13. Note that this is a virtual grid: any alterations we make within this grid can be
undone or changed. We simply press one of the arrow keys above the Changes pane to remove (or
add) a command corresponding to the shape created in the virtual grid.
Once we are satisfied with the alteration, we press the Execute button. This sends the command(s)
to FLAC and returns to the Model-View pane. The FLAC commands are processed, and the altered
FLAC grid with marked gridpoints is displayed, as shown in Figure 2.14. The FLAC commands
created thus far are shown in the Record pane in this figure.
2 - 20
Users Guide
Figure 2.13 FLAC grid with zones shaped for circular tunnel
GETTING STARTED
2 - 21
We next move to the Material modeling-tool tab and press the Assign button to create and assign materials and their properties to the zones within the grid. Materials are created from a Material dialog
that is opened by pressing the Create button in the Assign pane. Within this dialog, we can assign
a classification and material name, prescribe a constitutive model type (elastic or Mohr-Coulomb)
and assign material properties. Soils and rocks can be divided into different classifications, such
as Tunnel rock, with separate material names within a classification, such as strong rock and
weak rock. The classification and material name are used to associate a GROUP name with each
material. We will create two different materials for this analysis: a strong rock and a weak rock.
The Material dialog with the selected properties for strong rock is shown in Figure 2.15. The dialog
for weak rock is similar except that the cohesion is zero.*
Assign
tool
* A database of common soil and rock materials and properties is also available by pressing the Database
button in the lower-right corner of the Assign pane. The database is divided into classification
groups and material names. You can also create your own database of common materials within
this database tool, which can be saved and loaded for other projects. Database materials are stored
in a file with extension .GMT see Section 2.10.
2 - 22
Users Guide
We press OK in the Material dialog to create the material. The material is added to a material List
shown on the right side of the Assign pane. Once all of the materials required for an analysis have
been created and added to the list, they can be assigned to the grid. It is possible to assign different
materials to different zones in the grid, or to different marked regions of the grid, using the Range
tools provided in the Assign pane. In our example, we will evaluate the response of the tunnel
in strong rock versus weak rock, so we begin by assigning strong rock material to all zones. We
highlight the Tunnel:strong rock item and press the SetAll button to assign this material to all nonnull zones in the grid. Figure 2.16 shows the Assign pane with the strong rock material assigned.
GROUP, MODEL and PROPERTY commands are listed in the Changes pane when the materials are
assigned. We now press Execute to send these commands to FLAC.
Figure 2.16 Strong rock material assigned to all zones with the
SetAll
button
GETTING STARTED
2 - 23
The next step is to assign the boundary conditions for our model. We select the Fix button from the
In Situ
modeling-tool tab. We wish to have a pinned boundary condition applied along the bottom
of the model, and roller boundary conditions applied to the sides. To prescribe a pinned boundary
on the bottom, we press the X&Y radio button to specify a fixed-gridpoint velocity in the x- and
y-directions. By default, the x- and y-velocities are zero and, by specifying that these velocities
are fixed at the selected gridpoints, we are preventing any movement in the x- and y-directions. We
hold down the left mouse button while dragging the mouse along the bottom boundary. Gridpoints
are marked and, when we release the button, a letter B (denoting that both the x- and y-fixity
conditions are set) is printed at the selected gridpoints. We repeat the process using the X radio
button to specify a fixed-gridpoint velocity in the x-direction along the left and right boundaries.
The resulting boundary conditions are shown in Figure 2.17. Press Execute to send these commands
to FLAC.
Fix
tool
2 - 24
Users Guide
We can access different variables in our model with the Utility modeling-tool tab. We wish to
monitor the displacement at the ground surface as the tunnel is excavated. To do this, we click on
the History button to open the History pane, and then click on the GP mode radio button. We select
the y-displacement history from the History Information sub-menu, and then we point the mouse
at a gridpoint on the top of the model. When we click on the gridpoint, a HISTORY command is
created for the y-displacement history at that gridpoint. Figure 2.18 shows the results of our action
in the History pane. Press Execute to send the command to FLAC.
Hist
tool
GETTING STARTED
2 - 25
Gravitational loading is specified as a global setting in our model via the Settings modeling-tool
tab. We click on the Gravity button to access the Gravity Settings dialog. Then, by clicking on the
globe icon in the dialog, the value of 9.81 m/sec2 will be listed as the magnitude of gravitational
acceleration. (You can also type in a different value for the magnitude.) The dialog is shown in
Figure 2.19. Note that the gravitational vector is shown by an icon in the model view.
Figure 2.20 Set global mechanical settings in the Mechanical Settings dialog
2 - 26
Users Guide
We are now ready to bring the model to an initial equilibrium state. We timestep the model to a force
equilibrium condition under gravity loading. The solution approach of timestepping to equilibrium
is described is Section 2.6.4. We press the Run modeling-tool tab and then the Solve button. This
opens a Solve dialog, as shown in Figure 2.21. The calculation for the initial equilibrium state
starts from a zero stress state. In order to ensure a uniform stress distribution at equilibrium, we
select the Solve initial equilibrium as elastic model box in the Solve dialog. (See Section 3.4.6 for further
information on this topic.) We now press OK and invoke the SOLVE command to detect equilibrium
automatically. The Model cycling dialog appears and the timestep number, maximum unbalanced
force and equilibrium ratio are displayed. The equilibrium ratio is used to determine equilibrium
(see Section 2.6.4 for details). When the ratio falls below the default limiting value of 103 , the
calculation stops. Other limiting conditions can also be prescribed, as described in Section 2.6.4.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 27
Quick
button
2 - 28
Users Guide
We can create plots for a wide variety of variables in a FLAC model. Click on the Model button from
the Plot tab to open the FLAC Plot Items dialog. The dialog is shown in Figure 2.24. This dialog
accesses most of the general plotting facilities in FLAC. (Note that separate tools are provided for
table, history, profile and failure plots in the Plot tool bar.) For example, if we wish to examine
the gravitational stresses that develop in the model, we can create a contour plot of yy -stresses.
Click on the Contour-Zone / Total Stress / syy plot item from the Plot Items tree, and add this
to the Add Plot Items list. Then click on the Geometry / boundary plot item and add this to the list.
We can either create a fill-contour plot or a line-contour plot. By default, a filled contour plot is
created with the contour range denoted by the fill colors. The resulting fill-contour plot is shown
in Figure 2.25.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 29
2 - 30
Users Guide
GETTING STARTED
2 - 31
Next, we evaluate the tunnel response using the weak-rock material. We first need to return to a
previous model stage. We return to the state before the tunnel is introduced (TUN1.SAV) by
clicking on this file name in the Record pane. (Note that we should actually re-calculate an initial
stress state that corresponds to the weak-rock strength properties and gravitational loading. In this
simple exercise, this initial stress state is the same as that for the strong rock.)
We return to the Assign pane and click on Tunnel: weak rock in the material list to highlight this
material. We click on the SetAll button to change all of the non-null zones from strong rock to weak
rock. The result is shown in Figure 2.28.
Figure 2.28 Weak rock material assigned to all zones with the
SetAll
button
When we press Execute to return to the Model-View pane, the project tree in the Record pane displays
two branches: branch A and branch B. branch A contains the commands and save state
TUN2.SAV for the strong rock analysis; branch B contains the commands to excavate the
tunnel in the weak rock. We continue the analysis from the weak-rock state.
For analyses in which we anticipate that material failure can occur, and the simulation may never
reach an equilibrium state, we do not use the Solve tool. Instead, we use the Cycle tool in the Run tab
in order to step through the simulation and monitor the response as it occurs. After pressing Cycle ,
we enter 600 cycles for the calculation duration and press OK . FLAC will now step through 600
timesteps. When stepping is finished, the model plot is refreshed automatically and, because we are
running in large-strain mode, we observe that the top of the grid has begun to deform downward.
See Figure 2.29. If we continue stepping, eventually FLAC will report an error message (Bad
2 - 32
Users Guide
Geometry) and the calculation will stop. This indicates that zones in the model have reached a
limiting distortion; the limiting conditions for zone distortion are described in Section 2.6.1.
Figure 2.29 Weak rock: deformed grid at 600 timesteps after tunnel excavation
There are different ways to monitor the collapse process. For example, if we plot the history of
y-displacement at gridpoint i = 6, j = 11, which we recorded at the beginning of the simulation,
we can identify collapse by the increasing displacement that is displayed. Press the History button
in the Plot tab, click on Item ID number 1 (which is the history number corresponding to the
y-displacement history we selected), and press OK . A plot of the y-displacement history versus
accumulated timestep will appear, as shown in Figure 2.30. The displacement is increasing at a
constant rate, indicating collapse.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 33
2 - 34
Users Guide
file.dat
on the command line, in which FILE.DAT is the user-assigned name for the data file. You will
see the data entries scroll up the screen as FLAC reads each line (if SET echo is on).
GETTING STARTED
2 - 35
This command will create an initial grid (or mesh, if you prefer) that is 5 zones (or elements) wide
by 5 zones high. Now, give the zones a material model and properties. For this example, we use
the Mohr-Coulomb elasto-plastic model. Type in the following commands:
model mohr
prop bulk=1e8 shear=.3e8 fric=35
prop dens=1000 coh=1e10 ten=1e10
Here, we have specified the Mohr-Coulomb model. Every zone in the grid could conceivably have a
different material model and property. However, by not specifying a range of zones directly behind
the MODEL command, FLAC assumes that all zones are to be Mohr-Coulomb. The properties are
given next including the bulk modulus (in Pa), shear modulus, the angle of internal friction,
the mass density, the cohesion and the tensile strength. Any consistent set of engineering units
can be used when assigning properties in a FLAC model (see Section 2.8). Note that very high
cohesion and tensile strength values are given. These are only initial values that are used during
the development of gravitational stresses within the body. In effect, we are forcing the body to
behave elastically during the initial development of the gravitational stresses. This lets us avoid
* See the command reference list in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for further details. Note
that command words can be abbreviated (see Section 2.5).
Alternatively, an elastic model could initially be used to set up the virgin stresses, followed by
changing the model to Mohr-Coulomb prior to any excavation, applied loads, or other simulations.
This is done automatically by using the SOLVE elastic command.
2 - 36
Users Guide
any plastic yield during this initial phase of the analysis. The reasons for this will become obvious
once you gain experience with the explicit-simulation procedure.
Now that a grid and model properties have been defined, data pertaining to the simulation can be
plotted or printed. Issue the following command:
print
The x- and y-coordinates will appear in tabular form in the physical positions of the gridpoints.
You will note that the table has i (column) and j (row) going from 1 to 6 along the top and left-hand
edge of the table. Therefore, each gridpoint and zone has an i (column) and j (row) associated with
it. In this example, the gridpoint range is i from 1 to 6 and j from 1 to 6, whereas the zones range is
from 1 to 5 for i and 1 to 5 for j . If you require greater clarification on this point, see Figure 2.38
in Section 2.4. To see a plot of the grid, give the following command:*
plot
grid
This will create a plot of the grid on the screen. After viewing, press <Enter> to get back to the
flac: prompt.
In order to make a hard copy of a plot, enter the command COPY and the plot will be sent (by
default) to the current Windows printer connected to the LPT1: port.
Alternatively, we can send the plot to a file for printing at some later time. For example, the
commands
set plot emf
copy grid.emf
will create a Windows-enhanced metafile plot GRID.EMF of the last-viewed plot. The file can
then be directly imported to a word processor program such as Microsoft Word.
If a PCX file is desired instead, the SET pcx command will allow PCX files to be generated by
pressing <F2> when the plot is displayed on screen. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference
for a full description of this command.
Note that if we do not assign coordinates to the grid (by using the GENERATE or INITIAL command),
then the x- and y-coordinates are assigned equal to the number of the gridpoint minus 1. For
example, in the previous grid plot, the lower left-hand gridpoint is assumed to be the origin and
is given the coordinate (0,0). The bottom right-hand corner gridpoint (6,1) is given the coordinate
* The plotting window will be set automatically unless otherwise specified by using the WINDOW
command.
The printer type can be changed with the SET plot command. For example, type SET plot post
before entering the COPY command to direct plots to a PostScript-compatible printer. The output
port can be changed or a filename can be specified with the SET output command see Section 1
in the Command Reference.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 37
(5,0). The user is completely free to assign any chosen coordinates by using the GENERATE and
INITIAL commands. To keep this example simple, we leave the grid at 5 m 5 m.
Next, the boundary conditions for the problem are set. In this problem, we want to place roller
boundaries on the bottom and sides, apply gravitational forces to the zones, and allow the in-situ
stresses to develop as they occur in nature. To fix these boundaries (i.e., no displacement or velocity
in the specified direction), use the following commands:
fix
fix
fix
y
x
x
j=1
i=1
i=6
grav=9.81
where 9.81 m/sec2 is the acceleration due to gravity. Here, gravity is taken as positive downward
and negative upward. (If gravity is set negative, objects will rise!)
We wish to see a history of the displacement of a gridpoint on the model to indicate equilibrium or
collapse. Type:
his nstep=5
his ydis i = 2 j = 6
Here, we choose to monitor the y-displacement every five timesteps for a point at the top of the
ground surface. Now, we are ready to bring the initial model to equilibrium. Because FLAC is an
explicit dynamic code, we step the model through time,* allowing the kinetic energy of the mesh to
damp out (thus providing the static solution we seek). To allow gravity to develop within the body,
we timestep the simulation to equilibrium. Here, the SOLVE command is used to detect equilibrium
automatically.
Type the commands
set force=100
solve
2 - 38
Users Guide
The calculation process will begin and the timestep number, maximum unbalanced force and equilibrium ratio will be displayed on the screen. When the unbalanced force falls below the limiting
value (a limiting force of 100 N is specified with the SET command), the run will stop. Other
options for solution limits, such as equilibrium ratio, are discussed later in Section 2.6.4.
Now we can see what has occurred within the model. Examine the y-displacement history requested
earlier:
plot his 1
A screen plot which indicates that the model came to equilibrium within 108 timesteps will be
shown. The final y-displacement at equilibrium is -0.881 103 m, due to the gravitational
loading. For a screen listing of this history, type
hist dump 1
Lets examine the gravitational stresses developed in the body. The window was automatically
defined but, if we wish to enlarge or shrink the plot, we can reset it with the WINDOW command.
Now, give the plot a title* by typing
title
a simple trench excavation example
(1,5)
bou gre
This will create a plot (Figure 2.32) of the yy -stresses in yellow-brown and the boundary in green.
Similarly, the xx -stresses can be plotted by typing
plot
sxx
yel
bou
gre
We note that the gravitational stresses increase linearly with depth. The values can be printed by
typing
print
sxx
syy
It is wise to save this initial state so that we can restart it at any time for performing parameter
studies. To save this, type
save
trench.sav
A save file will be created on the default drive. The FLAC prompt will then return.
* The title and legend appear on hardcopy plots as well as screen plots. There are slight differences
between the legend shown on the screen plot and that shown on hardcopy plots.
The color switch also controls the line style on hardcopy plots. See Table 1.6 in the Command
Reference to select line styles based on color keywords. Note that all plots shown in the figures in
Section 2 have a line style set by the default line style, which is a solid line.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 39
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
H
7-Mar-05 13:26
step
108
-8.333E-01 <x< 5.833E+00
-8.333E-01 <y< 5.833E+00
G
F
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 5.00E+03
A: -4.000E+04
H: -5.000E+03
Boundary plot
0
4.000
3.000
2E 0
2.000
C
B
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
Figure 2.32 The gravitational stresses included in the soil after 108 timesteps
Now we can excavate a trench in the soil. First, type
prop coh=0
With a zero cohesion and vertical, unsupported trench walls, collapse will certainly occur. Because
we want to examine this process realistically, the large-strain logic must be set in the code. This is
done by typing
set large
Finally, for plotting purposes, we wish to see only the change in displacements from the trench
excavation and not the previous gravitational setting so we can zero out the x- and y-displacement
components:*
init
xdis=0
ydis=0
null
i=3
j=3,5
Since we purposely set the cohesion low enough to result in failure, we do not want to use the SOLVE
command with a limit for out-of-balance forces (which checks for equilibrium). Our simulation
* This will not affect the calculations since the model does not require displacements in the calculation
sequence. They are kept only as a convenience to the user.
2 - 40
Users Guide
will never converge to the equilibrium state. Instead, we can step through the simulation process
one step at a time and plot and print the results of the collapse as it occurs. This is the real power
of the explicit method. The model is not required to converge to equilibrium at each calculation
cycle, because we never have to solve a set of linear algebraic equations simultaneously, as is the
case in the implicit codes with which many engineers are familiar.
In FLAC, we use the STEP command
step 100
FLAC will now step through 100 timesteps. When it is finished, the prompt will reappear. Now,
examine the results thus far by plotting some variables e.g.,
plot
plastic
boundary
The present state of each zone will be indicated by symbols which represent the type of failure condition. This plot indicates that the zones adjacent to the trench are actively yielding in shear.* The
Mohr-Coulomb failure model is discussed in detail in Section 2.4.2 in Theory and Background.
Now, try plotting some parameters:
plot
grid
This will produce a plot of the x-velocity contours (in yellow, contour interval of 5 106 m, zero
contours removed) overlaid by the displacement vectors (in red, scaled to a maximum vector length
of 1 102 m) and the boundary (in green). This is shown in Figure 2.33. The velocity contours
are given here to help visualize those areas of active yield, because this material is flowing.
The collapse process can be examined as it occurs, by timestepping 100 steps at a time. We
encourage you to step ahead in this fashion, creating plots at each stage and experimenting with the
max, int and color keywords at each stage. Try plotting the stresses, velocities and displacements
to produce meaningful results. In this example, we will jump ahead to a convenient spot in the
collapse process:
step 400
Again, try
plot grid
There is a drastically different picture at this stage as the trench collapses (Figure 2.34).
* Note that we have made our boundaries on this problem small in order to speed operation; thus,
some boundary interference occurs.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 41
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:08
step
208
-2.500E-01 <x< 5.250E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 5.250E+00
Q
P
3.500
X-velocity contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-06
(zero contour omitted)
M: 5.000E-06
R: 3.000E-05
Displacement vectors
scaled to max = 1.000E-02
max vector = 5.835E-03
2.500
2E -2
1.500
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
Figure 2.33 A plot of the displacement vectors and x-velocity at timestep 208
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:08
step
208
-2.500E-01 <x< 5.250E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 5.250E+00
3.500
Grid plot
0
1E 0
2.500
1.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
2 - 42
Users Guide
By typing
plot
plas
bou
we note that the zones are still at the yield failure point. Examine the yy -state and displacements
by requesting
plot syy zero int=2500 disp max=0.2 mage bou gree
We observe distortion of the stress contours due to the excavation and an increase in magnitude (by
approximately 100 times) of the displacement vectors (Figure 2.35). Also note that stress contours,
unlike displacement and velocity contours, are not plotted to the external and excavation boundaries,
because stresses are constant within a zone.*
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
N
21-May-04 14:08
step
608
-2.500E-01 <x< 5.250E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 5.250E+00
M
L
3.500
K
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+03
B: -3.500E+04
N: -5.000E+03
Displacement vectors
scaled to max = 2.000E-01
max vector = 1.318E-01
0
J
I
H
5E -1
Boundary plot
0
2.500
1.500
E
1E 0
D
C
B
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
Figure 2.35 yy-stress contours and displacement vectors after 608 timesteps
From this point, you may wish to play with the various features of FLAC in an attempt to stabilize
the excavation. Try restarting the previous file you created by entering
rest
trench.sav
Excavate the trench as before, but try using the structural element logic described in Section 1 in
Structural Elements to model bracing or tieback anchors.
* It is possible to use an interpolation function to extend the stress contour lines to the boundaries,
using the FISH built-in language (see EXTRAP.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH volume).
GETTING STARTED
2 - 43
You will see that FLAC is virtually bulletproof an error-trapping function recognizes most
commonly occurring errors.
This ends the command-driven tutorial. If you have previously run the tutorial for menu-driven
operation, as described in Section 2.2.2, you should note that the command-driven mode requires a
more thorough knowledge of the command language in FLAC than does the menu-driven mode. It is
possible to switch back and forth from menu-driven to command-driven operation. We recommend,
though, that you begin learning FLAC in menu-driven mode before attempting to include commanddriven operations.
The remaining sections of this chapter provide a guide to the mechanics of using FLAC. As you
become more familiar with the code, turn to Section 3 for additional details on problem solving
with FLAC.
2 - 44
Users Guide
2.3 Nomenclature
FLAC uses nomenclature that is consistent, in general, with that used in conventional finite difference
or finite-element programs for stress analysis. The basic definitions of terms are reviewed here for
clarification. Figure 2.36 is provided to illustrate the FLAC terminology.
water table
hydraulic
pressure
attached gridpoints
model
boundary
ter
fa
ce
horizontal
boundary
stress
in
structural cable
internal
boundary
(excavation)
zone
structural beam
gridpoint
fixed
bottom
boundary
GETTING STARTED
2 - 45
GRIDPOINT Gridpoints are associated with the corners of the finite difference zones. There
are always four (4) gridpoints associated with each zone. In the FLAC model, a pair of x- and ycoordinates are defined for each gridpoint, thus specifying the exact location of the finite difference
zones. Other terms for gridpoint are nodal point and node.
FINITE DIFFERENCE GRID The finite difference grid is an assemblage of one or more finite
difference zones across the physical region which is being analyzed. Another term for grid is mesh.
MODEL BOUNDARY The model boundary is the periphery of the finite difference grid. Internal
boundaries (i.e., holes within the grid) are also model boundaries.
BOUNDARY CONDITION A boundary condition is the prescription of a constraint or controlled
condition along a model boundary (e.g., a fixed displacement or force for mechanical problems,
an impermeable boundary for groundwater flow problems, adiabatic boundary for heat transfer
problems, etc.).
INITIAL CONDITIONS This is the state of all variables in the model (e.g., stresses or pore
pressures) prior to any loading change or disturbance (e.g., excavation).
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL The constitutive (or material) model represents the deformation
and strength behavior prescribed to the zones in a FLAC model. Several constitutive models are
available in FLAC to assimilate different types of behavior commonly associated with geologic
materials. Constitutive models and material properties can be assigned individually to every zone
in a FLAC model.
SUB-GRID The finite difference grid can be divided into sub-grids. Sub-grids can be used to
create regions of different shapes in the model (e.g., the dam sub-grid on the foundation sub-grid
in Figure 2.36). Sub-grids cannot share the same gridpoints with other sub-grids; they must be
separated by null zones.
NULL ZONE Null zones are zones that represent voids (i.e., no material present) within the
finite difference grid. All newly created zones are null by default.
ATTACHED GRIDPOINTS Attached gridpoints are pairs of gridpoints that belong to separate
sub-grids that are joined together. The dam is joined to the foundation along attached gridpoints
in Figure 2.36. Attached gridpoints do not have to match between sub-grids, but sub-grids cannot
separate from one another once attached.
INTERFACE An interface is a connection between sub-grids that can separate (e.g., slide or
open). An interface can represent a physical discontinuity such as a fault or contact plane. It can
also be used to join sub-grid regions that have different zone sizes.
MARKED GRIDPOINTS Marked gridpoints are specially designated gridpoints that delimit a
region for the purpose of applying an initial condition, assigning material models and properties,
and printing selected variables. The marking of gridpoints has no effect on the solution process.
REGION A region in a FLAC model refers to all zones enclosed within a contiguous string of
marked gridpoints. Regions are used to limit the range of certain FLAC commands, such as the
MODEL command that assigns material models to designated regions.
2 - 46
Users Guide
GROUP A group in a FLAC model refers to a collection of zones identified by a unique name.
Groups are used to limit the range of certain FLAC commands, such as the MODEL command that
assigns material models to designated groups. Any command reference to a group name indicates
that the command is to be executed on that group of zones.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENT Structural elements are linear elements used to represent the interaction of structures (such as tunnel liners, rock bolts, cable bolts or support props) with a soil or
rock mass. Some restricted material nonlinearity is possible with structural elements. Geometric
nonlinearity occurs in large-strain mode.
STEP Because FLAC is an explicit code, the solution to a problem requires a number of computational steps. During computational stepping, the information associated with the phenomenon
under investigation is propagated across the zones in the finite difference grid. A certain number
of steps is required to arrive at an equilibrium (or steady-flow) state for a static solution. Typical
problems are solved within 2000 to 4000 steps, although large, complex problems can require tens
of thousands of steps to reach a steady state. When using the dynamic analysis option, STEP refers
to the actual timestep for the dynamic problem. Other terms for step are timestep and cycle.
STATIC SOLUTION A static or quasi-static solution is reached in FLAC when the rate of
change of kinetic energy in a model approaches a negligible value. This is accomplished by
damping the equations of motion. At the static solution stage, the model will either be at a state of
force equilibrium or a state of steady-flow of material if a portion (or all) of the model is unstable
(i.e., fails) under the applied loading conditions. This is the default calculation in FLAC.* Static
mechanical solutions can be coupled to transient groundwater flow or heat transfer solutions. (As
an option, fully dynamic analysis can also be performed by inhibiting the static solution damping.)
UNBALANCED FORCE The unbalanced force indicates when a mechanical equilibrium state
(or the onset of plastic flow) is reached for a static analysis. A model is in exact equilibrium if the
net nodal force vector at each gridpoint is zero. The maximum nodal force vector is monitored in
FLAC and printed to the screen when the STEP or SOLVE command is invoked. The maximum nodal
force vector is also called the unbalanced or out-of-balance force. The maximum unbalanced force
will never exactly reach zero for a numerical analysis. The model is considered to be in equilibrium
when the maximum unbalanced force is small compared to the total applied forces in the problem.
If the unbalanced force approaches a constant nonzero value, this probably indicates that failure
and plastic flow are occurring within the model.
* The mistaken notion exists in some finite element (FE) literature that a dynamic solution method
cannot produce a true equilibrium state, while an FE solution is believed to perfectly satisfy the set of
governing equations at equilibrium. In fact, both methods only satisfy the equations approximately,
but the level of residual errors can be made as small as desired. In FLAC, the level of error is
objectively quantified as the ratio of unbalanced force at a gridpoint to the mean of the set of
absolute forces acting at the gridpoint. This measure of error is very similar to the convergence
criteria used in FE solutions. In both cases, the solution process is terminated when the error is
below a desired value.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 47
DYNAMIC SOLUTION For a dynamic solution, the full dynamic equations of motion (including
inertial terms) are solved; the generation and dissipation of kinetic energy directly affect the solution.
Dynamic solutions are required for problems involving high frequency and short duration loads
e.g., seismic or explosive loading. The dynamic calculation is an optional module to FLAC (see
Section 3 in Optional Features).
LARGE-STRAIN/SMALL-STRAIN By default, FLAC operates in small-strain mode: that is,
gridpoint coordinates are not changed, even if computed displacements are large (compared to
typical zone sizes). In large-strain mode, gridpoint coordinates are updated at each step, according
to computed displacements. In large-strain mode, geometric nonlinearity is possible.
2 - 48
Users Guide
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:18
step
0
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
GETTING STARTED
2 - 49
JOB TITLE : .
1,7
2,7
3,7
4,7
5,7
6,7
7,7
6.500
1,6
2,6
3,6
4,6
5,6
6,6
7,6
5.500
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
7,5
4.500
1,4
2,4
3,4
4,4
5,4
6,4
7,4
3.500
1,3
2,3
3,3
4,3
5,3
6,3
7,3
2.500
1,2
2,2
3,2
4,2
5,2
6,2
7,2
1.500
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
5,1
6,1
7,1
0.500
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:18
step
0
-1.000E+00 <x< 7.000E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
Grid plot
0
2E 0
Zone Numbers
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
6.500
1,7
2,7
3,7
4,7
5,7
6,7
7,7
1,6
2,6
3,6
4,6
5,6
6,6
7,6
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
7,5
1,4
2,4
3,4
4,4
5,4
6,4
7,4
LEGEND
5.500
21-May-04 14:18
step
0
-1.000E+00 <x< 7.000E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
Grid plot
0
2E 0
3.500
Gridpoint Numbers
2.500
1,3
2,3
3,3
4,3
5,3
6,3
7,3
1,2
2,2
3,2
4,2
5,2
6,2
7,2
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
5,1
6,1
7,1
1.500
0.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
2 - 50
Users Guide
In normal operation, the finite difference mesh origin is the lower left-hand corner of the grid. By
default, the x-coordinates of the gridpoints are 0, 1, . . . , p, and the y-coordinates are 0, 1, . . . , q.
The coordinates are indicated by the scales shown on the plots in Figures 2.37 and 2.38.
Grid generation with FLAC involves the shaping of the row-and-column grid to fit the shape of the
physical domain. Grid generation is described in Section 3.2.
The finite difference grid also identifies the storage location of all state variables in the model. The
procedure followed in FLAC is that all vector quantities (e.g., forces, velocities, displacements, flow
rates) are stored at gridpoint locations, while all scalar and tensor quantities (e.g., stresses, pressure,
material properties) are stored at zone centroid locations. There are three exceptions: saturation
and temperature are considered gridpoint variables; and pore pressure is stored at both gridpoint
and zone centroid locations.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 51
* The commands and their meanings are presented in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference; a
summary is given in Section 1 in the Command and FISH Reference Summary.
2 - 52
Users Guide
GETTING STARTED
2 - 53
Start
MODEL SETUP
1. Generate grid, deform to desired shape
2. Define constitutive behavior and material properties
3. Specify boundary and initial conditions
Examine
the model response
Results unsatisfactory
Step to solution
More tests
needed
Examine
the model response
Acceptable result
Yes
Parameter
study needed
No
End
2 - 54
Users Guide
icol jrow
where icol is the number of columns of zones, and jrow is the number of rows of zones in the mesh.
Be careful when selecting the number of zones for a model, because a balance must be struck
between the accuracy required and the solution speed. The calculation speed to reach a solution
varies directly as a function of the number of elements. As a rule of thumb, models containing up to
roughly 5000 elements will typically reach a solution state for a given alteration in approximately
2000 to 4000 steps. On a 2.4 GHz Intel Pentium IV microcomputer, the runtime for a 5000-element
model to perform 4000 steps is less than one minute using the double-precision version of FLAC.
Check the speed of calculation on your computer for the specific model to estimate the runtime
required. A runtime benchmark test is provided in Section 5.1.
It is best to start with a grid that has few zones (say, 100 to 500) to perform simple test runs and
make refinements to the model. Then, increase the number of zones to improve the accuracy.
Two commands are used in FLAC to shape the grid:
generate
initial
The GENERATE command creates regions of different shapes within the grid. The INITIAL command
changes the x- and y-coordinates of selected gridpoints. The complete descriptions for these
commands are given in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference. The following examples illustrate
their use.
Example 1 In its simplest form, the GENERATE command can supply new coordinates to a grid.
By entering the commands* in Example 2.1, a square grid of 10 zones by 10 zones (11 gridpoints
by 11 gridpoints) will be created, and each zone will be assigned the elastic material model.
Example 2.1 Generating a simple grid
grid 10 10
model elastic
If the coordinates of the grid are printed at this stage, by issuing the command
print x y
* If you want to try entering the command examples interactively from the text mode, type NEW
each time you start a new example. In the GIIC, press the File / New Project item in the main
menu. This will initialize FLAC without having to exit and reload the program for a new model.
To view the result, in text mode, type PLOT grid after entering each example. The model view will
be displayed automatically in the GIIC.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 55
you will see that both x and y run from 0.0 to 10.0 (i.e., FLAC assigns a square grid with 1 unit
spacing between gridpoints). Note that the MODEL command must be issued before the PRINT
command. Otherwise, the grid coordinates will not be displayed. This is also true for the PLOT
command. There must be a material present for information to be printed or plotted.
If the actual coordinates of the grid are to run from 0.0 to 500.0 in the x-direction, and from 0.0 to
1000.0 in the y-direction, the GENERATE command is issued as follows:
gen
i=1,11 j=1,11
Note that the four corner coordinates for the portion of the mesh defined by i = 1,11, j = 1,11 start at
the lower left-hand corner of the grid and work around its outer corners in a clockwise fashion. All
gridpoints interior to these corner points will have their coordinates reassigned based on the corner
point coordinates. Now, print out the coordinates again to see that the coordinates have indeed
been changed. Note that just a portion of the grid can be given new coordinates. The portion of the
grid is defined by the i,j range (see Example 2.2). The corner coordinates must be specified in a
clockwise fashion.
Example 2 The GENERATE command can be used to create distortions in the grid. For example,
try the commands in Example 2.2.
Example 2.2 Distorting the grid
new
grid 20,20
model elas
gen 0,5 0,20 20,20 5,5 i=1,11
gen same same 20,0 5,0 i=11,21
plot hold grid
In this example, only a portion of the grid is distorted with each GENERATE command. The
first GENERATE command creates a distorted quadrilateral from half of the grid, while the second
command wraps the remainder of the grid around to form a rectangular opening. Successive
GENERATE commands are additive i.e., once changed, the coordinates of the grid remain at the
new coordinates until changed again by using the GENERATE or INITIAL commands. In the second
GENERATE command, the word same is used twice, which indicates that coordinates for the first
two corner points are not changed. When you type PLOT grid, the distorted grid shape should be
displayed.
2 - 56
Users Guide
Example 3 The GENERATE command can be used to grade a mesh to represent far boundaries.
For example, in many cases, an excavation is to be created at a great depth in a rock mass. Detailed
information on the stresses and displacements is to be determined around the excavation, where the
disturbance is large, but little detail is necessary at greater distances. In the following example, the
lower left-hand portion of the grid is left finely discretized, and the boundaries are graded outward
in the x- and y-directions. Try issuing the commands in Example 2.3.
Example 2.3 Grading the mesh
new
grid 20,20
m e
gen 0,0 0,100 100,100 100,0 rat 1.25 1.25
plot hold grid
The GENERATE command forces the grid lines to expand to 100.0 units at a rate 1.25 times the
previous grid spacing in the x- and y-directions. (Example 2.3 also illustrates that command words
can be truncated: MODEL elas becomes M e.) Note that if the ratio entered on the GEN command is
between 0 and 1, the grid dimensions will decrease with increasing coordinate value. For example,
issue the commands in Example 2.4.
Example 2.4 Applying different gradients to a mesh
new
gr 10,10
m e
gen -100,0 -100,100 0,100 0,0 rat .80,1.25
plot hold grid
You will see a grid graded in the negative x- and positive y-directions.
Example 4 Excavations often need to be created in the grid. It is very tedious to create complex
excavation shapes, especially circular arcs, by simply moving individual gridpoints. Special shape
functions are built into the GENERATE command (e.g., circles, arcs and lines). An example is given
here for the creation of excavation shapes using the GENERATE command.
First, a circular excavation is created. Try the commands in Example 2.5.
Example 2.5 Creating a circular hole in a grid
new
grid 20,20
m e
gen circle 10,10 5
GETTING STARTED
2 - 57
This command automatically creates a circular opening within the grid, centered at (x = 10, y = 10)
with a radius of 5.0. Note that the remainder of the mesh remains square (i.e., element corners are
at 90 degrees). Note, too, that the MODEL command must be specified first in order for the shape
functions (circle, arc, line) to work.
To cause the mesh to conform better to the new opening, type
gen adjust
plot grid
Successive GENERATE adjust commands will smooth the grid to increasingly greater levels.
When creating internal shapes within the grid using the GENERATE circle, GENERATE arc or GENERATE line commands, FLAC distinguishes between the various regions of the grid created by marking
closed paths. In the previous example, the GENERATE circle command creates two regions within
the grid created by the boundary of the circle: the region inside the boundary, and that outside. If
you wish to see where the boundaries of the grid are, type
plot grid mark
Those gridpoints which have been adjusted by FLAC to conform to boundaries are signified by an
a white X on the plot.
CAUTION: Two regions can only be formed if they are separated by closed contours. In other
words, a line segment which begins and ends within the grid, and does not form a closed boundary,
subsequently will result in only one region.
Example 5 The INITIAL command can be used to move a point or a number of points from the
present location to a new one. The following commands in Example 2.6 create a grid and distort it
using the INITIAL command.
Example 2.6 Moving gridpoints with the INITIAL command
new
grid 5 5
model elastic
gen 0,0 0,10 10,10 10,0
ini x=-2 i=1 j=6
ini x=12 i=6
plot hold grid
The GENERATE command assigns coordinates to gridpoints from 0 to 10 in the x- and y-directions.
The first INITIAL command moves the upper left-hand corner horizontally by -2 units. The second
2 - 58
Users Guide
INITIAL command moves the right-hand boundary gridpoints to the right by 2 units. Note that since
the j -range is not given, the entire range is assumed.
The INITIAL command can be used to move any gridpoint to any position. Of course, elements
cannot overlap. If this happens, a warning message referring to BAD GEOMETRY will be
given, and FLAC will not continue execution until the errors in grid construction are rectified.*
A practical limit on the aspect ratio of zones should be kept to about 1:10 or less for reasonable
solution accuracy.
During model solution, a quadrilateral may be deformed in any fashion, subject to the following
criteria:
(1) the area of the quadrilateral must be positive; and
(2) each member of at least one pair of triangular sub-zones which comprise the
quadrilateral must have an area greater than 20% of the total quadrilateral area
(see Section 1.3.2 in Theory and Background).
These criteria should be applied when creating zones to avoid bad geometry during model solution.
If either of these criteria is not met, FLAC will give a BAD GEOMETRY error message during
timestepping. Figure 2.40 illustrates possible zone deformations.
2
1
acceptable
deformed
geometry
initial
geometry
1
unacceptable
deformed
geometry
GETTING STARTED
2 - 59
WARNING: All grid shaping to create holes or new boundaries (e.g., slope faces) that will be
removed, or excavated, at a later state in the solution must be performed before the computational
stepping begins. The GENERATE and INITIAL commands should not be used to adjust the grid after
the STEP or SOLVE command is issued. (These commands are described below.) This adjustment
can introduce an erroneous calculation for gridpoint masses in the model. If it is necessary to move
gridpoints after stepping has begun, a velocity can be applied to the gridpoint for a specified number
of steps, to move the required displacement.
2.6.2 Assigning Material Models
Once the grid generation is complete, one or more material models and associated properties
must be assigned to all zones in the model. This is done by using two commands: MODEL and
PROPERTY. FLAC has ten (10) built-in material models; these are described in Section 2 in Theory
and Background. Three models are sufficient for most analyses the new user will make. These
are MODEL null, MODEL elastic and MODEL mohr.
MODEL null represents material which is removed or excavated from the model. MODEL elastic
assigns isotropic elastic material behavior, and MODEL mohr assigns Mohr-Coulomb plasticity
behavior.
MODEL elastic and MODEL mohr require that material properties be assigned via the PROPERTY
command. For the elastic model, the required properties are:
(1) density;
(2) bulk modulus; and
(3) shear modulus.
NOTE: Bulk modulus, K, and shear modulus, G, are related to Youngs modulus, E, and Poissons
ratio, , by:
K =
E
3(1 2)
(2.1)
G =
E
2(1 + )
(2.2)
or:
E =
9KG
3K + G
(2.3)
3K 2G
2(3K + G)
(2.4)
2 - 60
Users Guide
10,10
elas j=6,10
den=2000 bulk=1e8 shear=.3e8 j=6,10
mohr j=1,5
den=2500 bulk=1.5e8 shear=.6e8 j=1,5
fric=30 coh=5e6 ten=8.66e6 j=1,5
hold model
Instead of using i,j indices to specify a range, the word (i.e., keyword) region can be used. For
example, to excavate the circular tunnel in Example 2.5, the following command can be applied:
model
By specifying one zone inside the marked tunnel region (e.g., zone i = 10, j = 10), then all zones
within the tunnel are set to null material (i.e., excavated).
The tunnel can be filled at a later stage by typing, for example:
model
Note that the excavation can be replaced by any model, and with properties consistent with the
model.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 61
Command
Effect
APPLY
pressure
sxx
sxy
syy
xforce
yforce
xvel
yvel
FIX
pp
x
y
NOTE:
1. The FREE command is used to release the constraint set by the FIX command.
2. In order to assign a fixed-displacement boundary condition, only the FIX x
and/or FIX y commands are needed, provided that the velocity at the selected
gridpoint is zero.
3. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for a complete listing of APPLY
and FIX keywords.
2 - 62
Users Guide
Table 2.3
Command
INITIAL
Effect
pp
sat
sxx
sxy
syy
szz
xvel
yvel
xdis
ydis
10 10
el
x i=1
x i=11
y j=1
press = 10 j=11
sxx=-10 syy=-10
hold bou fix apply stress
The grid has the left- and right-hand sides fixed from movement in the x-direction, and the bottom
fixed in the y-direction. A pressure is applied to the top boundary, and all zones in the model have
an initial stress: xx = yy = 10. In FLAC, compressive stresses have a negative sign, while
compressive pressure is positive. All of these conditions are displayed with the PLOT command.
The applied pressure is displayed as force vectors. The stresses are shown as principal stress tensors.
The boundary of the grid is also shown.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 63
unbal
Additionally, the history of selected variables (e.g., velocity or displacement at a gridpoint) may be
recorded. The following commands are examples:
hist
hist
The first history records x-velocity at gridpoint (5,5), while the second records y-displacement at
gridpoint (5,11).
After running several hundred (or thousand) calculation steps, a history of these records may be
plotted to indicate the equilibrium condition. The data file in Example 2.9 illustrates this process.
2 - 64
Users Guide
10 10
el
d=1800 bulk=1e8 shear =.3e8
x i=1
x i=11
y j=1
pres=1e6 j=11
unbal
ydisp i=5 j=11
900
The initial maximum unbalanced force is 1 MN. After 900 steps, this force has dropped to approximately 100 N. By plotting the two histories, it can be seen that the maximum unbalanced force has
approached zero, while the displacement has approached a constant magnitude of approximately
0.07 m.
Type
plot hist 1
plot hist 2
to view these plots. The number following PLOT hist corresponds to the order in which the histories
are entered in the data file. Figures 2.41 and 2.42 show the unbalanced force and displacement
history plots.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 65
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
21-May-04 9:58
step
900
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Max. unbal. force
X-axis :
Number of steps
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
9
(10
02
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
21-May-04 9:58
step
900
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 5, 11)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
9
(10
02
2 - 66
Users Guide
Normally, displacements are initialized to zero at the initial equilibrium stage. This can be done
now by typing
ini
xdis=0 ydis=0
Type
print
xdis ydis
to confirm this.
The SOLVE command can be used in place of STEP if the user wishes FLAC to stop automatically
when the maximum unbalanced force or equilibrium ratio falls below a specified limit. Replace
STEP 900 with SOLVE and repeat the above problem. This time, FLAC should stop the calculation
at step 664. If the plots are made again, essentially the same results as given in Figures 2.41 and
2.42 will be seen.
The SOLVE command is controlled by a limiting equilibrium ratio (103 ), a limiting unbalanced
force (100 force units), a limiting number of timesteps (100,000 steps), and a limiting computer
runtime (1440 minutes), where the default values are given in parentheses. The calculation will
stop when any one of these limits is reached. In the above example, the equilibrium ratio of 103
is reached first. In order for the unbalanced force to control stepping, the command SET sratio=0
should be given before the SOLVE command. Now, the calculation will stop at a force limit of 100.
Each of the solving limits can be changed with the SET command. For example, SET force=50
will change the unbalanced force limit to 50. (Alternatively, the SOLVE force=50 command can
be given.) The limit will remain in effect until changed again, or until a NEW command is issued,
which will reset the limits to their default values. When using the SOLVE command, it is important
to make sure that the calculation does not stop prematurely (e.g., if the calculation is expected to
take more than 100,000 steps to reach equilibrium, then the SET step command should be used to
increase the step limit).
For the above example, an initial equilibrium stage can be achieved without stepping by simply
inserting an INITIAL command:
ini
Now, the unbalanced force is exactly zero. Type SOLVE to confirm this. Note that, in this case,
the initial displacements in the model are automatically zero. Note also that, in this example, any
initial value for sxx or szz will give an initial equilibrium.
If the initial stage is subjected to gravitational loading, this may be added via
set
gravity=9.81
where a gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/sec2 is applied in the negative y-direction. If the above
problem is continued with gravity loading, a maximum unbalanced force of approximately 18,000
N develops, and 720 steps are required (using SOLVE) to bring the model back to equilibrium. There
is a stress gradient now in the model which can be viewed by typing
print
syy
GETTING STARTED
2 - 67
The values for yy range from 1 MPa in the top zones of the model to 1.166 MPa in the bottom
zones. There is also a gradient in the x-direction z-direction; type
print
sxx szz
In an analysis, it is very important that the model be at equilibrium before alterations are made.
Several histories should be recorded throughout a model to ensure that a large force imbalance does
not exist. It does not affect the analysis adversely if more steps than needed are taken to reach
equilibrium, but it will affect the analysis if an insufficient number of steps are taken.
A FLAC calculation can be interrupted at any time during stepping. In the GIIC, this can be done
by pressing the Refresh Plot button in the Model Cycling dialog. In command-line mode, this is done
by pressing the <Esc> key. It often is convenient to use the STEP command with a high step
number and periodically interrupt the stepping, check the histories, and resume stepping ( with
STEP continue in the command-mode) until the equilibrium condition is reached.
2.6.5 Performing Alterations
FLAC allows model conditions to be changed at any point in the solution process. These changes
may be of the following form:
excavation of material;
addition or deletion of gridpoint loads or pressures;
change of material model or properties for any zone; and
fix or free velocities for any gridpoint.
Excavation is performed with the MODEL null command. Gridpoint loads can be applied at any
gridpoint with the APPLY xforce and APPLY yforce commands. Pressure or stress alterations can be
made at model boundaries with the APPLY command, as discussed previously. Material models and
properties are changed with the MODEL and PROPERTY commands. Gridpoint velocities are fixed
or freed via the FIX/FREE commands. It should be evident that several commands can be repeated
to perform various model alterations.
Try the data file in Example 2.10.
Example 2.10 Excavating a tunnel and monitoring the response
grid
model
gen
plot
gen
plot
prop
set
10,10
elastic
circle 5,5 2
hold grid
adjust
hold grid
s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600
grav=9.81
2 - 68
Users Guide
fix
x i=1
fix
x i=11
fix
y j=1
solve
pr
mark
ini sxx 0.0 syy 0.0 szz 0.0 region 5,5
prop s
.3e5 b 1e5 d 1.6
region 5,5
;mod
null region 5,5
plot hold grid
pause
solve
plot hold str bou
This problem illustrates the alteration on stress distribution due to excavation of a circular tunnel in
an elastic material. Because the grid cannot be altered after stepping begins, it must be deformed
to fit the boundaries of the tunnel before the initial stresses are equilibrated. After excavation (i.e.,
MODEL null), an unbalanced force results, and the model is stepped to equilibrium again. The plot
of principal stress tensors shows the stress distribution resulting from the excavation.
If model zones contain a plasticity material model (e.g., MODEL mohr), it is possible that an alteration
may be such that force equilibrium cannot be achieved. In other words, the unbalanced forces in
part or all of the model cannot approach zero in which case, the maximum unbalanced force will
approach a constant nonzero value, indicating that steady-state flow of material is occurring (i.e., a
portion, or all, of the model is failing).
Example 2.11 illustrates model failure.
Example 2.11 Excavate and fill in stages
grid 10,10
m e
prop s=5.7e9 b=11.1e9 d=2000
fix x i=1
fix y j=1
fix x i=11
apply syy -20e6 j=11
ini sxx -30e6 syy -20e6 szz -20e6
his unbal
his xdis i=4 j=5
solve
mod null i 4,7 j 3,6
plot hold grid
solve
plo hold his 1
plo hold his 2
plo hold grid str
GETTING STARTED
mod
prop
mod
mod
ini
his
his
his
step
plot
plot
2 - 69
This is a simple analysis of cut-and-fill mining, where excavations are created and backfilled sequentially. The boundaries are too close for an accurate solution, but the simulation illustrates
FLAC s ability to change model conditions and calculate the results in this case, the backfill
fails upon excavation of the adjacent cuts. The region of failure is indicated by the x-displacement
contour plot. The history plot shows that the gridpoint (4,5) in the backfill zone is at a constantly
increasing steady-state displacement.
2.6.6 Saving/Restoring Problem State
Two other commands, SAVE and RESTORE, are helpful when performing analyses in stages. At the
end of one stage (e.g., initial equilibrium), the model state can be saved by typing
save
file.sav
where le is a user-specified filename. The extension .SAV identifies this file as a saved file (see
Section 2.10). This file can be restored at a later time by typing
rest
file.sav
and the model state at the point at which the model was saved will be restored. It is not necessary to
build the model from scratch every time a change is made; merely save the model before the change
and restore it whenever a new change is to be analyzed. For example, in the previous example,
the state should be saved after the initial equilibrium stage. Then, the effect of different backfill
properties can be evaluated by restoring this file, changing the properties, and calculating the result.
For example, insert the following
save
fill1.sav
after the MODEL mohr command. Then create a data file of the form shown in Example 2.12 to
study the influence of the backfill.
2 - 70
Users Guide
This file should be created with a text editor and called into FLAC. After the run is completed, the
saved files can be restored and evaluated separately to study the effect of the backfill properties.
When using the GIIC, the saving and restoring of problem states is done automatically, and the
Project Tree Record format allows the user to switch among the different saved states by point-andclick operations.
2.6.7 Summary of Commands for Simple Analyses
The major command words described in Section 2.6 are summarized in Table 2.4. These are all
that are needed to begin performing simple analyses with FLAC. Start by running simple tests
with these commands (e.g., uniaxial and confined compression tests or simple excavation stability
analyses). It may be helpful to review the detailed description of these commands in Section 1.3 in
the Command Reference. Then try adding more complexity to the model. Before running very
detailed simulations though, we recommend that you read Section 3, which provides guidance on
problem solving in general.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 71
Table 2.4
Function
Command
Grid Generation
GRID
GEN
INITIAL
Boundary/Initial Conditions
APPLY
FIX
INITIAL
MODEL
PROPERTY
Initial Equilibrium
STEP
SOLVE
SET gravity
(with gravity)
Perform Alterations
MODEL
PROPERTY
APPLY
FIX
FREE
SAVE
RESTORE
2 - 72
Users Guide
yx
xy
xy
yx
x
Figure 2.43 Sign convention for positive shear stress components
DIRECT STRAIN Positive strain indicates extension; negative strain indicates compression.
SHEAR STRAIN Shear strain follows the convention of shear stress (see above). The distortion
associated with positive and negative shear strain is illustrated in Figure 2.44.
PRESSURE A positive pressure will act normal to, and in a direction toward, the surface of a
body (i.e., push). A negative pressure will act normal to, and in a direction away from, the surface
of a body (i.e., pull). Figure 2.45 illustrates this convention.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 73
Figure 2.44 Distortion associated with positive and negative shear strain
PORE PRESSURE Fluid pore pressure is positive in compression. Negative pore pressure
indicates fluid tension.
GRAVITY Positive gravity will pull the mass of a body downward (in the negative y-direction).
Negative gravity will pull the mass of a body upward.
GFLOW This is a FISH parameter (see Section 2 in the FISH volume) which denotes the net
fluid flow associated with a gridpoint. A positive gflow corresponds to flow into a gridpoint.
Conversely, a negative gflow corresponds to flow out of a gridpoint.
TFLOW This is also a FISH parameter, which denotes net heat flux associated with a gridpoint.
The convention for heat flux at a gridpoint is the same as for fluid flow.
The x- and y-components of vector quantities such as forces, displacements, velocities and flow
vectors are positive when pointing in the directions of the positive x- and y-coordinate space.
2 - 74
Users Guide
INTERFACES Positive shear stresses are induced at interface nodes for the following direction
of relative movement:
Shear displacements, in the sense depicted above, are plotted as filled areas or curves to the right
of the interface, when looking along the Aside of the interface, in the direction in which it was
specified.
Normal stress is negative if the interface node is in compression.
Compressional displacements are plotted as filled areas or curves to the left of the interface, when
looking along the Aside of the interface, in the direction in which it was specified.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Axial forces in structural elements are positive in compression.
Shear forces in structural elements follow the opposite sign convention as that given for zone shear
stress, illustrated in Figure 2.43. Moments at the end of beam and pile elements are positive in the
counterclockwise direction.
Translational displacements at nodes are positive in the direction of the positive coordinate axes,
and angular displacements are positive in the counterclockwise direction.
The shear force and shear displacement at a cable/grout interface-spring node, or a pile shear
coupling-spring node, are positive if the node displacement is in the direction of the specification
of the cable or pile (i.e., begin > end).
The normal force and normal displacement at a pile normal coupling-spring node are positive if the
coupling spring is in compression.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 75
Length
Density
Force
Stress
Gravity
Stiffness
m
kg / m3
N
Pa
m / sec2
Pa / m
m
103 kg / m3
kN
kPa
m / sec2
kPa / m
m
106 kg / m3
MN
MPa
m / sec2
MPa / m
Imperial
cm
106 g / cm3
Mdynes
bar
cm / s2
bar / cm
ft
slugs / ft3
lbf
lbf / ft2
ft / sec2
lbf / ft3
in
snails / in3
lbf
psi
in / sec2
lb / in3
where
1 bar
1 atm
1 slug
1 snail
1 gravity
Table 2.6
=
=
=
=
=
Pa
kg / m3
m3 sec / kg
m2
m / sec
FLAC permeability
(in SI units)
bar
106 g / cm3
106 cm sec / g
cm2
cm / sec
Imperial
lbf/ft2
slugs / ft3
ft3 sec / slug
ft2
ft / sec
psi
snails / in3
in3 sec / snail
in2
in / sec
2 - 76
Users Guide
Systems of units for parameters associated with structural elements and heat transfer are given in
Section 1 in Structural Elements and Section 1 in Optional Features, respectively.
Table 2.7
Property
Unit
SI
area
length2
m2
m2
m2
Imperial
cm2
ft2
in2
force/disp
N/m
kN/m
MN/m
Mdynes/cm
lbf /ft
lbf /in
bond stiffness
force/length/disp
N/m/m
kN/m/m
MN/m/m
Mdynes/cm/cm
lbf /ft/ft
lbf /in/in
bond strength
force/length
N/m
kN/m
MN/m
Mdynes/cm
lbf /ft
lbf /in
exposed perimeter
length
in
moment of inertia
m4
m4
cm
cm4
ft
length4
m
m4
ft4
in4
plastic moment
force-length
N-m
kN-m
MN-m
Mdynes-cm
ft-lbf
in-lbf
yield strength
force
kN
MN
Mdynes
lbf
lbf
Youngs modulus
stress
Pa
kPa
MPa
bar
lbf /ft2
psi
where
Systems of units for parameters associated with heat transfer are given in Section 1 in Optional
Features.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 77
2 - 78
Users Guide
2.10 Files
There are nine types of files that are either used or created by FLAC. The files are distinguished by
their extensions and are described below.
GIIC PROJECT FILES
This file is created when the user starts a new project in the GIIC. The file is an ASCII file containing
variables that describe the state of the model and the GIIC at the stage that the project is saved,
and includes a link to the individual FLAC save files (.SAV) associated with the project. The
file contains all data and commands associated with the project, and is updated automatically every
time a new model state is saved. The project file can also be updated at the users request when the
File / Save Project menu item is pressed in the GIIC. The file name has the extension .PRJ,
which should not be changed.
SAVE FILES
FLAC.SAV This file is created by FLAC at the users request when issuing the command
SAVE, either from the SAVE button in the GIIC, or by typing in the command at the command line.
The default file name is FLAC.SAV, which will appear in the default directory when quitting
FLAC. The user may specify a different filename by issuing the command SAVE lename, where
lename is a user-specified filename. FLAC.SAV is a binary file containing the values of all state
variables and user-defined conditions. The primary reason for creating save files is to allow one to
investigate the effect of parameter variations without having to rerun a problem completely. A save
file can be restored and the analysis continued at a subsequent time (see the RESTORE command
in Section 1 in the Command Reference). If the save file is created in the GIIC, the file will also
include information that describes the state of the GIIC at the stage the file is saved. Normally, it
is good practice to create several save files during a FLAC run.*
DATA FILES
In command-driven mode, the user has a choice of running FLAC interactively (i.e., entering FLAC
commands while in the FLAC environment) or via a data file (also called a batch file). The data
file is a formatted ASCII file created by the user which contains the set of FLAC commands that
represents the problem being analyzed. To use data files with FLAC in command-driven mode, see
the CALL command in Section 1 in the Command Reference. Data files can have any filename
and any extension. It is recommended that a common extension (e.g., .DAT for FLAC input
commands, and .FIS for FISH function statements) be used to distinguish these files from other
types of files.
* Save files created from a factor-of-safety calculation (SOLVE fos) are given a different extension,
.FSV, to distinguish these files from standard save files.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 79
INITIALIZATION FILE
FLAC.INI This is a formatted ASCII file, created by the user, that FLAC will automatically
access upon start-up or when a NEW command is issued. FLAC searches for the file FLAC.INI
in the directory in which the code is executed and, if not found, in the directory pointed to by the
ITASCA environment variable. The file may contain any valid FLAC command(s) (see Section 1 in
the Command Reference). Although this file does not need to exist (i.e., no errors will result if it
is absent), it is normally used to change default options in FLAC to those preferred by the individual
user each time a new analysis is run. Note that the FLAC.INI is only operational when running
in command-driven mode. The file is not used when running in the GIIC.
GIIC MATERIALS FILES
This file is created by FLAC at the users request as a library of commonly used material properties.
The file is created from the Materials List dialog in the Materials pane of the GIIC. This file is
automatically given the extension .GMT, and is an ASCII file containing the values of material
properties that the user wishes to save for application in different projects. The file can be updated
and modified from the Materials List dialog. A default materials file that is automatically loaded
in the Materials pane is provided.
LOG FILES
FLAC.LOG This file is created by FLAC at the users request when issuing the command
SET log on. It is a formatted ASCII file. The default name of the file is FLAC.LOG, which will
appear in the default directory after quitting FLAC. The user may specify a different filename by
issuing the command SET log lename, where lename is a user-supplied filename. The command
may be issued interactively or be part of a data file. Subsequent to the SET log on command, all
text appearing on the screen will be copied to the log file. The log file is useful in providing a
record of the FLAC work session; it also provides a document for quality-assurance purposes. The
FLAC.LOG is not operational in the GIIC because the log file is immediately available from the
Console pane.
HISTORY FILES
FLAC.HIS This file is created by FLAC at the users request when issuing the command
HISTORY write n, where n is a history number (see the HISTORY command, Section 1 in the Command Reference). It is a formatted ASCII file. The default name of the file is FLAC.HIS,
which will appear in the default directory after quitting FLAC. The user may specify a different
filename by issuing the command SET hisle lename. The user-supplied lename takes the place
of FLAC.HIS. The command may be issued interactively or be part of a data file. A record of
the history values is written to the file, which can be examined using any text editor that can access
formatted ASCII files. Alternatively, the file may be processed by a commercial graph-plotting or
spreadsheet package.
2 - 80
Users Guide
PLOT FILES
Plot files are created at the users request by issuing the command COPY lename in the command
mode, after first creating the plot. By default, a Windows Enhanced Metafile will be created with
the user-specified lename when COPY lename is issued. The plotter type can be changed with the
SET plot command.
PCX output can also be created by either setting this output mode on with the SET pcx on command
before creating the plot, or by pressing the <F2> key while in the graphics-screen mode. When
PCX mode is turned on, or the <F2> key is pressed in the graphics-screen mode, a PCX screen
dump will be written to a file named FLAC.PCX. Only one screen image can be written to a
file. The user may specify a different title name with the command SET pcxle lename where the
user-specified filename takes the place of FLAC.PCX. PCX files consist of bitmaps of screen
images; they are accepted by many image display and manipulation programs.
MOVIE FILES
FLAC.DCX This file is created by FLAC at the users request when issuing the command
MOVIE on. Its purpose is to capture graphics images for playback as a movie on the computer
monitor at a later time. The default file name is FLAC.DCX, which will appear in the default
directory when quitting FLAC. The user may specify a different filename by issuing the command
MOVIE le lename, where lename takes the place of FLAC.DCX. A DCX file format is used
for the movie file. DCX files are a collection of PCX files and include an index to the PCX files.
A DCX file can contain up to 1024 PCX images. See the MOVIE command in Section 1 in the
Command Reference.
GETTING STARTED
2 - 81
2.11 Reference
Journal of Petroleum Technology. The SI Metric System of Units and SPEs Tentative Metric
Standard, 1575-1616 (December, 1977).
2 - 82
Users Guide
COMMAND REFERENCE
1-1
1 COMMAND REFERENCE
This section contains detailed information about all the commands used by FLAC. The commands
are described in two major parts:
First, in Section 1.2, there is a summary of the commands, organized into groups of related modeling
functions. This summary is also intended as a recommended command sequence to prepare an input
data file.
Second, in Section 1.3, there is an alphabetical listing and a detailed description of all the commands.
Some common input conventions and features are described in Section 1.1. A command summary,
given in alphabetical order, is also provided in Section 1 in the Command and FISH Reference
Summary, for convenience.
1-2
Command Reference
COMMAND
The commands are typed literally on the input line. You will note that only the first few letters are
presented in bold type. The program requires only these letters to be typed, at a minimum, for the
command to be recognized. Likewise, the keywords, shown in lowercase, are typed literally, and
only those letters designated by bold type need to be entered for the keyword to be recognized.
The entire word for commands and keywords may be entered if the user so desires. By default, the
words are not case-sensitive either uppercase or lowercase letters may be used.
Many of the keywords are followed by a series of numbers (values) that provide the numeric input
required by the keyword. Words appearing in bold italic type stand for numbers. Integers are
expected when the word begins with i, j, m or n; otherwise, a real (or decimal) number is expected.
The decimal point can be omitted from a real number but must not appear in an integer.
Commands, keywords and numeric values may be separated by any number of spaces or by any of
the following delimiters:
( )
You will see additional notations with some of the input parameters. These are:
< > denotes optional parameter(s). (The brackets are not to be typed.)
. . . indicates that an arbitrary number of such parameters may be given.
Anything that follows a semicolon ( ; ) in the input line is taken to be a comment and is ignored.
It is useful to make such comments in the input file when running in batch (i.e., file-driven) mode,
since the comments are reproduced on the output. A single input line, including comments, may
* When FLAC is operated from the GIIC, the commands described in this section are created and
applied automatically, in response to mouse operation (see Section 2.2.1 in the Users Guide).
COMMAND REFERENCE
1-3
contain up to 80 characters. An ampersand (&) at the end of a line denotes that the next line is a
continuation of keywords or numeric input. The maximum length of a single command, including
all continuations, is 2000 characters. A maximum of 400 input parameters are allowed in one
command.
1.1.2 Interactive Input
FLAC supports an 80-character keyboard buffer for the user to type ahead while FLAC is stepping,
reading from a data file, or plotting.
There are also several line-editing features that can be used when entering data interactively. These
features are summarized in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Key
Effect
<>
<>
<Ctrl >
<Ctrl >
<Backspace>
<Delete>
<End>
<Esc>
erases line
<F3>
<Home>
1-4
Command Reference
Keyword phrase
Command
i = i1, i2 j = j1, j2
(gridpoint/zone range)
from xy x, y to xy x, y
group name
(name)
var vx, vy
(gradient)
mark
(marked gridpoint)
nmregion
INITIAL
notnull
region i, j
(zone region)
rdev s
(random deviations)
PROPERTY
RULES:
1. There are two methods to define a range over which a variable is to be applied: a
gridpoint/zone range and a boundary-path range.
2. When used, the gridpoint/zone range or the boundary-path range must be last on the input
line. The two range types cannot be used together on the same input line.
COMMAND REFERENCE
1-5
3. The gradient keyword phrase must immediately follow the value which is to have a
gradient specified.
4. The values for the variation, vx and vy, are assigned over a gridpoint range, even if the
variable is a zone variable.
5. The mark keyword must follow the condition to be specified for a gridpoint.
6. The region keyword must follow the condition to be specified for a zone.
The keyword phrases are explained further, and examples are given, below.
1.1.3.1 Gridpoint/Zone Range
The gridpoint/zone range over which a variable is applied is defined by the keyword phrase:
i = i1, i2 j = j1, j2
where i1, j1 is the starting gridpoint or zone, and i2, j2 is the ending gridpoint or zone, of the range
of boundary points over which the variable is to be applied. The range should correspond to the
variable type (i.e., gridpoint range for a gridpoint variable and zone range for a zone variable).
The range must always be last on the input line, but either i or j can be first. If i1 = i2 or j1 = j2, only
one number need be given. If i1, i2 or j1, j2 define the entire i- or j-range of the grid, the keyword
and associated values may be omitted from the command.
The following example illustrates the use of the gridpoint/zone range. To fix the x-direction displacement (or velocity) for all gridpoints in the range of i = 1 to 10 and j = 1, the following commands
produce the same results:
fix x
i=1,10
fix x
j =1
j=1,1
or
i=1,10
or
f x
i=1,10
j=1
1-6
Command Reference
Alternatively, to apply a different pressure along the longest path between these two gridpoints, use
apply pres=30
Note that FLAC will signal an error if the given points do not lie on a boundary or if there is no path
between the two points.
If the boundary-path range is used for the INITIAL command, it should only be applied to gridpoint
values.
The from . . . to . . . range accepts the optional keyword xy, followed by the coordinate (x, y) on
either the from or to part, or both. The coordinate is used to locate the nearest gridpoint. However,
if the given (x, y) maps inside a zone, the nearest gridpoint in that zone is used. This may be used
to resolve ambiguities when two or more gridpoints are located at the same coordinate.
1.1.3.3 Group Range
The group keyword acts to limit the overall range to the intersection of the group range and the range
of any other element (such as i, j, region, from/to). For example, given the following commands:
grid 20 20
m e
group fred i=4,9 j=10,20
ini sxx=1 i=6,10 j=8,12 group fred
stresses will be installed in zones: i = 6,9, j = 10,12. The group modifier may come before or after
the other range element(s). Note that a group modifier may be used with a GROUP command.
COMMAND REFERENCE
1-7
1.1.3.4 Gradients
Another optional keyword phrase may also be used with certain keywords (Table 1.2) in order to
define a gradient for the applied variable (such as a pressure or force gradient applied to a boundary).
Here, the phrase is
var vx vy
and it immediately follows the value which is to have a specified gradient. The value is then forced to
vary linearly with x and/or y from its original value at the x-, y-coordinate of the first gridpoint/zone
in the range or boundary path specified, to value + vx and + vy at the x-, y-coordinate of the last one
in the range: vx and vy specify the variations with x and y, respectively. WARNING: The values at
the minimum and maximum coordinates of the gradient range are assigned to the lower and upper
gridpoint range, even if the variable is a zone variable.
If we take as an example the generic command APPLY yforce value var vx, vy i = i1,i2 j = j1,j2,
then the value applied at gridpoint (i,j) along the short boundary path from (i1,j1) to (i2,j2) may be
calculated from the formula:
yf orce(i, j ) = value +
x(i, j ) x(i1, j 1)
y(i, j ) y(i1, j 1)
vx +
vy
x(i2, j 2) x(i1, j 1)
y(i2, j 2) y(i1, j 1)
(1.1)
var 0,20
i=1, j=1,10
This command will cause the value for xx-stress along line i = 1 to vary linearly with y from -20
at gridpoint (1,1) to 0 at gridpoint (1,10).
The var keyword applies the variation from the first gridpoint to the last gridpoint given in the
gridpoint range. Care should be taken when selecting the gridpoint range for applying a variation
of zone-related variables.
1.1.3.5 Marked Gridpoints
The optional keyword mark allows the user to limit the specified conditions to only those gridpoints
marked by the MARK command. For example, if the velocity in the x-direction is to be specified
for only selected gridpoints on a boundary, the following commands would apply:
mark i=11 j=7,11
mark i=1 j=7,11
initial xv=-10 mark
In this example, the MARK command defines two ranges of gridpoints over which the x-velocity is
initialized through the mark keyword. Gridpoints are marked automatically when the GENERATE
command is used with the arc, circle, line or table keywords.
1-8
Command Reference
to move all gridpoints in the model. If the nmregion keyword is not given, only unmarked gridpoints
are translated.
1.1.3.7 Notnull Range
The notnull modifier restricts the operation of the command to only non-null zones. An example
follows:
grid 20 20
m e
mod null i=10
mod null j=8
model ss notnull i=1,15 j=1,15
The strain-softening model will be installed in all zones in the range i = 1,15, j = 1,15, with the
exception of column i = 10 and row j = 8. The use of the notnull keyword for gridpoints is not
prevented, but it makes little sense.
1.1.3.8 Zone Regions
The optional keyword region i, j allows the user to limit the range of a command (Table 1.2) to
only those zones enclosed within a contiguous collection of zones that is completely enclosed by a
string of marked gridpoints (i.e., gridpoints marked by the MARK command). Any zone i, j within
the marked region may be given. For example, a circular tunnel is excavated using the commands
in Example 1.1.
Example 1.1 Defining a circular tunnel as a zone region
grid 10,10
m e
gen circ 5 5 3
print mark
m null region 6,6
The command
gen circ 5 5 3
COMMAND REFERENCE
1-9
The command
m null region 6,6
changes all zones within the marked circular region to null material. Zone (6,6) is one zone within
the region.
The user may experience difficulties with regions which are defined to be one element wide. To
avoid problems, always make the action taken on the one-element wide region the last command in a
series of commands which implement the region keyword. For example, the data file in Example 1.2
creates a region one element wide, with Mohr-Coulomb material in the lower half of the grid and
elastic material in the upper half.
Example 1.2 Modeling one-element wide regions
grid 10 10
mod elas
gen line 0 5 10 5
gen 0,5 0,10 5,10 4,5 i=1,5 j=6,11
gen 5,5 6,10 10,10 10,5 i=6,11 j=6,11
mark i=5 j=6,11
mark i=6 j=6,11
mod mohr reg 3,3
mod elas reg 6,8
If the command
mod elas reg 6,8
is not given, the effect of the MODEL mohr command will leak into the one-element wide region.
The region keyword (when used with PROP, MODEL and INI) can take the optional form region table
n, in which a given table n serves as the boundary to a region. The table may either be closed or
not. If not, the first point and last point in the table are assumed to be joined, when computing the
region. Any zone with its centroid falling within the area described by the table is assumed to be
in the region. The specified attributes (property, model, etc.) will be changed for that zone.
1.1.3.9 Random Deviations
When using the PROPERTY command, the optional keyword rdev s, given immediately following a
property value, v, causes the values of the property to be chosen randomly from a normal (Gaussian)
distribution of standard deviation, s, and mean, v. There is no spatial correlation between property
values. Care should be taken to ensure that properties do not acquire negative values if s is large.
As an example, the following command would give a mean friction angle of 40 with a standard
deviation of 5%:
prop friction 40 rdev 2
1 - 10
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 11
reads into FLAC a user-prepared batch input data file and executes the commands.
This is called batch mode.
CONTINUE
continues reading a batch file after it has been interrupted due to a pause or an error.
GIIC
NEW
PAUSE
QUIT
RESTORE
RETURN
returns program control from batch mode to the local, interactive mode (or to the
calling file if multiple levels of calls are nested).
SAVE
SET
STOP
It is best to give SAVEd files a different extension (e.g., .SAV) from input files (e.g., .DAT), to
avoid confusion when a saved state is RESTOREd or an input file is CALLed.
1 - 12
Command Reference
C++ user-defined models (only available with C++ user-defined model option)
creep
dynamic
extra
gwow
groundwater flow
p stress
plane stress
thermal
tpow
The options may be combined, with the exception of the axisymmetry and plane-stress options.
1.2.3 Input Problem Geometry
The GRID command must be given to specify the number of columns and rows of zones in the
calculation grid. The following commands are then used to shape the grid for the given problem:
ATTACH
GENERATE
is used to shape the grid. There are two forms of grid-generation shaping. First,
the model region (or subregions) can be rezoned by specifying a coordinate range
(or ranges). Second, the grid can be shaped by curve-fitting to conform to specific
shapes identified by the following keywords: arc, circle and line. Alternatively, a
user-generated shape can be specified with the TABLE command and accessed via
the table keyword.
INITIAL
All problem geometry commands should be given before model solution is started. This includes,
for example, the creation of shapes for regions which will be excavated at a later stage in the analysis.
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 13
anisotropic
cam-clay
drucker
dy
elastic
nn
dynamic pore-pressure generation model (available only for dynamic option see Section 3.4.4.1 in Optional Features)
hoek-brown
mohr-coul
null
ss
subiquitous
ubiquitous
ubiquitous-joint model
cvisc
Creep Model*
* available only for creep model option (see Section 3 in Optional Features)
1 - 14
Command Reference
cwipp
power
pwipp
viscous
classical viscosity
wipp
Thermal Model*
th ac
th isotropic
th null
User-Defined Model
Using FISH, the user can create constitutive models (see Section 2.8 in the FISH
volume).
Constitutive models can also be created as dynamic link library files (DLLs) that are
linked to the FLAC code with the MODEL load command.
Properties are assigned for each model through the PROPERTY command. For the strain-softening,
double-yield and bilinear models, properties can depend upon accumulated plastic strain, defined
through the TABLE command.
Groundwater properties (density, bulk modulus, tension limit and Biot coefficient of effective stress)
are prescribed by the WATER command or the INITIAL command (bulk modulus, tension limit).
Permeability and porosity are assigned with the PROPERTY command.
* available only for thermal model option (see Section 1 in Optional Features)
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 15
initializes certain gridpoint and zone variables such as stress state, pore pressure,
velocity and temperature.
SET
allows the user to initialize both problem and model conditions by selecting one or
more keywords, such as the following:
WATER
creeptime
ow
gravity
specifies gravity.
implicit
turns on/off the implicit solution scheme for the groundwater flow or
thermal models.
large/small
mech
table
specifies the phreatic surface in order to define a pressure distribution. (This command is used for effective stress calculations, but not when FLAC is configured for
groundwater flow. In that case, the phreatic surface is calculated from the fluid flow
equations.) The water table line is specified through the TABLE command.
applies mechanical, groundwater flow and thermal conditions to any model boundary
(external or internal).
FIX/FREE
IEBOUNDARY specifies an infinite elastic boundary for the FLAC grid. The grid boundary must be
circular in this case (e.g., by using the GENERATE circle command).
INTERIOR
applies mechanical, groundwater flow and thermal conditions to any interior gridpoint or zone.
1 - 16
Command Reference
cable
liner
pile
rockbolt
strip
support
Properties for each element type are defined via the property keyword. Structural element logic in
FLAC is described in Section 1 in Structural Elements.
1.2.9 Specify Interfaces or Joints
The special command INTERFACE is available to define interfaces between two or more portions of
a grid in FLAC. These interfaces are planes upon which slip and/or separation is allowed. Interface
properties are also defined through this command. Interfaces are described in Section 4 in Theory
and Background.
1.2.10 Specify User-Defined Variables or Functions
The embedded programing language in FLAC, FISH, may be invoked to define special variables or
functions that a user desires for a specific problem. FISH statements (described in Section 2 in the
FISH volume) are any statements given between the FLAC commands DEFINE and END.
The OPT command optimizes FISH functions; it cannot be used with the double-precision version
of FLAC.
Variations in model conditions can also be made using the TABLE command.
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 17
TRACK
tracks fluid particle movement during transient flow calculations (requires CONFIG
gw).
executes n timesteps.
SOLVE
enables the automatic detection of a steady-state solution. The calculation is performed until a preset limiting condition is reached. Limiting conditions can be
modified by keywords through either the SOLVE or SET commands.
Keywords that allow the user to define time limits and timesteps for transient analyses
such as groundwater flow, heat transfer and creep, and the fully dynamic calculation
are also given.
STEP n
executes n timesteps.
For both SOLVE and STEP (or CYCLE), the maximum out-of-balance force ratio (or fluid flow ratio,
if in flow-only mode; or heat flux ratio, in thermal-only mode) for the model is continually printed
to the screen. The user may interrupt the calculational stepping at any time by pressing the <Esc>
key. FLAC will return full control to the user after the current step is complete. The user may
then check the solution and save the state or continue with the analysis, if desired. The keyword
continue can be given with the appropriate command to continue execution of that command.
1.2.13 Generate Model Output
Several commands are available to allow the user to examine the current problem state:
COPY
LABEL
MOVIE
controls the capture of screen plots and permits rapid replay as a movie using the
MOVIE.EXE program.
1 - 18
Command Reference
PLOT
requests a plot, either on the screen or a hardcopy device, of various problem variables, including the HISTORY or TRACK of a variable.
SCLIN
SET
TITLE
WINDOW
SYSTEM
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
APPLY
1 - 19
name
table n
The following keywords can be used and are grouped under mechanical, groundwater
or thermal boundary conditions. Examples of the APPLY command are given in
Section 3.3 in the Users Guide. The rules for applying boundary conditions are
given after the keywords.*
* The results of APPLY can be checked with either PRINT apply or PLOT apply.
1 - 20
APPLY
Command Reference
ff
<ilimits>
free-field boundary condition specified to lateral outer boundaries of
the model. The boundaries must be vertical, straight and positioned at
the lower-left and lower-right corners of the model (available only for
dynamic option see Section 3.4.1.4 in Optional Features). The
APPLY ff command must be given before changing other boundary
conditions for the dynamic stage of an analysis.
The optional keyword ilimits forces the free field to be applied on the
outer i limits of the grid (as specified in the GRID command). This
keyword should be used if null zones are specified on the j = 1 row
of zones (other than for ATTACH or INTERFACE).
nacc
v
acceleration component v applied in the normal direction to the model
boundary (available only for dynamic option see Section 3.4.1 in
Optional Features)
nquiet
nstress
v
stress component v, applied in the normal direction to the model
boundary (compressive stresses are negative)
nvelocity
v
velocity component v, applied in the normal direction to the model
boundary (positive in the outward direction from the model boundary)
pressure
v
mechanical pressure v, applied to the model boundary (same as
APPLY nstress but with opposite sign). This should not be confused with fluid pressure. Use the command APPLY pp to specify
fluid-pressure boundary condition.
sacc
v
acceleration component v, applied in the shear direction to the model
boundary (available only for dynamic option see Section 3.4.1 in
Optional Features)
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
squiet
1 - 21
squiet
sstress
v
stress component v, applied in the shear direction to the model boundary (see Section 2.7 in the Users Guide for sign convention)
svelocity
v
velocity component v, applied in the shear direction to the model
boundary (positive to the right, viewing outward from the model
boundary)
sxx
v
xx-component v of total stress tensor, applied at the model boundary
(compressive stresses are negative)
sxy
v
xy-component v of total stress tensor, applied at the model boundary
(see Section 2.7 in the Users Guide for sign convention)
syy
v
yy-component v of total stress tensor, applied at the model boundary
(compressive stresses are negative)
xacc
v
x-component v of acceleration, at gridpoint on the model boundary
(available only for dynamic option see Section 3.4.1 in Optional
Features)
xforce
v
x-component v of force, at gridpoint on the model boundary
xquiet
xtraction
v
component v of total stress tensor, applied in the x-direction on the
model boundary
1 - 22
APPLY
Command Reference
xvelocity
xvelocity
v
x-component v of velocity, at gridpoint on the model boundary
yacc
v
y-component v of acceleration, at gridpoint on the model boundary
(available only for dynamic option see Section 3.4.1 in Optional
Features)
yforce
v
y-component v of force, at gridpoint on the outer boundary
yquiet
ytraction
v
component v of total stress tensor, applied in the y-direction on the
model boundary
yvelocity
v
y-component v of velocity, at gridpoint on the model boundary
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
1 - 23
discharge
v
flux v, applied (a volumetric flow rate per area (with units of cubic
meters per second per square meter e.g., m/s)) over the range of
gridpoints specified. This command is used to specify a constant
inflow or outflow along a boundary of the grid.*
leakage
v1 v2
v1 is the pore pressure in the leaky layer.
v2 is the leakage coefficient, h (e.g., in m3 /N sec).
See Eq. (1.13) in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction for the formula for a
leaky boundary condition. A leaky condition is applied over the range
of faces specified. The history keyword is not active for leakage.
pp
v
fluid pore pressure v, applied at the model boundary gridpoints; this
should not be confused with mechanical pressure. Use the command
APPLY pres to specify a mechanical-pressure boundary condition.
A history (hist) can be applied to the discharge or pore pressure. For a non-dynamic
analysis, the history must be specified with a FISH function (see Section 3 in the
FISH volume).
* In axisymmetry mode (CONFIG axi), the groundwater discharge boundary cannot be specified directly at the axis of symmetry (x = 0), because an area must be associated with the discharge. For
the condition to function, the location of this boundary condition must be greater than 0.005 times
the adjacent zone size from x = 0.
1 - 24
APPLY
Command Reference
Two-Phase Flow Boundary Condition (Available only for two-phase flow option
see Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.)
nwdischarge v
non-wetting flux v, applied (a volumetric flow rate per area (with units
of cubic meters per second per square meter e.g., m/s)) over the
range of gridpoints specified. This command is used to specify a
constant inflow or outflow along a boundary of the grid.
nwpp
v
non-wetting fluid pore pressure v, applied at the model boundary
gridpoints.
A history (hist) can be applied to the non-wetting discharge or pore pressure. The
history must be specified with a FISH function (see Section 3 in the FISH volume).
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
1 - 25
Thermal Boundary Condition (Available only for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features.)
convection
v1 v2
v1 is the temperature of the convective medium. A history (hist) can
be applied to the temperature.*
v2 is the convective heat transfer coefficient (w/m2 C).
A convective boundary condition is applied over the range of gridpoints specified.
ux
v
v is the initial flux (watts/m2 ).
A flux is applied over the range of gridpoints specified. This command
is used to specify a constant flux into or out of a boundary of the grid.
Decay of the flux can be represented by a FISH history using the hist
keyword.
radiation
v1, v2
v1 is the temperature of the radiative medium. (Temperature units
must be in K or R.)
v2 is the radiative heat transfer coefficient. (For black bodies, this is
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.668 108 w/m2 K 4 .) A history
(hist) can be applied to the temperature.
A radiation boundary condition is applied over the range of gridpoints
specified.
For the convection, flux or radiation boundary condition, an area is required over
which the boundary condition is applied. The area is the distance between the
beginning (i1, j1) and ending (i2, j2) gridpoints of the APPLY command. This
boundary condition cannot be applied at a single gridpoint.
* For a non-dynamic analysis, the history must be specified with a FISH function (see Section 3 in
the FISH volume).
In axisymmetry mode (CONFIG axi), the thermal flux, convection or radiation boundary cannot be
specified directly at the axis of symmetry (x = 0) because an area must be associated with the flux.
The location of this boundary condition must be greater than 0.005 times the adjacent zone size
from x = 0 for the condition to function.
1 - 26
APPLY
Command Reference
temperature
temperature
v
temperature v, applied at the model boundary gridpoints. A history
(hist) can be applied to the temperature.*
* For a non-dynamic analysis, the history must be specified with a FISH function (see Section 3 in
the FISH volume).
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
1 - 27
remove
<keyword> range
The keyword remove erases all boundary conditions within a range.
As with the APPLY command, either a gridpoint range or a boundarypath range can be specified (see Section 1.1.3). Note that a range
must be specified when using the remove keyword. The effect of remove can be limited to mechanical, groundwater or thermal boundary
conditions by giving the optional keyword mech, gw or thermal.
1 - 28
APPLY
Command Reference
xvel
yvel
svelocity
nvelocity
xacc
yacc
sacc
nacc
xtraction
ytraction
sstress
nstress
pressure
sxx
syy
sxy
xforce
yforce
xquiet
yquiet
squiet
nquiet
yv
sv
nv
xa ya sa na
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
xq yq sq nq
yf
ns
ss
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
denotes compatibility
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
yt
x
x
x
xt
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
COMMAND REFERENCE
APPLY
1 - 29
3. Stress boundaries specified in terms of the stress-tensor components sxx, sxy and
syy apply to both degrees of freedom (independent of the boundary orientation).
The stress components will replace existing boundary conditions. The only
exception is that quiet boundaries can be superimposed on sxx, sxy and syy
boundaries.
4. The following boundary-condition keywords apply to edges and require at least
two gridpoints in the range:
sxx, sxy, syy
sstr, nstr, pressure
xtraction, ytraction
xquiet, yquiet, squiet, nquiet
5. The following boundary condition keywords can be applied to a single boundary
gridpoint as well as edges:
xvel, yvel, svel, nvel
xacc, yacc, sacc, nacc
xforce, yforce
6. If a new point-type condition (see rule 5) is applied to a gridpoint adjoining
an edge-type condition (see rule 4), the point-type condition will be updated,
but the edge-type condition will be unaffected.
7. When a quiet boundary is applied to a gridpoint with an existing applied velocity
or acceleration, or a FIXed gridpoint, reaction forces are automatically calculated
and applied to maintain static equilibrium. The FIXed condition is removed.
(Type PLOT apply to view the reaction forces.) These reaction forces can only
be removed with the remove keyword (i.e., a subsequent applied load will not
erase the reaction forces). If the applied velocity is removed before the quiet
boundary is applied, then no reaction forces will be supplied.
8. The commands FIX and FREE can be applied to gridpoints which have applied
forces or stresses. However, these commands cannot be used to fix a gridpoint in
one direction if a velocity or acceleration has already been applied (with APPLY)
in the orthogonal direction. If an applied velocity or acceleration is specified for
a FIXed gridpoint, the FIXed condition existing in the orthogonal direction will
be removed. In order to reassign the fixed condition, an APPLY command, with
velocity set to zero, must be used.
9. A boundary-path range or a gridpoint range must not be applied across ATTACHed
gridpoints on a boundary if a boundary force, velocity or acceleration is applied.
The gridpoints are not recognized as being ATTACHed by the APPLY command.
1 - 30
APPLY
Command Reference
The left-hand and right-hand side boundaries will become free when these commands are issued. Static boundaries should then be supplied to bring the model
to equilibrium.
Interfaces and attach-lines do not get transferred to the free-field grid; thus an
INTERFACE or ATTACH condition should not extend to the free-field boundary.
The effect of an interface can be reproduced with a layer of zones having the
same properties as the interface.
COMMAND REFERENCE
ATTACH
ATTACH
1 - 31
aside <long> from i1, j1 to i2, j2 bside <long> from i3, j3 to i4, j4
The ATTACH command allows the user to attach pairs of gridpoints to one another
rigidly along two specified boundaries referred to as aside and bside. This command
is useful for the creation of grids that have a linear radial expansion of element size.
Examples are given in Section 3 in Theory and Background.
The pairs of gridpoints to be attached must be given in order. Referring to the above
command nomenclature, (i1, j1) will be attached to (i3, j3) and so on, in order of
appearance. Gridpoints which are not touching may be attached, but a warning
message will result. The shortest boundary path between two points (for closed
boundaries) is taken by default, but the longer path may be selected by specifying
the long keyword. There is no limit to the number of gridpoints that can be attached
to one another. However, a single pair of gridpoints cannot be attached. If the
ranges (from i1, j1 to i2, j2) of two or more ATTACH commands overlap, then groups
of multiple attached gridpoints can be created. This also works if the number of
segments on the two sides are unequal but have an integral ratio. For example, there
may be 3 segments (4 gridpoints) on one side and 6 segments (7 gridpoints) on the
other. The side with the smaller number of gridpoints is called the master; the other
side is the slave. If the FIX and FREE commands are applied to a gridpoint, they are
also automatically applied to all attached gridpoints. The PRINT attach and PLOT
attach commands can be used to verify which points are attached to one another.
Note that the PRINT attach command lists slaves separately.
A word of caution regarding the ATTACH command and wrapping grids: When
values of grid variables (e.g., sxx and ydis) are printed, the elements and gridpoints
may no longer appear in the same geometrical position as they do in the screen plots.
This is due to the fact that the grid has been distorted and no longer conforms to
the standard i-j plot representation. Therefore, when obtaining numerical values for
stresses, displacements, etc., the location of the zone or gridpoint must be known
ahead of time.
Warning:
1. Commands that use the boundary-path range or gridpoint range (e.g., APPLY)
do not recognize the ATTACHed gridpoints at a boundary. The commands must
be applied separately on either side of the ATTACHed gridpoints.
2. Structural element nodes cannot be attached to the ATTACHed gridpoints an
error message will be given.
3. If the integral ratio is N, then every Nth gridpoint on the slave side will be attached
perfectly to its counterpart on the master side, even if the locations in space do
not match.
4. A warning message is issued for each master gridpoint that does not coincide
spatially with its corresponding slave gridpoint; the points are still attached,
however.
1 - 32
ATTACH
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
CALL
CALL
1 - 33
lename
A remote input file, lename, can be invoked with the CALL command. Any series
of input instructions can be placed in this file so that FLAC will run unattended.
Additional files may, in turn, be called from a command file; there is no limit to the
level of call nesting. However, care should be taken to prevent files from calling
each other recursively (e.g., file ABC calls file DEF which then calls ABC),
since the results will not be correct and the computer disk may become full.
The RETURN command causes control to be returned to the user (if a single level
of calling was used) or to the calling file at the next line after the CALL command.
Pressing the <Esc> key terminates input from command files and returns control
to the user, no matter to what level calls are nested.
If plots are made to the screen while a CALL file is in control, FLAC will not pause
for the user to hit <Enter>, as in interactive mode. However, the user can pause the
plot by using the keyword hold in the PLOT command. Screen plots will be saved to
the movie file if MOVIE mode is set on. The same remarks apply to PLOT commands
issued from a FISH function.
The PAUSE command may be inserted into a data file to allow the user to check
intermediate results. (See the PAUSE command.)
1 - 34
CALL
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
CONFIG
CONFIG
1 - 35
ats
axisymmetry
cppudm
C++ user-defined material models (only available with C++ userdefined models option see the MODEL load command)
creep
dynamic
extra n
n extra grid variables for FISH language use (see Section 2 in the
FISH volume)
gwow
p stress
plane stress (only for MODEL elastic, MODEL anisotropic and MODEL
ss see Section 1.2.5)
thermal
tpow
1 - 36
CONFIG
Command Reference
Multiple CONFIG commands can be given. However, a new CONFIG command erases
previously specified options and sets the new ones. A blank CONFIG command
restores the default settings. More than one option may be requested with it (e.g.,
CONFIG ax th specifies both axisymmetry and thermal options). If certain options
are always required, it is best to put the CONFIG command in the FLAC.INI file,
so that FLAC is automatically configured correctly. It is a good practice to always
use CONFIG extra to provide the flexibility to have extra grid variables available to
perform FISH functions, if required, later in an analysis.
At present, certain options may not be used together. The following combinations
are not permitted:
axisymmetry and p stress
axisymmetry and tpow
dynamic and tpow
gwow and tpow
ats and tpow
Also, some options may not be run with certain MODELs. The following is not
allowed:
p stress with mohr, ubi or dy
Use MODEL ss to perform a Mohr-Coulomb plasticity analysis in plane stress.
If axisymmetry is used in conjunction with MODEL anisotropic or MODEL ubiquitous,
the angle of anisotropy must equal zero. The axisymmetry configuration cannot be
used with structural elements.
COMMAND REFERENCE
CONTINUE
CONTINUE
1 - 37
This command allows the user to resume reading a data file. Reading of the data
file will pause either if a PAUSE command is encountered or if there is an error in a
command line. If an error has occurred, the user may edit the input line using the
interactive input editing keys (see Table 1.1) to correct the error. CONTINUE will
then resume reading the data file on the next line.
NOTE: Changes to the input line are local and are not written to the original data
file.
1 - 38
CONTINUE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
COPY
COPY
1 - 39
<lename>
Execution of this command causes a hardcopy plot of the previous screen plot to
be made. If the optional lename is specified, output for this plot will be directed
to the specified file. If no filename is specified, the plot data will be sent to the
currently defined output device (see the SET out and SET plot commands). The
COPY command operates in the same manner as the PLOT pen command. The
default device for interactive operation is LPT1.
1 - 40
COPY
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
CYCLE
CYCLE
1 - 41
n
<continue>
CYCLE is a synonym for STEP, where n is the number of calculation steps to be
executed. If the <Esc> key is pressed during execution, FLAC will return control
to the user after the current step is completed.
If cycling is being driven from a FISH function, pressing <Esc> once will halt
stepping, but the next command from the function will be processed. Pressing
<Esc> twice will cause an exit to the command level (one for stepping and one for
the FISH loop).
The optional keyword continue causes the calculation to continue execution of the
CYCLE command after interruption by use of the <Esc> key. The remaining cycles
will be performed. If the CYCLE command was issued from a remote data file, the
file will continue to be read after cycling is complete.
1 - 42
CYCLE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
DEFINE
1 - 43
DEFINE
function-name
END
DEFINE and END are commands used to define a function written in FISH, the embedded language built into FLAC. Statements (described in Section 2 in the FISH
volume) between the DEFINE and END commands are compiled and stored in compact form for later execution. Compilation errors are reported as the statements are
processed. These source statements are not retained by FLAC. Hence, FISH functions normally should be prepared as data files that can be corrected and modified if
errors are found.
FISH is a useful means by which to create new variables to print or plot, to control
conditions during FLAC execution, to create special distributions of properties, to
analyze FLAC output in some special way, or to create user-specific constitutive
models. Section 2 in the FISH volume describes the operation and use of FISH in
detail. Section 3 in the FISH volume contains a library of commonly used FISH
functions.
1 - 44
END
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 45
FIX
FIX
nwpp
pp
saturation
seepage
temperature
<value>
fixes temperature to value* (for thermal model option only see
Section 1 in Optional Features).
If a value is given, the temperature is fixed at that value. If not
specified, value is zero unless it is specified at a FIXed gridpoint by
the INITIAL temp command.
fixes x-velocity.
fixes y-velocity.
* Note that unlike the INITIAL temperature command, FIX temperature <value> will cause changes in
the stress states of surrounding zones due to thermal expansion (starting with the next cycle taken).
1 - 46
FIX
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
FREE
FREE
1 - 47
nwpp
pp
saturation
seepage
temperature
Temperature can change (for thermal model option only see Section 1 in Optional Features).
frees x-velocity.
frees y-velocity.
1 - 48
FREE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
GENERATE
GENERATE
1 - 49
<x1,y1 x2,y2 x3,y3 x4,y4> <ratio ri rj> <i = i1,i2 j = j1, j2>
<same> <same> <same> <same>
or
keyword value . . .
The GENERATE command is used after the GRID command to shape the grid into
the geometry of the object being modeled. Two forms of generation are available:
grid-shaping by rezoning a coordinate region; and grid-shaping by curve-fitting.
Coordinates can be generated for the whole grid or for subregions. If the coordinates
are omitted, they are calculated from the number of zones specified by the GRID
command with a unit length between coordinates. If the first form of the GENERATE
command is given, a quadrilateral region (determined by the range of rows and
columns) is rezoned. The gridpoint with the lowest row and column numbers in the
range is placed at coordinate (x1,y1); the remaining corners of the range are given
the coordinates (x2,y2), (x3,y3), (x4,y4), proceeding in a clockwise direction. Any
or all of the coordinate pairs may be substituted with the word same. In this case, the
particular corner will retain its current coordinate. The resulting quadrilateral must be
oriented clockwise and have interior angles of less than 180 degrees. The remaining
gridpoints in the quadrilateral region are uniformly spaced within the region unless
the optional ratio keyword is given. In this case, the zone size can be made to
increase or decrease according to the parameters ri and rj, which are the geometric
ratios between successive zone sizes in the i- and j -directions, respectively. For
example, ratio 1.1, 1.1 will cause each successive zone to be 1.1 times larger than its
predecessor in both the i- and j -directions.
Alternatively, the grid can be shaped by curve-fitting. This form of the GENERATE
command forces specified portions of the grid to conform to given shapes, such as
circles, arcs and lines. These commands are used to define surface shapes or internal
shapes within the grid which may be used to define excavations or structures such
as bedded deposits or orebodies. The MODEL command must be specified first for
these functions to operate. The following keywords are available to define shapes.
arc
circle
xc,yc rad
The grid is mapped to a circle of radius rad and center (xc,yc).
line
x1,y1 x2,y2
The grid is mapped to a line with end coordinates (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).
1 - 50
GENERATE
Command Reference
table
table
n
Gridpoints are moved to conform to the coordinate pairs specified in
table number n (see the TABLE command). Note that this command
may be used to form a closed path the first and last points must be
the same in this case.
Note that the gridpoints that form part of the given shapes are marked (see the
commands MARK and UNMARK). The whole region enclosed by marked gridpoints
can then be addressed by the region keyword with the commands INITIAL, MODEL,
PRINT and PROPERTY. For example, the region within a circle can be removed with
the command MODEL null reg =i, j, where i, j is one zone inside the circle.
The GENERATE command should be used with some caution. Certain geometries
are impossible to construct with quadrilateral elements (e.g., long, thin triangular
regions defined by two intersecting lines). Also, the user should be aware that once
gridpoints are marked, they cannot be moved again by another GENERATE command.
If the user wishes to move a gridpoint which was marked previously, the gridpoint
must first be unmarked.
Finally, it is possible to smooth the grid discretization following shaping by coordinate region rezoning or curve-fitting. The following keyword may be used.
adjust
Examples of grid generation can be found in Section 3.2 in the Users Guide. Section 3 in Theory and Background provides a detailed discussion of generation
strategies.
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 51
GIIC
GIIC
This command allows the user to turn on the graphic interface for FLAC. If the user
wishes to have the GIIC active when starting FLAC, the GIIC command should be
placed in the FLAC.INI file.
1 - 52
GIIC
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 53
GRID
GRID
icol jrow
The number of columns and rows of zones in the calculation grid are specified. The
total number of zones (icol, jrow) that can be generated depends on the amount of
memory in the computer and the type of problem (mechanical, hydromechanical,
thermomechanical), as well as the constitutive model chosen. Approximately 30,000
zones can be generated on a computer with 8 MB of memory when running a mechanical problem that uses the Mohr-Coulomb model. Table 1.4, below, summarizes
the approximate maximum number of Mohr-Coulomb elements that can be run with
different sizes of RAM. The maximum number will vary somewhat, depending on
the selected model.
The CONFIG command must be given before GRID if optional modes are required.
Table 1.4
Available RAM
(MB)
8
16
32
64
10,000
20,000
40,000
80,000
1 - 54
GRID
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
GROUP
GROUP
1 - 55
The optional keyword delete causes the named group to be deleted (and any range
ignored). Note that GROUP assignments are independent of models existing in zones
or not (i.e., GROUP names can be given to ranges containing null models). A zone
may only be assigned to one group; new assignments overwrite existing assignments.
The command PRINT group lists the currently available user-defined group names.
Note that there is no printout of groups assigned to zones (in the same way that there
is no printout of models assigned to zones).
The PLOT group command plots the groups assigned to zones as colored blocks.
1 - 56
GROUP
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
HELP
HELP
1 - 57
The HELP command provides a screen listing of the available FLAC commands.
help may also be typed as a keyword to a command. For example, PRINT help will
list all available keywords for the PRINT command. A ? may be used in place of
the HELP command or help keyword.
1 - 58
HELP
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
HISTORY
HISTORY
1 - 59
angle
esxx
esxy
esyy
eszz
ex n
gpp
hyst
modfac
pp
1 - 60
HISTORY
Command Reference
property
property
sig1
major principal stress in the xy-plane, zone (i, j). (Because compressive stresses are negative, this is the most negative principal stress.)
sig2
minor principal stress in the xy-plane, zone (i, j). (Because compressive stresses are negative, this is the least negative principal stress.)
sratio
ssi
ssi3d
ssr
ssr3d
sxx
asxx
bsxx
csxx
dsxx
* Recall that FLAC divides each quadrilateral zone into four triangular zones: A, B, C and D.
COMMAND REFERENCE
HISTORY
sxy
sxy
1 - 61
syy
asxy
bsxy
csxy
dsxy
szz
asyy
bsyy
csyy
dsyy
aszz
bszz
cszz
dszz
temperature
unbalance
vsi
vsr
* Recall that FLAC divides each quadrilateral zone into four triangular zones: A, B, C and D.
1 - 62
HISTORY
Command Reference
vsxx
vsxx
vsxy
vsyy
vszz
COMMAND REFERENCE
HISTORY
1 - 63
element
node
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
nbond
ndisplace
nforce
sbond
sdisplace
sforce
xdisplace
x-displacement of node
xvelocity
x-velocity of node
ydisplace
y-displacement of node
yvelocity
y-velocity of node
1 - 64
HISTORY
Command Reference
crtime
creates a history of real time for creep problems (only available for
creep model option see Section 2 in Optional Features).
dytime
gwtime
thtime
creates a history of real time for heat transfer problems (only available
for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features).
If histories corresponding to these keywords are not available, the dependent variables will be plotted versus step number, not real time.
User-Defined FISH Variables
Histories may also be specified for user-defined variables using FISH (see Section 2
in the FISH volume).
Manipulating History Data
The following keywords for the HISTORY command allow the user to write histories
to the screen or disk or manipulate the history data.
dump
begin
ncb
Histories will be output beginning with step number
ncb.
end
nce
Histories will be output ending with step number nce.
COMMAND REFERENCE
HISTORY
dump
skip
skip
1 - 65
nc
Only one point for every nc history points recorded
is actually output. For example, skip 10 means that
every 10th recorded point (starting with the first) will
be displayed.
vs
nhis
One or more histories will be written alongside another history, nhis, rather than alongside step number.
vs only applies for output (not input) histories. For
example,
his dump 1 3 7 vs 2 begin 150 end 375
limits
begin
ncb
History range begins with step number ncb.
end
nce
History range ends with step number nce.
skip
nc
History range only includes every nc history points.
list
max
begin
ncb
History range begins with step number ncb.
1 - 66
HISTORY
Command Reference
max
end
end
nce
History range ends with step number nce.
skip
read
nc
<n> lename
reads file, lename (in the format described below), and places it in
input history n. If no history number is specified, a number will be
assigned by default.
The file should be formatted and organized in the following form:
Line 1
Line 2
Line 3
In general, the HISTORY read command is used to input dynamic histories. The first value of each input history is assumed to correspond
to time = 0. If a history is supposed to start from time zero, but the
current problem is not at zero, the command SET dytime = 0 should
be given before cycling.
HISTORY read can also be applied to input other types of history, such
as a thermal boundary history. In this case, the history can be written
to a table (see HISTORY write table) and applied with the APPLY table
command.
reset
All current history traces (input and output), including their contents,
are erased, and history numbering is reset.
write
COMMAND REFERENCE
HISTORY
write
begin
begin
1 - 67
ncb
Histories will be output beginning with step number
ncb.
end
nce
Histories will be output ending with step number nce.
skip
nc
Only one point for every nc history points recorded
will be written. For example, skip 10 means that every
10th recorded point (starting with the first) is written.
table
nt
History number nhis1 will be written to table number nt. If the table number already exists, the table
contents will be overwritten. Only one history can be
written to a table, and the table keyword must be last
on the input line.
vs
nhis
One or more histories will be written alongside another
history, nhis, rather than alongside a step number. vs
only applies for output (not input) histories. For example,
his write 1 3 7 vs 2 begin 150 end 375
outputs, to file FLAC.HIS, histories 1, 3 and 7, beginning at the recorded history data number 150 and
ending at 375. The histories are written alongside history number 2.
1 - 68
HISTORY
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
IEBOUNDARY
IEBOUNDARY
1 - 69
xc yc r bulk shear
An infinite elastic boundary (IEB) is connected to the boundary of a FLAC grid.
The command assumes that the grid already exists and has been rezoned (e.g.,
using the GENERATE circle command) such that the boundary is in the shape of
a circle of center (xc, yc) and radius r. bulk and shear are the bulk modulus and
shear modulus of the infinite elastic region (normally equal to the moduli of the
interior region).
Note that boundary stresses equal to the current stresses acting in the grid at the
zones adjacent to the boundary are installed in the IEB. Since the command IEB
may only be given once, it is important to arrange for grid stresses to exist before
giving the IEB command. Stresses may be inserted with the INITIAL command,
or by stepping with suitable loading and boundary conditions. Immediately after
the IEB command is given, the interior and exterior stresses will balance around
the boundary. All boundary points will be fixed by the IEB command and their
velocities controlled. The calculation for movement at the boundary is based
upon the analytical solution for a circular hole in an infinite elastic medium.
IEB cannot be used in axisymmetric mode, or if the boundary is multiply connected
(intersected by an interface or separate-but-attached grids). Thus, INTERFACE and
ATTACH cannot be used with IEB. The IEB logic assumes small strain i.e., that
the boundary coordinates remain in their initial positions. IEB can be used in
large-strain mode, but it is the users responsibility to ensure that displacements
at the boundary are sufficiently small.
1 - 70
IEBOUNDARY
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
INITIAL
INITIAL
1 - 71
biot mod
Biot modulus only applies in CONFIG gw mode with the Biot flag on
(SET biot on).
density
value
zone density
dy damp
keyword
selects damping type for dynamic analysis (see Section 3 in Optional
Features). The following keywords apply.
combined
value
combined local damping (default for creep modeling).
The damping value is 0.8 by default.
hyst
keyword values
Hysteretic damping is invoked with the hyst keyword.
The following keywords and coefficients are the functions available to represent the variation of G/Gmax
(see Section 3 in Optional Features).
hardin value
Hardin/Drnevich equation with one parameter (c0)
off
no hysteretic damping
sig3
1 - 72
INITIAL
Command Reference
dy damp
hyst
sig4
sig4
local
value
local damping. The damping value is 0.8 by default.
rayleigh
ex n
value
extra grid variable number n for a FISH function
f2modulus
value
non-wetting fluid bulk modulus (a gridpoint variable, only applies in
CONFIG tpow mode)
fmodulus
value
fluid bulk modulus (a gridpoint variable, only applies in CONFIG gw
mode)
ftension
value
fluid tension limit (a gridpoint variable; tension is negative, only applies in CONFIG gw mode)
COMMAND REFERENCE
INITIAL
nwpp
nwpp
1 - 73
value
non-wetting pore pressure, set at fixed, non-wetting pore-pressure
gridpoints (only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
poro
value
porosity (a zone value, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
pp
value
pore pressure*
rsat
value
residual wetting saturation (a gridpoint variable, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
saturation
value
saturation (a gridpoint variable expressed as a fraction; sat = 1 is fully
saturated default; only applies in CONFIG gw or tpow mode)
st damp
keyword
selects damping type for static analysis. The following keywords
apply.
combined
value
combined local damping (default for creep modeling).
The damping value is 0.8 by default.
local
value
local damping. The damping value is 0.8 by default.
This damping is the default for static analysis.
sxx
value
xx-component of stress
* Note that in groundwater mode (CONFIG gw), the pore pressures at gridpoints are initialized; zone
pressures are then derived by averaging. If not in CONFIG gw mode, pore pressures in zones are
initialized.
Remember that compressive stresses are negative! Also, these are total stresses if either WATER
table or INITIAL pp is issued.
1 - 74
INITIAL
Command Reference
sxy
sxy
value
xy-component of stress
syy
value
yy-component of stress
szz
value
zz-component of stress
temperature
value
temperature (only for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features)
udcoe
value
coefficient of pore-pressure increment generated by volumetric straining (a zone variable, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
vga
value
Van Genuchten parameter, a (a gridpoint variable, only applies in
CONFIG tpow mode)
vgpcnw
value
Van Genuchten parameter, (a gridpoint variable, only applies in
CONFIG tpow mode)
vgpcw
value
Van Genuchten parameter, (a gridpoint variable, only applies in
CONFIG tpow mode)
vgp0
value
Van Genuchten parameter, p0 (a gridpoint variable, only applies in
CONFIG tpow mode)
visrat
value
viscosity ratio, wetting fluid/non-wetting fluid (a zone variable, only
applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
wk11
value
wetting saturated mobility coefficient, kxx (a zone variable, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
COMMAND REFERENCE
INITIAL
wk12
wk12
1 - 75
value
wetting saturated mobility coefficient, kxy (a zone variable, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
wk22
value
wetting saturated mobility coefficient, kyy (a zone variable, only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
wpermeability value
wetting isotropic saturated mobility coefficient (a zone variable, only
applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
value
x-coordinate
xdisplacement value
x-displacement
xvelocity
value
x-velocity*
value
y-coordinate
ydisplacement value
y-displacement
yvelocity
value
y-velocity
* Velocity units are length per timestep (real time only if a dynamic analysis is performed).
1 - 76
INITIAL
Command Reference
The following optional keywords may also be given immediately following the variable keyword.
add
The keyword add adds the specified value (including any variations
given) to existing values (of the variable specified) in the grid. This
command is useful, for example, in translating coordinates for rows or
columns of gridpoints without resorting to the GENERATE command
(e.g., when creating interfaces).
multiply
The keyword mul multiplies the existing value of the specified variable
by the quantity given (including any variations). This command is
useful in distorting the grid, changing stress gradients, etc. Do not
use negative multipliers unless you really know what you are doing.
Examples of the INITIAL command are given in Sections 3.3 and 3.4 in the Users
Guide.
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERFACE
INTERFACE
1 - 77
n aside <long> from i1, j1 to i2, j2 bside <long> from i3, j3 to i4, j4
or
INTERFACE
1 - 78
INTERFACE
Command Reference
from the left, when facing along the beam/liner in the direction from to. It is
important to give the two end nodes in the correct order.
5. For the case where a closed loop of beams/liners interacts with a grid via an
interface, the from and to nodes are the same. Hence, the directionality of the
chain of beams/liners cannot be specified in the usual way (i.e., the direction
implied by the from . . . to sequence). To specify the direction in this case, the
from node may be followed by another node number, nx. This second node is the
next node in the sequence, which conveys the direction required. For example,
int 1 as fr no 4,7 to no 22 bs fr 3,3 to 8,8
Here the starting node on the aside is 4, and 7 is the next node to be taken. If
there is no neighbor with the ID of 7, an error is signaled. If the double-node
notation is specified for a chain of beams/liners that is not closed, then only the
direction implied by the pair will be tried. However, the double-node notation
is not needed in that case. The second of the pair is optional and is normally
omitted.
It is recommended that the end nodes be specified in advance with STRUCT node
commands so that there are known ID numbers for the from . . . to specification.
Otherwise, node numbers will be assigned automatically.
BSIDE
i3, j3
i4, j4
Interface
i1, j1
i2, j2
ASIDE
Interacting Gridpoints
Figure 1.1
Interface nomenclature
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERFACE
1 - 79
Interface properties must be given prior to timestepping. These are assigned through
property keywords, which include normal and shear stiffness in units of
stress/displacement (e.g., GPa/m, psi/in), the cohesion in stress units (e.g., Pa, psi),
friction angle (degrees), and dilation angle (degrees). The user can, as an option,
specify the tensile strength, tbond, of the interface the default value is zero.
Alternatively, the interface can be glued (no slip or separation). NOTE: Normal and
shear stiffness, kn and ks, must be specified for all cases.
The property keywords which may be used are:
cohesion
cohesion [stress]
dilation
friction
glued
glued interface
kn
ks
tbond
unglued
Any set of consistent units may be used for these properties. If the properties are not
specified, they are assumed to be zero.
Note that interface elements will be deleted when an adjacent zone is made a null
zone, even if one side of the interface is connected to structural elements.
If a bonded interface is specified (tbond is set), then the following optional keywords
can be specified.
bslip
off
on
Slip is allowed, or not allowed, for a bonded interface segment. (Default is off i.e., slip is not allowed if bond is intact.) If bslip is on,
FLAC will set dilation to zero automatically.
1 - 80
INTERFACE
Command Reference
sbratio
sbratio
sbr
The shear bond strength is set to sbr times the normal bond strength
(tbond). Note that giving sbratio alone does not cause a bond to be
established the tensile bond strength must also be set. The default
value for sbratio is 100 (i.e., shear bond is 100 times tensile bond).
remove
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERIOR
INTERIOR
1 - 81
The history multiplier is an input history (see the HISTORY command), where n is a history number; it assumes dynamic time (dytime) as the time axis.
name
table n
* The range for the INTERIOR command is always in terms of gridpoints, except for groundwater
well or thermal source. See Groundwater Boundary Condition and Thermal Boundary Condition,
below.
1 - 82
Command Reference
INTERIOR
The following keywords can be used. The rules for applying boundary conditions
are given after the keywords.*
Mechanical Boundary Condition
xacc
v
x-component v of acceleration at an interior gridpoint (available only
for dynamic option see Section 3 in Optional Features)
xforce
v
x-component v of force at an interior gridpoint
xvelocity
v
x-component v of velocity at an interior gridpoint
yacc
v
y-component v of acceleration at an interior gridpoint (available only
for dynamic option see Section 3 in Optional Features)
yforce
v
y-component v of force at an interior gridpoint
yvelocity
v
y-component v of velocity at an interior gridpoint
* The results of INTERIOR can be checked with either PRINT apply or PLOT apply.
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERIOR
1 - 83
pp
v
fluid pore pressure v applied at interior gridpoint
well
v
A volume rate of flow per unit volume v (e.g., second1 ) is specified
for each zone in the range. This command can be used to represent
sources or, with a negative value, sinks.
A history can be applied to the pore pressure or well. For a non-dynamic analysis, the
history must be specified with a FISH function (see Section 3 in the FISH volume).
1 - 84
Command Reference
INTERIOR
Two-Phase Flow Boundary Condition (Available only for two-phase flow option
see Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.)
nwpp
v
non-wetting fluid pore pressure v applied at interior gridpoint
nwwell
v
A non-wetting volume rate of flow per unit volume v (e.g., second1 )
is specified for each zone in the range. This command can be used to
represent sources or, with a negative value, sinks.
A history can be applied to the pore pressure or well. The history must be specified
with a FISH function (see Section 3 in the FISH volume).
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERIOR
1 - 85
Thermal Boundary Condition (Available only for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features.)
source
v
A heat-generating source v is applied as a volume source of the specified strength (in watts/m3 ) in each zone in the specified range. When
a new source is applied to a zone with the existing source, the new
source strength replaces the existing source strength.
Decay of the heat source can be represented by a FISH history using
the history keyword (see Section 1 in Optional Features).
1 - 86
Command Reference
INTERIOR
Removing Interior Boundary Conditions
remove
<keyword> range
The keyword remove erases all boundary conditions within a range.
Note that a range must be specified when using the remove keyword.
The effect of remove can be limited to mechanical, groundwater or
thermal boundary conditions by giving the optional keyword mech,
gw or thermal.
COMMAND REFERENCE
INTERIOR
1 - 87
1 - 88
INTERIOR
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
LABEL
LABEL
1 - 89
keyword value . . .
This command allows user-defined labels to be added to FLAC plots. The next input
line following the LABEL command for the arrow, history, plot and table labels is
taken as text for the label. The following labels can be defined.
arrow
id x1 y1 x2 y2
defines a label with an arrow that may be placed on a plot. The arrow
is assigned an id number and extends from position (x1, y1) to (x2,
y2).
history
nh
creates a plotting label alias for history number nh.
line
id x1 y1 x2 y2
defines a line that may be placed on a plot. The line is assigned an id
number and extends from position (x1, y1) to (x2, y2). A text is not
specified.
plot
id x y
defines a label text that can be added to a plot. The label is assigned
an id number and is positioned at (x,y).
table
nt
creates a plotting label alias for table number nt.
Note:
1. All arrow, line and plot labels are added to a plot by specifying the label keyword
with the PLOT command.
2. Individual labels can be added to a plot by specifying the id number following
the label keyword.
1 - 90
LABEL
Command Reference
delete
reset
keyword id
arrow
history
line
plot
table
COMMAND REFERENCE
MARK
MARK
1 - 91
i = i1,i2 j = j1, j2
Gridpoints are marked in the given gridpoint range (see Section 1.1.3). A marked
gridpoint does not influence the calculations in any way, but serves to delimit a region
for the purposes of the FIX, FREE, INITIAL, PRINT, PROPERTY and MODEL commands.
Note that the GENERATE command marks some gridpoints automatically. If the
gridpoint range is not specified when using the MARK command, all gridpoints will
be marked.
1 - 92
MARK
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
MODEL
MODEL
1 - 93
keyword . . . <region i, j> <group name> <notnull> <i = i1, i2 j = j1, j2>
or
load lename
This command associates a constitutive model with an area of the grid corresponding
to a range of zones (i1 to i2 and j1 to j2) and/or to a region in which zone i, j lies,
and/or to a named group. See Section 1.1.3 for an explanation of these keywords.
During the calculation, zones will behave according to a constitutive model corresponding to one of the keywords given below. The constitutive models are described
in Section 2 in Theory and Background. Selection of the appropriate model is
discussed in Section 3.6 in the Users Guide.*
Mechanical Models
anisotropic
cam-clay
drucker
dy
elastic
nn
dynamic pore-pressure generation model (available only for the dynamic option see Section 3.4.4.1 in Optional Features)
hoek-brown
mohr-coul
null
null model (Null zones are used to model excavated material. The
stresses within the null zone are automatically set to zero.)
ss
subiquitous
ubiquitous
ubiquitous-joint model
* The appropriate properties for a model should be provided (with the PROPERTY command) after a
MODEL command is given, even if the relevant region of the grid was previously assigned the desired
properties. By giving the MODEL command for a zone, properties are set to their default values
(usually zero). Stresses, however, are retained even if models are changed (except for MODEL null).
1 - 94
MODEL
Command Reference
NOTE: Only elastic, anisotropic and ss models may be used with CONFIG p stress.
Use MODEL ss to perform a Mohr-Coulomb plasticity analysis in plane stress. The
anisotropic and ubiquitous models should not be used with CONFIG axisymmetry
unless the angle of anisotropy equals zero.
The keyword load loads a DLL version of a constitutive model, identified by filename. Once loaded, the DLL model can be assigned to zones in the grid using the
MODEL command and range keywords.
COMMAND REFERENCE
MODEL
1 - 95
Creep Models*
cvisc
cwipp
crushed-salt model
power
pwipp
viscous
classical viscosity
wipp
* available only for creep model option see Section 2 in Optional Features
1 - 96
MODEL
Command Reference
Thermal Models*
th ac
th anisotropic
th general
th isotropic
th null
* available only for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features
COMMAND REFERENCE
MODEL
1 - 97
1 - 98
MODEL
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
MOVIE
MOVIE
1 - 99
keyword
This command controls the capture of screen plots and permits rapid replay as a
movie. The movie file is a set of PCX images that are strung together. The
file containing the set of PCX images is a .DCX file which also contains an index
to the PCX images. The DCX format has a limit of 1024 frames. The images are
generated as screen dumps. The size of the movie images can be set by the size
keyword. The size cannot be larger than the users screen. Also, if the plot window
isnt entirely on the screen, a truncated image will result. Keywords are:
le
fname
sets the name of the file to receive screen images (defaults to
FLAC.DCX if not given).
fullpalette
off on
controls whether the movies are stored with full palette information
or with a smaller 16 color palette. Currently, FLAC only uses 16
colors, so the smaller palette is sufficient. The smaller palette results
in much smaller movie files. However, the smaller palette may not
work properly when saving movies from some higher resolution
settings. The default is off.
off
on
turns on capturing mode; any screen plot will be saved in the specified (or default) file. If a data file is being processed and MOVIE
is on, all plots will be saved to the movie file. In interactive mode,
the user must use the MOVIE on command and press <F2> to save
a movie frame.
size
ix, iy
specifies the size of the movie image. The default size is 750
563. This will result in a movie slightly smaller than a 800 600
screen and will maintain a square aspect ratio in the image. The size
specified should not be larger than the actual screen.
step
<off on> n
A new screen plot is saved to the movie file every n steps (default n
= 1000). This allows movie frames to be saved without interrupting
a CYCLE or SOLVE command. The plot generated is the same as the
most recent PLOT command issued.
1 - 100
MOVIE
Command Reference
Movies may be viewed using the movie utility supplied with FLAC (MOVIE.EXE,
contained in c:\ITASCA\Shared\Utility). The movie utility may be freely distributed with FLAC movie files.
COMMAND REFERENCE
NEW
NEW
1 - 101
This command allows the user to begin a new problem without leaving FLAC. The
grid becomes undefined, and problem variables are reset to zero or their default
values; the file FLAC.INI is consulted again for any start-up commands.
HINT: When running several different problems from a CALLed file, the NEW command must be given between each pair of problems.
Please note: The following files are unaffected by the NEW command.
history file
log file
plot file
These files remain open if they are open already, and their filenames are not changed
when a NEW command is given. New filenames should be specified after the NEW
command, if required.
Also, the echo mode (SET echo) and message mode (SET message) are unaffected
by NEW. These modes can be turned on or off as needed.
All other conditions and values are reset after NEW is given. In particular, FISH
functions and variables and histories will be lost. If certain problem variables are
needed for different problems, the problem state can be SAVEd and then RESTOREd
when starting a new analysis. Alternatively, FISH variables may be written to a file,
and restored when needed (see FISH I/O in Section 2.6 in the FISH volume).
1 - 102
NEW
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
1 - 103
OPT
OPT
1 - 104
OPT
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
PAUSE
PAUSE
1 - 105
<keyword> <t>
This command allows the user to pause reading a CALLed file. When PAUSE is
encountered, FLAC will stop processing the data at that point and pass control back
to the keyboard. Any commands can then be typed (e.g., PLOT grid). When the
CONTINUE command is typed, FLAC will resume reading the data file (unless a NEW
or CALL command has been given).
Two options are available:
key
FLAC will resume reading the data file when any key (except
<Esc>) is pressed. The <Esc> key will abort all processing and
abort reading the data file.
1 - 106
PAUSE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
PLOT
1 - 107
1 - 108
PLOT
Table 1.5
Command Reference
apply
attach
beam
boundary
cable
cforce
density
disp
dxf
estress
esxx
esxy
esyy
eszz
ex_ n1
ex_n1,n2
ex_n1,n2,n3
fail
fix
flow
fos
gnumber
grid
group
head
history
hoek
hold
hyst
c0
c1
c2
c3
model
modfac
iface
closure
id
line
ndisp
nstress
ride
sdisp
shear
slip
sstress
x
x
x
x
x
alias block
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
inverse
magnify
maximum
minimum
zero
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
fill interval
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
1 - 109
interval
inverse
magnify
maximum
minimum
zero
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
1 - 110
PLOT
Command Reference
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
interval
inverse
magnify
maximum
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
minimum
zero
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
1 - 111
apply
<keyword>
applied boundary conditions on the model resulting from the APPLY
and INTERIOR commands. The following keywords are available to
separate the applied conditions:
aforce
agwater
app
athermal
avelocity
applied velocity
attach
attached gridpoints
beam
boundary
cable
cforce
density
contours of density
disp
displacement vectors
dxf
name
DXF-format file is superimposed on the FLAC plot. name is the
name of the DXF file; the file extension .DXF is required. Plot
settings are specified with the SET dxf command.
1 - 112
PLOT
Command Reference
estress
estress
esxx
esxy
contours of xy-stress
esyy
eszz
fail
hoek
plots a Hoek-Brown failure envelope in which the envelope is defined by the unconfined compressive
strength, m and s, previously prescribed by the SET
command and keywords ucs, hbm and hbs.
normal
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
fail
1 - 113
principal
principal
triangle
plots triangular sub-zone stresses as well as quadrilateral zone stress. (Triangular zone stresses are denoted
by . and quadrilateral zone stresses are denoted by
x.)
ubiquitous
fixed gridpoints
ow
fos
gnumber
grid
group
creates a filled grid plot of the various groups of zones within the
grid.
head
history
1 - 114
PLOT
Command Reference
history
Optional keywords allow the user to manipulate the history. These
keywords are:
begin
ncb
Histories will be plotted beginning with step number
ncb.
both
cross
end
nce
Histories will be plotted ending with step number nce.
line
maximum
v
sets the maximum value v for either the ordinate or
abscissa of the plot.
minimum
v
sets the minimum value v for either the ordinate or
abscissa of the plot.
skip
nc
Only one point for every nc history points recorded are
plotted. For example, skip 10 means that every 10th
recorded point (starting with the first) is plotted.
vs
nh
enables plotting of one or more histories versus another. For example,
plot his 2 3 vs 4
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
hoek
1 - 115
hoek
hold
hyst
<keyword>
c0
c1
c2
c3
model
modfac
iface
no hysteretic damping
default model
off
sig3 model
sig4 model
hardin model
<n keyword>
plots the location and optional variables for an interface. n is the interface identification number assigned by the INTERFACE command.
If n is omitted (i.e., PLOT iface), all interfaces are plotted with their
identification number. If no variable keyword is specified, the interface location is plotted with interacting gridpoints marked with
an x. The first gridpoint is marked with a diamond () to indicate
the reference point for distance when specifying the line switch keyword (see Category 5, Profile (line) Switch). The interface numbers
must be given to plot a variable. The following variable keywords
may be used:
1 - 116
PLOT
Command Reference
iface
altns
altns
altss
closure
id
ndisp
nstress
ride
sdisp
shear
slip
sstress
isomax
lines in stress field that are tangent to the maximum principal stress
directions at all points
isomin
lines in stress field that are tangent to the minimum principal stress
directions at all points
label
<id1 . . . idn>
places arrow, plot, and line labels defined with the LABEL command
on the current plot. The ID numbers may be specified to limit which
items are included.
liner
mark
marked gridpoints
mass
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
model
1 - 117
model
mohr
noheader
noscale
number
nwflow
specific discharge vectors for non-wetting fluid (only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
nwpp
overlay
pen
1 - 118
PLOT
Command Reference
pen
(b) SET plot device, where device = bmp (Windows bitmap file),
clipboard (Windows clipboard), dxf (AutoCAD dxf file), emf
(Enhanced Metafile format), jpg (JPEG file), pcx (PCX file),
post (PostScript laser printer), or Windows (default Windows
printer driver); (default device = post).
To route a plot, type PLOT pen keyword . . . , where the keyword
defines the plot type. The keyword pen must appear immediately
after the PLOT command.
permeability
contours of permeability
pile
plasticity
<no past>
plots a symbol in each zone indicating the plastic state. The optional keyword no past disables plotting elastic, at yield past
symbols.
pp
contours of pore pressure. Gridpoint pore pressure is used for contours if CONFIG gw mode is on. Otherwise, zone pore pressure is
used.
region
rforce
rockbolt
saturation
sdif
sig1
contours of major principal stress in the xy-plane. (Because compressive stresses are negative, this is the most negative principal
stress.)
sig2
contours of minor principal stress in the xy-plane. (Because compressive stresses are negative, this is the least negative principal
stress.)
sline
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
sratio
1 - 119
sratio
ssi
ssi3d
contours of maximum shear strain based on 3D formulation (derived from displacements, average value of sub-zones). See Section 1.3.3.1 in Theory and Background.
ssr
ssr3d
state
The current plastic state of the material is plotted at element centroids. Contours of the state numbers are plotted; it is usually more
meaningful to use PLOT state block. See PRINT state for key to state
numbers.
stress
strip
structure
1 - 120
PLOT
Command Reference
structure
If n1 and n2 are specified, then all element groupings in that range
are plotted. If not is specified before n1 and n2, then all element
groupings except those are plotted.
Plots can be restricted to a certain type of element by typing beam,
cable, liner, pile, rockbolt or strip before the keyword. By default,
all types of elements are included.
The keywords that apply for the beam, cable, liner, pile, rockbolt or
strip elements are described for each element type separately.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
structure
1 - 121
element
number
sdisp
svel
1 - 122
PLOT
Command Reference
structure
Keywords for Cable Elements
bond
material
node
number
sdisp
svel
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
structure
1 - 123
element
location
material
number
sdisp
svel
1 - 124
PLOT
Command Reference
structure
Keywords for Pile Elements
location
material
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
svel
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
structure
1 - 125
location
material
node
number
sbond
sdisp
svel
1 - 126
PLOT
Command Reference
structure
Keywords for Rockbolt Elements
element
location
material
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
svel
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
structure
1 - 127
1 - 128
PLOT
Command Reference
support
support
sxx
sxy
contours of xy-stress
syy
szz
table
n . . . <keyword . . . >
A plot of table number n is made (see the TABLE command). Multiple tables can be plotted by giving several numbers in sequence.
Optional keywords can be used to allow the user to manipulate the
table. These keywords are:
begin
ncb
Tables will be plotted beginning with the ncb item in
the table.
both
Both a line and crosses are used to plot the table items.
cross
end
nce
Tables will be plotted ending with the nce item in the
table.
line
maximum
y
sets the maximum value y for the ordinate of the plot.
minimum
y
sets the minimum value y for the ordinate of the plot.
skip
nc
Only one table item for every nc table items in the
table are plotted. For example, skip 10 means that
every 10th table item (starting with the first) is plotted.
tcont
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
temperature
1 - 129
temperature
theta
track
velocity
velocity vectors
vsi
vsr
vstress
vsxx
vsxy
vsyy
vszz
water
xdisp
contours of x-displacement
xvel
contours of x-velocity
1 - 130
PLOT
Command Reference
ydisp
ydisp
contours of y-displacement
yvel
contours of y-velocity
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
1 - 131
2. Property Keywords
The following keywords plot contours of material properties. (See the PROPERTY
command for the definition of the property keywords.)
a wipp
a 1
a 2
act energy
angle
atable
b f
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bijoint
bimatrix
biot c
bulk current
bulk mod
cam p
cam q
cap pressure
citable
cjtable
cj2table
cohesion
conductivity
con1
con2
co2
cptable
ctable
c2table
d f
d wipp
density
dilation
di2
djtable
dj2table
dtable
d2table
dy state
econduct
e dot star
e plastic
e primary
ej plastic
especc heat
et plastic
etj plastic
ev plastic
ev tot
f qx
f qy
f t0
f thexp
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
ff c4
ff count
ff evd
ff latency
ff switch
fjtable
fj2table
frac d
friction
fr2
ftable
f2table
g thexp
gas c
hba
hbs
hbmb
hbsigci
hbs3cv
hb e3plas
hb ind
jangle
jcohesion
jc2
jdilation
jd2
jfriction
jf2
jtension
k exx
k eyy
k ezz
k exy
k shear mod
k viscosity
kappa
kshear
k11
k12
k22
lambda
lconduct
lspec heat
mm
mpc
mp1
mtable
mutable
multiplier
mv0
mv 1
n cond
n wipp
n 1
n 2
nuyx
nuzx
per table
poiss
por table
porosity
qdil
qvol
rho
rs1
rs2
s f
s g1
s k1
shear mod
spec heat
stable
state
sv
temp
tension
thexp
tjtable
ttable
viscosity
vol strain
xconduct
xmod
xyconduct
yconduct
ymod
available
fmodulus
ftension
1 - 132
PLOT
Command Reference
absolute
alias
name
changes name of variable in legend caption. name can be a single
token or a FISH variable preceded by @. A sequence of words can
be given for name if they are contained within single quotations.
The name string can be up to 78 characters in length.
back
sets the color of the plot item to the current background color. This
will make the plot disappear. This may be used to highlight contour
plots (i.e., PLOT syy ll syy back).
block
Instead of contour plots, zones are filled with a different color for
each value of the variable e.g., property (not meaningful for continuously varying quantities, such as density in large-strain mode).
colscal
i
allows a ll, block or model plot to use a different sequence of colors
or color scale (see SET lcolor). There are three color scales
(default is 1 see Table 1.11).
coltable
i
allows a user-specified list of colors in table form (see SET lcolor).
Color indices are read from table i for the ll, block or model plot.
ll
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
interval c
1 - 133
interval c
inverse
magnify
<scale>
If the keyword magnify is used, a deformed grid, boundary, beam,
cable or pile will be plotted. magnify must follow immediately after
the general plotting keyword. The scale value defines the magnification factor which will be applied to the predicted gridpoint
displacements. For example, PLOT grid magnify 10 plots a grid with
gridpoint displacements magnified ten times. If no scale value is
given, FLAC determines a default value based on the maximum
displacement within the current screen window (see the WINDOW
command). The magnification factor used is displayed on the deformed grid plot.
NOTE: When running in large-strain mode (SET large), the command PLOT grid mag 0 grid will overlay the original grid and the
deformed grid.
maximum
v
sets the value corresponding to the maximum length of arrow to v
for vector plots. All other vectors will be scaled to this maximum
length. On contour plots, the maximum contour value is set to v. For
history plots, max sets the maximum value for either the ordinate or
abscissa of the plot.
minimum
v
sets the minimum value v to be used on contour plots. For history
plots, min sets the minimum value for either the ordinate or the
abscissa of the plot.
zero
1 - 134
PLOT
Command Reference
4. Color Switches
Switches can also be used to change screen color or color, fill shade or line style on
hardcopy plots. The desired line color is typed literally on the command line (for
example, PLOT grid red). Note that the background color may be adjusted with the
SET back command. The following table of keywords may be used to select a color
line type for a specified plot keyword.
Table 1.6
Color#
Screen
Color
HP Paintjet
Color
black
Black
White
blue
green
cyan
1
2
3
Blue
Green
Cyan
Blue
Green
Cyan
red
magenta
4
5
Red
Magenta
Red
Magenta
brown
Brown
Orange
white
gray
7
8
White
Gray
Light Gray
Dark Gray
lblue
lgreen
9
10
Light Blue
Light Green
Light Blue
Light Green
lcyan
11
Light Cyan
Light Cyan
lred
lmagenta
12
13
Light Red
Light Magenta
Light Red
Light Magenta
yellow
14
Yellow
Yellow
iwhite
15
Intense White
Black
Keyword
Fill
Shade
Line-style
(Note: back may also be given as a color switch; specifies that the plot should use
whatever the current background color is.)
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
1 - 135
1 - 136
PLOT
Command Reference
Table 1.7
ex n1
head
hoek
mohr
pp
saturation
sdif
sig1
sig2
ssi
ssi3d
ssr
ssr3d
sxx
sxy
syy
szz
temperature
theta
vsi
vsr
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
line
iface
structure
closure
ndisp
nstress
ride
sdisp
shear
slip
sstress
adisp
avel
axial
cs ndisp
cs nforce
cs sdisp
cs sforce
fyaxial
moment
shear
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
COMMAND REFERENCE
PLOT
1 - 137
6. Interactive Plotting
When the graphics plot of a FLAC model is displayed, certain keystrokes may be
used to manipulate the model. (It is not necessary to follow the keystroke with the
<Enter> key.)
1 - 138
PLOT
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
1 - 139
apply
attach
density
mass density
dy damp
1 - 140
PRINT
Command Reference
dy state
dy state
special indicator code for double-yield model (see Section 2 in Theory and Background):
(1) currently at yield in shear
(2) currently at yield in volume
(4) shear yield criterion involves out-of-plane stress (does not mean
at yield)
(8) currently at yield in tension
NOTE: The codes may be added together in the case of multiple
yielding. For example, both shear and volumetric yield would produce an indicator of (3), obtained by adding (1) for shear yield, and
(2) for volumetric yield.
esxx
esxy
esyy
eszz
ex n
<zone>
extra grid variable number n. Scalars and vectors are assumed to
be associated with gridpoints unless the optional zone keyword is
given.
f2modulus
fastow
fastwb
* (available only for two-phase flow option see Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction)
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
sh
sh
1 - 141
<zzz>
lists FISH symbols, their current values and an indication of their
status (whether functions or not); Also see category 3 of PRINT.
Variables with names beginning with $ are not printed (see PRINT
$sh).
An optional argument to limit the symbols listed can be given. The
argument must be in the form zzz, where zs are the characters that
may match the leading characters in a FISH symbol name. In this
case, only those symbols that have matching leading characters are
printed.
uid
funsat
giicpath
gpm
gpp
group
head
history
lists the histories currently being sampled. Both input and output
histories are identified in the history list. Material property histories
are identified by PRP for built-in model properties, and UDP for
user-defined properties.
hyst
keyword
c0
c1
c2
c3
1 - 142
PRINT
Command Reference
hyst
model
model
modfac
iface
information
<keyword>
general information on the FLAC model settings. An optional keyword can be specified to print selected information. The following
keywords apply:
creep
creep model data (available only for creep model option see Section 2 in Optional Features)
dynamic
general
output
thermal
jrepath
label
lists user-defined aliases for histories and tables. Also lists userdefined plotting labels.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
limits
1 - 143
limits
mark
marked gridpoints
memory
memory in use
model
nfunstep
nwpp
permeability
permeability
poro
porosity*
pp
rsat
saturation
sdif
sig1
sig2
sratio
prints the current value of the equilibrium ratio for each gridpoint.
ssi
ssi3d
maximum shear strain based on 3D formulation (derived from displacements, average value of sub-zones). See Section 1.3.3.1 in
Theory and Background.
ssr
ssr3d
maximum shear strain rate at present timestep based on 3D formulation (based on velocities, average value of sub-zones). See
Section 1.3.3.1 in Theory and Background.
* (available only for two-phase flow option see Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction)
1 - 144
PRINT
Command Reference
state
state
structure
<keyword>
structural element data. An optional keyword can be specified to
print selected structural element data. The following keywords apply:
beam
cable
hinge
liner
node
<keyword>
structural node information. An optional keyword can
be specified to print selected information. The following keywords apply:
hinge
info
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
structure
1 - 145
node
slave
slave
spring
pile
property
keyword
structural element properties. The following keywords
apply:
beam
cable
liner
pile
general rockbolt element information; element segment and group identification numbers, node numbers, property numbers, shear and axial forces and
moments.
strip
support
general support element information; position coordinates, angle, length, normal force and property number.
1 - 146
PRINT
Command Reference
structure
support
sxx
xx-stress*
The xx-stress for each triangular zone in a quadrilateral zone may
also be printed by using one of the following keywords:
sxy
asxx
xx-stress (triangle A)
bsxx
xx-stress (triangle B)
csxx
xx-stress (triangle C)
dsxx
xx-stress (triangle D)
xy-stress
The xy-stress for each triangular zone in a quadrilateral zone may
also be printed by using one of the following keywords:
syy
asxy
xy-stress (triangle A)
bsxy
xy-stress (triangle B)
csxy
xy-stress (triangle C)
dsxy
xy-stress (triangle D)
yy-stress
The yy-stress for each triangular zone in a quadrilateral zone may
also be printed by using one of the following keywords:
asyy
yy-stress (triangle A)
bsyy
yy-stress (triangle B)
csyy
yy-stress (triangle C)
dsyy
yy-stress (triangle D)
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
szz
szz
1 - 147
zz-stress
The zz-stress for each triangular zone in a quadrilateral zone may
also be printed by using one of the following keywords:
aszz
zz-stress (triangle A)
bszz
zz-stress (triangle B)
cszz
zz-stress (triangle C)
dszz
zz-stress (triangle D)
table
table n
temperature
temperature (available only for thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional Features)
theta
track
udcoe
version
vga
vgpcnw
vgpcw
vgp0
visrat
1 - 148
PRINT
Command Reference
vsi
vsi
vsr
vsxx
vsxy
vsyy
vszz
wk11
wk12
wk22
wpermeability
x-coordinate
xdisp
x-displacement
xflow
xreaction
x-reaction force
xvel
x-velocity
y-coordinate
ydisp
y-displacement
yflow
* (available only for two-phase flow option see Section 2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction)
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
yreaction
1 - 149
yreaction
y-reaction force
yvel
y-velocity
$sh
same as PRINT sh, but only those variables with names starting
with $ will be printed.
1 - 150
PRINT
Command Reference
2. Property Keywords
The following keywords print material properties assigned to the model. (See the
PROPERTY command for the definition of the property keywords.)
a wipp
a 1
a 2
act energy
angle
atable
b f
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bijoint
bimatrix
biot c
bulk current
bulk mod
cam p
cam q
cap pressure
citable
cjtable
cj2table
cohesion
conductivity
con1
con2
co2
cptable
ctable
c2table
d f
d wipp
density
dilation
di2
djtable
dj2table
dtable
d2table
dy state
econduct
e dot star
e plastic
e primary
ej plastic
especc heat
et plastic
etj plastic
ev plastic
ev tot
f qx
f qy
f t0
f thexp
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
ff c4
ff count
ff evd
ff latency
ff switch
fjtable
fj2table
frac d
friction
fr2
ftable
f2table
g thexp
gas c
hba
hbs
hbmb
hbsigci
hbs3cv
hb e3plas
hb ind
jangle
jcohesion
jc2
jdilation
jd2
jfriction
jf2
jtension
k exx
k eyy
k ezz
k exy
k shear mod
k viscosity
kappa
kshear
k11
k12
k22
lambda
lconduct
lspec heat
mm
mpc
mp1
mtable
mutable
multiplier
mv0
mv 1
n cond
n wipp
n 1
n 2
nuyx
nuzx
per table
poiss
por table
porosity
qdil
qvol
rho
rs1
rs2
s f
s g1
s k1
shear mod
spec heat
stable
state
sv
temp
tension
thexp
tjtable
ttable
viscosity
vol strain
xconduct
xmod
xyconduct
yconduct
ymod
available
fmodulus
ftension
COMMAND REFERENCE
PRINT
1 - 151
3. FISH Variables
If one or more FISH symbol names are given as keywords, their values will be printed.
If a symbol name is that of a DEFINEd FISH function, then it will be executed (and
all functions that it invokes will be executed) before its value will be printed. If the
symbol is a simple FISH variable, then its current value will be printed.
1 - 152
PRINT
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
PROPERTY
1 - 153
1 - 154
PROPERTY
Command Reference
bulk mod
density
shear mod
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 155
angle
density
nuyx
(4)
nuzx
(5)
shear mod
(6)
(7)
xmod
ymod
* The cross-shear modulus, Gxy , for anisotropic elasticity must be determined. S. G. Lekhnittskii
(Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Moscow: Mir Publishers 1981) suggests the following equation based on laboratory testing of rock:
Gxy =
Ex Ey
Ex (1 + 2xy ) + Ey
1 - 156
PROPERTY
Command Reference
bulk mod
density
kshear
qdil
qvol
shear mod
tension
Note that the default tension limit is zero for a material with q = 0, and is k /q
otherwise. The value assigned for the tension limit remains constant when tensile
failure occurs.
See Section 2.4.1 in Theory and Background for details.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 157
Mohr-Coulomb
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
bulk mod
cohesion
density
dilation
friction
shear mod
tension
Note that the default tension limit is zero for a material with no friction, and is
c/tan otherwise. If tensile failure occurs in a zone, the tensile strength is set to
zero for that zone.
The following property can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(8) state
plastic state
See Section 2.4.2 in Theory and Background for details.
1 - 158
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Ubiquitous-Joint
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
bulk mod
cohesion
density
dilation
friction
jangle
jcohesion
jdilation
jfriction
(10) jtension
Note that the default tension limit of the matrix, t , is the same as that for the
Mohr-Coulomb model. The default joint tension limit, jt , is zero if j = 0, and
is cj /tanj otherwise. If tension failure occurs on the joint, then the joint tensile
strength is set to zero.
The following property can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(13) state
plastic state
See Section 2.4.3 in Theory and Background for details.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 159
Strain-Hardening/Softening
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
bulk mod
cohesion
ctable
density
dilation
dtable
friction
ftable
shear mod
tension
ttable
1 - 160
PROPERTY
Command Reference
bijoint
(2)
bimatrix
(3)
(4)
bulk mod
c2table
(5)
cj2table
(6)
cjtable
(7)
(8)
(9)
co2
cohesion
ctable
(10) d2table
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
density
di2
dilation
dj2table
(15) djtable
(16) dtable
(17) f2table
(18) fj2table
(19) fjtable
(20) fr2
(21) friction
(22) ftable
(23) jangle
(24) jc2
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32)
(33)
jcohesion
jd2
jdilation
jf2
jfriction
jtension
shear mod
tension
tjtable
(34) ttable
1 - 161
joint cohesion, cj 1
joint dilation angle, j 2
joint dilation angle, j 1
joint friction angle, j 2
joint friction angle, j 1
joint tension limit, jt
elastic shear modulus, G
matrix tension limit, t
number of table relating joint tension limit jt to joint
plastic tensile strain
number of table relating matrix tension limit t to matrix
plastic tensile strain
Table 1.8 lists the properties by matrix and joint failure segments.
Note that the default tension limits for the matrix and weakness planes are the same
as those in the ubiquitous-joint model.
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
accumulated plastic shear strain
(35) e plastic
(36) ej plastic
accumulated joint plastic shear strain
(37) et plastic
accumulated plastic tensile strain
(38) etj plastic
accumulated joint plastic tensile strain
(39) state
plastic state
See Section 2.4.5 in Theory and Background for details.
1 - 162
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Description
general
bijoint
jtension
shear mod
tension
<tjtable>
<ttable>
cohesion
<ctable>
cohesion
dilation
friction
<dtable>
<ftable>
dilation (degree)
friction (degree)
co2
<c2table>
cohesion
di2
fr2
<d2table>
<f2table>
dilation (degree)
friction (degree)
jcohesion
<cjtable>
cohesion
jdilation
jfriction
<djtable>
<fjtable>
dilation (degree)
friction (degree)
jc2
<cj2table>
cohesion
jd2
<dj2table>
dilation (degree)
jf2
<fj2table>
friction (degree)
bimatrix
bulk mod
jangle
matrix-segment 1
matrix-segment 2
joint-segment 1
joint-segment 2
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 163
Double-Yield
(1)
(2)
bulk mod
cap pressure
(3)
(4)
cohesion
cptable
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
ctable
density
dilation
dtable
friction
ftable
multiplier
1 - 164
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Modified Cam-Clay
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
bulk mod
density
kappa
lambda
mm
mpc
mv0
mp1
mv l
(10) poiss
(11) shear mod
If Poissons ratio, poiss, is not given, and a nonzero shear modulus, shear mod, is
specified, then the shear modulus remains constant; Poissons ratio will change as
bulk modulus changes. If a nonzero poiss is given, then the shear modulus will
change as the bulk modulus changes; Poissons ratio remains constant.
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(12) bulk current
current elastic bulk modulus, K
(13) cam p
effective pressure, p
(14) cam q
shear stress, q
(15) ev plastic
accumulated plastic volumetric strain
(16) ev tot
accumulated total volumetric strain
(17) sv
current specific volume
See Section 2.4.7 in Theory and Background for details.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 165
Hoek-Brown
p
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
atable
bulk
citable
hba
hbs
hbmb
hbsigci
hbs3cv
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
hb e3plas
hb ind
mtable
multable
shear
stable
plastic state
1 - 166
PROPERTY
Command Reference
bulk
cohesion
density
dilation
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
ff c4
ff latency
ff switch
friction
shear
tension
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(14) ff count
(15) ff evd
(16) state
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 167
Creep Models
Classical Viscoelastic (Maxwell substance)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
bulk mod
density
shear mod
viscosity
1 - 168
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Power Law
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
a1
a2
bulk mod
density
n1
n2
power-law constant, A1
power-law constant, A2
elastic bulk modulus, K
mass density,
power-law exponent, n1
power-law exponent, n2
(7)
rs1
reference stress, 1
(8)
(9)
rs2
shear mod
reference stress, 2
elastic shear modulus, G
ref
ref
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 169
WIPP Model
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
act energy
a wipp
b wipp
bulk mod
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
n wipp
shear mod
temp
activation energy, Q
WIPP model constant, A
WIPP model constant, B
elastic bulk modulus, K
WIPP model constant, D
mass density,
1 - 170
PROPERTY
Command Reference
bulk mod
cohesion
density
dilation
friction
k shear mod
k viscosity
shear mod
tension
viscosity
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(11) e plastic
accumulated plastic shear strain
(12) et plastic
accumulated plastic tensile strain
(13) state
plastic state
K
(14) k exx
Kelvin strain, exx
(15) k exy
K
Kelvin strain, exy
(16) k eyy
K
Kelvin strain, eyy
(17) k ezz
K
Kelvin strain, ezz
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 171
act energy
a wipp
b wipp
bulk mod
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
kshear
n wipp
qdil
qvol
shear mod
tension
temp
activation energy, Q
WIPP model constant, A
WIPP model constant, B
elastic bulk modulus, K
WIPP model constant, D
mass density,
1 - 172
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Crushed-Salt Model
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
a wipp
act energy
bf
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bulk mod
df
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
n wipp
rho
sf
shear mod
temp
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(19) frac d
current fractional density, Fd
(20) s g1
creep compaction parameter, G1
(21) s k1
creep compaction parameter, K1
See Section 2.2.6 in Optional Features for details.
COMMAND REFERENCE
PROPERTY
1 - 173
Groundwater Flow
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
biot c
k11
k12
k22
per table
permeability
por table
porosity
The following calculated property can be printed, plotted or accessed via FISH.
(9) vol strain
accumulated volumetric strain used in look-up tables of
permeability and porosity (based on velocities)
The permeability used in FLAC is defined as the conventional hydraulic conductivity
(units: [L/T] e.g., m/sec) divided by the unit weight of water (units: [F/V] e.g.,
Pa/m). The permeability and porosity may be controlled as a function of volumetric
strain. If the table numbers are given as 0 (default), then hydraulic conductivity and
porosity take the values given by their respective keywords. Permeability must be
nonzero if SET ow on applies.
See Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction for details.
1 - 174
PROPERTY
Command Reference
Thermal
density
mass density,
COMMAND REFERENCE
QUIT
QUIT
1 - 175
1 - 176
QUIT
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
RESTORE
RESTORE
1 - 177
<lename>
A previously saved problem state is restored from the named file, lename. (See the
SAVE command.) A path can be part of the filename. If no filename is given, the
default file FLAC.SAV will be restored.
The following files are unaffected by the RESTORE command:
history file
log file
movie file
(see MOVIE)
plot file
These files remain open, if open already, and their filenames are not changed when
a RESTORE command is given. New filenames can be specified after the RESTORE
command, if required.
Also, the echo mode (SET echo), message mode (SET message), and video mode
(e.g., SET mode) are unaffected by RESTORE. These modes can be turned on or off
as needed.
All other conditions and values are taken from the RESTOREd save file. For example,
FISH functions and variables and histories are restored from the save file; existing
functions, variables and histories are lost.
1 - 178
RESTORE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
RETURN
RETURN
1 - 179
returns to keyboard control from a data file. This command will also cause an exit
from a COMMAND section in a FISH function.
1 - 180
RETURN
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
SAVE
SAVE
1 - 181
<lename> <title>
All information required to restart the problem is saved to the named file, lename.
If the file already exists, a warning will be written so that a different filename can be
chosen, if desired. The default filename is FLAC.SAV if no filename is given.
Note that all currently defined FISH functions and variables are saved on the file.
An optional title can be assigned to the saved file for identification purposes. The
title is of string type and can contain several words, provided that a single quote is
placed at the beginning and ending of the title. The title can also be a FISH variable,
denoted by an @ sign to distinguish it from a literal name.
1 - 182
SAVE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
SCLIN
SCLIN
1 - 183
n x1,y1 x2,y2
<reset>
This command causes contour labels to appear on any subsequent contour plot produced on the screen or pen plotter. The user specifies a scan line along which
the values of contours are to be displayed. The user defines the endpoints of this
line using the command SCLIN. At each point of intersection between the scan line
and a contour, a letter (A to Z) is written. A heading which indicates the value
of the smallest and largest contours and the contour interval is given. This allows
calculation of any contour value between the extremes. The default condition is no
scan line. Up to 5 scan lines may be specified for a plot. The command parameters
are as follows:
n
x1,y1
x2,y2
reset
The scan lines are remembered between plots. To prevent them from being used,
the command SCLIN reset should be used.
For example, the command
sclin
0,1
0,10
will produce values for those contours which intersect the scan line between the
coordinates (0,1) to (0,10), and
scline reset
1 - 184
SCLIN
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
SET
1 - 185
Table 1.9
Model conditions
a us
a3
a4
aspect
aunb
autoname
back
beep
cd
columns
cust1
cust2
display
dxf
echo
lcolor
foreground
giicpath
hbm
hbs
hisle
jrepath
legend
log
maxgiicmem
message
3d damping
ats
biot
clock
crdt
creeptime
damping
datum
dy damping
dydt
dyn
dytime
fastow
fastwb
shcall
ow
fobl
fobu
force
fpcoef
funsat
geometry
gravity
gwdt
gwtime
implicit
ncont
ncwrite
output
overlay
overwrite
pagelength
paginate
pcx
plot
plta
pltc
pltf
pltt
psterminator
range
replot
ucs
vector
xform
large
latency
lmul
maxdt
mech
mindt
multistep
munb
nfunstep
ngw
nmech
nther
seed
small
sratio
st damping
step
sym
synchronize
temperature
thdt
thermal
tolint
umul
update
1 - 186
SET
Command Reference
3d damping
keyword
applies 3D radiation damping to damp energy radiated in the out-ofplane direction for plane-strain analysis of vibrating structures on a
semi-infinite half-space. APPLY ff must also be specified (only available for dynamic analysis see Section 3 in Optional Features).
The following keywords are available:
ff
i
free field conditions used for 3D damping
i = 1 uses left-hand side free field
i = 2 uses right-hand side free field
(default i = 1)
off
on
turns on 3D damping.
width
w
w is the out-of-plane width of the structure (default =
1.0).
a us
a3
sets pen plotter or PostScript paper size to A3, 420 mm 297 mm.
a4
sets pen plotter or PostScript paper size to A4, 210 mm 297 mm.
aspect
a
where a is the ratio of x to y measured from a non-square screen
image which should be square. a will generally vary from 0.5 to 1.5,
depending on the graphics board and screen vertical size adjustment.
You should first attempt adjustment of vertical size control on the
monitor. (This only affects FLAC plots, not GIIC plots.)
ats
off
on
causes the total stress in a zone to be updated automatically whenever
the pore pressure is changed externally i.e., not from within
the flow calculation. See the CONFIG ats command.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
aunb
aunb
1 - 187
value
average unbalanced fluid volume limit for the fast flow solution
scheme. See Section 1.4.1.2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction (default is value = 0.001).
autoname
off
on
automatically modifies the name of the saved PCX files so that each
will be unique. This command is used to control PCX output generated with the SET pcx command.
back
color
n
The background color for FLAC plots can be changed by specifying
either a color name or number. The available color names and
numbers are shown in Table 1.10, below. (GIIC plots are not affected
by this command.)
Table 1.10 Available color names and numbers
Color name
black
blue
green
cyan
red
magenta
brown
white
gray (default)
lblue
lgreen
lcyan
lred
lmagenta
yellow
iwhite
Color number
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1 - 188
SET
Command Reference
beep
beep
off
on
allows user control of beep which is issued at the end of each CYCLE,
STEP or SOLVE command.
biot
off
on
sets Biot flag on or off in CONFIG gwow mode. If on, the fluid-flow
calculation uses Biot coefficient of effective stress (assigned by the
PROP biot c command); if off, then =1 will be used. The default is
off.
cd
keyword
allows change of current working directory. The following keywords apply.
name
directory
the current directory is changed to directory.
back
clock
t
sets the limit of elapsed time, in minutes, for the SOLVE command.
(The default is 1440 minutes.)
columns
n
n is the maximum number of columns in output. Note that the
user must set the proper column mode on the printer prior to FLAC
operation. Consult your printer manual for the method of setting
printer modes. (Only used for array style output: gridpoint velocities, stresses, extra variables, etc.)
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
columns
crdt
1 - 189
or
crdt
auto
defines the creep timestep. The timestep may be set manually to
t. Whenever the timestep is changed, the velocities are changed to
accommodate the fact that FLAC velocities are defined as displacement per timestep. The default is t = 0. (If t = 0, no creep calculation
is performed.)
By using the optional keyword auto, the timestep will be calculated
automatically. The automatic timestep calculation is controlled
by the SET keywords: maxdt, mindt, fobl, fobu, lmul, umul and
latency. The starting creep timestep is given by SET mindt (only
available with the creep option model see Section 2 in Optional
Features).
creeptime
t
Creep time is initialized. This is useful if creep is to be started at a
time other than zero. The default is t = 0 (only available with the
creep model option see Section 2 in Optional Features).
cust1
string
allows the user to modify line 1 of the customer title, which appears
in the title screen and on hardcopy plots.
cust2
string
allows the user to modify line 2 of the customer title, which appears
in the title screen and on hardcopy plots.
damping
value
sets the local damping constant to value. The default is value = 0.8.
datum
1 - 190
SET
Command Reference
display
display
history n
name
off
extra value displayed during cycling. Either a history or the current
value of a FISH variable name will be displayed during cycling.
Note that if the FISH variable is a function, it will be executed. This
command only applies for command mode operation of FLAC.
dxf
keyword <keyword>
reset
DXF-format files can be superimposed on FLAC plots. This allows
the FLAC model and results to be oriented to key or future geometric
details that have not been explicitly defined in FLAC. The keywords
may be in any order and individual parameters may be changed in
subsequent PLOT dxf or SET dxf commands. All parameters may be
cleared by a SET dxf reset command.
In FLAC, the positive x-direction points to the right and the positive
y-direction points up. Because AutoCad files may have an arbitrary
axis definition, the user must specify the way that AutoCad coordinates are mapped to FLAC coordinates. The following keywords
assign the mapping:
xy
AutoCad x to FLAC x
AutoCad y to FLAC y
xz
AutoCad x to FLAC x
AutoCad z to FLAC y
yx
AutoCad y to FLAC x
AutoCad x to FLAC y
yz
AutoCad y to FLAC x
AutoCad z to FLAC y
zx
AutoCad z to FLAC x
AutoCad x to FLAC y
zy
AutoCad z to FLAC x
AutoCad y to FLAC y
The DXF coordinates may also be scaled and offset. The order of
scaling and translation are:
xnew = (xold + xoff ) xscale
ynew = (yold + yoff ) yscale
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
dxf
1 - 191
zy
The following keywords apply:
xoff
value
translation value for x-coordinate (xoff ), applied after
coordinate transposition
xscale
value
scaling factor for x-coordinate (xscale ), applied after
coordinate transposition and translation
yoff
value
translation value for y-coordinate (yoff ), applied after
coordinate transposition
yscale
value
scaling factor for y-coordinate (yscale ), applied after
coordinate transposition and translation
dy damping
<struct> keyword
selects damping type for dynamic analysis (see Section 3 in Optional Features). The following keywords apply:
avisc
an al
artificial viscosity. This damping only applies to the
main grid. an and al are constants (see Section 3.4.2.7
in Optional Features).
combined
<value>
combined local damping (default for creep modeling).
The damping value is 0.8 by default.
local
<value>
local damping. The damping value is 0.8 by default.
1 - 192
SET
Command Reference
dy damping
rayleigh
rayleigh
dydt
dt
sets dynamic timestep. By default, FLAC calculates the dynamic
timestep automatically for the explicit solution scheme. This keyword allows the user to choose a smaller timestep. A warning is
given if dt is greater than that required for stability (only available
with the dynamic model option see Section 3 in Optional Features).
dyn
off
on
causes FLAC to do a fully dynamic calculation (SET dyn on) or
suppress the dynamic calculation (SET dyn off). The on option is
the default if CONFIG dyn is given (only available with the dynamic
option see Section 3 in Optional Features).
dytime
t
Dynamic time is initialized. This is useful if the problem time is different from the time the dynamic calculation is begun (only available
with dynamic option see Section 3 in Optional Features).
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
echo
echo
1 - 193
off
on
SET echo on or SET echo causes FLAC to echo lines to the screen
and to the log file (if it is open) when the lines come from a CALLed
file or from a FISH command section. This is the default setting.
SET echo off prevents the input lines from being displayed.
fastow
off
on
Set the fast flow fluid calculation on or off. See Section 1.4.1 in
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
fastwb
off
on
Set the fast steady state flow fluid calculation on or off. See Section 1.4.1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
lcolor
value
or
keyword value
This keyword is used to control the colors used for lled plots in
FLAC. It is particularly useful for changing the color-scale range
on filled contour plots.
nscale
table
ntab
The second format, SET lcolor table ntab, uses the
colors previously specified by the user with the TABLE
command. The table must be input as pairs of numbers, the first member of the pair being the location in
the table (number from 1 to 13), and the second being
the color number corresponding to the desired color
on the list in Table 1.12.
For example, the commands
table 3 1,0 2,3 3,5 ... 13,7
set filc table 3
1 - 194
SET
Command Reference
lcolor
ncol
ncol
lcol
The third option, SET lcolor ncol, lcol, changes color
index number ncol in the current scale to color lcol
on the list in Table 1.12 (e.g., SET lc 3 7 changes the
third color to white).
ncol
color
The fourth option, SET lcolor ncol, color, acts similarly to the third, except that the color name (as defined
in Table 1.11) is used instead of the color number (e.g.,
SET lc 3 white is equivalent to SET lc 3 7). The keywords for colors are the same as for plot color switches
(see Table 1.6).
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
1 - 195
Scale 1
Scale 2
Scale 3
13
12
4
6
14
10
2
11
3
9
1
7
8
8
7
1
9
3
11
2
10
14
6
4
12
13
1
2
3
4
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
light magenta
light red
red
brown
yellow
light green
green
light cyan
cyan
light blue
blue
white
gray
gray
white
blue
light blue
cyan
light cyan
green
light green
yellow
brown
red
light red
light magenta
blue
green
cyan
red
brown
gray
light blue
light green
light cyan
light red
light magenta
yellow
intense white
Color
black
blue
green
cyan
red
magenta
brown
white
gray
light blue
light green
light cyan
light red
light magenta
yellow
intense white
1 - 196
SET
Command Reference
shcall
shcall
n <remove> name
causes the FISH function name to be called from a location in FLAC
determined by the value of ID number n (see Table 2.2 in the FISH
volume). The optional keyword remove causes the FISH function
name to be removed from the list.
ow
off
on
causes FLAC to do groundwater flow calculation (SET ow on) or
suppress flow calculation (SET ow off). The on option is the default
if CONFIG gwow is given. This command is normally used in
conjunction with mechanical and groundwater calculations. (See
Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.)
fobl
value
The creep timestep will be increased if the maximum unbalanced
force falls below this value. The default is value = 10,000 (only
available with the creep model option see Section 2 in Optional
Features).
fobu
value
The creep timestep will be decreased if the maximum unbalanced
force exceeds this value. The default is value = 100,000 (only
available with the creep model option see Section 2 in Optional
Features).
force
f
sets the out-of-balance force limit for the SOLVE command. (The
default is f = 0.)
foreground
i
sets the color used for plot borders and text.
fpcoef
value
relaxation parameter for fast flow solution scheme. See Section 1.4.1
in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction (default is value = 0.01).
funsat
off
on
Set the fast unsaturated flow fluid calculation on or off. See Section 1.4.1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
geometry
geometry
1 - 197
v
protects against a bad geometry error in large-strain mode. v is the
ratio of sub-zone area to total zone area. The default value is 0.19.
The code signals an error if a ratio below 0.20 is found. If a larger
value than 0.20 is specified, the code will exit solving and not signal
an error. In this way, a run to determine a failure state can be made
without a bad geometry error occurring . (Note: Be aware that zone
geometry is checked only every 10 steps in large-strain mode, so if
the tolerance is set too close to 0.20, an error may be signaled before
exiting at value v.)
giicpath
directory path
store directory path of GIIC jar file to the registry
gravity
g <th>
Gravity is specified by a magnitude, g, and direction angle, th (in
degrees), measured counterclockwise from the negative y-axis.
gwdt
t
defines the timestep for the explicit and implicit solution scheme
in the groundwater model (CONFIG gw see Section 1 in FluidMechanical Interaction). For the explicit scheme, the value will
be retained only if it is smaller than the default value.
gwtime
t
Groundwater flow time is initialized. This is useful if the problem
time is different from the time the groundwater flow calculation is
begun (see Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction).
hbm
val
val is the m coefficient in the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. It is
used for plotting strength/stress ratios for zones based on the HoekBrown failure limit (see PLOT hoek and PLOT fail).
hbs
val
val is the s coefficient in the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. It is used
for plotting strength/stress ratios for zones based on the Hoek-Brown
failure limit (see PLOT hoek and PLOT fail).
hisle
lename
sets the lename of the history output file. The default lename is
FLAC.HIS. (See the HISTORY write command.)
1 - 198
SET
Command Reference
implicit
implicit
off
on
turns on or off the implicit solution scheme in the groundwater model
(CONFIG gw see Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction) or
the implicit solution scheme in the thermal model (CONFIG thermal
see Section 1 in Optional Features). The default is off.
jrepath
directory path
store directory path of Java Virtual Machine to the registry
large
latency
value
value is the minimum number of creep timesteps which must elapse
before the timestep is changed. The default is value = 100 (available
only with the creep model option see Section 2 in Optional
Features).
legend
off
on
If off, plots appear on screen and hardcopy output without titles and
other data. The default switch for legend is on.
lmul
value
The creep timestep will be multiplied by value if the unbalanced
force falls below fobl. lmul must be greater than 1. The default
is value = 2.0 (only available with the creep model option see
Section 2 in Optional Features).
log
off
on
lename
on opens an ASCII file named FLAC.LOG on the default disk
drive. In interactive mode, if file FLAC.LOG already exists, the
option to overwrite or append to the existing file is given. (In batch
mode, the file is automatically overwritten.) Any text that is printed
to the screen from this point on is also written to the log file. This is
particularly useful for keeping a record of interactive sessions. The
file may be edited to create batch data files.
off turns off the logging function. It does not close the log file. If
SET log on is given at some later stage in the session, subsequent
screen output will be appended to the file.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
log
1 - 199
The log lename can also be specified directly by the user. The log
file must still be turned on to activate writing.
If the GIIC is active, text will not be written to the log file. Output
printed to the Console pane in the GIIC can easily be copied to an
ASCII file by right-click operation of the mouse.
maxdt
value
The maximum creep timestep allowed is set to value. The default is
value = 10,000 (only available with the creep model option see
Section 2 in Optional Features).
maxgiicmem
value
specify the maximum size, in megabytes, of the memory allocation
pool for the GIIC and store information to the registry. If the specified size is smaller than the initial heap size (which is internally set
as 24 MB), an error message (Incompatible initial and maximum
heap sizes specified) will be issued and FLAC will terminate. If
the specified size is out of the heap limit of the computer, an error
message (Could not reserve enough space for object heap) will
be issued. In these cases, the user should stop FLAC and modify
the value, either using the registry editor or with the command SET
maxgiicmem. The default value of maxgiicmemm is 512 MB.
mech
off
on
causes FLAC to do mechanical calculation (SET mech on) or suppress mechanical calculation (SET mech off). The mech on option is
the default when starting FLAC. This command is normally used for
mechanical calculations in conjunction with groundwater or thermal
calculations.
message
off
on
causes information messages during stepping to be enabled or suppressed (default is on). It is useful to turn off the messages associated with STEPping when issuing FLAC commands from a FISH
program.
mindt
value
The minimum creep timestep allowed is set to value. The default
is value = 100 (only available with the creep model option see
Section 2 in Optional Features).
1 - 200
SET
Command Reference
multistep
multistep
off
on
<max value>
turns multi-stepping on or off. Multi-stepping speeds up calculations in dynamic models which have a large zone size or modulus
contrast. Areas of the grid with critical timesteps greater than the
global critical timestep are updated less frequently, thus saving execution time. The logic is general in the sense that all zones, gridpoints, and structures are included. The user does not need to do
anything beyond switching it on.
Sub-stepping only works when dynamic mode is in operation (SET
dyn on), and is effective only when the grid is nonuniform or there is
a contrast in material properties. In this case, zones and gridpoints
are each given a multiplier (which can be determined with a FISH
function) that is used to control the frequency of respective calculations. For example, if a zones multiplier is 4, then that zones
calculations will be done at every fourth timestep. Multipliers are
integers, and are powers of two (2, 4, 8, 16, etc.).
When the usual wavelength criterion (10 times zone size) is obeyed,
the results with sub-stepping are almost identical to those without,
except for an increase in calculation speed.
An optional user-defined integer multiplier can be specified with the
max keyword.
munb
value
maximum unbalanced fluid volume limit for the fast flow solution
scheme. See Section 1.4.1.2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction (default is value = 0.01).
ncont
n
specifies the number of contours on a contour plot (when the interval
is not specified). The actual number of contours will vary between
n and 2n. The default is n = 5.
ncwrite
n
sets the output to the screen during cycling to every n steps (default
is 10).
nfunstep
value
Set the number of small steps in funsat scheme. See Section 1.4.1
in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
ngw
ngw
1 - 201
nstep
The number of groundwater flow steps to be performed during each
mechanical-groundwater calculation step (see Section 1 in FluidMechanical Interaction). The default is nstep = 1. The maximum
value for nstep is 256 if SOLVE auto on is specified.
nmech
nstep
The number of mechanical sub-steps to be performed at each
mechanical-groundwater calculation step (see Section 1 in FluidMechanical Interaction), or at each mechanical-thermal calculation step (see Section 3 in Optional Features). The default is nstep
= 1.
nther
nstep
The number of thermal steps to be performed during each thermalmechanical calculation step (only available with the thermal model
option see Section 3 in Optional Features). The default is nstep
= 1.
output
port
sends plotted output to the device connected to port, where port can
be com1, com2, lpt1 or any other port. Alternatively, port can be the
name of a disk file. In this case, the plot output will be stored in the
named file, which can be specified by the user. Only one plot can
be stored in the file. The default is SET output lpt1.
overlay
lename<le>
sets source for user-defined overlay files. This allows a file to be
plotted as an overlay on a FLAC grid. See the PLOT overlay command.
overwrite
off
on
controls whether the files generated using the autoname feature may
replace files which already exist. If overwrite is on, files will be
overwritten. The default setting is off.
pagelength
n
The number of lines printed per page can be changed to n. The
default is n = 25.
1 - 202
SET
Command Reference
paginate
paginate
off
on
If off, text pagination on the screen is turned off. The default is on.
pcx
keyword
sets the PCX output mode for plots generated as screen dumps.
Note that this output is slightly different from the hardcopy output
generated with the SET plot pcx command. The following keywords
apply:
lename
lename
sets the filename for PCX output generated either after
SET pcx on is invoked or from the <F2> keystroke in
graphics screen mode.
The default filename is FLAC.PCX.
off
on
PCX output mode is turned off or on. When on, a new
PCX format image is put into the file specified by the
SET pcx le lename command. The default filename
is FLAC.PCX. The new image will replace the old
image. If PCX is off, no image is stored. The <F2>
key may be pressed to generate a new image while in
plot mode, even if PCX is off.
step
n
a new PCX plot file is created every n steps
(default n = 1000).
plot
<keyword>
controls the type of graphics hardcopy output. (See the PLOT pen or
COPY commands). Hardcopy plots are formatted slightly differently
from the screen with the assumption that they will be printed on paper. To get actual screen images, see the SET pcx on command. The
output types include: Windows printer, Windows clipboard, Windows bitmap (BMP), Windows enhanced metafile (EMF), AutoCad
data exchange format (DXF), Postscript, PCX, and JPEG. The default output type is a Windows color printer. The type, and settings
for each type, are specified with the following keywords.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
plot
1 - 203
bmp
bmp
keyword
The graphics hardcopy output will be formatted as a
Windows bitmap file (BMP). The settings can be modified with the following optional keywords.
bw
color
clipboard
keyword
The graphics hardcopy output will be formatted as a
Windows clipboard. The file specified by SET output is ignored. The settings can be modified with the
following optional keywords.
bw
color
dxf
n
AutoCAD DXF format.
n = 16 if file is for 16 color AutoCAD format
n = 25 if file is for 256 color AutoCAD format
1 - 204
SET
Command Reference
plot
emf
emf
keyword
The graphics hardcopy output will be a Windows enhanced metafile (EMF). The settings can be modified
with the following optional keywords.
bw
color
jpg
keyword
The graphics hardcopy output will be formatted as a
JPEG file. Loss-less compression is used for JPEG
files in FLAC. The settings can be modified with the
following optional keywords.
bw
color
pcx
keyword
The graphics hardcopy output will be formatted as
a PCX file. Note that the output obtained with this
setting is slightly different from what is obtained by
pressing <F2> in graphics mode (which generates a
screen dump image see the SET pcx command). The
settings can be modified with the following optional
keywords.
bw
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
plot
1 - 205
pcx
color
color
postscript
a us
a3
a4
bw
color
1 - 206
SET
Command Reference
plot
windows
windows
bw
color
plta
val
val is the joint-plane angle in the ubiquitous-joint failure criterion.
It is used for plotting the failure envelope and zone stresses based
on the ubiquitous-joint strength (see PLOT fail ubiquitous).
pltc
val
val is the cohesion in the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. It is
used for plotting strength/stress ratios for zones based on the MohrCoulomb failure limit (see PLOT mohr and PLOT fail). It is also the
joint cohesion for the PLOT fail ubiquitous command.
pltf
pltt
psterminator
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
range
range
1 - 207
yl yu xl xu
sets the abscissa range (xl, xu) and ordinate range (yl, yu) on line and
fail plots. SET range must be used each time the range is changed for
a plot, and only applies to the first plot that follows the command.
replot
off
on
If replot is on, the current screen plot will be redrawn when a new
window is defined using the zoom feature in the graphics screen
(default = on).
seed
i1, i2, i3
allows the user to specify the seed for randomly generated items.
Default values are: i1 = 1, i2 = 10000, i3 = 3000.
small
sratio
value
sets the equilibrium ratio limit (default value = 103 ).
st damping
<struct> keyword
selects damping type for static analysis (i.e., if SET dyn off). The
following keywords apply:
combined
<value>
combined local damping (default for creep modeling).
The damping value is 0.8 by default.
local
<value>
local damping. The damping value is 0.8 by default.
This damping is the default for static analysis.
step
n
Sets the limit on number of steps for the SOLVE command. (The
default is 100,000 steps.)
1 - 208
SET
Command Reference
sym
sym
val
If sym is a currently defined FISH symbol, then the symbol will be
given the value val. This feature is useful for initializing parameters
that control the operation of a FISH function. Note that val may also
be a valid FISH symbol, in which case the current value of val is
transferred to sym. If val is a function, it is executed. See Section 2
in the FISH volume for more details.
synchronize
temperature
In CONFIG thermal mode, the calculation will stop if the maximum
temperature change in one cycle is greater than t. The default is t
= 20 degrees. The temperature change in one cycle can be reduced
by changing the thermal timestep with the command SET thdt (only
available with the thermal option see Section 1 in Optional Features).
thdt
t
defines the thermal timestep. By default, FLAC automatically calculates the thermal timestep for the explicit solution scheme. This
keyword allows the user to choose a different timestep. If FLAC
determines that the user-selected timestep is too large for numerical stability, the timestep will be reduced to a suitable value when
thermal steps are taken. The calculation will not revert to the userselected value until another SET thdt command is issued (only available with the thermal model option see Section 1 in Optional
Features).
thermal
off
on
causes FLAC to do thermal calculations (SET thermal on) or suppress
thermal calculations (SET thermal off). The on option is the default
if CONFIG thermal is given. This command is normally used for
thermal calculations in conjunction with mechanical calculations
(only available with the thermal model option see Section 1 in
Optional Features).
tolint
v
controls the tolerance for detecting contact along interfaces. (The
default is v = 104 .)
COMMAND REFERENCE
SET
ucs
ucs
1 - 209
val
val is the unconfined compressive strength in the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. It is used for plotting strength/stress ratios for zones
based on the Hoek-Brown failure limit (see PLOT hoek and PLOT
fail).
umul
value
The creep timestep will be multiplied by value if the unbalanced
force exceeds fobu. umul must be equal to or less than 1. The
default is value = 0.5 (available only with the creep model option
see Section 2 in Optional Features).
NOTE: Often, the creep analysis is most stable if umul = 1, so that
the timestep can only increase and never decrease. In this case, fobu
is never used.
update
n
This causes the large strain update to be done every n steps. The
given value of n is truncated such that 1 n 100. The value
given is not remembered between SOLVE commands; it must be
given each time it is needed. When not given, the update frequency
defaults to 10.
vector
n
n controls the number of vectors generated for a plot. n is the total
number of vectors plotted and is an approximate value that provides
an average distribution of vectors in the plot window.
xform
off
on
The keyword on permits writing a formatted save file for transfer between FLAC programs installed on different computers (e.g., SUN
and microcomputer). The keyword off produces an unformatted binary save file that cannot be transferred between different machines
(default = off).
1 - 210
SET
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
SOLVE
SOLVE
1 - 211
age
t
In CONFIG gw mode, t is the consolidation time limit for the coupled mechanical-groundwater flow calculation. The current number
of mechanical steps (nmech) and groundwater flow steps (ngw) are
reported continuously as cycling progresses.
In CONFIG thermal mode, t is the thermal heating time limit for
the thermal-only calculation and the coupled thermal-mechanical
calculation (only available with the thermal model option see
Section 1 in Optional Features).
In CONFIG creep mode, t is the creep time limit for the mechanical
creep calculation (only available with the creep model option see
Section 2 in Optional Features).
Notes:
1. The units for t will depend on the input properties.
2. For the creep and thermal models, the heating time or creep time
will not be tested until after the age parameter is set.
aunb
value limit for the average unbalanced volume used in fast flow logic
(default is value = 0.001)
auto
off
on
In CONFIG gw mode, if auto = on, then FLAC will do mechanical
sub-cycles until the mechanical step limit is reached (defined by
the SET nmech command), the unbalanced force limit is reached
(defined by the SET force command), or the out-of-balance force
ratio limit is reached (defined by the SET sratio command). Then,
groundwater steps are taken as set by the SET ngw command. The
entire cycle repeats until either the consolidation time specified
by the age keyword is reached, or the number of cycles is reached
(as defined by the SET step command). The current number of
mechanical steps and groundwater steps are reported to the screen
continuously as cycling progresses.
1 - 212
SOLVE
Command Reference
clock
clock
t
computer runtime limit, in minutes. A time limit of greater than
1440 minutes (24 hours) will not be accepted; for longer runtimes
(e.g., over a weekend), several SOLVE clock commands can be given
in sequence. (default is t = 1440 minutes)
continue
The execution of an interrupted (by pressing <Esc>) SOLVE command will continue from the current cycle number. Any previously
set limits will still be active. If the SOLVE command was originally
issued from within a data file, the file will continue to be read after
the SOLVE limit is reached.
dytime
t
performs dynamic calculation steps until dynamic time t is reached.
This command does not check the limitation of out-of-balance force.
Dynamic time can be initialized with the command SET dytime (only
available with the dynamic option see Section 3 in Optional
Features).
elastic
performs a mechanical calculation in two steps: first assuming elastic behavior, and then using the actual strength values of the material.
The cohesion and tensile strength for all materials in the model are
set to high values for the first step. (At present, only Mohr-Coulomb
and ubiquitous-joint materials can be present in the model when using SOLVE elastic.) For the second step, the cohesion and tensile
strength are reset to their original values.
SOLVE elastic is limited to application only at the initial equilibrium
state. At later stages, strength values should be adjusted manually
to minimize inertial effects.
force
f
out-of-balance force limit (default is f = 0)
fos
<keyword> . . .
performs an automatic search for factor of safety. The procedure is
described in Section 3.8 in the Users Guide (Note 12), and applies
only when the Mohr Coulomb model and/or ubiquitous-joint model
is installed in all non-null zones.
The following keywords apply:
associated
COMMAND REFERENCE
SOLVE
fos
1 - 213
le
le
lename
sets the filename of the save file produced for the last
non-equilibrium state. (By default, the save file is
named fosmode.fsv.)
include
keyword . . .
exclude
keyword . . .
Various items are included or excluded from consideration during the fos search, according to the list of
keywords that follow include or exclude, respectively.
The following keywords are allowed, denoting items
that may be modified during the fos search.
cohesion
cohesion
friction
friction angle
interface
jtension
structure
structural element
tension
tension cutoff
geometry
v
protects against a bad geometry error in large-strain mode. v is the
ratio of sub-zone area to total zone area. The default value is 0.19.
The code signals an error if a ratio below 0.20 is found. If a larger
value than 0.20 is specified, the code will exit solving and not signal
an error. In this way, a run to determine a failure state can be made
without a bad geometry error occurring. (Note: Be aware that zone
geometry is checked only every 10 steps in large-strain mode, so if
the tolerance is set too close to 0.20, an error may be signaled before
exiting at value v.)
1 - 214
SOLVE
Command Reference
implicit
implicit
munb
value limit for the maximum unbalanced volume used in fast flow
logic (default is value = 0.01)
noage
turns off the requested time limit previously set by the age keyword
(only available with the thermal and creep model options see
Sections 1 and 2 in Optional Features).
sratio
value
equilibrium (steady-state) ratio limit for the active calculation process. By default, the limit is 103 . If the mechanical calculation
process is active, then the limit is based on the mechanical unbalanced force ratio. If only the groundwater flow process is active,
(SET ow on mech off), then the limit is based on the unbalanced
fluid flow ratio. If both the mechanical and groundwater flow processes are active, (SET ow on mech on), the limit only affects the
mechanical calculation, unless SOLVE auto on is also specified. In
this case, the limit applies to both the mechanical sub-stepping and
the fluid flow stepping. If only the thermal process is active, (SET
thermal on mech off), then the limit is based on the unbalanced heat
transfer ratio. (See Section 3.4 in the Users Guide for the definition
on the equilibrium ratio.)
step
s
timestep limit (The default is s = 100,000 steps.)
synchronize
temperature
t
In CONFIG thermal mode, the calculation will stop if the maximum
temperature change in one cycle is greater than t. The default is t
= 20 degrees. The temperature change in one cycle can be reduced
by changing the thermal timestep with the command SET thdt (only
available with the thermal option see Section 1 in Optional Features).
COMMAND REFERENCE
SOLVE
update
update
1 - 215
n
This causes the large strain update to be done every n steps. The
given value of n is truncated such that 1 n 100. The value
given is not remembered between SOLVE commands: it must be
given each time it is needed. When not given, the update frequency
defaults to 10.
NOTE: Once the limits have been defined (including default values), they remain
in effect until specifically reset in a subsequent SOLVE or SET command, or when a
NEW command is used. The NEW command resets limits to their default values. If
the <Esc> key is pressed during execution, FLAC returns control to the user after the
current step is completed. If stepping is under the control of a FISH function, then
two <Esc> key-presses are necessary to stop both stepping and FISH execution.
1 - 216
SOLVE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
STEP
STEP
1 - 217
n
<continue>
executes n timesteps. If the <Esc> key is pressed during execution, FLAC will
return control to the user after the current step is completed. (See CYCLE and SOLVE
also.)
If stepping is being driven from a FISH function, pressing the <Esc> key once
will halt stepping, but then the next command from the function will be processed.
Pressing the <Esc> key twice will cause an exit to the command level (once for
stepping and once for the FISH loop).
The optional keyword continue causes the calculation to continue execution of the
STEP command after interruption by use of the <Esc> key. The remaining cycles
will be performed. If the STEP command was issued from a data file, the file will
continue to be read after cycling is complete.
1 - 218
STEP
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
STOP
STOP
1 - 219
FLAC stops and control is returned to the operating system. Note that all information
generated while in FLAC will be lost unless a SAVE command is issued prior to the
STOP command. The synonym QUIT may also be used.
1 - 220
STOP
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
1 - 221
beam
cable
liner
pile
rockbolt
While including pile features, rockbolt elements can account for: (1)
the effect of changes in confining stress around the reinforcement;
(2) the strain-softening behavior of the material between the element
and the grid material; and (3) the tensile rupture of the element.
Rockbolt elements are well-suited to represent rock reinforcement
in which nonlinear effects of confinement, grout or resin bonding,
or tensile rupture are important.
strip
1 - 222
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
support
support
Each element type is defined by specific geometry and property keywords. The
keywords associated with each element are summarized in Tables 1.13 through
1.19. (The associated HISTORY, PLOT and PRINT keywords are also listed in these
tables.) The keywords can be grouped into three categories that define the conditions
of the structural elements:
(1) element geometry and grid linkage;
(2) structural node conditions; and
(3) structural element properties.
The keywords associated with each category are described below.
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 223
keyword
beam
keyword
begin
end
from
to
node
node
prop
segment
interface
delete
n
n*
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
ij
node
ij
node
np
ns
ni
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
ij
n
ij
n
n1 <nx>
n2
value
value
value
value
value
<x> <y> m
<x> <y>
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
1 - 224
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
area
density
e
height
i
pmom
radius
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
width
range
keyword
adisp
avel
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 225
beam
structure
structure
<beam> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
mome <ng <ng2> >
node
number
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
beam
hinge
node
property
beam
1 - 226
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
keyword
cable
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
chprop
prop
segment
delete
tension
n
n*
np
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
value
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
slave
unslave
keyword
area
density
e
kbond
perimeter
radius
sbond
sfriction
spacing
szz
thexp
ycomp
yield
range
ij
n
ij
n
<x> <y>
<x> <y>
keyword
xdis
xvel
ydis
yvel
fx fy
<x> <y> m
<x> <y>
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
on/off
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
* For the keywords x, free, initial and load, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
FLAC Version 5.0
value
value
value
value
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 227
PLOT
keyword
node
element
nel
cable
structure
structure
<cable> keyword
axial <ng <ng2*> >
bond <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
fyaxial <ng <ng2> >
location <ng <ng2> >
material
node
number
sdisp
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
cable
node
property
keyword
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
cable
1 - 228
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
keyword
liner
keyword
begin
end
from
to
node
node
prop
segment
interface
delete
n
n*
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
ij
node
ij
node
np
ns
ni
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
ij
n
ij
n
n1 <nx>
n2
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 229
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
np
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
area
density
e
height
i
pratio
shape
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
thickness
width
range
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 230
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
liner
structure
structure
<liner> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
mome <ng <ng2> >
node
number
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
liner
node
property
liner
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 231
keyword
pile
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
keyword
area
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nfunc
cs ngap
cs nstiff
cs nten
ij
n
ij
n
value
value
value
value
value
<x> <y> m
<x> <y>
value
value
value
name
value
value
value
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
1 - 232
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
cs scoh
cs sfric
cs sstiff
density
e
height
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
width
range
keyword
adisp
avel
nbond
ndisp
nforce
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 233
pile
structure
structure
<pile> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs ndisp <ng <ng2> >
cs nforce <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
moment <ng <ng2> >
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
pile
hinge
node
property
pile
1 - 234
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
keyword
rockbolt
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
keyword
area
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nstiff
ij
n
ij
n
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 235
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
cs scoh
cs sfric
cs sstiff
cs sctable
cs sftable
cs cftable
density
e
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
tfstrain
thexp
ycomp
yield
range
value
value
value
n
n
n
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
nbond
ndisp
nforce
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 236
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
rockbolt
structure
structure
<rockbolt> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs ndisp <ng <ng2> >
cs nforce <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
moment <ng <ng2> >
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
rockbolt
node
hinge
property
rockbolt
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 237
keyword
strip
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
slave
unslave
keyword
calwidth
density
e
fstar0
ij
n
ij
n
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
1 - 238
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
keyword
node
np
element
nel
keyword
fstar1
nstrips
sigc0
strkbond
strsbond
strsctable
strsftable
strthickness
strwidth
strycomp
stryield
tfstrain
range
keyword
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
value
value
value
n
n
n
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE
1 - 239
strip
structure
structure
<strip> keyword
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
node
number
sbond
sdisp
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
strip
node
property
strip
1 - 240
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
keyword
support
prop
PLOT
PRINT
support
structure
keyword
xy
np
support
keyword
angle
delete
prop
remove
segment
width
keyword
kn
kn
spacing
yprop
value
np
ns
value
value
table
value
value
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE keyword
1 - 241
<struct-type> begin . . .
end
...
<keywords>
where struct-type refers to the beam, cable, liner, pile, rockbolt or strip keyword.
The general structural element may be divided into a number of element segments;
each segment connects two nodes. The beam-, liner-, pile- and rockbolt-element
nodes are described by three degrees of freedom: an x- and y-translation and
a rotation in the xy-plane. The cable-, strip-element node recognizes only x,ytranslations. Figure 1.2 illustrates the degrees of freedom associated with a beam-,
pile- or rockbolt-element segment.
L
Uy
M
Ux
Uy
Ux
x
Figure 1.2
node
node
cross-sectional area, A
moment of inertia, I
Youngs modulus, E
1 - 242
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
keyword
The following two keywords are required to define the general structural element
geometry:
begin
keyword value
The begin keyword identifies one end of the general
structural element.
end
keyword value
The end keyword identifies the other end of the general
structural element.
grid
i, j
Here, a direct linkage is established between the beginning or ending node and
the grid at gridpoint i, j.
node
n
As the structure is created, FLAC will automatically give structural nodes a sequential number from 1 to the number of nodes
in the order in which they were created.
The beginning or ending of the present element may be coupled to existing node n
by issuing this command.
x,y
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE keyword
1 - 243
There are optional keywords that follow the STRUCTURE <struct-type> command
that define the conditions of the element (see Tables 1.13, 1.14 and 1.16). The
following keywords apply for beams, cables and piles:
delete
<n1 n2>
Element segment numbers n1 to n2 are deleted. If
only n1 is given, one element segment is deleted. If
neither n1 nor n2 is specified, all segments are deleted.
If segments to be deleted are connected by a slave
(or master) node, the node should first be unslaved
(see the STRUCTURE node command, below). Note
that this keyword must be given separately; segments
cannot be deleted during structure creation.
prop
np
Property number np is assigned to the element type.
The properties are associated with the property number
by using the command STRUCTURE prop np, described
below. (The default is np = 1.)
segment
ns
The element is divided into ns segments. For example,
if the beginning coordinate is (0,0), the ending coordinate is (10,0) and ns = 10, then the element will be
divided into 10 segments of length 1.0. For the general
structural elements, the default is ns = 1.
For cable elements, the following optional keyword may also be given:
tension
t
A cable bolt may be pre-tensioned to a force, t.
node
x y
1 - 244
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
support
For support elements, the geometry and conditions are defined differently (see Table 1.19). When the STRUCTURE support command
is given, FLAC searches for the two nearest boundaries along the
axis of the member and places the member between the two intersection points. An error will be detected if fewer than two boundaries
are found. The points of attachment to the FLAC grid are preserved,
whatever subsequent displacement occurs.
The support element location, geometry and nodal linkage are defined by the following values and keywords which directly follow
the support keyword.
xy
<keyword>
x y is one point on the member. This point must be located in empty space. x y must immediately follow the
support keyword. The following keywords and values
may be used after x y to define the support geometry
or remove the support:
angle
a
The axis of the support member is oriented
at a degrees, measured counterclockwise
from the x-axis. (The default is a = 90
degrees.)
delete
or
remove
prop
np
Property number np is assigned to the support element. The properties are associated with the property number by using the
command STRUCTURE prop np, described
below. (The default is np = 1.)
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE support
1 - 245
xy
segment
segment
ns
Support elements with nonzero width may
be divided into ns segments. (The default
is ns = 5.)
width
w
The support member spans a width of w
perpendicular to its axis. (The default is w
= 0.)
1 - 246
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
node
keyword value
For beam, cable and pile elements, each structural node with node
number n* may be prescribed various boundary or geometry conditions, which are defined by the following keywords:
free
initial
keyword
Certain node variables are assigned initial
values. The following keywords apply:
rvel value
rotational velocity for beam, liner, pile or
rockbolt nodes
xdisp value
x-displacement for general structure nodes
xvel value
x-velocity for general structure nodes
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be specified with the phrase
range n1 n2 in place of n.
For cable elements, the velocity can only be assigned in the axial direction of the element, so the
cable must be aligned in either the x- or y-direction.
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE node
1 - 247
n
initial
ydisp value
y-displacement for general structure nodes
yvel value
y-velocity for general structure nodes
load
fx fy
This allows the user to apply x- and/or ydirection forces to node n for cables and
strips.
load
fx fy mom
This allows the user to apply x- and/or ydirection forces or moments to node n for
beams, liners, piles, rockbolts and strips.
pin
slave
<x> <y> m
This option sets the slave condition of node
n to node m in the x- and/or y-direction. If
neither x nor y is specified, both directions are
slaved; the rotational degree of freedom
cannot be slaved. Note that the stiffness
assigned to slaved nodes will still influence
the critical timestep. Thus, the modulus may
be reduced to increase the timestep for slaved
nodes.
1 - 248
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
prop
np
keyword
value . . .
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE prop
1 - 249
cable
cable
material:
liner
liner
material:
pile
pile
material:
rockbolt
rockbolt
material:
strip
strip
material:
support
support
material:
area
density
e
height
i
pmom
radius
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
width
area
density
e
perimeter
radius
spacing
szz
thexp
ycomp
yield
area
density
e
height
i
pratio
shape
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
thickness
width
area
density
e
height
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
width
area
density
e
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
tfstrain
thexp
ycomp
yield
coupling
spring
interface:
cs cftable
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nstiff
cs scoh
cs sctable
cs sfric
cs sftable
cs sstiff
calwidth
density
e
nstrips
strthickness
strwidth
strycomp
stryield
tfstrain
kn
spacing
yprop
grout
material:
kbond
sbond
sfriction
coupling
spring
interface:
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nfunc
cs ngap
cs nstiff
cs nten
cs scoh
cs sfric
cs sstiff
strip
interface:
fstar0
fstar1
sigc0
strkbond
strsbond
strsctable
strsftable
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Area and moment of inertia for beam and pile elements can be defined by
either area or i or width.
Area for cable elements can be defined by either area or radius.
perimeter must be specified for cable or pile elements in order to account
for frictional resistance.
Area and moment of inertia for liner and rockbolt can be provided directly,
or calculated from width and height for liner, radius for rockbolt.
calwidth, nstrips, strthickness and strwidth are required to determine strip geometry.
If not specified, all properties are zero by default, except for cs nten, which
is set equal to cs ncoh and spacing which is 1.
1 - 250
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
prop
force/length
sfriction
kbond
1
relative shear
displacement
sbond
perimeter
a) Grout shear strength criterion
Figure 1.3
ycomp
E area
1
extension
axial strain
compression
yield
tensile
force
Figure 1.4
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE prop
1 - 251
force/length
cs_fric
cs_sstiff
1
relative shear
displacement
cs_scoh
perimeter
b) Shear force versus displacement
Figure 1.5
compressive force/length
cs_nfric
cs_nstiff
1
cs_ncoh
perimeter
cs_nten
relative normal
displacement
cs_nfric
tensile
tensile force/length
Figure 1.6
1 - 252
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
prop
np
area
value
cross-sectional area of beam, cable, liner,
pile or rockbolt [length2 ]
calwidth
value
calculation width for strip elements
[length]
cs cftable n
number of table relating confining stress
factor to deviatoric stress for rockbolt elements
cs ncoh
value
coupling spring normal cohesive strength
for pile or rockbolt elements [force/
length]*
cs nfric
value
coupling-spring normal friction angle for
pile or rockbolt elements [degrees]
cs nfunc name
The FISH function name defines the forcedisplacement relation for the coupling
springs in the normal direction. The function processes every normal coupling
spring once every cycle, and uses the FISH
special function fc arg(1) to communicate
the pointer to the node to the function.
cs ngap
value
coupling-spring normal gap coefficient for
pile elements. value is between 0 and 1:
0 = no gap closure (default); 1 = complete
gap closure.
* See Section 1 in Structural Elements for the sign convention for tensile and compressive strength
of the normal coupling spring.
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE prop
1 - 253
np
cs nstiff
cs nstiff
value
coupling-spring normal stiffness for pile
or rockbolt elements [force/length/displacement]
cs nten
value
coupling-spring normal tensile strength
for pile or rockbolt elements [force/
length]*
cs scoh
value
coupling-spring shear cohesive strength
for pile or rockbolt elements [force/
length]
cs sctable n
number of table relating cohesion of shear
coupling spring to relative shear displacement for rockbolt elements
cs sfric
value
coupling-spring shear friction angle for
pile or rockbolt elements [degrees]
cs sftable n
number of table relating friction angle of
shear coupling spring to relative shear displacement for rockbolt elements
cs sstiff
value
coupling-spring shear stiffness for pile or
rockbolt elements [force/length/displacement]
* See Section 1 in Structural Elements for the sign convention for tensile and compressive strength
of the normal coupling spring.
1 - 254
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
prop
np
density
density
value
mass density for general structural
elements. If the density is zero (or not defined), structural element masses are scaled to comply with the main grid timestep.
By specifying density, the weight of the
element is automatically included.
[mass/volume].
value
Youngs modulus of general structures
[stress/displacement]
fstar0
value
initial apparent friction coefficient at the
strip/interface for strip elements
fstar1
value
minimum apparent friction coefficient at
the strip / interface for strip elements
height
value
cross-sectional height of beam, liner or
pile element [height]
value
moment of inertia of beam, liner, pile or
rockbolt element (second moment of area)
[length4 ]
kbond
value
bond stiffness of grout for cable elements
[force/length/displacement]
kn
value
or
table n
axial stiffness of the support member
[force/displacement]. If the member contains sub-elements, kn is the stiffness for
the group of sub-elements.
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE prop
1 - 255
np
kn
If table n is used, n is the number of the table that provides the relation between axial
force and axial displacement. (Note that
table should not be used if the support is
subjected to unloading.)
nstrips
n
number of strips per calculation width for
strip elements
perimeter value
exposed perimeter of the cable, pile or
rockbolt [length]
pmom
value
plastic moment (i.e., the moment capacity) for the beam, pile or rockbolt element.
This command establishes the maximum
moment that the structural element segment may have. If pmom is zero, then
an elastic moment-rotation relation is assumed. If pmom is not equal to zero, then
an elastic-plastic moment-rotation
relation is assumed. If no moment is to develop at a node, the node condition should
be specified as pinned.
If a plastic hinge is assigned with the
STRUCTURE hinge command, then pmom
is a node property. The value for pmom is
assigned to the nodes shared by element
segments nel1 and nel2 as defined by the
STRUCTURE hinge command.
pratio
value
Poissons ratio for liner elements
radius
value
radius of a beam, cable, pile or rockbolt
element [length]
sbond
value
bond strength of grout for cable elements
[force/length]
1 - 256
STRUCTURE
Command Reference
prop
np
sfriction
sfriction
value
bond friction angle of grout for cable elements [degrees]
shape
value
cross-sectional shape factor for liner elements
sigc0
value
transition confining pressure for strip elements [stress]
spacing
value
element spacing in out-of-plane direction,
used to scale properties to approximate the
3D effect (see Section 1.9.4 in Structural
Elements). Default is 1.0.
strkbond
strip/interface cohesion for strip elements
[force/length2 ]
strsbond
strip/interface shear stiffness for strip elements [force/length2 ]
strsctable
number of table relating strip/interface
cohesion to plastic relative shear displacement for strip elements
strsftable
number of table relating strip/interface
apparent friction angle to plastic relative
shear displacement for strip elements
strthicknessvalue
thickness for strip elements [length]
strwidth
value
width for strip elements [length]
COMMAND REFERENCE
STRUCTURE prop
1 - 257
np
strycomp
strycomp value
compressive yield force limit for strip elements [force]
stryield
value
tensile yield force limit for liner elements
[force]
sycomp
value
axial compressive yeild strength for beam
or liner elements [stress]
syield
value
axial peak tensile yield strength for beam
or liner elements [stress]
syresid
value
axial residual tensile yield strength for
beam or liner elements [stress]
szz
on/off
If on, zz is included in the calculation of
mean effective confining stress for cable
elements (default is on).
tfstrain
value
tensile failure strain limit of the rockbolt
or strip elements
thexp
value
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, ,
of beam, cable or liner elements
thickness
value
thickness of liner elements [length]
width
value
cross-sectional width of beam, liner or pile
element [length]
1 - 258
STRUCTURE prop
Command Reference
np
ycomp
ycomp
value
compressive yield strength of cable or
rockbolt elements [force, positive value]
yield
value
tensile yield strength of cable or rockbolt
elements [force, positive value]
yprop
value
compressive yield strength of the support
member. If the support member contains
sub-elements, yprop is the strength of the
group of sub-elements [force, positive
value].
Structural element properties can be changed for individual element segments (and
associated nodes) with the STRUCTURE chprop command. The form of the command is as follows:
chprop
np
Element segments with ID numbers in the range nel1 to nel2 (including nel1 and nel2) will have their property number changed to
np. All nodes connected to these elements will have their property
number changed.
Plastic hinges can be assigned to beam- and pile-element nodes with the STRUCTURE hinge command. The form of the command is as follows:
hinge
nel1 nel2
Plastic hinges are assigned to nodes connecting element segments
with ID numbers in the range nel1 to nel2. In order to qualify for a
plastic hinge, the node must meet the following conditions:
(1) Only two elements can meet at a node.
(2) The node cannot be pinned or have its rotation fixed.
(3) The beginning and ending nodes cannot have a hinge (unless
they are in a closed loop).
(4) At least two elements need to be hinged for a hinge node to
develop.
COMMAND REFERENCE
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
1 - 259
The SYSTEM command spawns a DOS command session while keeping FLAC in
the background. Any DOS command or utility may be used, and a completely
different program may be run (memory permitting). There must be enough system
memory available (approximately 600 KB) after FLAC has allocated its reserved
memory for this command function. Otherwise, the DOS error message, unable
to execute COMMAND.COM, will result when the SYSTEM command is issued.
Reload FLAC with a smaller amount of RAM to leave sufficient space for system
memory. The DOS environment used will be the same as that which executed FLAC.
Type <EXIT> to return to FLAC.
Note that the DOS command shell, COMMAND.COM, must be available on the
DOS path. The environment variable COMSPEC is not used.
An alternative form of the SYSTEM command is to issue the command followed by
a DOS command on the same line. For example,
sys dir *.dat
will list the files with the extension DAT. In this case, you will return to FLAC
after the DOS command is completed. The following DOS commands may be given
following the SYSTEM command:
CD
directory path
COPY
file1 file2
DEL
file
DIR
<file-spec>
REN
file1 file2
TYPE
file
CAUTION: Do not use these commands with files FLAC currently has open, such
as the file to which plots are being sent. If you wish to copy such a file, first close it
(e.g., by SET out = newname, where newname is a different name). If these commands
attempt to access open files, the system may hang up and the files may be lost.
1 - 260
SYSTEM
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
TABLE
TABLE
1 - 261
delete
deletes table n.
erase
1 - 262
TABLE
Command Reference
insert
insert
One or more x,y pairs can be added to a table at any time during an
analysis. The new entries will be added to the end of the table unless
the insert keyword is used. In this case, each new item is inserted
between the two existing items that bracket the x-value of the new
item. If an x-value for a new item is identical to that of an existing
item, the existing items y-value is updated (in insert mode).
Examples:
>table 1
0,0 1,0.5 2,1
>print table 1
Table
1
----------Segment
X
------- ----------1
0.000E+00
2
1.000E+00
3
2.000E+00
4
3.000E+00
5
4.000E+00
>table 1
5,2.5
>print table 1
Table
1
----------Segment
X
------- ----------1
0.000E+00
2
1.000E+00
3
2.000E+00
4
3.000E+00
5
4.000E+00
6
5.000E+00
>table 1 insert
0.5,0.25
>print table 1
Table
1
----------Segment
X
------- ----------1
0.000E+00
2
5.000E-01
3
1.000E+00
4
2.000E+00
5
3.000E+00
6
3.500E+00
7
4.000E+00
8
5.000E+00
3,1.5
4,2
Y
----------0.000E+00
5.000E-01
1.000E+00
1.500E+00
2.000E+00
Y
----------0.000E+00
5.000E-01
1.000E+00
1.500E+00
2.000E+00
2.500E+00
3.5,1.75
Y
----------0.000E+00
2.500E-01
5.000E-01
1.000E+00
1.500E+00
1.750E+00
2.000E+00
2.500E+00
COMMAND REFERENCE
TABLE
1 - 263
1 - 264
TITLE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
TITLE
1 - 265
TITLE
The next input line is taken as a title to be printed on subsequent pen and screen plots
and recorded on restart files. If the TITLE command is given in interactive mode, the
current title appears. If the <Esc> key is hit, this title is retained. Otherwise, a new
title may be entered.
TITLE
@name
The contents of the FISH string variable name is used as the new title. If the FISH
variable name does not exist or is not of the string type, then the current title is
unchanged. If this form of the TITLE command is given, then the subsequent line
should be a regular command (not a heading).
1 - 266
TITLE
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
TRACK
TRACK
1 - 267
dump
Coordinates of all points along all particle tracks are printed on the
screen. Note that a new coordinate pair is only saved if the particle
moves more than a certain distance from its old position (slightly
less than half a zone width). Each line consists of three numbers:
time, x and y.
line
x1 y1 x2 y2 n
This keyword causes n particles to be introduced into the grid,
equally spaced along a line from (x1,y1) to (x2,y2).
list
tortuosity
t
The tortuosity is specified as t, which is defined as the ratio of the
straight line path to the actual fluid path through an element. This
factor will be used to multiply track increments calculated from the
flow velocity; it defaults to 1 if not given.
write
1 - 268
TRACK
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
UNMARK
UNMARK
1 - 269
i = i1,i2 j = j1, j2
Existing marks on any gridpoint within the gridpoint range are removed (see the
MARK and GENERATE commands).
1 - 270
UNMARK
Command Reference
COMMAND REFERENCE
WATER
WATER
1 - 271
biot c
bulk
value
bulk modulus of water, Kw [SI units: Pa]
(The default is value = 0.0. If SET ow=on applies, then bulk must
be greater than zero.) A different bulk modulus may be given to
each gridpoint. (See the INITIAL fmod command.) This property
only applies in CONFIG gw mode.
density
value
groundwater density, w [SI units: kg/m3 ]*
nwdensity
value
wetting fluid density (only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
secap
value
minimum value of relative saturation, used as a cap for the capillary
pressure (only applies in CONFIG tpow mode)
* See Section 2.8 in the Users Guide for input in other units.
1 - 272
WATER
Command Reference
table
table
n
The water table line can be defined as follows:
n is the table number that defines the water table line. This keyword
only operates when the code is not configured for groundwater flow
(i.e., CONFIG gw is not given). The command is intended to provide
a pore pressure distribution corresponding to a static head below
a specified phreatic surface. If the command WATER table = 0 is
given, all pore pressures are removed from the grid. Similarly, the
pressure distribution may be changed during a run by switching to
a new table or by altering the contents of the current table. The
groundwater density, w , and the gravity component normal to the
water table line must also be defined with the WATER density and
SET gravity commands, respectively.
In CONFIG gw mode, FLAC calculates the phreatic surface directly
from the fluid flow equations.
COMMAND REFERENCE
WATER
1 - 273
The range would be all zones below the region where the
water table is reduced. The values are added to reduce
the total stresses, which are negative in compression.
5. The water table is recalculated whenever the material
model is changed using the MODEL command.
1 - 274
WATER
Command Reference
tension
tension
value
fluid tension limit, ft [SI units: Pa]*
value is negative for a tensile limit. The default is value =
0. Note that a different tension limit may be given to each
gridpoint (see INITIAL ftens command). This property
only applies in CONFIG gw mode.
* See Section 2.8 in the Users Guide for input in other units.
COMMAND REFERENCE
WINDOW
WINDOW
1 - 275
<xl xu yl yu>
<square on>
<square off>
This command creates an imaginary window on the screen or hardcopy
plot for the purposes of plotting. The region of space xl to xu, yl to yu is
mapped onto the square screen area. Hence, if the window region is not
square, a distorted picture will be drawn in which the x- and y-scales are
different; vectors will also be distorted.
If the window is not defined prior to plotting, one is selected that encompasses the entire grid. The window will remain as set until changed. If
the window is smaller than the grid dimensions, the screen image will be
clipped at the window boundaries. The user may use this feature to obtain
enlarged views of detail at points of interest. The window can be restored
to encompass the entire grid by typing WINDOW without the coordinate
range.
If the command WINDOW square on is given, the window created using
the interactive zoom feature (see Category 6 of the PLOT command) in the
graphics screen will automatically be adjusted to maintain a proper aspect
ratio. If window squaring is turned off, the resulting plot may be distorted
because x- and y-ranges are different (default = on).
1 - 276
Command Reference
3-1
* Problem solving for coupled mechanical-groundwater analysis is discussed in Section 1 in FluidMechanical Interaction, and for coupled mechanical-thermal analysis in Section 1 in Optional
Features. Problem solving for dynamic analysis is discussed in Section 3 in Optional Features.
The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\UsersGuide\3-ProblemSolving with the extension .DAT. A project file is
also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in
this chapter, open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and
selecting the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top
of the Record pane, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots
created.
3-2
Users Guide
Typical
situation
Data
Approach
Figure 3.1
Simple geology;
$$$ spent on site
investigation
Complicated geology;
inaccessible;
no testing budget
COMPLETE
NONE
Investigation of
mechanisms
Predictive
(direct use in design)
FLAC may be used either in a fully predictive mode (right-hand side of Figure 3.1) or as a numerical
laboratory to test ideas (left-hand side). It is the field situation (and budget), rather than the program,
that determine the types of use. If enough data of a high quality are available, FLAC can give good
predictions.
Since most FLAC applications will be for situations in which little data are available, this section
discusses the recommended approach for treating a numerical model as if it were a laboratory test.
The model should never be considered as a black box that accepts data input at one end and
produces a prediction of behavior at the other. The numerical sample must be prepared carefully,
and several samples tested, to gain an understanding of the problem. Table 3.1 lists the steps
recommended to perform a successful numerical experiment; each step is discussed separately.
Table 3.1
3-3
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
3-4
Users Guide
3-5
2. The state of the model should be saved at several intermediate stages so that the entire run
does not have to be repeated for each parameter variation. For example, if the analysis
involves several loading/unloading stages, the user should be able to return to any stage,
change a parameter and continue the analysis from that stage. Consideration should be
given to the amount of disk space required for save files.
3. Are there a sufficient number of monitoring locations in the model to provide for a clear
interpretation of model results and for comparison with physical data? It is helpful
to locate several points in the model at which a record of the change of a parameter
(such as displacement, velocity or stress) can be monitored during the calculation. Also,
the maximum unbalanced force in the model should always be monitored to check the
equilibrium or failure state at each stage of an analysis.
3.1.6 Step 6: Perform the Model Calculations
It is best to first make one or two model runs split into separate sections before launching a series of
complete runs. The runs should be checked at each stage to ensure that the response is as expected.
Once there is assurance that the model is performing correctly, several data files can be linked
together to run a complete calculation sequence. At any time during a sequence of runs, it should
be possible to interrupt the calculation, view the results, and then continue or modify the model as
appropriate.
3.1.7 Step 7: Present Results for Interpretation
The final stage of problem solving is the presentation of the results for a clear interpretation of
the analysis. This is best accomplished by displaying the results graphically, either directly on
the computer screen, or as output to a hardcopy plotting device. The graphical output should be
presented in a format that can be directly compared to field measurements and observations. Plots
should clearly identify regions of interest from the analysis, such as locations of calculated stress
concentrations, or areas of stable movement versus unstable movement in the model. The numeric
values of any variable in the model should also be readily available for more detailed interpretation
by the modeler.
We recommend that these seven steps be followed to solve geo-engineering problems efficiently.
The following sections describe the application of FLAC to meet the specific aspects of each of
these steps in this modeling approach.
3-6
Users Guide
3-7
The primary dilemma the user faces when generating grids is the difficulty of satisfying both the
requirement (1) to minimize boundary influence, and (2) to provide sufficient zoning in the region
of interest. It is not advisable to have large jumps in zone size between different regions of the
grid. In fact, for reasonable accuracy, the ratio between areas of adjacent zones should not exceed
roughly 4:1. It is better to use a smooth variation and grade the zoning from a fine mesh in the
region of interest to a coarse mesh near the boundaries.
There are four FLAC commands which can be used separately or in combination to help the user
satisfy these requirements. These commands are:
INITIAL . . . .
GENERATE . . . . ratio
ATTACH . . . .
INTERFACE . . . .
The INITIAL command and the GENERATE... ratio command allow the user to vary the zone size
gradually. With the INITIAL command, the user moves each gridpoint, or group of gridpoints, by
rows or columns, while using GEN... ratio decreases or increases zone sizes by a constant ratio
along any grid line.
The ATTACH command and the INTERFACE command can be used to attach several sub-grids
together. Thus, an extended coarse grid can be wrapped around a finely discretized, inner grid.
The following sections describe the use of each of these commands to create a FLAC mesh. For additional information and examples of grid generation, see Section 3.5 in Theory and Background.
FISH functions can also be generated by the user to create grids of varying zone size. Section 3.6
in Theory and Background shows one such example. This FISH function locates x- and ycoordinates using a radially changing geometric function. An added advantage of using FISH is
that the grid boundary and density of zoning can be adjusted simply by changing FISH variables
through the SET command. In this way, it is quite easy to evaluate the influence of boundary location
on an analysis. Section 3 in the FISH volume presents several examples of geometry generators
with FISH.
3.2.2 Creating Internal and External Boundary Shapes
When fitting the grid to the problem region, grid boundaries must also be defined to fit the boundary
shapes of the physical problem. These may be internal boundaries representing excavations or
holes, or external boundaries representing, for example, a man-made structure such as an earth dam
or a natural feature such as an irregular ground surface. If the physical problem has a complicated
boundary, it is important to assess whether simplification will have any effect on the questions that
need to be answered. Will a simpler geometry be sufficient?
One important aspect in this phase of grid generation is that all physical boundaries that will be
represented in the model simulation (including regions that will be added or excavations created
at a later stage in the simulation) must be defined before the solution stepping begins. Shapes of
structures which will be added later in a sequential analysis must be defined and then removed
(via MODEL null) until the appropriate time at which they are to be activated (see Section 3.5).
3-8
Users Guide
The creation of boundary shapes is primarily performed with the GENERATE command along with
special shape function keywords e.g.,
GENERATE
GENERATE
GENERATE
GENERATE
line
circle
arc
table
The shape functions force the grid to conform to a given shape such as a line, circle or arc. Gridpoints
can also be made to conform to a user-specified table of coordinate pairs. The use of these commands
to create boundary shapes is illustrated in the following examples.
In most cases, the external boundaries of the grid may be assumed to be horizontal and vertical
without adversely influencing model results. However, if the problem region is in the vicinity of
the ground surface, it may be necessary to represent the geometry of the surface in more detail.
Example 3.1 illustrates the effect of a wavy surface on the distribution of an initial stress state.
Example 3.1 FLAC grid with a wavy surface
; create a wavy surface to study initial stress conditions
g 24 20
m e
gen arc 0,17 3,17 90
gen arc 6,17 3,17 180
gen arc 12,17 15,17 180
gen arc 18,17 15,17 180
gen arc 24,17 24,20 90
m n reg=6,20
m n reg=18,20
fix x i=1
fix x i=25
fix y j=1
prop d 2000 sh 1e9 bulk 2e9
set grav=10
; set horizontal stress = 2 * vertical
initial syy -3.4e5 var=0,3.4e5
initial sxx -6.8e5 var=0,6.8e5
; note: in-situ stresses go to zero at mean surface
solve
sclin 1 5,0 5,20
sclin 2 12.5,0 12.5,20
plot hold bou syy int 2.5e4
plot hold bou sxx int 5.0e4
3-9
Figure 3.2 shows the initial grid for this problem. The ground surface is created by using several
GENERATE arc commands. The vertical and horizontal stress distributions are illustrated in Figures 3.3 and 3.4, respectively. The effect of the surface on the initial stress state is clearly seen.
(See Section 3.4.5 for an additional example and discussion.)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 10:15
step
1032
-1.200E+00 <x< 2.520E+01
-3.200E+00 <y< 2.320E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 3.2
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
3 - 10
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
M
21-May-04 10:15
step
1032
-1.200E+00 <x< 2.520E+01
-3.200E+00 <y< 2.320E+01
L
K
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+04
A: -3.250E+05
M: -2.500E+04
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
K
J
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 3.3
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
N
21-May-04 10:15
step
1032
-1.200E+00 <x< 2.520E+01
-3.200E+00 <y< 2.320E+01
M
L
K
J
Boundary plot
0
1.500
5E 0
H
XX-stress contours
Contour interval= 5.00E+04
A: -6.500E+05
N: 0.000E+00
H
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 3.4
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
3 - 11
The boundary of an excavation can also be created with a series of GENERATE commands and shape
functions. If only one excavation is involved, it is often possible to take advantage of symmetry in
the problem in order to reduce the model size (see Section 3.3.4). Example 3.2 illustrates a case
in which a vertical line of symmetry is used to reduce the grid by half, and GENERATE arc and
GENERATE line commands are used to create the excavation.
Example 3.2 Using a vertical line of symmetry
grid 24,29
mo e
gen 0 -50 0 -20 2.5 -20 2.5
gen 0 -20 0 -17 2.5 -17 2.5
gen 0 -17 0 0 2.5 0 2.5 -17
gen same same 40 -20 40 -50
gen same same 40 -17 same i
gen same same 40 0 same i 5
gen arc 0 -17 2.5 -17 90
gen line 0 -20 2.5 -20
gen line 2.5 -20 2.5 -17
plot hold grid
ret
The grid produced by Example 3.2 is shown in Figure 3.5. The grid is stretched first with the GEN...
ratio command. Note that the keyword same is used whenever a particular corner of a GENERATE
region retains its current coordinate. The top boundary in this model is a free surface, while the
left boundary is a vertical line of symmetry. The GENERATE arc and GENERATE line commands
are then used to define the boundary of one-half of the horseshoe-shaped tunnel. Figure 3.6 shows
a close-up view of the tunnel region. The plot in Figure 3.6 denotes marked gridpoints which are
created automatically when the GENERATE arc and GENERATE line commands are invoked. The
marked region can be used to define the tunnel for excavation at a later stage of the analysis. After a
material model is prescribed, and boundary and initial conditions are applied (as discussed in later
parts of the section), the model is brought to an initial equilibrium state. Then, the excavation can
be performed by changing the zones within the marked region to MODEL null. By specifying the
command
model null region 3,18
the tunnel is excavated (instantaneously), as indicated by Figure 3.7. A new equilibrium state must
now be found for this change in the model. This sequential modeling procedure is discussed further
in Section 3.5.
3 - 12
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:31
step
0
-7.500E+00 <x< 4.750E+01
-5.250E+01 <y< 2.500E+00
-1.500
Grid plot
0
1E 1
-2.500
-3.500
-4.500
Figure 3.5
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:31
step
0
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+01
-2.300E+01 <y< -1.300E+01
-1.600
Grid plot
0
2E 0
Marked Gridpoints
-1.800
-2.000
-2.200
Figure 3.6
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 13
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:34
step
0
-5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-2.350E+01 <y< -1.250E+01
-1.600
Grid plot
0
2E 0
Marked Gridpoints
-1.800
-2.000
-2.200
Figure 3.7
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
Grid generation for a problem involving the sequential addition of material to the problem domain is
illustrated by an example model for the construction of an earth dam. The boundary of the complete
dam must be defined at the start. It is convenient to first mark regions which will represent the
construction stages, then null all the regions which will be added during the construction and, finally,
add the regions individually for each stage.
The data file in Example 3.3 demonstrates this procedure:
Example 3.3 Sequential addition of material to the problem domain
grid 60 20
mod mohr
* create external boundary of dam
gen -250 277 -250 381.8 350 381.8
gen same
-250 322
-150 322
gen -250 322 same
same
gen same
same
5 317
gen same
same
5 381.8
gen same
same
266 314.4
gen same
same
266 381.8
gen same
same
350 314.4
gen same
same
same
gen same
same
-5 381.8
350 203
same
-150 322
5 245.5
5 317
266 213.4
266 314.4
same
350 314.4
same
i=1,61
i=1,11
i=1,11
i=11,27
i=11,27
i=27,53
i=27,53
i=53,61
i=53,61
i=11,26
j=1,21
j=1,9
j=9,21
j=1,9
j=9,21
j=1,9
j=9,21
j=1,9
j=9,21
j=9,21
3 - 14
Users Guide
Figure 3.8 shows the initial grid for building the dam. The model is created by forming grid subregions in the desired shape. Each GENERATE command applies to a different sub-region. To
understand the approach used to create this model, it is helpful to view the grid plot after each
GENERATE command.
GENERATE line commands define the dam slope. The MARK command is then used to mark
gridpoints for the construction stages. The marked gridpoints defined by the GENERATE line and
MARK commands are displayed in Figure 3.9.
The construction sequence is displayed in Figures 3.10 through 3.13. Example 3.3 is provided to
illustrate grid generation only; in a practical data file, SOLVE commands would be added between
each stage.
The dam region is first removed from the model with the command
model null j=9,20
3 - 15
The dam foundation remains, as shown in Figure 3.10. The dam is constructed in three stages. The
first stage is added using the following commands:
mod
mod
mod
mod
mohr
null
mohr
null
reg i 28 j 10
i 45,46 j 12
reg i 15 j 10
i 14 j 12
The grid is shown in Figure 3.11. For the second stage, the commands are:
mod mohr reg 28 14
mod null i 19 j 16
mod null i 37,38 j 16
The resulting grid is as shown in Figure 3.12. The third stage is added with the following command
mod mohr reg 28 18
The grid is shown in Figure 3.13. Note that the MODEL null commands are used to remove small
zones to smooth the slopes of the dam.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:47
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-3.760E+01 <y< 6.220E+02
4.500
Grid plot
3.500
2E 2
2.500
1.500
0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
(*10^2)
Figure 3.8
3 - 16
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:47
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-3.760E+01 <y< 6.220E+02
4.500
Boundary plot
3.500
2E 2
Marked Gridpoints
2.500
1.500
0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
(*10^2)
Figure 3.9
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
5.000
21-May-04 14:56
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-6.750E+01 <y< 5.925E+02
4.000
Grid plot
0
2E 2
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
(*10^2)
2.000
3.000
3 - 17
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
5.000
21-May-04 14:56
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-5.450E+01 <y< 6.055E+02
4.000
Grid plot
0
2E 2
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
(*10^2)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:59
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-4.450E+01 <y< 6.155E+02
4.500
Grid plot
3.500
2E 2
2.500
1.500
0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
(*10^2)
3 - 18
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
21-May-04 14:59
step
0
-2.800E+02 <x< 3.800E+02
-4.450E+01 <y< 6.155E+02
4.500
Grid plot
3.500
2E 2
2.500
1.500
0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
(*10^2)
3 - 19
zones. The gridpoint spacing for the upper half of the model is 0.5 m, and the spacing for the lower
half is 1.0 m. The model is loaded by a pressure on the left-hand part of the upper surface. The
resulting displacement contours are shown in Figure 3.14. The plot indicates a smooth transition
of displacement between the upper and lower portions of the model.
Example 3.4 Connecting unequal sub-grids
g 20 16
mod elas i=1,10 j=1,5
mod elas i=1,20 j=7,16
gen 0,0 0,5 10,5 10,0
i=1,11 j=1,6
gen 0,5 0,10 10,10 10,5 i=1,21 j=7,17
attach Aside from 1,6 to 11,6 Bside from 1,7 to 21,7
prop dens 1000 sh 3e8 bu 6e8
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=11 j=1,6
fix x i=21 j=7,17
apply p=1e6 i=1,5 j=17
his yd i 1 j 17
step 2000
scl 1 0 9.5 9 1
plot hold bou yd i=5e-4
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
0.900
C
D
E
21-May-04 15:04
step
2000
-5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.050E+01
F
G
H
0.700
I
Boundary plot
J
0
2E 0
K
Grid plot
0
0.500
2E 0
L
Y-displacement contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-04
B: -5.500E-03
L: -5.000E-04
0.300
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 20
Users Guide
Two boundaries may be attached even if the opposing gridpoints are not at the same location. In
this case, the slaved gridpoints still function as described above, but the weighting factors will
be derived from the slaves projection onto the chord joining the two nearest perfectly attached
gridpoints. Great care should be taken when setting up attached boundaries in which the gridpoint
spacing varies; a plot or printout should always be made to verify that the attachment has been made
as intended. The command PRINT attach lists both perfectly attached groups and slaved gridpoints.
The PLOT attach command only indicates perfectly attached gridpoints.
It is not meaningful to apply velocity boundary conditions or fix conditions to slaved gridpoints,
because such gridpoints are controlled by their nearest attached neighbors. However, forces may
be applied to slaved gridpoints.
If all zones surrounding an attached gridpoint (slaved or not) are set to the null model, the attach
condition will still persist, even though such gridpoints will not participate in calculations. However,
if real models are restored to the null zones, the previous attach conditions will be reactivated. There
is no way to unattach gridpoints.
The INTERFACE command may also be used to connect sub-grids. Although it is more computationally efficient to use ATTACH than INTERFACE to join sub-grids, there is no restriction on opposing
gridpoints with the INTERFACE command.
In order to use the INTERFACE command to join sub-grids, the interface is declared as glued, to
prevent it from sliding or opening. In addition, shear and normal stiffness properties must still be
provided. It is recommended that the values for these properties be set to ten times the equivalent
stiffness of the stiffest neighboring zone. The apparent stiffness (expressed in stress-per-distance
units) of a zone in the normal direction is
max
K + 4/3G
zmin
(3.1)
where: K and G are the bulk and shear moduli respectively; and
zmin is the smallest width of an adjoining zone in the normal direction.
Section 4.4.1 in Theory and Background illustrates the use of INTERFACE to join sub-grids. For
comparison purposes, Example 3.4 is repeated in this section using interfaces.
3.2.4 Localization and Grid Dependence
In many physical situations (e.g., laboratory tests and geological processes), shear bands are observed that is, the deformation in the material is nonuniform and concentrated in narrow bands.
The process is called localization. The same process occurs in numerical simulations, but it is
influenced to some extent by the artificial conditions imposed by the numerical grid both by the
orientation and the element size. It is useful to know under what circumstances localization occurs
and how it is affected by the grid. This knowledge may have a bearing on the selection of the grid.
3 - 21
Consider, first, a body composed of material that softens (becomes weaker) with strain. Suppose
the boundary of the body is deformed and that the strain distribution within the body is very slightly
nonuniform. The element that carries the most strain then becomes weaker than the rest i.e., it
attempts to carry less stress. Since its neighbors carry the original stress, the boundaries of the weak
element are thrown out of equilibrium (because the internal and external stresses do not balance).
The weak element, therefore, starts straining more, which only causes it to soften more. This
weak-link process is responsible for localization in a strain-softening material; any small, initial
perturbations are amplified, causing strain to be concentrated in one place or band.
Although localization is expected in a strain-softening material, the same process can occur in
a perfectly plastic (non-softening) material. Such a material can mimic the required stress drop
through a readjustment of stresses rather than by a loss of material strength. This process may
be understood by doing a simple one-element test on a Mohr-Coulomb material. The data file in
Example 3.5 causes FLAC to simulate such a test. Note that the material is frictional ( = 40 ), with
no dilatancy. The vertical stress is constant, and the horizontal stress is initially 3 times higher than
the vertical stress. A shear test is done by moving the upper boundary in the positive x-direction,
as shown in Example 3.5
Example 3.5 Shear test
grid 1 1
m mohr
prop d 1000 sh 1e8 bu 2e8 fric 40
ini sxx=-3e5 syy=-1e5 szz=-1e5
fix x
fix y j=1
appl syy=-1e5 j=2
def av_dil
av_dil = 0.5 * (ydisp(1,2) + ydisp(2,2))
end
his sxy i 1 j 1
his sxx i 1 j 1
his syy i 1 j 1
his xdis
i 1 j 2
his av_dil i 1 j 2
his nstep 20
initial xvel=0.2e-5 j=2
step 5000
title
Single-element test: shear and horizontal stresses vs shear disp.
plot hold his 1 -2 vs 4
title
Single-element test: vertical displacement vs shear displacement
plot hold his 5 vs 4
ret
3 - 22
Users Guide
Figure 3.15 shows the changes in shear and horizontal stresses with shearing, and Figure 3.16
shows vertical displacement versus horizontal displacement. The shear stress reaches a peak and
then decreases; the sample also dilates, due to elastic unloading, as the mean stress decreases.
Remarkably, apparent softening is seen in a non-softening material, and dilatancy in a non-dilatant
material. These effects, which are well-described by Vermeer (1990), are due to the reduction in
horizontal stress (or, equivalently, the rotation of the principal stress axes, so that they become
aligned with the axes of principal strain rate). The conditions are similar for the shearing that takes
place in a whole grid of elements; localization (or shear banding) tends to occur because of the
apparent softening described above.
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:05
step
5000
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 1)
2.500
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 2)
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
(10
-03
Figure 3.15 Single-element test: shear and horizontal stresses versus shear
displacement
3 - 23
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:05
step
5000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
av_dil
(FISH)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 2)
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
(10
-03
3 - 24
Users Guide
fix x y mark
initial xv -.25e-3 var .5e-3 0
initial yv .25e-3 var 0 -.5e-3
initial sxx -1e5 syy -1e5 szz -1e5
wind -55 55 -55 55
step 1000
plot hold bou ssr int 1.0e-5
ret
Figure 3.17 illustrates the shear strain-rate contours at 1000 steps. Localization of strain has
occurred, with band angles of approximately 55 to the horizontal. This angle is consistent with the
bifurcation theory (see Vermeer 1990). In this test, band angles are not influenced greatly by grid
orientation; the same test was repeated for various grid angles, at 5 intervals. The band angles for
all the simulations were near 55 , except when the grid angle approached 45 . In this case, bands
were pulled into alignment with the grid.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:13
step
1000
-5.500E+01 <x< 5.500E+01
-5.500E+01 <y< 5.500E+01
2.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
-2.000
0.000
(*10^1)
2.000
4.000
3 - 25
A more serious example of grid influence on band angle occurs when the physical conditions permit
bands to form at any angle. In the corresponding simulation, bands will tend to form at the easiest
angle. To see what this means, consider the case of a circular hole in an elastic/plastic material
subjected to isotropic loading (see Example 3.7). Figures 3.18 through 3.21 provide a comparison
of results for two different mesh sizes. Figure 3.19 shows contours of major principal stress for
the case in which there are 12 elements across the hole diameter. Figure 3.21 illustrates the case in
which there are 30 elements across the hole diameter. This is a paradoxical situation in which the
finer grid apparently gives poorer results. The explanation is as follows. With the coarse grid, the
plastic region only extends over four or five elements; hardly any localization takes place because
there is no room to resolve a well-defined shear band. In the fine-grid case, there are enough
elements in the plastic region to contain shear bands. It is important to realize that localization is
to be expected physically (e.g., borehole breakout), so the fine-grid result is, in fact, more realistic
since it exhibits localization. However, the angle of shear bands is determined by the orientation
of the grid in the absence of any physical reason to favor one location rather than another. In this
case, the bands follow grid lines rather than cutting across grid lines, as in Figure 3.17. The reason
for this is explained below.
Example 3.7 Circular hole in an elastic/plastic material
title
Hole in Mohr-Coulomb medium (dilatancy = 0) - ieb boundary - 30x30 elements
g 30 30
m m
gen -2.5 -2.5 -2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 -2.5
gen circ 0,0,2.5
m n
m m reg 10,10
gen circ 0,0,1.0
m n reg 15,15
prop shear=2.8e9 bulk=3.9e9 dens=2500 coh=3.45e6 fric=30 dil=0 ten=1e10
initial sxx=-30e6 syy=-30e6 szz=-30e6
ieb 0,0,2.5 3.9e9 2.8e9
his yv i 10 j 15
his yd i 10 j 15
his xd i 4 j 10
step 2000
plot hold grid
plot hold bou sig1
save holea.sav
new
title
Hole in Mohr-Coulomb medium (dilatancy = 0) - ieb boundary - 76x76 elements
g 76 76
m m
gen -2.5 -2.5 -2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 -2.5
3 - 26
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:19
step
2000
-2.750E+00 <x< 2.750E+00
-2.750E+00 <y< 2.750E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
1E 0
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
Figure 3.18 FLAC grid for a circular hole in elastic plastic material (12 zones
across hole diameter)
3 - 27
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:19
step
2000
-2.750E+00 <x< 2.750E+00
-2.750E+00 <y< 2.750E+00
1.000
0.000
1E 0
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
Figure 3.19 Major principal stress contours for a circular hole in elastic plastic material (12 zones across hole diameter)
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:48
step 20000
-2.750E+00 <x< 2.750E+00
-2.750E+00 <y< 2.750E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
1E 0
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
Figure 3.20 FLAC grid for a circular hole in elastic plastic material (30 zones
across hole diameter)
3 - 28
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:48
step 20000
-2.750E+00 <x< 2.750E+00
-2.750E+00 <y< 2.750E+00
1.000
0.000
1E 0
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
Figure 3.21 Major principal stress contours for a circular hole in elastic plastic material (30 zones across hole diameter)
The boundary conditions determine the overall strain that is applied to a numerical grid. When
localization occurs, the strain is concentrated in a narrow band. If all of the boundary strain is
concentrated in one band, then the strain in the band is inversely proportional to the band thickness.
Since the softening effect depends on strain (see Figure 3.15), a thin band will unload stress faster
than a thick band. Hence, if there is a choice, localization will favor a direction along grid lines,
where a band can be accommodated in one element width. A band that cuts across the grid at an
angle must be about three elements wide, since the grid has a poorer resolution of bending in that
direction. Section 3.10.3 contains several more notes on this topic.
The design of a suitable grid depends on the purpose of the simulation. If the process of localization
is to be studied, then the finest possible grid should be used. Further, several different orientations
of grid relative to the problem geometry should be examined in order to get average results that are
independent of grid orientation. If the requirement is simply to represent the smeared effects of
plasticity, then the grid need only be fine enough to accommodate several elements across the plastic
region. The orientation of the zoning is also important. For the problem displayed in Figures 3.18
through 3.21, the localization is not in evidence if a radially symmetric grid is used (see Section 3
in the Verifications volume).
These comments apply mainly to the perfectly plastic models; if strain-softening models are used
(with high rates of softening), then localization will probably occur even for very coarse grids. The
grid dependence of such runs cannot be avoided; the best approach may be to calibrate the model
against the behavior of a known case. Similar cases with similar grids may then be expected to give
reasonable results (in a qualitative sense).
3 - 29
3 - 30
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.100
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:52
step
200
-1.347E+00 <x< 1.098E+01
-5.605E-01 <y< 1.177E+01
0.900
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.803E-02
0
0.700
5E -2
Boundary plot
0.500
2E 0
Grid plot
0
2E 0
0.300
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 3.816E+05
Min. Value = 3.184E+05
0
2E 6
0.100
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
y (axial)
3 - 31
zz, ezz ( , e)
z (circumferential)
x (radial)
yy, eyy ( aa, eaa)
3 - 32
Users Guide
would apply the given 11 - and 22 -components of a stress tensor to the boundary-joining gridpoints
(1,4) and (5,11). By omitting the keyword sxy, the 12 -component defaults to zero.
There are several things to note about this use of APPLY. First, the specified gridpoints must actually
lie on a boundary and there must be a path between them. For example, an error will be detected
if an interface or attach-line cuts the grid between the two given points.* Second, compressive
stresses have a negative sign, in accordance with the general sign convention for internal stresses in
FLAC. Finally, FLAC actually applies the stress components as forces, or tractions, which result
from a stress tensor acting on the given boundary plane; the tractions are recomputed whenever a
STEP command is given, and again at every 10th step in large-strain mode.
* In this case, a separate APPLY command must be given for each sub-grid boundary.
3 - 33
Individual forces may be applied to the grid by using the xf and yf keywords, which specify the xand y-components of an applied force vector. In this case, no account is taken of boundary length;
the specified forces are simply applied to the given gridpoints.
The command APPLY pressure is somewhat anachronistic and is retained in order to be compatible
with earlier versions of FLAC. A given isotropic stress is applied to a boundary by this command
for example, the mechanical effect of a constant gas pressure in a tunnel. The command
apply pres=1e5 from 1,1 to 1,10
There are two potential pitfalls in using APPLY pressure. First, the sign convention is opposite from
that of the APPLY sxx syy sxy form i.e., positive values correspond to compressive stresses. In
both examples above, the forces are directed into the solid material. Second, the word pressure is
confusing, because the command has no connection with fluid pressure; APPLY pressure provides
a mechanical boundary condition only. If a fluid pressure boundary is also required, the command
APPLY pp should be used.
3.3.1.1 Applied Stress Gradients
The APPLY command may take an additional keyword, var, which allows the applied stresses or
forces to vary linearly over the specified range. The parameters following var are vx and vy , which
are the x-variation and y-variation, respectively, in the stress or force component. The operation of
this feature is best explained by an example:
apply sxy=1000 var 500, -800 from 6,1 to 11,6
At the start of the range (i.e., at gridpoint 6,1), the value of the applied 12 is 1000; at the end
of the range (gridpoint 11,6), it is 700, which is the starting value plus both variations. At points
in between, the x-variation is linearly scaled to the relative x-distance from the start, and the yvariation is linearly scaled to the y-distance from the start. The actual equation used to compute
the value of stress, S, is
S = S (s) +
x x (s)
y y (s)
v
+
vy
x
x (e) x (s)
y (e) y (s)
(3.2)
where (x,y) is the coordinate of a gridpoint in the range, (x (s) ,y (s) ) is the coordinate of the starting
gridpoint, (x (e) ,y (e) ) is the coordinate of the ending gridpoint, and S (s) is the starting value of stress.
Typically, applied stress gradients are used to reproduce the effects of increasing stress with depth
caused by gravity. It is important to make sure that the applied gradient is compatible with the
gradient specified with the INITIAL command and with the value of gravitational acceleration (the
GRAV command). Section 3.4 provides more details on this question.
3 - 34
Users Guide
The stepping process is controlled from within the FISH function because: (a) the COMMAND
statement cannot be issued from a function that also contains a WHILE STEPPING statement (see
Section 2 in the FISH volume); and (b) the APPLY command only takes effect when a STEP
command is given (see the discussion under Section 3.3.1).
Alternatively, the changing boundary condition can be controlled by using the hist keyword with
the APPLY command. As an example, a FISH function, relax, is used in Example 3.37 (see
Section 3.5.4) with the hist keyword to control the change in pressure applied with the APPLY
3 - 35
command to simulate the gradual excavation of a mined opening. This same approach could also
be used in Example 3.9.
3.3.1.3 Printing and Plotting
The applied stresses and loads may be verified with the command PRINT apply or PLOT apply. The
PRINT command simply lists the apply items, with the current values and variations being applied,
and the gridpoints that are affected. The PLOT apply command is probably more useful, as it shows
the applied loads graphically. However, it is important to note that forces, rather than stresses, are
shown. Since force is derived from stress multiplied by a length, the force distribution may look
rather erratic if the grid is irregular. In particular, the forces at the two ends of the range are half
the forces in the middle, since the gridpoints at the end only receive load from one side. This effect
is evident in Figure 3.24, which shows the plot produced by Example 3.9.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:54
step
200
-5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.050E+01
0.700
5E 5
0.500
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
Marked Gridpoints
0.300
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 36
Users Guide
The plots produced are shown in Figures 3.25 and 3.26. The applied 11 causes horizontal forces
to act on the body. Since the body is tilted, these forces give rise to a moment which causes the
body to spin. A similar, but more subtle, effect arises when material is excavated from a body
that is supported by a stress boundary condition: the body is initially in equilibrium under gravity,
but the removal of material reduces the weight. The whole body then starts moving upward, as
demonstrated by the data file in Example 3.11.
Example 3.11 Uplift when material is removed
grid 10,10
mod elas
prop dens=1000 bulk=8e9 shear=5e9
set grav 10
fix x i=1
fix x i=11
; fix y j=1
initial
syy=-1e5 var 0 1e5
apply syy=-1e5 j=1 ;set bottom stress to balance weight
step 10
;check on equilibrium
print yvel
;now remove some material
mod null i=4 7 j=4 6
step 100
plot hold boun vel
;body no longer in equilibrium!
ret
The difficulty encountered in running this data file can be eliminated by fixing the bottom boundary,
rather than supporting it with stresses. Section 3.3.4 contains some information relating to the
location of such artificial boundaries.
3 - 37
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.300
21-May-04 15:55
step
500
-3.716E+00 <x< 1.026E+01
-7.160E-01 <y< 1.326E+01
0.900
0.700
5E 6
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.500
0.300
0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 15:55
step
500
-4.267E+00 <x< 1.081E+01
-1.267E+00 <y< 1.381E+01
1.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 2.503E-02
0
0.800
5E -2
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.100
0.100
0.300
(*10^1)
0.500
0.700
0.900
3 - 38
Users Guide
When applying stresses or pressure to the interior surface of a hole, it may be necessary to specify
two boundary segments rather than one. For a uniform stress applied over a closed boundary (either
internal or external), the starting and ending points on the range can be made equal, provided the
keyword long is specified, as in Example 3.12, which applies a uniform pressure all around a circular
tunnel:
Example 3.12 Apply uniform pressure to a circular tunnel
grid 10 10
mod elas
gen circ 5 5 3
mod null reg=5,5
apply pres=1e5 long from 6,3 to 6,3
ret
However, if a gradient is to exist in the applied pressure (e.g., from a liquid in the tunnel), then it
is necessary to have a different starting point and ending point in order to provide a finite distance
over which to specify the variation. Suppose a variation of 80,000 is required between the top and
bottom of the tunnel in Example 3.12. The new APPLY command would be
apply pres=1e5 var=0,-0.8e5 (both) from 6,3 to 6,9
Figure 3.27 shows the resulting plot of applied forces. Note that the keyword both in the APPLY
command causes FLAC to apply stresses to both paths joining the start-point and the end-point.
Finally, if a stress boundary is applied to a range of gridpoints that is FIXed, then the applied stresses
have no effect; in other words, the FIX condition overrides the stress condition.
3 - 39
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:00
step
0
-5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.050E+01
0.700
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.500
2E 5
0.300
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 40
Users Guide
The APPLY command applies velocities at external or internal boundary gridpoints. The FIX and
INITIAL commands can operate on any gridpoints, boundary or interior. The INTERIOR command is
directly analogous to the APPLY command but only operates on interior gridpoints.
It is very tedious to supply velocity boundary conditions if the boundary is irregular. Suppose a
pure biaxial strain is to be applied to the boundary of a circular sample. Advantage can be taken of
the fact that boundary gridpoints are marked automatically by FLAC during the generation process:
Example 3.14 Applying pure biaxial strain to a circular boundary
grid 10,10
mod elas
gen circ 5,5,5
mod null
mod elas reg=5,5
prop dens=1000 bulk=8e9 shear=5e9
fix x y (mark)
initial xv=-1e-4 var 2e-4,0 yv=1e-4 var 0,-2e-4 (mark)
plot hold bound, fix, vel
In this data file, the FIX and INITIAL operations are restricted to gridpoints that are marked by the
GENERATE command. Figure 3.28 illustrates the velocity field and fixed gridpoints. The range
of gridpoints could be further restricted by adding an i,j-range as well (see Section 1.1.3 in the
3 - 41
Command Reference for information on range specifications). In special cases, a FISH function
may also be used to set marks. Note the use of the var keyword to provide a linear variation of
velocity across the sample.
The same result can also be obtained using the APPLY command. However, the starting and ending
gridpoints must be defined differently for variation in x-velocity and y-velocity (see the description
for the var keyword in Section 1.1.3 in the Command Reference) i.e., replace the FIX and INITIAL
commands in the above data file with:
apply xv=-1e-4 var 2e-4,0 both from 1,6 to 11,6
apply yv=1e-4 var 0,-2e-4 both from 6,1 to 6,11
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.000
B
B
B
B
B
0.800
Boundary plot
2E 0
Fixed Gridpoints
B Both directions
Velocity vectors
max vector = 1.000E-04
0
21-May-04 16:03
step
0
-1.833E+00 <x< 1.183E+01
-1.833E+00 <y< 1.183E+01
B
B
2E -4
0.600
0.400
B
B
B
B
B
B
0.200
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
3 - 42
Users Guide
The function velocity profile is invoked at every step; it adjusts the velocity profile of the
wall as its geometry changes in large-strain mode. Note that the given velocity in this example is
much too high for a realistic simulation; it is for demonstration purposes only.
3.3.3 Real Boundaries Choosing the Right Type
It is sometimes difficult to know the type of boundary condition to apply to a particular surface on
the body being modeled. For example, in modeling a laboratory triaxial test, should the load applied
by the platen be regarded as a stress boundary, or should the platen be treated as a rigid displacement
boundary? Of course, the whole testing machine, including the platen, could be modeled, but that
might be very time-consuming. (Remember that FLAC takes a long time to converge if there is
a large contrast in stiffnesses.) In general, if the object applying the load is very stiff compared
with the sample (say, more than 20 times stiffer), then it may be treated as a rigid boundary. If it is
soft compared with the sample (say, 20 times softer), then it may be modeled as a stress-controlled
boundary. Clearly, a fluid pressure acting on the surface of a body falls into the latter category.
Footings on soil can often be represented as rigid boundaries that move with constant velocity for
the purposes of finding the collapse load of the soil. This approach has another advantage it is
much easier to control the test and obtain a good load/displacement graph. Section 3 in the FISH
volume (see SERVO.FIS) provides an example in which a strain-softening material is tested. It
is well-known that stiff testing machines are more stable than soft testing machines.
3.3.4 Artificial Boundaries
Artificial boundaries fall into two categories: lines of symmetry, and lines of truncation.
3 - 43
3 - 44
jhb1 = jleft + 7
ihb2 = ihb1 + 5
jhb2 = jhb1 + 5
ihis1 = iha2 + 2
jhis1 = jhb1 + 1
ihis2 = ihb1 + 3
jhis2 = jhb2 + 1
command
mod null i=iha1,iha2 j=jha1,jha2
mod null i=ihb1,ihb2 j=jhb1,jhb2
end_command
end
def stress_measure
stress_measure = syy(ihis1,jhis1)
disp_measure
= ydisp(ihis2,jhis2)
end
def stress_bc
command
apply sxx=-1e6 (long) from 1,1 to 1,1
apply syy=-2e6 (long) from 1,1 to 1,1
end_command
ii = out(--- stress boundary conditions ---)
end
def disp_bc
iigp = igp
jjgp = jgp
command
fix x y i=1
fix x y j=1
fix x y i=iigp
fix x y j=jjgp
endcommand
ii = out(--- displacement boundary conditions ---)
end
set ileft=1 jleft=1
put_holes
hist stress_measure
hist disp_measure
initial sxx=-1e6 syy=-2e6
stress_bc
;disp_bc
step 1000
print stress_measure, disp_measure
save str_bou.sav
new
;set echo on
Users Guide
3 - 45
g 21 20
m e
gen circ 11,10,10 ;generate a circular boundary
m n
m e reg 10,10
prop den=2000 shear=5e8 bulk=1e9
def put_holes
iha1 = ileft + 4
jha1 = jleft + 4
iha2 = iha1 + 3
jha2 = jha1 + 5
ihb1 = iha2 + 4
jhb1 = jleft + 7
ihb2 = ihb1 + 5
jhb2 = jhb1 + 5
ihis1 = iha2 + 2
jhis1 = jhb1 + 1
ihis2 = ihb1 + 3
jhis2 = jhb2 + 1
command
mod null i=iha1,iha2 j=jha1,jha2
mod null i=ihb1,ihb2 j=jhb1,jhb2
end_command
end
def stress_measure
stress_measure = syy(ihis1,jhis1)
disp_measure
= ydisp(ihis2,jhis2)
end
set ileft=1 jleft=3
put_holes
hist stress_measure
hist disp_measure
initial sxx=-1e6 syy=-2e6
ieb 11,10,10 1e9 5e8
step 1500
print stress_measure, disp_measure
save ieb_bou.sav
ret
The results are summarized in non-dimensional form in Figure 3.32. The measured displacements
and stresses are normalized to their asymptotic values; the value of boundary size is the average
of width and height (or diameter of circle for the IEB), and the object size is the average distance
across both tunnels. Several points may be noted from Figure 3.32.
1. A fixed boundary causes both stresses and displacements to be underestimated,
while a stress boundary does the opposite.
3 - 46
Users Guide
2. The two types of boundary condition bracket the true solution, so that it is
possible to do two tests with small boundaries and get a reasonable estimate
of the true solution by averaging the two results.
3. As a rough guide, for a boundary-to-object size ratio of 5 times, the error in
stress and displacement is around 6% for the fixed and stress boundaries.
4. The error for the closest IEB (Figure 3.31) is around 0.5%.
It may appear from these results that the IEB is the best way to provide an artificial boundary to
simulate an infinite medium. However, there are some difficulties. First, for an elastic simulation,
FLAC takes about 2.5 times longer to run (for the same number of zones) when the IEB is present; this
factor reduces if plastic flow occurs. Second, there is no provision in the IEB formulation for lines
of symmetry, free surfaces, or interfaces intersecting the IEB (although the latter restriction may
be avoided by confining the interface to an enclosed inner grid surrounded by a ring of interfaces).
Even with these restrictions, the IEB will be the most efficient scheme for some problems. Before
embarking on a series of runs, some preliminary tests should be done in which various types of
boundaries are compared.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
21-May-04 16:05
step
1000
-1.050E+00 <x< 2.205E+01
-3.050E+00 <y< 2.005E+01
1.200
Grid plot
0
5E 0
0.800
0.400
0.000
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
3 - 47
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
8.000
14-Mar-05 12:23
step
2617
-9.500E+00 <x< 1.025E+02
-1.400E+01 <y< 9.800E+01
6.000
Grid plot
0
2E 1
4.000
2.000
0.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:05
step
1500
0.000E+00 <x< 2.200E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.100E+01
1.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.600
0.200
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Figure 3.31 Grid with two tunnels using the infinite elastic boundary (IEB)
3 - 48
Users Guide
Normalized Stresses
1.4
IEB
1.3
Fixed
Boundary
1.2
Stress
Boundary
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
1
2.2
IEB
Normalized Displacements
Fixed
Boundary
1.8
Stress
Boundary
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1
3 - 49
xc
yc
rad
bulk
shear
where (xc, yc) and rad are the center coordinates and radius of the circular boundary. If these
parameters do not match an existing boundary of the FLAC grid, an error message will be issued.
The parameters bulk and shear are the bulk modulus and shear modulus of the infinite mass of
material. Normally, these values would match the moduli inside the FLAC grid, but no error is
signaled if they do not.
At present, there is no way to plot or print the IEB, but its presence may be detected by the fact that
it sets all boundary gridpoints as fixed in x and y. These gridpoints are given velocities by the IEB
logic during the stepping process. If the fix condition is removed manually by the user, the IEB
will restore it when the next STEP command is given.
An example involving the IEB is given in Section 1 in the Verifications volume.
3 - 50
Users Guide
For the pressurized cylinder, the radial and circumferential stress components are equal to the
applied pressure, p, and the axial stress, yy , is
yy =
where:
22
p
1 + 2
(3.3)
1 = K + 4/3G;
2 = K 2/3G;
K
is the bulk modulus; and
G
is the shear modulus
Type the command PRINT sxx syy szz after running Example 3.17 to check the radial, axial and
circumferential stresses in the grid. The relative error, when compared to the exact solution, is less
than 0.1%.
In the oedometer test, the axial stress equals the applied pressure, and the radial (xx ) and circumferential (zz ) stresses are equal to
xx = zz =
2
p
1
Run Example 3.18 to confirm this. Again, the relative error in stresses is less than 0.1%.
(3.4)
3 - 51
Boundary forces can also be applied to an axisymmetric grid; they are applied to specified gridpoints
using the APPLY xforce or APPLY yforce command. If the boundary force is to represent a stress
over a specified boundary area, then the applied force for each boundary gridpoint is the product of
the stress and the area associated with that gridpoint. If the force is applied in the axial (y) direction,
a scaled area, Asc , must be used for the axisymmetry calculation. The formula for the applied force
in the axial direction, Fy , is
Fy = yy Asc
where:
Asc
R
x
R
=
=
=
=
=
(3.5)
(R x)/R;
ri + (Lri Lli )/3;
(Lri + Lli )/2; and
(i = 1)
ri
0.25 ri+1 (i = 1)
3 - 52
Users Guide
and yy is the axial stress, ri is the radial distance to gridpoint i, Lli is the radial distance from
gridpoint i to the first gridpoint to the left of gridpoint i, and Lri is the radial distance from gridpoint
i to the first gridpoint to the right of gridpoint i.
For example, the same results for the oedometer test in Example 3.18 can be obtained by replacing
the command
apply pres 1 j=5
-0.1667
-0.250
-0.1146
i 1
i 2 4
i 5
j 5
j 5
j 5
The reaction forces stored in the FISH grid variables xforce and yforce are equal in magnitude
to the scaled applied forces, Eq. (3.5). However, the reaction forces that are printed with PRINT
yreaction or plotted with PLOT rforce are unscaled values; they are equal to the reaction forces, Fy ,
multiplied by the radial distance to the gridpoint, R, as defined in Eq. (3.5) i.e., Fyunsc = Fy R.
Compare the printouts from PRINT ex 2 and PRINT yreaction in Example 3.18.
3.3.6 Interior Boundary Conditions
A boundary condition can be prescribed for an interior gridpoint or zone as well as an exterior
boundary. This action is performed with the INTERIOR command. Mechanical boundary conditions
can only be applied at interior gridpoints. Example 3.19 illustrates the application of x- and y-forces
at interior gridpoints to load the interior of the model.
Example 3.19 Applying an interior mechanical force
grid 10, 10
model elastic
prop density=2000 bulk=1e8 shear=.3e8
fix x i 1 j 1 11
fix x i 11 j 1 11
fix y i 1 11 j 11
fix y i 1 11 j 1
interior xforce -10000.0 i 5 j 5 7
interior xforce 10000.0 i 7 j 5 7
interior yforce 10000.0 i 5 7 j 7
interior yforce -10000.0 i 5 7 j 5
solve
Pore pressures are also applied at interior gridpoints. Groundwater wells (well) and thermal heat
sources (sources) are applied at interior zones.
3 - 53
The components 11 (or xx ), 22 (or yy ) and 33 (or zz ) are set to compressive stresses of
5 106 , 107 and 5 106 , respectively, throughout the grid. Range parameters may be added if the
stresses are to be restricted to a sub-grid. It is important to remember that 33 should be initialized
when using FLAC, since all the constitutive models take it into account; if omitted, it defaults to
zero, which may cause failure to occur in the out-of-plane direction. The INITIAL command sets all
stresses to the given values, but there is no guarantee that the stresses will be in equilibrium. There
are at least two possible problems. First, the stresses may violate the yield criterion of a nonlinear
model that has been assigned to the grid. In this case, plastic flow will occur immediately after the
3 - 54
Users Guide
STEP command is given, and the stresses will readjust; this possibility should be checked by doing
one trial step and examining the response (e.g., PRINT state). Second, the prescribed stresses at the
grid boundary may not equal the given initial stresses. In this case, the boundary gridpoints will
start to move as soon as a STEP command is given; again, output should be checked (e.g., PLOT
vel) for this possibility. Example 3.20 shows a set of commands that produce initial stresses that
are in equilibrium with prescribed boundary stresses.
Example 3.20 Initial and boundary stresses in equilibrium
grid 20 20
mod elastic
initial
sxx=-5e6 syy=-1e7 szz=-5e6
apply sxx=-5e6 syy=-1e7 long from 1,1 to 1,1
Of course, if the boundary is fixed, rather than stress-controlled, the initial stresses will be in
equilibrium automatically the APPLY command is not necessary. Refer to Section 3.3, and the
APPLY command in particular, for more details on boundary conditions.
3.4.2 Stresses with Gradients: Uniform Material
Near the ground surface, the variation in stress with depth cannot be ignored. The SET grav
command is used to inform FLAC that gravitational acceleration operates on the grid. It is important
to understand that the SET grav command does not directly cause stresses to appear in the grid;
it simply causes body forces to act on all gridpoints. These body forces correspond to the weight
of material surrounding each gridpoint. If no initial stresses are present, the forces will cause the
material to move (during stepping) in the direction of the forces until equal and opposite forces are
generated by zone stresses. Given the appropriate boundary conditions (e.g., fixed bottom, roller
side boundaries), the model will, in fact, generate its own gravitational stresses that are compatible
with the applied gravity. However, this process is inefficient, since many hundreds of steps may
be necessary for equilibrium. It is better to initialize the internal stresses such that they satisfy
both equilibrium and gravitational gradient. The var parameters on the INITIAL command must be
given so that the stress gradient matches the gravitational gradient, g. The internal stresses must
also match boundary stresses at stress boundaries. As mentioned in Section 3.3, there are several
boundary conditions that could be used. Consider, for example, a 20 m 20 m box of homogeneous
material at a depth of 200 m underground, with fixed base and stress boundaries on the other three
sides. The data file in Example 3.21 produces an equilibrium system.
Example 3.21 Initial stress state with gravitational gradient
grid 10 10
gen 0,0 0,20 20,20 20,0
mod mohr
prop dens=2500 bulk=5e9 shear=3e9 fric=35
fix x y j=1
3 - 55
set grav=10
initial syy=-5.5e6
var=0,5e5
initial sxx=-2.75e6
var=0,2.5e5
initial szz=-2.75e6
var=0,2.5e5
apply syy=-5.5e6 var=0,5e5 sxx=-2.75e6 var=0,2.5e5 i=1
apply syy=-5.5e6 var=0,5e5 sxx=-2.75e6 var=0,2.5e5 i=11
apply syy=-5e6 j=11
In this example, horizontal stresses and gradients are equal to half the vertical stresses and gradients,
but they may be set at any value that does not violate the yield criterion (Mohr-Coulomb, in this
case). After preparing a data file such as the one above, one calculation step should be executed and
the velocity field plotted; any failure to match internal stresses with boundary stresses will show up
as a systematic movement at one or more boundaries (small, chaotic velocities may be ignored
see Section 3.9.2). Note that the material will fail in the out-of-plane direction if szz is omitted in
the above example.
3.4.3 A Caution about Specifying Variations for INITIAL
There is an (intentional) anomaly in the way in which stress variations are expressed by the INITIAL
command. Stresses are associated with zone centroids. However, when specifying a variation
of stresses across a given region, it is more convenient to give the variation between bounding
gridpoints rather than zones, because (a) it is tedious to compute centroid locations, and (b) changes
in properties and stress regimes occur normally at grid lines. Hence, if the var keyword is given,
the specified stress variation is taken over the gridpoint range that bounds the given zone range.
For example, the command
initial sxx=-5e6 var 0,2e6 i=1 j=1,10
assumes that the stress at gridpoint (1,1) is 5 106 and the stress at gridpoint (1,11) is 3 106 .
The stresses installed at zone centroids are interpolated between these two extremes. To confuse
matters further, the APPLY command always applies stresses between gridpoints, so the given range
for this command must be in terms of gridpoints, rather than zones, as it is for the INITIAL command.
Example 3.22 illustrates the correct specification of ranges for an equilibrium system in which a
varying horizontal stress exists over the bottom half of the sample. Note the different ranges for
INITIAL and APPLY.
Example 3.22 Specification of ranges for APPLY and INITIAL commands
grid 10 10
mod elas
prop dens 2000 shear 3e8 bulk 5e8
apply sxx=-5e6 var 0,2e6 i=1 j=1,6
apply sxx=-5e6 var 0,2e6 i=11 j=1,6
initial sxx=-5e6 var 0,2e6 j=1,5
3 - 56
Users Guide
The stress at each material interface must be calculated manually from the known overburden above
it; this is used as the value following syy in the INITIAL command. The var values are simply the
variations across each layer due to the gravitational gradient. Note that the example is simplified
in a real case, the elastic moduli would vary, and there would be horizontal stresses. If high
horizontal stresses exist in a layer, these may be installed with the INITIAL command.
In a more complicated situation, it is best to use a FISH function to compute initial stress values
from a known material property distribution.
3 - 57
After executing the 100 steps, the grid is in equilibrium; some small adjustment to the initial stress
state takes place.
More complications arise when a free surface has an irregular geometry. Example 3.25 produces
the mountain range shown in Figure 3.33 (the details of the generation process are not important
in this context).
Example 3.25 Initial stress state for an irregular free surface
grid 30 15
mod elas
prop dens 2000 shear 3e8 bulk 5e8
fix x i=1
fix x i=31
fix y j=1
def mountain; create distorted surface
rj = 1.0 / jzones
sum = 0.0
loop i (2,igp)
y_change = 2.0 * (urand - 0.5)
y(i,jgp) = y(i-1,jgp) + y_change
sum
= sum + (y(i-1,jgp) - y(1,jgp))
y(i,jgp) = y(i,jgp) - 2.0 * sum / i
loop j (2,jgp-1)
3 - 58
Users Guide
y(i,j) = y(i,jgp) * (j - 1) * rj
end_loop
end_loop
end
mountain
plot hold grid
save m1.sav
; ret
; rest m1.sav
set grav=10
initial syy=-3e5 var 0,3e5 sxx=-6e5 var 0,4e5
step 1250
scl 1 15,0 15,20
plo hold bound, sxx i=0.5e5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.000
14-Mar-05 13:49
step
1250
-1.667E+00 <x< 3.167E+01
-8.060E+00 <y< 2.527E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
1E 1
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
3 - 59
The resulting horizontal stress distribution is shown in Figure 3.34. This represents just one of
many ways to obtain an equilibrium solution; each one will produce a different, but physically
valid, stress distribution. Several schemes are listed below.
1. Do not initialize stresses; allow gravity to compact the layer.
2. Initialize horizontal stress, but not vertical stress.
3. Impose constant stress at the lateral boundaries rather than zero horizontal
displacement.
4. Remove irregular overburden from initial grid of uniform thickness.
5. Allow plastic flow to occur, thus removing stress concentrations.
6. Build up the profile layer by layer; equilibrate each layer.
There are probably many other possible schemes, particularly for a nonlinear, path-dependent
material. No initial state is the correct one the choice may depend on the type of geological
process that is believed to have occurred in the field.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.000
14-Mar-05 13:49
step
1250
-1.667E+00 <x< 3.167E+01
-8.060E+00 <y< 2.527E+01
K
J
I
H
G
F
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
1.500
1.000
XX-stress contours
Contour interval= 5.00E+04
A: -5.500E+05
K: -5.000E+04
D
C
0.500
B
A
0.000
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
3 - 60
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:48
step
1000
-1.500E+00 <x< 9.500E+00
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.050E+01
0.700
Displacement vectors
max vector = 3.369E-03
0
1E -2
0.500
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.00E+04
Minimum: -1.80E+05
Maximum: 0.00E+00
0.300
0.100
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
3 - 61
Since we have roller boundaries on both sides, we might expect the material to move down equally
on both sides. However, the grid is finer on the left. FLAC tries to keep the local timestep equal for
all zones, so it increases the inertial mass for the left-hand gridpoints to compensate for the smaller
zone sizes. The left-hand gridpoints then accelerate more slowly than those on the right. This
will have no effect on the final state of a linear material, but it causes nonuniformity in a material
that is path-dependent. For a Mohr-Coulomb material without cohesion, the situation is similar to
dropping sand from some height into a container and expecting the final state to be uniform. In
reality, a large amount of plastic flow would occur because the confining stress does not build up
immediately. Even with a uniform grid, this approach is not a good one since the horizontal stresses
depend on the dynamics of the process.
The best solution is to use the INITIAL command to set initial stresses to conform to the desired
K0 value (ratio of horizontal to vertical stresses). For example, the STEP 1000 command in the
previous data file could be replaced by the following lines:
ini syy -2e5 var 0 2e5
ini sxx -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
ini szz -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
A stable state is achieved with K0 = 0.75; no stepping is necessary. If, for some reason, the user
wishes to use FLAC to compute the final state, then the STEP 1000 line could be replaced by the
following lines:
prop
step
prop
step
Figure 3.36 shows the displacement vectors and vertical stress contours for this case. The material
is prevented from yielding during the compaction process, but the original properties are restored
when equilibrium is achieved.
The command SOLVE elastic automatically performs the same functions as the above commands:
the mechanical calculation is first solved assuming high strength properties, and then solved using
the actual strength properties. SOLVE elastic can only be applied for Mohr-Coulomb and ubiquitousjoint materials, at present.
3 - 62
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:51
step
1000
-1.500E+00 <x< 9.500E+00
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.050E+01
0.700
Displacement vectors
max vector = 3.000E-03
0
1E -2
0.500
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.00E+04
Minimum: -1.80E+05
Maximum: 0.00E+00
0.300
0.100
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
At this point in the run, the stresses generated by the initial elastic model still exist and act as initial
stresses for the region containing the new Mohr-Coulomb model.
3 - 63
Two points should be remembered. First, if a null model is installed in any zone (even if it is
subsequently replaced by another model), all stresses are removed from the affected zones. Second,
if one model is replaced by another, and the stresses should physically be zero in the new model,
then an INITIAL command must be used to reset the stresses to zero. This situation would occur if
rock is mined out and replaced by backfill; the backfill should start its life without stress.
3.4.8 Stress and Pore Pressure Initialization with a Phreatic Surface
Pore pressures are initialized in the same way as stresses. However, if CONFIG gw has been set,
then it is the gridpoint pore pressures rather than the zone pressures that are initialized refer to
Section 1.5.2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction for more details on the distinction between zone
and gridpoint pressures. Consequently, the range given on the INITIAL command refers to gridpoints
rather than zones.
Initialization of a partially saturated grid can be confusing; it may be easier to set the boundary conditions and let FLAC compute the phreatic surface and corresponding variations in stress gradients
that occur because of differing zone densities. Often, if pressures and stresses are to be initialized
manually, the procedure illustrated in Example 3.28 can be used. Consider an impermeable box of
height 10 m which contains a solid, elastic material, fixed at the sides and base. Assume that only
the bottom 5 m are fully saturated. The dry density of the solid is 2000 kg/m3 , and its porosity is
0.5.
The data file in Example 3.28 creates initial conditions that are in equilibrium.
Example 3.28 Stress and pore pressure initialization with a phreatic surface
config gw
g 10 10
m e
prop dens 2000 shear 5e8 bulk 1e9
prop poros=0.5 perm=1e-10
water dens=1000 bulk=2e9
set grav 10
fix x i=1
fix x i=11
fix y j=1
initial sat=1
initial sat=0
initial syy=-8e4
var 0,8e4
initial syy=-9.125e4
initial syy=-22.75e4 var 0,12.5e4
initial pp=5e4
var 0,-5e4
j=1,6
j=7,11
j=7,10
j=6
j=1,5
j=1,6
It is best to work out the stress conditions from the top downward. The saturation is zero from j = 7
to j = 11. (Recall that saturation is a gridpoint variable.) Hence, the total density of each zone in
3 - 64
Users Guide
this region is equal to the dry density of 2000 kg/m3 , giving syy of 8 104 at gridpoint 7, due to
the overburden of 4 m this accounts for the first INITIAL syy command.
The next zone (j = 6) has an average saturation of 0.5. Hence, its average density, TOT , is 2250
kg/m3 , using the formula:
TOT = DRY + n s w
(3.6)
where n is the porosity, s is the saturation, and w is the density of water. At the midpoint of the
zone, the additional stress is 1.125 104 , giving a zone stress of 9.125 104 . At the bottom
of this zone, we add another increment of 1.125 104 , giving the stress at gridpoint j = 6 of
10.25 104 .
For the zones j = 1,5, the saturation is 1.0, so the total density is 2500 kg/m3 . Hence, the change
in stress over the range of gridpoints is 12.5 104 . Adding this to the stress found above for
gridpoint j = 6, the bottom stress is 22.75 104 . This accounts for the final INITIAL syy command.
The grid pore pressure varies linearly from 5 104 at the base, to zero at gridpoint j = 6; above
this, the material is unsaturated.
This example only illustrates the procedure for initializing vertical stresses. Horizontal stresses, in
both the x- and z-directions, should also be initialized in a similar manner.
This procedure is admittedly complicated; if an error is made, then movement will start to occur
from the first step, and fluid will flow. If further steps are taken, an equilibrium condition will be
reached eventually at the point at which densities, stresses and pressures are all compatible. A FISH
function has been written to perform this procedure for a multiple layered system (see ININV.FIS
in Section 3 in the FISH volume).
3.4.9 Initialization of Velocities
Until now, we have concentrated on initialization of stresses and pressures. Normally, the velocities
inside the grid are not set explicitly, but default to zero initially. If, however, a velocity loading
condition is specified at the boundary of a body, it is sometimes beneficial to initialize the velocities
throughout the body to minimize the shock to the system. For example, in a simulated biaxial test
with rigid platens, the velocities can be initialized to achieve an initial linear gradient throughout
the sample, as shown in Example 3.29.
3 - 65
This will avoid the initial shock that occurs when internal gridpoints must accelerate in order to
acquire negative velocities. The subsequent motion of the internal gridpoints is not controlled, since
only the ends are fixed.
3 - 66
Users Guide
3 - 67
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
rat
1.15 1.1
1.15 0.909
1 1.1
1 0.909
1 1.12
1 0.893
1 1.14
1 0.877
1 1.16
1 0.862
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
21 37
21 37
15 21
15 21
11 15
11 15
7 11
7 11
1 7
1 7
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
21 41
1 21
21 41
1 21
21 41
1 21
21 41
1 21
21 41
1 21
The resulting grid is shown in Figure 3.37. Note that the GENERATE arc and GENERATE circle commands are used to define the boundaries of the tunnel excavations. A close-up view in Figure 3.38
shows the grid in the vicinity of the tunnels.
3 - 68
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:56
step
2
-3.000E+01 <x< 8.000E+01
-5.500E+01 <y< 5.500E+01
2.000
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.000
2.000
(*10^1)
4.000
6.000
Figure 3.37 Initial FLAC grid with a vertical line of symmetry at the center
of a service tunnel
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:56
step
2
-1.000E+00 <x< 2.100E+01
-1.100E+01 <y< 1.100E+01
0.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
0.000
-0.400
-0.800
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
3 - 69
The line of symmetry and boundary and initial stress conditions are assigned via:
fix x i
app sxx
app syy
app syy
initial
1
-1.38e6 i 37
-1.75e6 j 1
-1.75e6 j 41
sxx -1.38e6 syy -1.75e6 szz -0.78e6
The effects of gravity are neglected for this analysis. The material is assigned the Mohr-Coulomb
material model with the properties:
prop
prop
The model should be in equilibrium at this state; this can be checked by typing
solve
The run stops after 2 steps because the maximum out-of-balance force is very small. The value is
not exactly zero, due to a slight perturbance resulting from the nonuniform grid.
In the first construction stage, the service tunnel is excavated. This excavation is made instantaneously in the model by typing
model null reg 1,21
This is the most common way to perform an excavation with FLAC, and it assumes that the excavation
is made suddenly (e.g., by explosion). The resulting nonlinear response of the model will depend
on the rate of unloading, so the modeler must decide whether this method of excavation in FLAC
is appropriate to the physical problem. Alternatively, the excavation can be made by reducing the
stresses along the excavation boundary gradually (similar to what is discussed in Section 3.3.1.2).
A different response may result. The effect of path-dependent loading is discussed further in
Section 3.10.3. An example FISH function, to reduce stresses gradually along an excavation, is
provided (ZONK.FIS) in Section 3 in the FISH volume.
The solution at this stage is found by monitoring the displacement at locations around the tunnel.
The following commands are used:
hist unbal
hist ydis i=1 j=25
hist xdis i=6 j=23
The y-displacement is recorded at the crown of the tunnel, and the x-displacement at the springline.
The solution is started by typing
solve
When the calculation stepping is completed, the displacement histories are plotted. Figure 3.39
shows that the displacements have converged to a value of 7.40 mm at the crown and 3.85 mm at
the springline.
3 - 70
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
21-May-04 16:57
step
1428
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 1, 25)
X displacement( 6, 23)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
10
12
14
(10
02
i=2.73067e-3
end gr 2 25
end gr 3 25
end gr 4 25
end gr 4 24
end gr 5 24
end gr 5 23
end gr 6 23
end gr 6 22
end gr 6 21
end gr 6 20
a=.32
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
beam beg gr
node=1 fix
node=20 fix
6
6
6
6
5
4
4
3
2
r
r
20
19
18
17
17
17
16
16
16
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
3 - 71
gr
gr
gr
gr
gr
gr
gr
gr
gr
6
6
6
5
4
4
3
2
1
19
18
17
17
17
16
16
16
16
The two structural nodes that are on the line of symmetry must have their rotation fixed.
Since no loading change has been made at this stage, the model is in equilibrium with the liner
installed. The third stage, then, is to excavate the main tunnels and monitor the response of the
lined service tunnel. The main tunnels are excavated, and the third stage solved with the commands
in Example 3.32.
Example 3.32 Excavation of main tunnels with lined service tunnel
model null reg 21,21
initial xdis 0 ydis 0
solve
plot hold hist 2 3 begin 1430
win 0,20 -10,10
sclin 1 8,-50 8,50
plot hold struct mom max -1e5 sig1 boun
save stun_lin.sav
The displacements are reset to zero in the model so that only the change due to the excavation
is recorded. The results shown in Figure 3.40 indicate that the displacements at the crown and
springline are insignificant: both are smaller than 1.5 mm. The influence of the main tunnels is
also shown in Figure 3.41, which presents plots of the moment in the lining and the major principal
stress distribution after excavation of the main tunnels. (Note that the negative maximum value for
moment given in the PLOT struct command changes the sense of the moment plot.)
3 - 72
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
1.000
21-May-04 17:05
step
3811
0.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 1, 25)
0.000
X displacement( 6, 23)
-0.500
X-axis :
Number of steps
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
16
20
24
28
32
36
(10
02
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
F
21-May-04 17:05
step
3811
0.000E+00 <x< 2.000E+01
-1.100E+01 <y< 1.100E+01
E
0.400
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -7.631E+04
Maximum principal stress
Contour interval= 2.50E+05
C: -2.750E+06
F: -2.000E+06
Boundary plot
C
0.000
D
0
-0.400
5E 0
E
F
-0.800
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
(*10^1)
1.300
1.500
1.700
1.900
Figure 3.41 Moment in service tunnel lining and major principal stress contours in rock between main tunnel and lined service tunnel
3 - 73
The influence of the lining is also demonstrated by repeating the last stage without lining the service
tunnel, as shown in Example 3.33.
Example 3.33 Excavation of unlined tunnel
rest stun.sav
model null reg 21,21
initial xdis 0 ydis 0
solve
save stun_un1.sav
plot hold hist 2 3 begin 1200
win 0,20 -10,10
sclin 1 8,-50 8,50
plot hold sig1 boun
Figures 3.42 and 3.43, when compared to Figures 3.40 and 3.41, illustrate the influence of the lining.
The only effect is seen in the vertical displacement at the crown; the displacement for the unlined
tunnel is approximately 2.5 times greater than that for the lined tunnel.
The modeling sequence may now be repeated with different conditions of material properties or
locations of main tunnels relative to the service tunnel. If new tunnel locations are investigated, the
grid must be regenerated and the model brought to an initial equilibrium state again. If different
material properties are used, the model must be solved first for the response of the unlined service
tunnel. If different structural support is selected, the model may be restored at the state after the
service tunnel is excavated and then the new support added (i.e., RESTORE stun.sav). Always
remember that the model must be at an equilibrium state when the loading change is made.
3 - 74
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
1.500
21-May-04 17:06
step
3623
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 1, 25)
0.500
0.000
X displacement( 6, 23)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
16
20
24
28
32
36
(10
02
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
H
21-May-04 17:06
step
3623
0.000E+00 <x< 2.000E+01
-1.100E+01 <y< 1.100E+01
G
0.400
E
0.000
5E 0
-0.400
H
-0.800
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
(*10^1)
1.300
1.500
1.700
1.900
Figure 3.43 Major principal stress contours in rock between main tunnel and
unlined service tunnel
3 - 75
3 - 76
Users Guide
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:24
step
4000
-6.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.100E+01
1.400
Y-displacement contours
Contour interval= 1.00E-02
E: -8.000E-02
M: 0.000E+00
Boundary plot
0
1.000
5E 0
G
0.600
H
I
J
0.200
K
L
M
0.000
0.400
(*10^1)
0.800
1.200
11 = e11 + e22 + 11
(3.7)
22 = e22 + e11 + 22
12 = 2Ge12 + 12
3 - 77
To compute the stress changes induced by instantaneous changes in moduli (not by subsequent
movement that occurs in response to the changed conditions), we express the new stress components
(denoted by 11 and 22 ) in terms of the old:
22
11 11
e
11 + e
=
11 11
e11 + e22
(3.8)
where and correspond to the new moduli. In general, we would need to solve Eq. (3.7) for the
strain components, but if the shear and bulk modulus both change by the same factor (say, f ), then
the right-hand side of Eq. (3.8) is simply f . Hence,
11 = f 11 + (1 f ) 11
(3.9)
Similar expressions can be written for the other components of stress. Example 3.35 contains a
continuation of the previous run in which secant moduli are degraded by 50%, and pillar stresses are
adjusted according to the scheme described above. The resulting total displacement plot is shown
in Figure 3.45. By comparing contour levels, we can see that the maximum displacement in the
room increases by about 31%.
Example 3.35 Degrading pillar secant moduli from Example 3.34
res sm.sav
def degrade
df1 = 1.0 - d_factor
loop i (1,i_pillar)
loop j (1,j_pillar)
bulk_mod(i,j) = initial_bulk * d_factor
shear_mod(i,j) = initial_shear * d_factor
sxx(i,j)
= sxx(i,j) * d_factor + df1 * initial_horiz
syy(i,j)
= syy(i,j) * d_factor + df1 * initial_vert
szz(i,j)
= szz(i,j) * d_factor + df1 * initial_horiz
sxy(i,j)
= sxy(i,j) * d_factor
end_loop
end_loop
end
set d_factor=0.5
degrade
cyc 3000
scline 1 1.5 0 1.5 50
plot hold boun ydis i=1e-2
3 - 78
Users Guide
In order to confirm the results of modulus reduction and stress adjustments, a single run was done
with the same initial conditions as Example 3.34, but with pillar moduli reduced by 50% from the
beginning of stepping. The resulting displacement pattern, seen in Figure 3.46, is almost identical
to that in Figure 3.45.
The technique described here has very limited application, and is only included for completeness;
the preferred approach is to achieve the desired effect with a well-designed constitutive model
instead of modifying parameters externally for an existing model. The effects of secant-modulus
changes can always be reproduced with an incremental constitutive model.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:24
step
4000
-6.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.100E+01
1.400
Y-displacement contours
Contour interval= 1.00E-02
E: -8.000E-02
M: 0.000E+00
Boundary plot
0
1.000
5E 0
G
0.600
H
I
J
0.200
K
L
M
0.000
0.400
(*10^1)
0.800
1.200
3 - 79
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:24
step
7000
-6.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.100E+01
1.400
Y-displacement contours
Contour interval= 1.00E-02
E: -1.200E-01
Q: 0.000E+00
Boundary plot
0
1.000
5E 0
G
0.600
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.800
1.200
3 - 80
Users Guide
fix x i=31
fix x y j=1
set grav=9.8
his unbal
his ydis i=1 j=27
his ydis i=1 j=21
step 2000
ini xdis=0 ydis=0 ; we are interested in displ. only due to exc.
model null i=1,3 j=19,20
step 5000
plo hold ydis line 0 0 1.2e3 0 20
save num.sav
The surface profile of vertical displacement is shown in Figure 3.47, in which a substantial uplift
in addition to the expected subsidence is evident. The reason for the uplift is that the
removed material represents a weight, or downwards body force, that is removed. The removal of
a downwards body force is equivalent to the addition of an upwards body force, which gives rise to
a component of uplift. The excavation of material involves two parts: first, a reduction in weight;
and second, a reduction in stiffness. It is instructive to model the two components separately.
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:42
step
7000
-9.333E+01 <x< 1.293E+03
-1.213E+03 <y< 1.733E+02
0.000
-0.500
Linear Profile
Y-axis :
Y-disp
X-axis :
Distance
From ( 0.00E+00, 0.00E+00)
To ( 1.20E+03, 0.00E+00)
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
10
12
(10
02
3 - 81
In the first case, we allow only for the effect of the reduced weight of the excavated region, by
setting the density of the cavern to a low value, while preserving the elastic properties. The MODEL
null command is replaced by the following command:
prop dens 0.1 i=1,3 j=19,20 ; reduce density
which sets the density to a low value. Figure 3.48 shows that there is resulting uplift over the whole
ground surface.
Now we allow only for the second effect the change in stiffness when the cavern is created, while
preserving the weight of the excavated material. The MODEL null command in the original file is
replaced by the following two lines:
prop bulk 22.7e6 shear 13.6e6 i=1,3 j=19,20
ini sxx 0 syy 0 szz 0 sxy 0
i=1,3 j=19,20
The effect of reducing the secant modulus by a factor of 1/1000 is reproduced (noting that a stress
change is needed, in addition to a change in tangent modulus, to simulate the effect of changing
secant modulus). Figure 3.49 shows that the surface displacement is predominantly negative. The
small far-field uplift appears to be an effect of Poissons ratio.
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:42
step
7000
-9.333E+01 <x< 1.293E+03
-1.213E+03 <y< 1.733E+02
2.000
1.600
Linear Profile
Y-axis :
Y-disp
X-axis :
Distance
From ( 0.00E+00, 0.00E+00)
To ( 1.20E+03, 0.00E+00)
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
12
(10
02
Figure 3.48 Surface profile of vertical displacement with reduction in density of the excavated region only
3 - 82
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
21-May-04 17:51
step
7000
-9.333E+01 <x< 1.293E+03
-1.213E+03 <y< 1.733E+02
Linear Profile
Y-axis :
Y-disp
X-axis :
Distance
From ( 0.00E+00, 0.00E+00)
To ( 1.20E+03, 0.00E+00)
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
-4.500
10
12
(10
02
Figure 3.49 Surface profile of vertical displacement with reduction in stiffness of the excavated region only
It may be noted that the centerline displacements of Figures 3.48 and 3.49, when added, give a net
displacement almost equal to that of the original case, in which both effects are combined. The uplift
induced by the excavation of a cavern in an elastic material is reasonable and understandable, given
the effect of weight reduction noted above. However, in practical cases of tunnel excavation, uplift
is rarely observed. There may be several reasons, all of which can be accounted for in a numerical
model, if required. First, more realistic material behavior, such as plastic flow, anisotropy and
microfracturing, may cause the subsidence to be much greater than the uplift (which therefore is
unnoticed). Second, there may be an erroneous effect of an artificial lower model boundary. In
a uniform, elastic material, the uplift will increase continuously as the lower boundary is placed
further away from the upper surface, for a 2D plane-strain simulation. In most field situations, the
modulus of rock or soil increases with depth. By representing this correctly in the numerical model,
the effect of the artificial lower boundary may be minimized. Finally, if it is necessary to eliminate
the uplift effect completely, a set of forces that are exactly equal to just the forces that were exerted
by the weight of material removed (but not the forces due to non-gravity stresses) can be applied
to the excavation boundary.
3 - 83
3 - 84
Users Guide
hist sig1 i 1 j 1
hist sig2 i 1 j 1
hist szz i 1 j 1
hist pp i 1 j 1
def relax
if step < ncyc then
relax = 1.0 - (float(step) / float(ncyc))
else
relax = 0.0
endif
end
set ncyc=1000
app press 1.5e6 hist relax i=1
step 2000
plot hold pp fill inv bound
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
24-May-04 11:12
step
2000
-1.000E+00 <x< 2.000E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.000E+00
1.250
0.750
0.250
5E -1
-0.250
-0.750
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
Figure 3.50 Pore pressure distribution for instantaneous excavation of a circular tunnel
3 - 85
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
24-May-04 11:08
step
2000
-1.000E+00 <x< 2.000E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.000E+00
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
5E -1
-0.750
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
3 - 86
Users Guide
overcome by the structural response of the ring but, because of the large contrast in natural periods,
several thousand steps must be taken before this becomes evident. For Example 3.38, if a y-velocity
of 107 is applied suddenly to the top of the grid, there is an initial decrease in the load in the ydirection for the first 5000 steps, plus oscillations in the response from the impact. This is shown
in the load versus displacement plot in Figure 3.52 for a calculation of 100,000 steps.
If the velocity is applied by a ramp function, the impact response is reduced. A 20,000 step ramp in
velocity is applied to reach a target velocity of 106 . (See the FISH function ramp in Example 3.38.)
Even though the target velocity is higher than in the first case, the initial inertial response and the
superimposed oscillations are greatly reduced, as shown in Figure 3.53. A plot of the grid after
100,000 steps with the grid distortion magnified is shown in Figure 3.54.
Example 3.38 Minimizing inertial effects for applied loads
g 5 300
m e
pro den 2400 bu 2.18e10 sh 8.9e9
call donut.fis
set rmin .5 rmul=1.1 gratio=1.1
donut
fix x y i=6 j=221,231
fix x y i=6 j=75,77
def ramp
while_stepping
if step < ncut then
udapp = float(step) * udmax / float(ncut)
loop j (75,77)
yvel(6,j) = udapp
end_loop
end_if
end
def load
load=yforce(6,75)+yforce(6,76)+yforce(6,77)
end
set udmax=-1e-6 ncut=20000
hist unbal
hist load
hist yvel i 6 j 76
hist yd i 6 j 76
his nstep 50
set ncwrite=50
cyc 100000
plot hold hist 2 vs -4
plot hold bou grid mag fix
save ring.sav
3 - 87
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
24-May-04 11:44
step 100000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 6, 76)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
10
(10
-03
Figure 3.52 Vertical load versus displacement for impact load on ring
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:11
step 100000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 6, 76)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
(10
-03
Figure 3.53 Vertical load versus displacement for initial ramp in load on ring
3 - 88
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
BBB
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:11
step 100000
-7.333E-01 <x< 7.333E-01
-7.333E-01 <y< 7.333E-01
0.400
0.200
Boundary plot
0
2E -1
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
BBBBBBBBBBB
-0.600
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
Figure 3.54 FLAC model of thin ring after 100,000 steps with grid distortion
magnified
Note that although FLAC is inefficient for solving problems where there is a large contrast in system
period compared to single-zone period, large-strain and nonlinear responses can be calculated at
minimal additional computational effort. For example, the ring model in Example 3.38 can be run
under large-strain for nearly the same computation time as the small-strain calculation.
3.5.5 Modeling Time-Dependent Behavior
In static analysis mode, FLAC does not model time-dependent behavior. However, it is possible to
approximate certain types of time-dependent response of a material. In order to select an appropriate
modeling approach, it is important to understand the main mechanism for the time-dependence.
There are several possibilities: four types are discussed below.
1. The loads acting on a tunnel will be changed at the time support is installed,
as a function of the tunnel advancement. An important issue in the design
of supports is the amount of change in the tunnel load that occurs due to the
tunnel advancement before the support is installed. This is a three-dimensional
problem in which the rate of tunnel advancement affects the loads on the
supports.
2. The new boundaries introduced by an excavation may cause a change in the
groundwater flow and pressure distribution. This will change effective stresses.
3 - 89
Hence, the apparent material strengths will change during the time period associated with the groundwater readjustment, causing plastic flow in some cases.
Time-dependent strains may also be introduced directly by the groundwater
changes, as fluid is expelled from or introduced into void spaces.
3. The material may exhibit progressive micro-fracturing due to the change in
stress experienced by every element. For example, the mechanism of stress
corrosion is related to stress level, moisture content and temperature. Strengths
and moduli are reduced as a function of these variables and time. Stress
corrosion is usually exhibited by brittle rock.
4. The material may exhibit true creep behavior. Materials such as salt and some
soils and soft rocks flow under deviatoric stresses. In these cases, the strength
and moduli are typically unaffected, but deformation continues to take place
until the deviatoric stress in every element is below some threshold. The rate
of flow also depends on temperature.
This list is not exhaustive, but represents common mechanisms for time-dependence in geoengineering. Each of these mechanisms requires a different modeling approach. The respective
approaches are discussed below.
1. The progressive changes in the geometry of a tunnel excavation can be accounted for directly with a three-dimensional simulation. In a two-dimensional
analysis, one way to model the change of tunnel loads is to decrease the elastic
moduli of the tunnel core material, equilibrate the model, install the support
and then remove the core. This approach is often taken with finite element
codes. However, an important problem is estimating how much to reduce the
moduli, and how to relate the reduction to the advancement of the tunnel.
An alternative approach, more suited to FLAC, is based on the relation of the
closure of the unsupported tunnel to the distance to the face. (An example illustrating this relation is given in Section 8 in the Examples volume.) Tunnel
closure can also be related to the traction forces acting on the tunnel periphery,
via a ground reaction curve. Change in the tunnel load as a function of the
distance to an advancing tunnel face can then be specified in terms of tractions
defined by a ground reaction curve and an expression relating closure to distance to the tunnel face. An example of this modeling approach is given in
Section 12 in the Examples volume.
2. The effects of fluid changes on a time-independent material are captured by a
fully coupled simulation in which groundwater flow is modeled simultaneously
with the deformation of the solid material. Recommendations for modeling
fully coupled analyses are provided in Section 1.8.2.4 in Fluid-Mechanical
Interaction.
3. There is no explicit constitutive model in FLAC that incorporates stress corrosion. However, the effects may be simulated by changing the strength and
moduli in each element according to its stress level (and its likely moisture
3 - 90
Users Guide
content and temperature, if known). Note that FLAC operates with tangent
moduli, so if evidence suggests that secant moduli change with time, then the
element stresses must also be changed, as discussed in Section 3.5.2. Although
time is not an explicit variable, a FISH variable can be defined that represents
time, and properties can be changed in relation to this variable. For each increment in this pseudo time, the model should be solved to an equilibrium
state.
4. True creep behavior can be reproduced by using a creep model for the material.
This can include temperature as well as stress dependency. Also, plastic failure
can be combined with creep behavior. The various creep models in FLAC are
described in Section 2 in Optional Features.
Before embarking on one or more of the approaches described above, it is important to be sure about
the exact nature of the time-dependence, because the results predicted by each mechanism may be
very different. For example, during a creep test on a rock core, several unload/reload cycles
during the test can indicate whether the modulus actually changes (e.g., as mechanism number 3),
or if the time-dependent displacement is due to viscous effects (e.g., as mechanism number 4). Note
that the term plastic flow does not imply time-dependence. The flow calculated by FLAC s
plasticity models occurs almost instantaneously (and is governed by inertial response) compared to
the flow calculated by its creep models.
3 - 91
3 - 92
Users Guide
that exhibits a well-defined strength anisotropy due to embedded planes of weakness. The strainsoftening model is based upon the Mohr-Coulomb model, but is appropriate for materials that show
a degradation or increase in shear strength when loaded beyond the initial failure limit. The bilinear
strain-hardening/softening ubiquitous-joint model is a generalization of the ubiquitous-joint model
that allows the strength properties for the matrix and the joint to harden or soften. The double-yield
model is an extension of the strain-softening model to simulate irreversible compaction as well
as shear yielding. The modified Cam-clay model accounts for the influence of volume change on
deformability and on resistance to failure. The Hoek-Brown model is an empirical relation that is
a nonlinear failure surface representing the strength limit for isotropic intact rock and rock masses.
This model also includes a plasticity flow rule that varies as a function of the confining stress level.
The material models in FLAC are primarily intended for applications related to geotechnical engineering e.g., underground construction, mining, slope stability, foundations, earth and rock-fill
dams. When selecting a constitutive model for a particular engineering analysis, the following two
considerations should be kept in mind.
1. What are the known characteristics of the material being modeled?
2. What is the intended application of the model analysis?
Table 3.2 presents a summary of the FLAC models along with examples of representative materials
and possible applications of the models. The Mohr-Coulomb model is applicable for most general
engineering studies. Also, Mohr-Coulomb parameters for cohesion and friction angle are usually
more readily available than other properties for geo-engineering materials. The ubiquitous-joint,
strain-softening, bilinear strain-softening/ubiquitous-joint, and double-yield plasticity models are
actually variations of the Mohr-Coulomb model. These models will produce results identical to
those for Mohr-Coulomb if the additional material parameters are set to high values. The DruckerPrager model is a simpler failure criterion than Mohr-Coulomb, but it is not generally suitable for
representing failure of geologic materials. It is provided mainly to allow comparison of FLAC to
other numerical programs that have the Drucker-Prager model, but not the Mohr-Coulomb model.
Note that, at zero friction, the Mohr-Coulomb model degenerates to the Tresca model, while the
Drucker-Prager model degenerates to the von Mises model.
The Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb models are the most computationally efficient plasticity
models; the other plasticity models require increased memory and additional time for calculation.
For example, plastic strain is not calculated directly in the Mohr-Coulomb model (see Section 2 in
Theory and Background). If plastic strain is required, the strain-softening, bilinear ubiquitousjoint or double-yield model must be used. These three models are primarily intended for applications
in which the post-failure response is important e.g., yielding pillars, caving or backfilling studies.
The tensile failure criterion is identical in the Mohr-Coulomb, ubiquitous-joint, strain-softening,
bilinear strain-softening/ubiquitous-joint and double-yield plasticity models. This criterion defines
a tensile strength separately from shear strength, and an associated flow rule for the onset of tensile
failure. For the Mohr-Coulomb and ubiquitous-joint models, the value assigned to the tensile
strength is set to zero (instantaneous softening) when tensile failure occurs. Tensile softening can
be controlled with the strain-hardening/softening, bilinear ubiquitous-joint or double-yield model.
(See Section 3.7.4.) Note that no record is made of notional voids that may open after tensile failure
3 - 93
and tensile strain; if the strain rate becomes compressive, all models start to take compressive load
immediately.
The double-yield and modified Cam-clay models both take into account the influence of volumetric
change on material deformability and failure characteristics. In both models, tangential bulk and
shear moduli are functions of plastic volumetric deformation.
The differences between the two models are summarized as follows.
In the Cam-clay model:
1. The elastic deformation is nonlinear, with the elastic moduli depending on mean stress.
2. Shear failure is affected by the occurrence of plastic volumetric deformation; the material
can harden or soften, depending on the degree of preconsolidation.
3. As shear loading increases, the material evolves toward a critical state at which unlimited
shear strain occurs with no accompanying change in specific volume or stress.
4. There is no resistance to tensile mean stress.
In the double-yield model:
1. Elastic moduli remain constant during elastic loading and unloading.
2. Shear and tensile failure are not coupled to plastic volumetric change due to volumetric
yielding. The shear yield function corresponds to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, and the
tensile yield is evaluated based on a tensile strength.
3. Material hardening or softening, upon shear or tensile failure, is defined by tables relating
friction angle and cohesion to plastic shear strain, and tensile strength to plastic tensile
strain.
4. The cap pressure is not influenced by the amount of shear or tensile plastic deformation.
5. A tensile strength limit and tensile softening can be defined.
The double-yield model was initially developed to represent the behavior of mine backfill material,
for which preconsolidation pressures are low. The modified Cam-clay model is more applicable
to soils such as soft clays for which preconsolidation pressures can have a significant effect on
material behavior.
The Hoek-Brown model combines the generalized Hoek-Brown criterion with a plasticity flow
rule that varies as a function of the confining stress level. At low confining stress, the volumetric
expansion at yield is high, associated with axial splitting and wedging effects. At high confining
stress, the material approaches a non-dilatant condition.
3 - 94
Table 3.2
Users Guide
Model
Representative Material
Example Application
null
void
elastic
transversely isotropic
elastic
Drucker-Prager
plasticity
Mohr-Coulomb
plasticity
strain-hardening /
softening MohrCoulomb
ubiquitous-joint
bilinear strainhardening/softening
ubiquitous-joint
double-yield
modified Cam-clay
Hoek-Brown
plasticity
3 - 95
The horizontal stress-displacement response is monitored at the top, middle and bottom of the grid.
The results shown in Figure 3.55 are obtained from the command
plot hist -2 -3 -4 vs 1
3 - 96
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:27
step 15000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 1)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 5)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 10)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 1)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
(10
-04
3 - 97
The horizontal stress-displacement response is monitored again, as shown in Figure 3.56. This test
produces distinct peak and residual failure stress levels.
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:29
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 1)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 5)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 10)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 1)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-04
3 - 98
Users Guide
3 - 99
(3.10)
to Example 3.39 before stepping. The weaker response is seen by comparing Figure 3.57 to
Figure 3.55. Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction contains a more comprehensive discussion
on pore fluid.
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:33
step 15000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 1)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 5)
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 6, 10)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 1)
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
12
14
(10
-04
3 - 100
Users Guide
3 - 101
K=
E
3(1 2)
(3.11)
G=
E
2(1 + )
Eq. (3.11) should not be used blindly when is near 0.5, since the computed value of K will be
unrealistically high and convergence to the solution will be very slow. It is better to fix the value
of K at its known physical value (estimated from an isotropic compaction test or from the p-wave
speed) and then compute G from K and .
Some typical values for elastic constants are summarized in Table 3.3 for selected rocks, and
Table 3.4 for selected soils.
K (GPa)
G (GPa)
sandstone
19.3
0.38
26.8
7.0
siltstone
26.3
0.22
15.6
10.8
Dry Density
(kg/m3 )
limestone
2090
28.5
0.29
22.6
11.1
shale
2210 - 2570
11.1
0.29
8.8
4.3
marble
2700
55.8
0.25
37.2
22.3
73.8
0.22
43.9
30.2
granite
Models that include groundwater flow require the bulk modulus of the water, Kw . The physical
value of Kw is 2 GPa for pure water at room temperature, but the value selected should depend on the
purpose of the analysis. Section 1.8.2.3 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction provides a recommended
procedure for adjusting Kw and selecting the appropriate modeling approach, depending upon the
characteristics of the groundwater analysis.
The fluid bulk modulus will also affect the rate of convergence for a model with no flow but with
mechanical generation of pore pressure (see Section 1.8.5 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction). If
Kw is given a value comparable with the mechanical moduli, pore pressures will be generated as
a result of mechanical deformations. If Kw is much greater than K, then convergence will be
slow, but often it is possible to reduce Kw without significantly affecting the behavior. In real
soils, for example, pore water will contain some dissolved air, which substantially reduces its
3 - 102
Users Guide
Elastic
Modulus
Poissons
Ratio
(kg/m3 )
E (MPa)
1470
10 - 26
0.2 - 0.4
1840
34 - 69
0.3 - 0.45
1630
1940
stiff clay
1730
6 - 14
0.2 - 0.5
soft clay
1170 - 1490
2-3
0.15 - 0.25
loess
1380
610 - 820
glacial till
2150
0.2 - 0.4
apparent bulk modulus. Recommendations for reducing Kw are summarized in Section 1.8.2.3 in
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
In the case of no flow, the undrained saturated bulk modulus is
Ku = K +
Kw
n
(3.12)
3Ku 2G
2(3Ku + G)
(3.13)
These values should be compared to the drained constants K and to evaluate the effect on the
rate of convergence. It is important to remember that drained properties are used for coupled,
mechanical fluid-flow calculations in FLAC. See Section 1.9.4 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
for a discussion on the use of drained and undrained properties for an undrained analysis.
For the special case of elastic anisotropy, the transversely isotropic, elastic model requires five
elastic constants: Ex , Ey , yx , zx and Gxy . These constants are defined in Section 2 in Theory
and Background. Transversely isotropic elastic behavior is commonly associated with uniformly
jointed or bedded rock. Several investigators have developed expressions for the elastic constants in
terms of intrinsic isotropic elastic properties and joint stiffness and spacing parameters. Section 4.4.3
3 - 103
in Theory and Background presents a discussion on these expressions and provides references for
relevant publications. A short summary of typical values for anisotropic rocks is given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 Selected elastic constants (laboratoryscale) for anisotropic rocks [Batugin and
Nirenburg (1972)]
Rock
Ex (GPa)
Ey (GPa)
yx
zx
Gxy (GPa)
siltstone
sandstone
limestone
gray granite
marble
sandy shale
43.0
15.7
39.8
66.8
68.6
10.7
40.0
9.6
36.0
49.5
50.2
5.2
0.28
0.28
0.18
0.17
0.06
0.20
0.17
0.21
0.25
0.21
0.22
0.41
17.0
5.2
14.5
25.3
26.6
1.2
(3.14)
Shear yield is detected if f s < 0. The two strength constants and c are conventionally derived
from laboratory triaxial tests.
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion loses its physical validity when the normal stress becomes tensile but,
for simplicity, the surface is extended into the tensile region to the point at which 3 equals the
uniaxial tensile strength, t . The minor principal stress can never exceed the tensile strength
i.e.,
f t = 3 t
(3.15)
3 - 104
Users Guide
Tensile yield is detected if f t > 0. Tensile strength for rock and concrete is usually derived from
a Brazilian (or indirect tensile) test. Note that the tensile strength cannot exceed the value of 3
corresponding to the apex limit for the Mohr-Coulomb relation. This maximum value is given by
t
=
max
c
tan
(3.16)
Typical values of cohesion, friction angle and tensile strength for a representative set of rock
specimens are listed in Table 3.6. Cohesion and friction angle values for soil specimens are given
in Table 3.7. Strength is often described in terms of the unconfined compressive strength, qu . The
relation between qu and cohesion, c, and friction angle, , is given by
qu = 2 c tan(45 + /2)
(3.17)
Cohesion
(MPa)
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Berea sandstone
27.8
27.2
1.17
Repetto siltstone
32.1
34.7
Muddy shale
14.4
38.4
Sioux quartzite
48.0
70.6
Indiana limestone
42.0
6.72
1.58
51.0
55.1
31.0
66.2
13.1
3 - 105
Friction Angle
Peak
Residual
(kPa)
(degrees)
(degrees)
gravel
34
32
35
32
1.0
35
32
3.0
28
22
32
30
34
30
well-graded sand
33
32
low-plasticity silt
2.0
28
25
3.0
25
22
low-plasticity clay
6.0
24
20
medium-plasticity clay
8.0
20
10
high-plasticity clay
10.0
17
7.0
20
15
Drucker-Prager strength parameters can be estimated from cohesion and friction angle properties.
For example, assuming that the Drucker-Prager failure envelope circumscribes the Mohr-Coulomb
envelope, the Drucker-Prager parameters q and k are related to and c by:
q =
sin
(3.18)
6
c cos
k =
3(3 sin )
(3.19)
3(3 sin )
For further explanation on the relations between parameters, see Section 2 in Theory and Background.
The ubiquitous-joint model also requires strength properties for the planes of weakness. Joint properties for the interface model in FLAC are discussed in Section 4.4.3 in Theory and Background.
3 - 106
Users Guide
The properties for joint cohesion and friction angle also apply for the ubiquitous-joint model. Refer
to Section 7 in the Verifications volume for an example of the use of these two models along with
the prescription of joint properties.
3.7.4 Post-Failure Properties
In many instances, particularly in mining engineering, the response of a material after the onset
of failure is an important factor in the engineering design. Consequently, the post-failure behavior
must be simulated in the material model. In FLAC, this is accomplished with properties which
define four types of post-failure response:
(1) shear dilatancy;
(2) shear hardening/softening;
(3) volumetric hardening/softening; and
(4) tensile softening.
These properties are only activated after the onset of failure, as defined by the Mohr-Coulomb
relation. Shear dilatancy is assigned for the Mohr-Coulomb, ubiquitous-joint, double-yield, strainhardening/softening and bilinear ubiquitous-joint models. Hardening/softening parameters are
assigned for the strain-hardening/softening, bilinear ubiquitous-joint and double-yield models. Instantaneous tensile softening (the tensile strength is set to zero when tensile failure occurs) is
prescribed in the Mohr-Coulomb and ubiquitous-joint models.
3.7.4.1 Shear Dilatancy
Shear dilatancy, or dilatancy, is the change in volume that occurs with shear distortion of a material.
Dilatancy is characterized by a dilation angle, , which is related to the ratio of plastic volume
change to plastic shear strain. This angle can be specified in the Mohr-Coulomb, ubiquitousjoint, strain-hardening/softening, bilinear ubiquitous-joint and double-yield plasticity models. The
dilation angle is typically determined from triaxial tests or shear box tests. For example, the
idealized relation for dilatancy, based upon the Mohr-Coulomb failure surface, is depicted for a
triaxial test in Figure 3.58. The dilation angle is found from the plot of volumetric strain versus
axial strain. Note that the initial slope for this plot corresponds to the elastic regime, while the slope
used to measure the dilation angle corresponds to the plastic regime.
3 - 107
Stress Difference
plastic
Volumetric Strain
elastic
Figure 3.58 Idealized relation for dilation angle, , from triaxial test results
[Vermeer and de Borst (1984)]
For soils, rocks and concrete, the dilation angle is generally significantly smaller than the friction
angle of the material. Vermeer and de Borst (1984) report the following typical values for :
3 - 108
Users Guide
Note that FLAC does not prevent the user from prescribing a dilation angle greater than the friction
angle. However, such a prescription can cause energy to be generated by a model and should be
avoided in almost all cases.
3.7.4.2 Shear Hardening/Softening
The initiation of material hardening or softening is commonly a gradual process once plastic yield
begins. At failure, deformation becomes more and more inelastic as a result of micro-cracking in
concrete and rock and particle sliding in soil. This also leads to degradation of strength in these
materials and the initiation of shear bands. These phenomena, related to localization, are discussed
further in Section 3.10.3.
In FLAC, shear hardening and softening are simulated by making Mohr-Coulomb properties (cohesion and friction, along with dilation) functions of plastic strain (see Section 2 in Theory and
Background). These functions are included in the strain-softening and double-yield models and
can be specified either by using the TABLE command or via a FISH function.
Hardening and softening parameters must be calibrated for each specific analysis and zone size, with
values that are generally back-calculated from results of laboratory triaxial tests. This is usually
an iterative process. Investigators have developed expressions for hardening and softening; for
example, Vermeer and de Borst (1984) propose the frictional hardening relation:
sin m
ep ef
= 2
sin
ep + ef
for ep ef
(3.20)
sin m = sin
where:
m
ep
ef
for ep > ef
Cundall (1989) incorporates this relation into FLAC to study localization in a frictional material.
This is accomplished by approximating the function with a table relating friction angle to plastic
strain (i.e., TABLE accessed from PROP ftable). Alternatively, the relation can be implemented with
a FISH function. This approach is demonstrated in Example 3.41 for a biaxial test sample loaded
with rigid, frictionless platens.
3 - 109
3 - 110
Users Guide
hist nstep 20
hist unbal
hist load
hist sdiff
hist vstrain
hist f1
hist ep
def sstep
hard
command
print k
step 10
end_command
end
def ssolve
loop k (1,nss)
sstep
end_loop
end
set echo off mess off
set nss=700
ssolve
plot hold his 3 vs 4
ret
The force-displacement response for this test is shown in Figure 3.59. The friction angle is adjusted
in the FISH function hard. Note that this adjustment is made every 10 calculation steps. Material
property adjustment with FISH is described further in Section 3.7.8. Alternatively, the FISH version
of the Mohr-Coulomb model MOHR.FIS (see Section 3 in the FISH volume) may be modified
so that the friction angle changes continuously with straining. This approach is more efficient than
that which is illustrated in Example 3.39. The use of a look-up table in the strain-softening model
is the most efficient.
Numerical testing conditions can influence the model response for shear-hardening/softening behavior. The rate of loading can introduce inertial effects; this can be controlled with a servo-control
function (see the FISH SERVO.FIS function in Section 3 in the FISH volume). The results are
also grid-dependent. Thus, it is important to evaluate the model behavior for differing zone size
and grid orientation whenever performing an analysis involving shear hardening or softening (see
Sections 3.2 and 3.10.1).
3 - 111
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:36
step
7000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sdiff
(FISH)
X-axis :
vstrain
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-03
3 - 112
Users Guide
Clark (1991) performed a series of uniaxial tests on mine backfill and proposed a hardening rule
for the volumetric yield cap. This can be written in a general form:
cp = W
where: cp
epv
H epv
+ cpo
(3.21)
cpo
epv
H, W, = parameters.
The experimental results of the uniaxial strain test shown in Figure 5.2 in the Examples volume
are best fit, as shown in Example 3.42, for H = 0.28, W = 1.15 107 and = 1.5. The relation
in this case is
cp = 1.15 10
epv
0.28 epv
1.5
+ 104
A simple FLAC model can be used to find the best fit, as shown in Example 3.42.
Example 3.42 Best-fit uniaxial strain test results with the double-yield model
g 2 2
m dy
def load
sum2=0.0
loop i (1,igp)
sum2=sum2+yforce(i,jgp)
end_loop
load=sum2/(x(igp,jgp)-x(1,jgp))
end
def vstrain
vst=-ydisp(1,jgp)/y(1,jgp)
if vst<0.0 then
vst=0.0
end_if
vstrain=vst
end
def cap
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
cp=1.15e7*(ev_plastic(i,j)/(0.28-ev_plastic(i,j)))1.5+1e4
(3.22)
3 - 113
cap_pressure(i,j)=cp
end_loop
end_loop
cap1=cap_pressure(1,1)
evp1=ev_plastic(1,1)
end
pro den 1000 she 600e6 bul 450e6 fric 40 dil 5 cap_pres 1e4
fix x i 1
fix x i 3
fix y j 1
fix y j 3
initial yv -2e-4 j 3
hist nstep 20
hist unbal
hist load
hist vstrain
hist cap1
hist evp1
def sstep
cap
command
print k
step 10
end_command
end
def ssolve
loop k (1,nss)
sstep
end_loop
end
set echo off mess off
set nss=200
ssolve
plot hold his 2 vs 3
ret
This model was repeated with different values for H, W and until a best-fit was made with the
experimental data. The stress-strain curve shown in Figure 3.60 can be compared to the laboratory
results shown in Figure 5.2 in the Examples volume.
3 - 114
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:38
step
2000
4.500
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
X-axis :
vstrain
(FISH)
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-02
Figure 3.60 Stress-strain curve for simple uniaxial-strain test with doubleyield model
The modified Cam-clay model is defined by initial elastic moduli plus parameters that prescribe the
nonlinear elasticity and hardening/softening behavior. The properties are:
m
pc
p1
v0
v
The definition of these properties can be found in soil mechanics texts (e.g., Wood 1990). Section 2.4.7.8 in Theory and Background describes the procedures for determining these properties
from laboratory tests. It is recommended that single zone tests be conducted with FLAC to exercise
the modified Cam-clay model and verify whether the choice of model properties is adequate.
The following data file in Example 3.43 exercises the Cam-clay model for a normally consolidated
material subjected to several load-unload excursions in an isotropic compression test. The results
are shown in Figures 3.61, 3.62 and 3.63.
3 - 115
3 - 116
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:39
step 11500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sp
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
2.400
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-03
3 - 117
JOB TITLE : .
2.950
2.900
2.850
2.800
2.750
2.700
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:39
step 11500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
mk
(FISH)
mg
1.400
1.200
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-03
3 - 118
Users Guide
3 - 119
The plot of axial stress versus axial displacement (Figure 3.64) shows that the average axial stress
through the center of the model drops to zero. The model decreases in height until the onset of tensile
failure, then expands as tensile softening occurs (see Figure 3.65). The brittleness of the tensile
softening can be controlled by the plastic tensile strain function, by using the strain-softening model
instead of the Mohr-Coulomb model. As with the shear-hardening/softening model, the tensilesoftening model must be calibrated for each specific problem and grid size, since the results will
be grid-dependent.
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:47
step
2500
1.600
1.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ax_str
(FISH)
X-axis :
ex
(FISH)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
12
14
16
(10
-05
Figure 3.64 Axial stress versus axial strain for tensile test of tension softening
material
Note that no record of the tensile strain is made; if the strain rate is reversed and becomes compressive, the model will take compressive load immediately.
3 - 120
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
-05
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:47
step
2500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ey
(FISH)
X-axis :
ex
(FISH)
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
10
12
14
16
(10
-05
Figure 3.65 Orthogonal strain versus axial strain for tensile test of tension
softening material
3 - 121
Several empirical approaches have been proposed to derive field-scale properties. Some of the more
commonly accepted methods are discussed.
Deformability of a rock mass is generally defined by a modulus of deformation, Em . If the rock
mass contains a set of relatively parallel, continuous joints with uniform spacing, the value for
Em can be estimated by treating the rock mass as an equivalent transversely isotropic continuum.
The relations in Section 4.4.3 in Theory and Background can then be used to estimate Em in the
direction normal to the joint set. Deformation moduli can also be estimated for cases involving
more than one set of discontinuities. The references described in Section 4.4.3 in Theory and
Background provide solutions for multiple joint sets.
In practice, the rock mass structure is often much too irregular, or sufficient data are not available, to
use the above approach. It is common to determine Em from a force-displacement curve obtained
from an in-situ compression test. Such tests include plate-bearing tests, flatjack tests and dilatometer
tests.
Bieniawski (1978) developed an empirical relation for Em based upon field test results at sites
throughout the world. The relation is based upon the rock mass rating (RMR). For rocks with a
rating higher than 55, the test data can be approximately fit to
Em = 2 (RMR) 100
(3.23)
RMR10
40
(3.24)
References by Goodman (1980) and Brady and Brown (1985) provide additional discussion on
these methods.
The most commonly accepted approach to estimate rock mass strength is that proposed by Hoek
and Brown (1980). They developed the empirical rock mass strength criterion:
1s = 3 + (mc 3 + sc2 )1/2
where:
(3.25)
1s
3 - 122
Users Guide
(3.26)
1
c [m (m2 + 4s)1/2 ]
2
(3.27)
Table 3.9, from Hoek and Brown (1988), presents typical values for m and s for undisturbed and
disturbed rock masses.
The Hoek-Brown criterion is provided as a built-in constitutive model in FLAC and is combined
with a plasticity flow rule that varies as a function of the confining stress level. See Section 2.4.8
in Theory and Background for details. The model is verified for the problem of failure around a
circular excavation. See Section 4 in the Verifications volume.
It is also possible to estimate Mohr-Coulomb friction angle and cohesion from the Hoek-Brown
criterion (see, for example, Hoek 1990). Formulas relating and c to m and s have been incorporated
into a FISH function. (See Section 3 in the FISH volume.)
Typical values for Hoek-Brown rock-mass strength parameters [adapted from Hoek
and Brown (1988)]
7.00
10.00
15.00
17.00
from discontinuities
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
7.00
10.00
15.00
17.00
25.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
m
s
m
s
2.40
0.082
4.10
0.189
3.43
0.082
5.85
0.189
5.14
0.082
8.78
0.189
5.82
0.082
9.95
0.189
8.56
0.082
14.63
0.189
m
s
m
s
0.575
0.00293
2.006
0.0205
0.821
0.00293
2.865
0.0205
1.231
0.00293
4.298
0.0205
1.395
0.00293
4.871
0.0205
2.052
0.00293
7.163
0.0205
m
s
m
s
0.128
0.00009
0.947
0.00198
0.183
0.00009
1.353
0.00198
0.275
0.00009
2.03
0.00198
0.311
0.00009
2.301
0.00198
0.458
0.00009
3.383
0.00198
m
s
m
s
0.029
0.000003
0.447
0.00019
0.041
0.000003
0.639
0.00019
0.061
0.000003
0.959
0.00019
0.069
0.000003
1.087
0.00019
0.102
0.000003
1.598
0.00019
m
s
m
s
0.007
0.0000001
0.219
0.00002
0.01
0.0000001
0.313
0.00002
0.015
0.0000001
0.469
0.00002
0.017
0.0000001
0.532
0.00002
0.025
0.0000001
0.782
0.00002
COARSE-GRAINED POLYMINERALLIC
IGNEOUS & METAMORPHIC CRYSTALLINE
ROCKS amphibolite, gabbro gneiss, granite,
norite, quartz-diorite
Table 3.9
3 - 123
3 - 124
Users Guide
A FISH function can also be developed to specify material inhomogeneity. The data file in Example 3.45 specifies elastic moduli which vary throughout the grid in a part-random, part-periodic
fashion. Figure 3.66 shows the variation of shear modulus resulting from this function. The modulus values are given by a sum of 50 spatial sine functions with quasi-random periods and phases.
This type of approach produces property fluctuations that are independent of the zone sizes.
Example 3.45 Spatial variation of elastic moduli
g 20 60
m e
gen 0 0 0 15 5 15 5 0
prop dens 1000
def cover
loop n (1,2000)
junk = urand
end_loop
top
= jgp
right = igp
s_min = 0.2e8
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
shear_mod(i,j) = 1.5e8
end_loop
end_loop
loop n (1,50)
x0
= urand * 5.0
y0
= urand * 15.0
L_lamb = L_min + urand * (L_max - L_min)
fac
= 2.0 * pi / L_lamb
3 - 125
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
xr = (x(i,j)+x(i+1,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)) / 4.0
yr = (y(i,j)+y(i+1,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)) / 4.0
z = sqrt((x0-xr)2 + (y0-yr)2)
shear_mod(i,j) = shear_mod(i,j) + amp * sin (fac * z)
end_loop
end_loop
end_loop
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
shear_mod(i,j) = max (shear_mod(i,j),s_min)
bulk_mod(i,j) = shear_mod(i,j) * 1.5
end_loop
end_loop
end
set L_min=1.5 L_max=5.0 amp=1e7
cover
plot hold bou shear fill
ret
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.700
LEGEND
24-May-04 12:49
step
0
-7.500E+00 <x< 1.250E+01
-2.500E+00 <y< 1.750E+01
1.300
1.100
Boundary plot
0
0.900
5E 0
shear_mod
2.50E+07
5.00E+07
7.50E+07
1.00E+08
1.25E+08
1.50E+08
1.75E+08
2.00E+08
2.25E+08
2.50E+08
0.700
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
0.200
(*10^1)
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
3 - 126
Users Guide
(3.28)
Pa
Rf
Duncan et al. (1980) provide typical values for the model parameters for various soils and also
describe the limiting conditions for the moduli. The parameters in Table 3.10 are selected to
demonstrate the implementation of the Duncan and Chang model in FLAC.
3 - 127
Table 3.10 Hyperbolic soil parameters selected from Duncan et al. (1980)
Silty Clayey Sand (SM-SC)
modulus number (K)
modulus exponent (n)
bulk modulus number (Kb )
bulk modulus exponent (m)
unloading-reloading modulus number (Kur )
failure ratio (Rf )
cohesion
friction angle
mass density
atmospheric pressure
700
0.37
280
0.19
1820
0.80
0.31 tons/ft2
33
4.5 slugs/ft3
1.058 tons/ft2
The units for stress are tons/ft2 for this set of properties.
In order to implement a stress-dependent material property (such as the hyperbolic soil model) with
FISH, certain rules should be followed.*
1. The property adjustment should not be made every calculation step. The
function can be very slow in execution because it involves calculations for
every zone. It is necessary to control the step interval when the FISH function
is to be called.
2. It is critical that the adjustment to properties not produce a condition which is
nonphysical e.g., the adjustment to bulk and shear moduli must not produce
a Poissons ratio greater than 0.5.
3. It is also important that the adjustment not produce a condition which becomes
numerically unstable (see Section 1.3.5 in Theory and Background).
* Note that here we are simply using FISH to adjust the properties of a built-in model. It is also
possible to write a completely new constitutive model in FISH (see MDUNCAN.FIS in Section 3
in the FISH volume).
3 - 128
Users Guide
These conditions are followed when implementing the hyperbolic soil model with the FISH function
DUNCAN.FIS, listed in Example 3.46.
Example 3.46 Duncan and Chang hyperbolic soil model DUNCAN.FIS
def duncan
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
temp1=-0.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+0.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
s3=min(temp1-temp2,-szz(i,j))
if s3<0 then
s3=0.0
end_if
s1=max(temp1+temp2,-szz(i,j))
sl=.5*(s1-s3)*(1-sin(fri*degrad))
sl=sl/(coh*cos(fri*degrad)+s3*sin(fri*degrad))
s_s=sl*sqrt(sqrt((s3/pat)))
if s_s<.999*ex_1(i,j) then
ela=kur*pat*(s3/pat)nd
ns=nsu
else
ela=(1-rf*sl)2*m_k*pat*(s3/pat)nd
ns=nsl
end_if
ex_1(i,j)=max(ex_1(i,j),s\_s)
ssm=ex_1(1,1)
bm=kb*pat*(s3/pat)md
bm=min(bm,17.0*ela)
bm=max(bm,ela/3.0)
bulk_mod(i,j)=bm
nu=.5-ela/(6.0*bm)
shear_mod(i,j)=0.5*ela/(1.0+nu)
end_loop
end_loop
end
def supstep
duncan
if ns=0 then
ns=1
end_if
command
step ns
print kk
end_command
3 - 129
end
def supsolve
loop kk(1,nsups)
supstep
end_loop
end
A separate function (supstep) is used to control the step interval when the parameter adjustment
is made (function duncan). The interval function is then invoked for a prescribed number of
super steps with the function supsolve.
A simple compression test is run with FLAC to exercise this model. The model is run through
a loading-unloading-reloading cycle to evaluate the effect of the stress-dependent modulus. The
results are shown in the stress-strain plot in Figure 3.67.
Example 3.47 Compression test with Duncan and Chang model
config axi extra 1
g 5 20
mo el
gen 0 0 0 1 .25 1 .25 0
pro den 0.00202
fix y j 1
fix y j 21
ini yv -1e-7 j 21
ini yv 1e-7 j 1
ini sxx -2 syy -2 szz -2
app pres 2 i 6
ca duncan.fis
def s1_s3
_area=pi*x(igp,jgp)2
sum=yforce(1,jgp)*x(2,jgp)*0.25
loop i (2,igp)
sum=sum+yforce(i,jgp)*x(i,jgp)
end_loop
sigmav=2*pi*sum/_area
s1_s3=sigmav-2.0
s1_s3_ult=7.4076
trans_s1_s3=ev/(sigmav-2.0)
end
def ev
ev=(ydisp(3,1)-ydisp(3,21))/(y(3,21)-y(3,1))
end
hist nstep 20
hist s1_s3
3 - 130
Users Guide
hist s1_s3_ult
hist trans_s1_s3
hist ev
hist ela
hist unbal
hist s_s
hist syy i 3 j 10
set pat=1.0584 m_k=700 nd=0.37 rf=0.80 kur=1820 kb=280 md=0.19
set coh=0.31 fri=33
set nsl=10 nsu=1 nsups=4000
supsolve
ini yvel mul -1
supsolve
ini yvel mul -1
set nsups 6000
supsolve
save duncan.sav
JOB TITLE : .
7.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
s1_s3
(FISH)
6.000
s1_s3_ult
(FISH)
X-axis :
ev
(FISH)
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
(10
-03
3 - 131
3 - 132
Users Guide
3 - 133
not change sign, this indicates that there is a significant uniform motion, and
combined damping may be more appropriate.
6. Check Model Response
FLAC shows how a similar physical system would behave. Make frequent
simple tests to verify that you are doing what you think you are doing. For
example, if a loading condition and geometry are symmetrical, make sure that
the response is symmetrical. After making a change in the model, execute a
few calculation steps (say, 5 or 10) to verify that the initial response is of the
correct sign and in the correct location. Do back-of-the-envelope estimates of
the expected order of magnitude of stress or displacements and compare to the
FLAC output.
If you apply a violent shock to the model, you will get a violent response. If
you do nonphysically reasonable things to the model, you must expect strange
results. If you get unexpected results at a given stage of an analysis, review
the steps you followed up to this stage.
Critically examine the output before proceeding with the model simulation.
If, for example, everything appears reasonable except for large velocities in
one corner zone, do not go on until you understand the reason. In this case,
you may not have fixed a boundary gridpoint properly.
7. Initializing Variables
It is common practice to initialize the displacements of the gridpoints to zero
between runs to aid in the interpretation of a simulation in which many different
excavation stages are performed. This can be done because the code does not
require the displacements in the calculation sequence they are determined
from the velocities of the gridpoints as a convenience to the user.
Initialization of the velocities, however, is a different matter. If the velocities
of gridpoints are fixed at a constant value, they will continue to have this
value until set otherwise. Therefore, do not initialize the velocities of the
grid to zero simply to clear them this will affect the simulation results.
Sometimes, however, it is useful to set velocities to zero for example, to
remove all kinetic energy.
8. Minimizing Transient Effects on Static Analysis
For sequential static analyses, it is often important to approach the solution at
various stages gradually i.e., make the solution more static by minimizing
the effects of transient waves when problem conditions are changed suddenly.*
There are two ways to make a FLAC solution more static.
* This is not always the case. Path-dependency of a changing nonlinear system can be important.
See the discussion in Section 3.10.3.
3 - 134
Users Guide
sxx=-30e6
(var=0,
10e6)
This will cause the xx-stress to vary from 30 106 at the bottom of the
grid, to 20 106 at the top of the grid. Because the i,j-range is not given,
the variation applies to the entire grid. The x-variation is set to zero in this
example.
11. Determining Collapse Loads
In order to determine a collapse load, it often is better to use strain-controlled,
rather than stress-controlled, boundary conditions i.e., apply a constant
velocity and measure the reaction forces rather than apply forces and measure
displacements. A system that collapses becomes difficult to control as the
3 - 135
applied load approaches the collapse load. This is true of a real system as well
as a model system. (See Section 5 in the Examples volume.)
12. Determining Factor of Safety
Factor of Safety can be determined in FLAC for any selected parameter by
taking the ratio of the calculated value under given conditions to that value
which results in failure. For example:
Fw =
FL =
F =
Note that the larger value is always divided by the smaller value (assuming
that the system does not fail under the actual conditions). The definition of
failure must be established by the user. A comparison of this approach, based
on strength reduction for determining factor of safety, to that based upon limit
analysis solutions is given by Dawson and Roth (1999) and Dawson et al.
(1999). Also see Section 10 in the Examples volume.
The strength reduction method for determining factor of safety is implemented
in FLAC through the SOLVE fos command. This command implements an automatic search for factor of safety using the bracketing approach, as described
in Dawson et al. (1999). The SOLVE fos command may be given at any
stage in a FLAC run, provided that all non-null zones contain either the Mohr
Coulomb or ubiquitous-joint model. During the solution process, properties
will be changed, but the original state will be restored on completion, or if the
fos search is terminated prematurely with the <ESC> key.
When FLAC is executing the SOLVE fos command, the bracketing values for
F are printed continuously to the screen so that you can tell how the solution is
progressing. If terminated by the <ESC> key, the solution process terminates,
and the best current estimate of fos is displayed. A save file that corresponds
to the last non-equilibrium state is produced, so that velocity vectors, and so
on, can be plotted. This allows a visualization of the failure mode.
Example 3.48, based upon an example stability analysis from Dawson et al.
(1999), illustrates how the approach works. The run stops at F = 1.03.
Figure 3.68 plots shear strain-rate contours and velocity vectors, which allow
the failure surface to be identified.
3 - 136
Users Guide
3 - 137
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.400
24-May-04 15:20
step
7065
-1.559E+00 <x< 2.156E+01
-5.559E+00 <y< 1.756E+01
1.000
0.600
-0.200
0.200
Itasca
0 Consulting Group, Inc.
1E -5
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.200
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Figure 3.68 Shear strain-rate contours and velocity vectors in slope model at
last non-equilibrium state
It is possible to plot a local strength factor-of-safety which is a strength/stress
ratio for zones in the model. Two strength criteria are available for this purpose:
Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown. The command PLOT mohr plots contours of
strength/stress ratio based on the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, and the command
PLOT hoek plots contours based on the Hoek-Brown criterion. The MohrCoulomb criterion is given in Eq. (2.44) in Theory and Background. The
Hoek-Brown criterion is expressed in Eq. (2.227) in Theory and Background.
The state of stress within any zone can be expressed in terms of principal
stresses 1 and 3 . This stress state, in general, will plot as a circle, a,
with a radius ra , on the Mohr diagram (see Figure 3.69). Failure occurs if
this circle just touches the failure envelope. The strength for the stress state
represented by circle a is determined by holding 3 constant while increasing
or decreasing 1 until circle b, with radius rb , touches the envelope. The
ratio of the radii of the two circles (F = rb /ra ) is the strength/stress ratio. F
is also known as the failure index or the factor of safety. Note that |F | < 1
for all circles a with points lying outside the envelope. F is zero whenever
3 is greater that the tension limit. For the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, this is
taken as the smaller of the tensile strength and cohesion/tan (friction). For the
Hoek-Brown criterion, the limit is taken as sci /m (as defined for Eq. (2.227)
in Theory and Background).
3 - 138
Users Guide
Note that any definition of safety factor may be employed (and plotted as
contours, for example) by writing an appropriate FISH function; the resulting
values may be stored in an extra grid variable, for plotting or printing.
Mohr-Coulomb
Hoek-Brown
circle a
circle a
rb
rb
circle b
circle b
ra
ra
c
1f
1f
Figure 3.69 Strength/stress ratios for Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown failure criterion
Eq. (3.29) shows the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, while Eq. (3.30) shows the
Hoek-Brown criterion. Eq. (3.31) is the strength/stress ratio.
1f =
1f
1 + sin
1 + sin
3 2c
1 sin
1 sin
= 3 m c 3 + s c2
rb /ra =
3 1f
3 1
(3.29)
(3.30)
(3.31)
3 - 139
3K(1 2) = E
(3.32)
2G(1 + ) = E
relate the two sets of constants. These equations hold, however close we approach (but not reach) the limiting cases. We do not need to relate them to
physical tests that may or may not be feasible the equations are simply the
consequence of two possible ways of defining coefficients of proportionality.
Suppose we have a material in which the resistance to distortion progressively
reduces, but in which the resistance to volume change remains constant.
approaches 0.5 in this case. The equation 3K(1 2) = E must still be satisfied. There are two possibilities (argued on algebraic, not physical, grounds):
either E remains finite (and nonzero) and K tends to an arbitrarily large value;
or K remains finite and E tends to zero. We rule out the first possibility because there is a limiting compressibility to all known materials (e.g., 2 GPa for
water, which has a Poissons ratio of 0.5). This leaves the second, in which E
is varying drastically, even though we supposed that the materials principal
mode of elastic resistance was unchanging. We deduce that the parameters
(E, ) are inadequate to express the material behavior.
3 - 140
Users Guide
3.9 Interpretation
Since FLAC models a nonlinear system as it evolves in time, the interpretation of results may be
more difficult than with a conventional finite-element program that produces a solution at the
end of its calculation phase. There are several indicators that can be used to assess the state of the
numerical model e.g., whether the system is stable, unstable, or in steady-state plastic flow. The
various indicators are described below.
3.9.1 Unbalanced Force
Each gridpoint is surrounded by up to four zones that contribute forces to the gridpoint. At equilibrium or steady plastic flow the algebraic sum of these forces is almost zero (i.e., the forces
acting on one side of the gridpoint nearly balance those acting on the other). During timestepping,
the maximum unbalanced force is determined for the whole grid; this force is displayed continuously on the screen. It can also be saved as a history and viewed as a graph. The unbalanced
force is important in assessing the state of the model, but its magnitude must be compared with the
magnitude of typical internal forces acting in the grid. In other words, it is necessary to know what
constitutes a small force. A representative internal gridpoint force may be found by multiplying
stress by zone length perpendicular to the force, using values that are typical in the area of interest
in the grid. Denoting R as the ratio of unbalanced force to representative internal force at the same
gridpoint, the value of R will never decrease to zero. However, a value of 0.01 or 0.001 may be
acceptable as denoting equilibrium, depending on the degree of precision required (e.g., R = 0.01
may be good enough for an intermediate stage in a sequence of operations, while R = 0.001 may
be used if a final stress or displacement distribution is required for inclusion in a report or paper).
The maximum value for R in the model is called the equilibrium ratio, and is also displayed continuously on the screen during timestepping. By default, a SOLVE command will cause execution
to stop when the equilibrium ratio drops below the value of 0.001. Note that a low value of R
only indicates that forces balance at all gridpoints. However, steady plastic flow may be occurring,
without acceleration. In order to distinguish between this condition and true equilibrium, other
indicators, such as those described below, should be consulted.
3.9.2 Gridpoint Velocities
The grid velocities may be assessed either by plotting out the whole field of velocities (using the
PLOT vel command) or by selecting certain key points in the grid and tracking their velocities with
histories (HISTORY xvel or HISTORY yvel). Both types of plot are useful. Steady-state conditions
are indicated if the velocity histories show horizontal traces in their final stages. If they have
all converged to near-zero (in comparison to their starting values), then absolute equilibrium has
occurred; if a history has converged to a nonzero value, then steady plastic flow is occurring at
the gridpoint corresponding to that history. If one or more velocity history plots show fluctuating
velocities, then the system is likely to be in a transient condition. Note that velocities are expressed
in units of displacement divided by number of steps, except in dynamic solution mode.
The plot of the field of velocity vectors is more difficult to interpret, since both the magnitudes and
the nature of the pattern are important. As with gridpoint forces, velocities never decrease precisely
3 - 141
to zero. The magnitude of velocity should be viewed in relation to the displacement that would
occur if a significant number of steps (e.g., 1000) were to be executed. For example, if current
displacements in the system are of the order of 1 cm, and the maximum velocity in the velocity
plot is 108 m/step, then 1000 steps would produce an additional displacement of 105 m, or 103
cm, which is 0.1% of the current displacements. In this case, it can be said that the system is in
equilibrium, even if the velocities all seem to be flowing in one direction. More often, the vectors
appear to be random (or almost random) in direction and (possibly) in magnitude. This condition
occurs when the changes in gridpoint force fall below the accuracy limit of the computer, which
is around six decimal digits, for the single-precision version (15 digits for the double-precision
version). A random velocity field of low amplitude is an infallible indicator of equilibrium and no
plastic flow.
If the vectors in the velocity field are coherent (i.e., there is some systematic pattern), and their
magnitude is quite large (using the criterion described above), then either plastic flow is occurring
or the system is still adjusting elastically (e.g., damped elastic oscillation is taking place). To
confirm that continuing plastic flow is occurring, a plot or printout of plasticity indicators should
be consulted, as described below. If, however, the motion involves elastic oscillation, then the
magnitude should be observed in order to indicate if such movement is significant; seemingly
meaningful patterns of oscillation may be seen but, if amplitude is low, then the motion has no
physical significance.
3.9.3 Plastic Indicators
For most of the nonlinear models in FLAC, the commands PLOT plas, PRINT state and PLOT state
block display those zones in which the stresses satisfy the yield criterion. Such an indication usually
denotes that plastic flow is occurring, but it is possible for an element simply to sit on the yield
surface without any significant flow taking place. It is important to look at the whole pattern of
plasticity indicators to see if a mechanism has developed. A failure mechanism is indicated if there
is a contiguous line of active plastic zones (with a state of 1) that joins two surfaces. The diagnosis is
confirmed if the velocity plot also indicates motion corresponding to the same mechanism. Note that
initial plastic flow often occurs at the beginning of a simulation, but subsequent stress redistribution
unloads the yielding elements so that their stresses no longer satisfy the yield criterion these
elements show a state number of 2. Only the actively yielding elements (state number of 1) are
important to the detection of a failure mechanism. If there is no contiguous line or band of active
plastic zones between boundaries, two patterns should be compared before and after the execution
of, say, 500 steps. Is the region of active yield increasing or decreasing? If it is decreasing, then the
system is probably heading for equilibrium; if it is increasing, then ultimate failure may be possible.
If a condition of continuing plastic flow has been diagnosed, one further question should be asked
Does the active flow band(s) include zones adjacent to artificial boundaries? The term artificial
boundary refers to a boundary that does not correspond to a physical entity, but which exists
simply to limit the size of the grid that is used. If plastic flow occurs along such a boundary, then
the solution is not realistic, because the mechanism of failure is influenced by a nonphysical entity.
This comment only applies to the final steady-state solution; intermediate stages may exhibit flow
along boundaries.
3 - 142
Users Guide
3.9.4 Histories
In any problem, there are certain variables that are of particular interest e.g., displacements may
be of concern in one problem, stresses in another. Liberal use should be made of the HISTORY
command to track these important variables in the regions of interest. After some timestepping has
taken place, the plots of these histories often provide the way to find out what the system is doing.
3 - 143
3 - 144
Users Guide
3 - 145
3 - 146
Users Guide
be the appropriate one; if the excavation is done by pick and shovel (i.e., gradually), then the second
case may be more appropriate. For cases in which path-dependence is a factor, modeling should
be done in a way that mimics the way the system evolves physically.
3 - 147
3.11 References
Batugin, S. A., and R. K. Nirenburg. Approximate Relation between the Elastic Constants of
Anisotropic Rocks and the Anisotropy Parameters, Soviet Mining Science, 8(1), 5-9 (1972).
Bieniawski, Z. T. Determining Rock Mass Deformability: Experience from Case Histories, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 15, 237-247 (1978).
Brady, B. H. G., and E. T. Brown. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining. London: George
Allen & Unwin., 1985.
Bray, J. W. Some Applications of Elastic Theory, in Analytical and Computational Methods in
Engineering Rock Mechanics, pp. 32-94. E. T. Brown, Ed. London: Allen & Unwin., 1987.
Clark, I. H. The Cap Model for Stress Path Analysis of Mine Backfill Compaction Processes,
in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceeding of the 7th International
Conference, Cairns, Australia, May 1991), Vol. 2, pp. 1293-1298. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1991.
Cundall, P. A. Numerical Experiments on Localization in Frictional Material, Ingenieur-Archiv,
59, 148-159 (1989).
Cundall, P. A. Numerical Modelling of Jointed and Faulted Rock, in Mechanics of Jointed and
Faulted Rock, pp. 11-18. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1990.
Cundall, P. A. Shear Band Initiation and Evolution in Frictional Materials, in Mechanics Computing in 1990s and Beyond (Proceedings of the Conference, Columbus, Ohio, May 1991), Vol. 2:
Structural and Material Mechanics, pp. 1279-1289. New York: ASME, 1991.
Das, B. M. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 3rd Ed. Boston: PWS Publishing Company,
1994.
Dawson, E. M., and W. H. Roth. Slope Stability Analysis with FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the International FLAC Symposium on Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September 1999), pp. 3-9. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Dawson, E. M., W. H. Roth and A. Drescher. Slope Stability Analysis by Strength Reduction,
Gotechnique, 49(6), 835-840 (1999).
Duncan, J. M., P. Byrne, K. S. Wong and P. Mabry. Strength Stress-Strain and Bulk Modulus
Parameters for Finite Element Analyses of Stresses and Movements in Soil Masses, University of
California, Berkeley, College of Engineering, Report No. UCB/GT/80-01 (1980).
Duncan, J. M., and C-Y. Chang. Nonlinear Analysis of Stress and Strain in Soils, Soil Mechanics,
96(SM5), 1629-1653 (1970).
Gleick, J. Chaos: Making a New Science. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.
Goodman, R. E. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
3 - 148
Users Guide
Hoek, E. Estimating Mohr-Coulomb Friction and Cohesion Values from the Hoek-Brown Failure
Criterion, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 27(3), 227-229 (1990).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion a 1988 Update, in Rock Engineering for Underground Excavation (Proceedings of 15th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Toronto, October 1988), pp. 31-38. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1988.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM, 1980.
Ortiz, J. M. R., J. Serra and C. Oteo. Curso Aplicado de Cimentaciones, 3rd Ed. Madrid: Colegio
Oficial de Arquitectos de Madrid, 1986.
Rudnicki, J. W., and J. R. Rice. Conditions for the Localization of the Deformation in PressureSensitive Dilatant Materials, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 23, 371-394 (1975).
Serafim, J. L., and J. P. Pereira. Considerations of the Geomechanical Classification of Bieniawski,
in Proceeding of the International Symposium on Engineering Geology and Underground Construction (Lisbon, 1983), Vol. 1, pp. II.33-42. Lisbon: SPG/LNEC, 1983.
Starfield, A. M., and P. A. Cundall. Towards a Methodology for Rock Mechanics Modelling, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 25(3), 99-106 (1988).
Thompson, J. M. T., and H. B. Stewart. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 1986.
Vardoulakis, I. Shear Band Inclination and Shear Modulus of Sand in Biaxial Tests, Int. J. Numer.
Anal. Meth. in Geomech., 4, 103-119 (1980).
Vermeer, P. A. The Orientation of Shear Bands in Biaxial Tests, Gotechnique, 40(2), 223-236
(1990).
Vermeer, P. A., and R. de Borst. Non-Associated Plasticity for Soils, Concrete and Rock, Heron,
29(3), 1-64 (1984).
Wood, D. M. Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Zienkiewicz, O. C. The Finite Element Method, 3rd Ed., London: McGraw-Hill, 1977.
PRECIS
This volume contains background information and descriptions of the theoretical basis for the basic
components of FLAC.
The theoretical formulation for FLAC is described in Section 1. A FISH tutorial on the components
of the explicit finite difference method is also provided.
The formulation and implementation of the eleven built-in constitutive models are discussed in
Section 2. The models are divided into three groups: null model, elastic models (isotropic and
transversely isotropic) and plastic models (Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb, ubiquitous-joint,
strain-hardening/softening, bilinear strain-hardening/softening ubiquitous-joint, double-yield,
modified Cam-clay and Hoek-Brown).
Section 3 contains a general guide to the principles of grid generation in FLAC. This includes
procedures to adjust and grade the mesh, and to attach the sub-grids to produce an accurate solution.
Section 4 describes the interface logic and includes several example applications. Interfaces represent planes on which sliding and separation can occur.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6-1
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abazovic, E., and A. Amon. A Practice Oriented Modified Linear Elastic Constitutive Model
for Fire Loads and Its Application in Tunnel Construction, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling
in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury,
Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 313-319. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema, 2003.
Alejano, L. R., et al. Back-Analysis of a Rockburst in a Swallow Gypsum Room and Pillar
Exploitation, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics, Paris, 1999, Vol.
2, pp. 1077-1080. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Almirall, J., X. Borras, B. Celada and J. M. Roca. Movimientos en la boveda de un tunel carretero
de gran seccion sostenido por metodo Bernold en pizzarras sericiticas, in Towards New Worlds
in Tunnelling, pp. 1019-1026. Vietez-Utesa and Montanez-Cartaxo, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema, 1992.
Alonso, E., et al. Ground Response Curves for Rock Masses Exhibiting Strain-Softening Behaviour, Int. J. Num. & Analy. Meth. Geomech., 27, 1153-1184 (2003).
Andrade, C., et al. Radomiro Tomic Secondary Heap Leach Facility, in Slope Stability in Surface
Mining, pp. 427-434. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton,
Colorado: SME (2000).
Andrieux, P., et al. FLAC Numerical Simulations of Tunneling through Paste Backfill at Brunswick
Mine, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 197-204. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema, 2003.
Antilla, P. Underground Repository for Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste at Loviisa, Finland, in Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress on Rock Mechanics (Tokyo,
September, 1995), Vol. I, pp. 43-46. T. Fujii, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1995.
Avar, B. B., N. Hudyma and M. Karakouzian. Porosity Dependence of the Elastic Modulus of
Lithophysae-Rich Tuff, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 40, 919-928 (2003).
Badie, A., and M. C. Wang. Stability of Underground Cavity Subjected to Surface Loads, in
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Unique Underground Structures (Denver, June,
1990), Vol. 1, Ch. 8, pp. 8-1 to 8-18. Denver: CSM Press, 1990.
Baraize, E., H. P. Chavaz, Ph. Delmas, P. Gendrin, E. Haza, A. Nancey and J. P. Gourc. Loading of a Geotextile Reinforced Structure National Scale Tests, in Rencontres 95, Gotextiles et
Gomembranes (Beaune, France, September, 1995), pp. 86-92. Ph. Delmas and J. P. Gourc, Eds.
Paris: Comit Francais pour les Gotextiles et Gomembranes, 1995.
Barla, G. Lessons Learnt from the Excavation of a Large Diameter TBM Tunnel in Complex
Hydrogeological Conditions, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on
Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000), Invited Paper, Vol. 1,
pp. 938-995. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
6-2
Users Guide
Barla, G., and M. Barla. Numerical Simulation of Squeezing Behavior in Tunnels," in FLAC and
Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 323-328. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam:
Balkema, 2001.
Barla, G., M. Barla and M. Bonini. Characterisation of Italian Clay Shales for Tunnel Design. J.
A. Hudson and X.-T. Feng, Eds. Special Issue of Int. J Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41(3), Paper No. 1B
05A (April). Proceedings of the ISRM SINOROCK2004 symposium (Three Gorges Project Site,
China, May 2004).
Barla, G., and E. Chiriotti. Insights into the Behaviour of the Large Deep-Seated Gravitational
Slope Deformation of Rosone, in the Piemont Region (Italy), Felsbau, 13(6), 425-432 (1995).
Barla, G., et al. Continuum and Discontinuum Modelling of a High Rock Cut, in Technology
Roadmap for Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg,
September 2003), Vol. 1, pp. 79-84. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Bastani, S. A., and B. L. Kutter. Numerical Modeling of Seepage-Induced Liquefaction and
Slope Failure, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of
the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 91-97.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Bathurst, R. J., et al. Full-Scale Performance Testing and Numerical Modeling of Reinforced Soil
Walls, in Landmarks in Earth Reinforcement (Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Earth Reinforcement, Fukuoka, Kyushu, Japan, November 2001), Vol. 2, pp. 3-28. H. Ochiai et
al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2002).
Bathurst, R. J., and K. Hatami. Earthquake Response Analysis of Reinforced-Soil Walls Using
FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference,
Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 407-415. C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (1999).
Bathurst, R. J., and K. Hatami. Influence of Reinforcement Properties on Seismic Response
and Design of Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls, presented at The 51st Canadian Geotechnical
Conference, Edmonton, October 1998.
Bathurst, R. J., and K. Hatami. Influence of Reinforcement Stiffness, Length and Base Condition
on Seismic Response of Geosynthetic Reinforced Retaining Walls, in Proceedings of the Sixth
International Conference on Geosynthetics (Atlanta, March, 1998), Vol. 2, pp. 613-616.
Bathurst, R. J., and K. Hatami. Numerical Study of the Influence of Base Shaking on Reinforced
Soil Retaining Walls, in Geosynthetics 99 (Proceedings of the Conference, Boston, April 1999),
Vol. 2, pp. 963-976. Roseville, Minnesota: Industrial Fabrics Association International (1999).
Bathurst, R. J., and K. Hatami. Seismic Response Analysis of a Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil
Retaining Wall, Geosynthetics Int., 5(1-2), 127-166 (1998).
Benko, B., and D. Stead. The Frank Slide: A Reexamination of the Failure Mechanism, Can.
Geotech. J., 35, 299-311 (1998).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6-3
Benmebarek, S., and N. Khezzar. Improvement of the Modified Cam-Clay Model for Overconsolidated Soils, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of
the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 3-6. D. Billaux, et
al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Berchenko, I. Thermal Loading of a Saturated Rock Mass: Field Experiment and Modeling Using
Thermoporoelastic Singular Solutions. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, April, 1998.
Berchenko, I., C. Detournay and E. Detournay. Solution of Thermoplastic Problems Using FLAC,
in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 133-140. C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(1999).
Berger, D. J., and M. Laurenti. Mine, Community and Agencies Rely on Numerical Modeling
to Assess Sensitivity of Highwall Movement, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim
(Proceedings of the 4th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August
2000), pp. 547-560. J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Berger, D. J., and M. Laurenti. Numerical Modeling Used to Assess Highwall Movement at
Homestake Mine, in Trends in Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000,
Denver, August 2000). Geotechnical Special Publication No. 102, pp. 164-179. J. F. Labuz, S. D.
Glaser, and E. Dawson, Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Billaux, D., et al., Eds. FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings
of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001). Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Billaux, D., E. Foerster and E. Antoinet. Modelling of Soil-Geotextile Interaction for Waste
Disposal, in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov, Czech
Republic, November 1996), pp. 259-263. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
Board, M. Examination of the Use of Continuum versus Discontinuum Models for Design and
Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Site, U.S. NRC, NUREG/CR-5426, August,
1989.
Board, M. FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua) Version 2.20. U.S. NRC NUREG/CR5430, October, 1989.
Board, M., E. Chacon, P. Varona and L. Lorig. Comparative Analysis of Toppling Behaviour
at Chuquicamata Open-Pit Mine, Chile, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., Sec. A, 105, A11-A21
(January-April, 1996).
Boidy, E., A. Bouvard and F. Pellet. Back Analysis of Time-Dependent Behaviour of a Test Gallery
in Claystone, Tunn. & Underground Space Tech., 17, 415-424 (2002).
Bonini, M., M. Barla and G. Barla. FLAC Applications to the Analysis of Swelling Behavior in
Tunnels, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 329-333. D. Billaux, et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
6-4
Users Guide
Boone, S. J., and J. L. Carvalho. Estimation of Ground Deformation in Soft Soils: Comparison
of Non-Linear Numerical and Analytical Solutions for the Amsterdam North-South Metroline, in
NARMS-TAC 2002: Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Vol. 2, pp. 1611-1618.
R. Hammah, et al., Eds. Toronto: University of Toronto Press (2002).
Boukpeti, N., and A. Drescher. Undrained Biaxial Response of Superior Sand Model, in FLAC
and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 7-13. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Brady, B., and L. Lorig. Analysis of Rock Reinforcement Using Finite Difference Methods,
Computers and Geotechnics, 5(2), 123-149 (1988).
Brady, T. M., and J. C. Johnson. Comparison of a Finite-Difference Code to a Finite-Element Code
in Modeling an Excavation in an Underground Shaft Pillar, in Numerical Models in Geomechanics
(Proceedings of NUMOG III, Niagara Falls, May, 1989), pp. 608-619. London: Elsevier Applied
Science, 1989.
Brandshaug, T. Stability of Disposal Rooms during Waste Retrieval, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, NUREG/CR-5335, March, 1989.
Brandshaug, T. Variation of Heat Loading for a Repository at Yucca Mountain, U.S. NRC,
NUREG/CR-5428, September, 1989.
Brandshaug, T., P. Solseng and P. Schiller. A 2D Approach to the Evaluation of the 3D Effects of
Landslide Stabilization Using Piles, in Foundations and Ground Improvement (Proceedings of
a Special Conference, Virginia Polytechnic University, June 2001, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 113), pp. 130-144. T. L. Brandon, Ed. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2001).
Brown, E. T. Block Caving Geomechanics (The International Caving Study I, 1997-2000).
University of Queensland, JKMRC Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral Processing, Vol. 3.
Indooroopilly, Australia: JKMRC (2003).
Brox, D. R., and H. Hagedorn. Prediction of In-Situ Stresses Based on Observations and Back
Analyses: Piora-Mulde Exploratory Tunnel, Gotthard Base Tunnel Project, in Prediction and
Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of the ISRM International
Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin, September 1996), Vol. 2, pp. 1047-1052. G. Barla, Ed.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Brox, D. R., H. Konietzky and F. Rummel. In-Situ Stress Measurements Using Hydraulic Fracturing in Jointed Rock in Hong Kong, in Geotechnical Rise Identification, Evaluation and
Solutions (Proceedings of the 6th Australia New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics,
Christchurch, February, 1992), pp. 231-235. Christchurch, New Zealand: New Zealand Geomechanics Society, 1992.
Brummer, R., et al., Eds. FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings
of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003). Lisse:
Balkema (2003).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6-5
6-6
Users Guide
Cala, M., and J. Flisiak. Complex Geology Slope Stability Analysis by Shear Strength Reduction,
in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 99-102. R. Brummer,
et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Calabrese, M., and P. Monaco. Analysis of Stresses Induced in an Old Deep Tunnel by Pile Driving
from the Surface, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of
the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 199-204. D. Billaux,
et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Carpegna, M., et al. Influences Du Relief et de la Tectonique Pour la Previson Des Etats de Contraintes Sous Fort Recouvrement, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics
(Paris, 1999), Vol. 2, pp. 1137-1142. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Carranza-Torres, C. Dimensionless Charts for the Evaluation of the Elasto-Plastic Response of
Tunnels in Rock, in NARMS-TAC 2002: Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity,
Vol. 2, pp. 1133-1143. R. Hammah, et al., Eds. Toronto: University of Toronto Press (2002).
Carranza-Torres, C. Elasto-Plastic Solution of Tunnel Problems Using the Generalized Form of
the Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion. J. A. Hudson and X.-T. Feng, Eds. Special issue of Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci., 41(3), Paper No. 2B 28 (April). Proceedings of the ISRM SINOROCK2004
symposium (Three Gorges Project Site, China, May 2004).
Carranza-Torres, C. Self-Similarity Analysis of the Elasto-Plastic Response of Underground
Openings in Rock and Effects of Practical Variables. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota,
1998.
Carranza-Torres, C., and C. Fairhurst. A General Stability Criterion for Tunnels in Soft and Hard
Ground, in Tunnels for People (Proceedings of the 23rd General Assembly of the International
Tunnelling Association, April, 1997), pp. 29-35. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1997.
Carranza-Torres, C., and C. Fairhurst. Elasto-Plastic Analysis of Elliptical Cavities in Rock Subject
to Non-Hydrostatic Loading, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings
of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 215-223. C. Detournay, and R. Hart, Eds.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Carranza-Torres, C., and C. Fairhurst. Some Consequences of Inelastic Rock-Mass Deformation on the Tunnel Support Loads Predicted by the Einstein and Schwartz Design Approach, in
Trends in Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000, Denver, August 2000),
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 102, pp. 16-49. J. F. Labuz, S. D. Glaser and E. Dawson,
Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Carranza-Torres, C., C. Fairhurst and L. Lorig. Insights on the Stability of Large Excavations
from Analytical and Numerical Models, Felsbau, 15(1), 45-63 (1997).
Carranza-Torres, C., et al. Elasto-Plastic Analysis of Deep Tunnels in Brittle Rock Using a Scaled
Form of the Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion, in NARMS-TAC 2002: Mining and Tunnelling
Innovation and Opportunity, Vol. 1, pp. 283-293. R. Hammah, et al., Eds. Toronto: University
of Toronto Press (2002).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6-7
Castro, A. T., and J. V. Lemos. Back Analysis in the Interpretation of Concrete Dam Foundation
Behavior, in Geoecology and Computers (Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on
Advances of Computer Methods in Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Moscow,
February 2000), pp. 191-198. S. A. Yufin, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Celada, B., J. M. Galera and P. Varona. Development of a New Calibration and Interpretation
Procedure of Pressuremeter Tests to Obtain Elastic Parameters, in The Pressuremeter and Its New
Avenues (Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium, May, 1995), pp. 265-272. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1995.
Chandler, N., and D. Martin. The Influence of Near Surface Faults on In-Situ Stresses in the
Canadian Shield, in Rock Mechanics Models and Measurements: Challenges from Industry
(Proceedings of the 1st North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, The University of Texas
at Austin, June 1994), pp. 369-376. P. Nelson and S. Laubach, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1994.
Chandler, N. A., E. T. Kozak and C. D. Martin. Connected Pathways in the EDZ and the Potential
for Flow among Tunnels, in Proceedings of the EDZ Workshop: Designing the Excavation
Disturbed Zone for a Nuclear Repository in Hard Rock. J. B. Martino and C. D. Martin, Eds.
Toronto: 1996 Int. Conf. on Deep Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste, 1996.
Chang, J., J. M. Scott and C. Pound. Numerical Study of the Heathrow Cofferdam, in FLAC
and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 163-169. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Chang, S.-H., C.-I. Lee and Y.-K. Lee. An Experimental Damage Model for Predicting the Nonlinear Behavior of Rock, in Technology Roadmap for Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th
Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg, September 2003), Vol. 1, pp. 195-198. Johannesburg:
SAIMM (2003).
Chen, S., Z. Q. Yue and L. G. Tham. Digital Image-Based Numerical Modeling Method for
Prediction of Inhomogeneous Rock Failure, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 41, 939-957 (2004).
Chen, S., et al. Modeling of the Indirect Tensile Test for Inhomogeneous Granite Using a Digital
Image-Based Numerical Method. J. A. Hudson and X.-T. Feng, Eds. Special issue of Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci., 41(3), Paper No. 2B 01 (April). Proceedings of the ISRM SINOROCK2004
symposium (Three Gorges Project Site, China, May 2004).
Chen, W.-P., J. Reinfuirt and F. O. Vincent. Stage Excavation Analyses of CA/T Slurry Walls,
in Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering: Recent Developments (Proceedings of
Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000, Denver, August 2000). Geotechnical Special Publication No. 96,
pp. 1-11. G. M. Filz and D. V. Griffiths, Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Chen, X., C. P. Tan and C. Detournay. Wellbore Behaviour in Fractured Rock Masses, in Rock
Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of the 38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 59-66. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
6-8
Users Guide
Chen, X., C. P. Tan and C. M. Haberfield. Effect of Initial Pore Pressure Distribution on Deformations around Wellbores in Shales, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of
the 4th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000), pp. 247-252.
J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Chen, X., C. P. Tan and C. M. Haberfield. The Importance of Coupled Flow-Mechanical Analysis
in Modelling of Shale Undrained Behaviour, in Rock Mechanics for Industry (Proceedings of the
37th U.S. Rock Mech. Symp., Vail, Colorado, June, 1999), Vol. 1, pp. 233-238. Bernard Amadei
et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Chen, X., C. P. Tan and C. M. Haberfield. Numerical Evaluation of the Deformation Behaviour
of Thick-Walled Hollow Cylinders of Shale, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 37, 947-961, 2000.
Chern, J. C., C. W. Yu and F. Y. Shaw. Effects of Construction Procedure on the Performance
of a Large Span Tunnel in Poor Rocks, in Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress on
Rock Mechanics (Tokyo, September, 1995), Vol. II, pp. 537-540. T. Fujii, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema, 1995.
Chiriotti, E., A. Mahtab, S. Xu and F. Kendorski. Methodology for Characterizing Very Large
Rock Masses: An Illustrative Example, in Rock Mechanics for Industry (Proceedings of the 37th
U.S. Rock Mech. Symp., Vail, Colorado, June, 1999), Vol. 1, pp. 263-270. Bernard Amadei et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Choe, M.-J., et al. Construction Example for Tunneling under and Adjacent to Complexity Condition in Weathered Rock, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of the 4th
North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000), pp. 125-128. J. Girard
et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Choi, S. O., H.-S. Shin and W.-K. Song. Numerical Studies of the Thermo-Mechanical Behavior
of Rock Mass around Nuclear Waste Disposal Repository, in Technology Roadmap for Rock
Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg, September 2003),
Vol. 1, pp. 207-210. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Choi, Y., et al. A Numerical Analysis for Axial and Lateral Behavior of Instrumented Steel Pipe
Piles, in Deep Foundations 2002 An International Perspective on Theory, Design, Construction and Performance, Vol. 1, pp. 289-304. M. W. ONeill and F. C. Townsend, Eds. Reston,
Virginia: ASCE (2002).
Chugh, A. K., and R. L. Schuster. Numerical Assessment of Locke Island Landslide, Columbia
River Valley, Washington State, USA, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th
U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 2489-2496. P. J.
Culligan, H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Clapp, K. K., and M. M. MacLaughlin. Performance of Numerical Rockbolt Elements: A Comparison of Model Results and Laboratory Test Data, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings
of the 39th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 21732178. P. J. Culligan, H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6-9
Clark, I. H. The Cap Model for Stress Path Analysis of Mine Backfill Compaction Processes,
in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference, Cairns, Australia, May, 1991), Vol. 2, pp. 1293-1298. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1991.
Clark, I. H. The Role of Rock Fabric in Controlling Crushing Strength: Numerical Experiments,
in Proceedings of the XVIII International Mineral Processing Congress (Sydney, May, 1993),
Vol. I, pp. 187-192. Sydney: Australasian Inst. Min. & Met., 1993.
Clark, I. H., P. G. Fuller and D. McLean. Numerical Stress Analysis to Assess the Stability of
a Combined Open Pit and Underground Mining Operation in Central Australia, in Static and
Dynamic Considerations in Rock Engineering, pp. 103-112. R. K. Brummer, Ed. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1990.
Clark, I. H., R. G. Grtunca and P. S. Piper. Predicting and Monitoring Stress and Deformation
Behaviour of Backfill in Deep-Level Mining Excavations, in Proceedings of the 5th Australia-New
Zealand Conference on Geomechanics (Sydney, August, 1988), pp. 214-218. Sydney: Institution
of Engineers, 1988.
Cotecchia, F., F. Santaloia and F. Santoro. Movements in a Tectonized Soil Slope: Comparison
of Monitoring Data and Modelling Results, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International
Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000), Paper
SNES1039. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Coulthard, M. A., and V. Ciesielski. An Expert System to Choose a Stress Analysis Program for
Rock Excavation Design, in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings of
the 7th International Conference, Cairns, Australia, May, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 51-56. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Cundall, P. A. Numerical Modelling of Jointed and Faulted Rock, in Mechanics of Jointed and
Faulted Rock, pp. 11-18. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1990.
Cundall, P. Shear Band Initiation and Evolution in Frictional Materials, in Mechanics Computing
in the 1990s and Beyond (Proceedings of the Conference, Columbus, Ohio, May, 1991), Vol. 2:
Structural and Material Mechanics, pp. 1279-1289. New York: ASME, 1991.
Cundall, P., and M. Board. A Microcomputer Program for Modeling Large-Strain Plasticity Problems, in Numerical Methods in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 6th International Conference,
Innsbruck, Austria, April, 1988), pp. 2101-2108. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1988.
Cundall, P., C. Carranza-Torres and R. Hart. A New Constitutive Model Based on the HoekBrown Criterion, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of
the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 17-25.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
6 - 10
Users Guide
Cundall, P. A., D. O. Potyondy and C. A. Lee. Micromechanics-Based Models for Fracture and
Breakout around the Mine-by Tunnel, in Designing the Excavation Disturbed Zone Workshop
on Designing the Excavation Disturbed Zone for a Nuclear Repository in Hard Rock (Winnipeg,
September 1996) Proceedings of the EDZ Workshop, pp. 113-122. J. B. Martino and C. D.
Martin, Eds. Toronto: 1996 Int. Conf. on Deep Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste (1996).
da Gama e Silva, R. L., P. A. Neme and F. A. Garcia. A Large Urban Tunnel Special Problems
and Their Solutions, in Tunnels for People (Proceedings of World Congress 97, 23rd General
Assembly of the International Tunnelling Association, Vienna, April 1997), Vol. 1, pp. 491-496.
J. Golser, W. J. Hinkel and W. Schubert, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
Daller, J., W. Unterberger and B. Hochgatterer. Vibration Control in Railway Tunnels, presented
at The 3rd Symposium on Tunnel Construction and Underground Structures, Ljubljana, September
1996.
Damjanac, B., and E. Detournay. Effects of Underground Nuclear Tests in French Polynesia on
the Stability of Atoll Flanks, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics,
Paris, 1999, Vol. 3, pp. 1767-1774. G. Vouille and P. Brest, Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2002).
Damjanac, B., and E. Detournay. Numerical Modeling of Normal Wedge Indentation in Rocks,
in Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 35th U.S. Symposium, University of Nevada, Reno, June,
1995), pp. 349-354. J. J. K. Daemen and R. A. Schultz, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1995.
Damjanac, B., E. Detournay and H. Huang. Effects of Underground Nuclear Tests in French
Polynesia on the Stability of Atoll Flanks, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
(Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 23-31. C. Detournay and
R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Damjanac, B., C. Fairhurst and T. Brandshaug. Numerical Simulation of the Effects of Heating
on the Permeability of a Jointed Rock Mass, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock
Mechanics, Paris, 1999, Vol. 2, pp. 881-885. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Damjanac, B., T. Siegel and R. Hart. Seismic Analysis of a Pile-Supported Wharf in Charleston,
South Carolina, presented at The Down to Earth Technology, Deep Foundations Congress (Orlando,
February 2002).
Dasgupta, B. Numerical Modeling of Large Underground Caverns for Hydro Power Projects, in
Trends in Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000, Denver, August 2000).
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 102, pp. 50-64. J. F. Labuz, S. D. Glaser and E. Dawson,
Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Dasgupta, B., et al. Design of Underground Caverns for Tehri Hydropower Project, India by
Numerical Modelling, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics. Paris,
1999, Vol. 1, pp. 357-358. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Dasgupta, B., R. Singh and V. M. Sharma. Numerical Modelling of Desilting Chambers for Nathpa
Jhakri Hydroelectric Project, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics,
Paris, 1999, Vol. 1, pp. 359-360. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 11
Dawson, E. Finite Element Slope Stability Analysis, in Proceedings of the 47th Annual Geotechnical University of Minnesota Engineering Conference, February 1999, pp. 53-70. J. F. Labuz,
Ed. Minneapolis: Minnesota Geotechnical Society/University of Minnesota (1999).
Dawson, E., et al. Geotechnical Stability Analysis by Strength Reduction, in Slope Stability
2000 (Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000, Denver, August 2000). Geotechnical Special
Publication No. 101, pp. 99-113. D. V. Griffiths, G. A. Fenton and T. R. Martin, Eds. Reston,
Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Dawson, E., K. You and Y. Park. Strength-Reduction Stability Analysis of Rock Slopes Using
the Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion, in Trends in Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of Sessions of
Geo-Denver 2000, Denver, August 2000). Geotechnical Special Publication No. 102, pp. 65-77.
J. F. Labuz, S. D. Glaser, and E. Dawson, Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Dawson, E. M., and P. A. Cundall. Cosserat Plasticity for Modeling Layered Rock, in Fractured
and Jointed Rock Masses (Proceedings of the ISRM Regional Conference, Lake Tahoe, June,
1992), pp. 267-274. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1995.
Dawson, E. M., and P. A. Cundall. Slope Stability Using Micropolar Plasticity, in Rock Mechanics
Tools and Techniques (Proceedings of the 2nd North American Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Montral, June, 1996), Vol. 1, pp. 551-558. M. Aubertin et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1996.
Dawson, E. M., et al. A Practice Oriented Pore-Pressure Generation Model, in FLAC and
Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 47-54. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Dawson, E. M., W. H. Roth and A. Drescher. Slope Stability Analysis by Strength Reduction,
Gotechnique, 49(6), 835-840 (1999).
Dawson, R. V., D. D. Curtis and C. R. Donnelly. Sliding Stability of Concrete Gravity Dams,
presented at The Conference of the Canadian Electrical Association, Electricity 96, Montral,
April 1996.
De Nicola, A., and M. F. Randolph. Tensile and Compressive Shaft Capacity of Piles in Sand. The
University of Western Australia, Department of Civil Engineering, Geomechanics Group, Research
Report No. G1057, January, 1993.
De Souza, E., and A. P. Dirige. Procedures for the Design of Sillmats with Paste Backfill, in Rock
Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of the 38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 433-442. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Detournay, C., and P. A. Cundall. Numerical Modeling of Unsaturated Flow in Porous Media
Using FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the
2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 115-124. D. Billaux, et
al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
6 - 12
Users Guide
Detournay, C., P. Cundall and J. Parra. A Study of Compaction Band Formation with the DoubleYield Model, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of
the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 27-33.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Detournay, C., and R. Hart, Eds. FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings
of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Detournay, C., B. Wu and C. Tan. Hydro-Mechanical Modeling of Damage around Borehole in
Laboratory Experiments, in Gulf Rocks 2004: Rock Mechanics across Borders & Disciplines
(Proceedings of the 6th NARMS Conference, Houston, June 2004). D. P. Yale, S. M. Willson
and A. S. Abou-Sayed, Eds. Paper no. ARMA/NARMS 04-590 (2004).
Dias, D., and R. Kastner. Numerical Modeling of Shield Tunneling Processes in Soft Ground, in
FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International
FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 353-360. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema (2001).
Dias, D., and R. Kastner. Tunnel Face Reinforcement: Numerical Analysis, in FLAC and
Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 361-365. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Dirige, A. P., E. De Souza and J. Chew. Centrifuge Physical Modeling of Paste Fill Sillmats, in
Minefill 2001 (Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Mining with Backfill), pp.
13-25. D. Stone, Ed. Littleton, Colorado: SME (2001).
Dolezalov, M., I. Hladk and V. Zemanov. Stability Analysis of a Motorway Embankment
on Soft Subsoil Using FEM, FLAC and Limit Equilibrium Models, in FLAC and Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference,
Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 125-132. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(2001).
Du Plessis, L., and D. C. Martin. Numerical Modeling Studies for Design of High Rock Slopes
at Palabora Copper Mine, in Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on Rock Mechanics
(Aachen, Germany, September, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 799-804. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Duan, F. Numerical Analyses of Large Underground Openings for the Superconducting SuperCollider, in Safety and Environmental Issues in Rock Engineering (Proceedings of EUROCK
93, Lisbon, June, 1993), pp. 527-534. L. Sousa, E. Ribeiro and N. F. Grossmann, Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Duan, F., and M. Mrugala. Modeling Large Underground Experimental Halls for the Superconducting Super Collider, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 30(7), 1333-1339
(1993).
Dunbavan, M. Evaluation of Dragline Foundation Stability A Case Study, in Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 7th International Conference,
Cairns, Australia, May 1991), Vol. 2, pp. 1305-1310. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 13
Duncan Fama, M. E. A Finite Element Model of Yield Zones in Weak Rock, in Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 7th International Conference,
Cairns, Australia, May 1991), Vol. 2, pp. 1311-1318. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Duncan Fama, M. E., R. Truman and M. S. Craig. Two- and Three-Dimensional Elasto-Plastic
Analysis for Coal Pillar Design and Its Application to Highwall Mining, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 32(3), 215-225 (1995).
Durgunoglu, H. T., H. F. Kula and B. Arkun. A Deep Retaining System Construction with Soil
Nailing in Soft Rocks in Istanbul, Turkey, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the
39th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 2113-2118.
P. J. Culligan, H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
El-Emam, M. M., et al. Shaking Table and Numerical Modelling of Reinforced Soil Walls, in
Landmarks in Earth Reinforcement (Proceedings of the International Symposium,
Fukuoka/Kyushu, Japan, November 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 329-334. H. Ochiai et al., Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema (2001).
Endicott, L., J. J. Ashley and J. W. Tattersall. Design of Tunnel Portals and Initial Drives for
the Route 3 Tai Lam Highway Tunnels, Hong Kong, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000),
Paper UW0511. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Escuder, I. Calculation of Collapse Strains of Floodable Rockfills by Means of Finite Difference
Formulated Numerical Simulations, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001),
pp. 133-136. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Escuder, I. Study of Creep of Rockfills by Means of Finite Difference Formulated Numerical
Simulations and Instrumentation Records, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001),
pp. 137-140. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Evangelista, A., et al. Numerical Analysis of Roof Failure Mechanisms of Cavities in a Soft Rock,
in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological
Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000), Paper UW0260. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic
Publishing (2000).
Ewy, R. T. 3D Stress Effects in Elastoplastic Wellbore Failure Models, in Rock Mechanics as a
Multidisciplinary Science (Proceedings of the 32nd U.S. Symposium, July, 1991), pp. 951-960.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Exadaktylos, G. E., P. A. Liolios and M. C. Stavropoulou. A Semi-Analytical Elastic StressDisplacement Solution for Notched Circular Openings in Rocks, Int. J. Solids & Struc., 40,
1165-1187 (2003).
Exadaktylos, G. E., and M. C. Stavropoulou. A Closed-Form Elastic Solution for Stresses and
Displacements around Tunnels, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39, 905-916 (2002).
6 - 14
Users Guide
Exadaktylos, G. E., et al. Analogue and Numerical Modeling of Normal Fault Patterns Produced
Due to Slip along a Detachment Zone, Tectonophysics, 376, 117-134 (2003).
Fairhurst, C. Analysis and Design in Rock Mechanics: The General Context, in Comprehensive
Rock Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 1-29. J. A. Hudson, Editor-in-Chief. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.,
1993.
Fairhurst, C. Rock Mechanics and Nuclear Waste Repositories (Keynote Paper), in Proceedings
of the International Workshop on the Rock Mechanics of Nuclear Waste Repositories. Vail,
Colorado, June 1998, pp. 1-45. S. Saeb and C. Francke, Eds. Alexandria, Virginia: ARMA
(1998).
Fairhurst, C. F., et al. Underground Nuclear Testing in French Polynesia: Stability and Hydrology
Issues, Report of the International Geomechanical Commission to the French Government, Vols. I
and II (1998).
Fairhurst, C., and C. Carranza-Torres. Closing the Circle Some Comments on Design Procedures for Tunnel Supports in Rock, in Proceedings of the University of Minnesota 50th Annual
Geotechnical Conference, February 2002, pp. 21-84. J. F. Labuz and J. G. Bentler, Eds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota (2002).
Fairhurst, C., B. Damjanac and R. Hart. Numerical Analysis as a Practical Design Tool in Geo
Engineering, in Slope Stability 2000 (Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Denver 2000, Denver,
August 2000). Geotechnical Special Publication No. 101, pp. 169-183. D. V. Griffiths, G. A.
Fenton and T. R. Martin, Eds. Reston, Virginia: ASCE (2000).
Fairhurst, C., and L. Lorig. Improved Design in Rock and Soil Engineering with Numerical
Modelling, in Distinct Element Modelling in Geomechanics, pp. 27-46. V. M. Sharma et al.,
Eds. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing (1999).
Fakhimi, A. A., and C. Fairhurst. A Model For the Time-Dependent Behavior of Rock, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 31(2), 117-126 (1994).
Fakhimi, A., D. Salehi and N. Mojtabai. Numerical Back Analysis for Estimation of Soil Parameters in the Resalat Tunnel Project, Tunnl. & Und. Sp. Tech., 19, 57-67 (2004).
Fang, Z., and J. P. Harrison. Application of a Local Degradation Model to the Analysis of Brittle
Fracture of Laboratory Scale Rock Specimens under Triaxial Conditions, Int. J. Rock Mech. &
Min. Sci., 39, 459-476 (2002).
Fang, Z., and J. P. Harrison. Development of a Local Degradation Approach to the Modelling of
Brittle Fracture in Heterogeneous Rocks, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39, 443-457 (2002).
Fellner, D., and F. Amann. Modelling Yielding Support by Programming FLAC2D/FLAC3D,
in Rock Engineering: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of ISRM Regional Symposium EUROCK 2004 & 53rd Geomechanics Colloquy, Salzburg, Austria, October 2004), pp. 673-678.
W. Schubert, Ed. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2004).
Fowler, D. Rail Cathedral, New Civil Engr., 18-22 (May, 1993).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 15
Francia, S., et al. Computational Methods for Deep Tunneling Design, in System-Based Vision for
Strategic and Creative Design (Second International Conference on Structural and Construction
Engineering, Rome, September), pp. 1247-1252. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Francke, C. T., L. J. Terrill and J. D. VandeKraats. Case Study of the Effect of Stratigraphic Location
on Roof Stability in Rock Salt, in Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Ground
Control in Mining (Morgantown, West Virginia, August, 1997), pp. 243-250. Morgantown, West
Virginia: West Virginia University, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1997.
Francken, L., and A. Vanelstraete. Interface Systems to Prevent Reflective Cracking, in Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements (Nottingham, England),
pp. 45-60. Nottingham: Int. Soc. Asphalt Pavements, 1992.
Franco, S. de Bouva, A. Fontana Margarido and L. Scandiuzzi. Distncia entra juntas Do
problema trmico em barragens tipo CCR: determina da distncia entre juntas de retrao,
Revista Ibracon, IV(9), 20-25 (Octubro/Novembro, 1994).
Frayne, M. A., and D. Z. Mraz. Calibration of a Numerical Model for Different Potash Ores, in
Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on Rock Mechanics (Aachen, Germany, September, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 471-475. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Frew, B. Soft Ground NATM in Hong Kong, World Tunnelling, 9(9), 399-401 (November, 1996).
Frueh, R. H., and K. J. Wissman. Gambling on the Ground: Marine Geotechnical Engineering for
a Riverboat Gaming Facility, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th U.S. Rock
Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 1653-1657. P. J. Culligan,
H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Frydman, S., and H. J. Burd. Numerical Studies of Bearing-Capacity Factor N {gamma},
J. Geotech. & Geoenv. Eng., 123(1), 20-29 (January, 1997).
Gale, W. J. A Pillar Design Approach, in Proceedings of the Workshop on Coal Pillar Mechanics
and Design (Santa Fe, June, 1992), pp. 188-195. A. T. Iannacchione et al., Compilers. U.S. Bureau
of Mines, Information Circular 9315, 1992.
Garratt, M. H. Computer Modelling as a Tool for Strata Control and Reinforcement Design,
IM&M, 2(14), 45-54 (1999).
Gee, R. A., and S. Wille. Design and Construction of Sydney Northside Storage, World Tunn.,
13(1), 29-35 (January/February) (2000).
Genis, M., and H. Gercek. A Numerical Study of Seismic Damage to Deep Underground Openings, in Technology Roadmap for Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the
ISRM, Johannesburg, September 2003), Vol. 1, pp. 351-355. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Gentet, P., R. Gourves, P. Pouget and P. Reiffsteck. Large-Scale Test on a Three-Dimensional
Geotextile Reinforced Earth Wall near Charade (Puy de Dome), in Rencontres 95, Gotextiles et
Gomembranes (Beaune, France, September, 1995), pp. 116-122. Ph. Delmas and J. P. Gourc,
Eds. Paris: Comit Francais pour les Gotextiles et Gomembranes, 1995.
6 - 16
Users Guide
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 17
Hajiabdolmajid, V., and P. K. Kaiser. Modelling Slopes in Brittle Rock, in NARMS-TAC 2002:
Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Vol. 1, pp. 331-338. R. Hammah, et al.,
Eds. Toronto: University of Toronto Press (2002).
Hajiabdolmajid, V., et al. Modelling Brittle Failure of Rock, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39,
731-741 (2002).
Hajiabdolmajid, V., C. D. Martin and P. K. Kaiser. Modelling Brittle Failure of Rock, in Pacific
Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of the 4th North American Rock Mechanics
Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000), pp. 991-998. J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2000).
Hajiabdolmajid, V., and P. Kaiser. Brittleness of Rock and Stability Assessment in Hard Rock
Tunneling, Tunnel. & Underground Space Tech., 18, 35-48 (2003).
Hakami, E., and S.-O. Olofsson. Thermo-Mechanical Effects around a Radioactive Waste Repository, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference,
Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 311-316. C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (1999).
Hakami, H. Rock Characterisation Facility (RCF) Shaft Sinking Numerical Computations
Using FLAC, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 38, 59-65 (2001).
Halim, I. S., and W. P. Chen. The Use of Numerical Method in the Design of Large Underground
Tunnel and Chamber in Rock, in Rock Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of the
38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 2, pp. 1079-1086.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Hammoud, I., and P. Scharff. Experiments on Small-Scale Models and Comparison with Calculations with the Finite Difference Method (FLAC), in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France,
October 2001), pp. 215-222. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Hardy, M. P., M. Lin and K. Black. Hydrologic Stability Study of the Crown Pillar, Carndon
Deposit, in Support of Mine Permit Application, in Rock Mechanics for Industry (Proceedings
of the 37th U.S. Rock Mech. Symp., Vail, Colorado, June, 1999), Vol. 1, pp. 473-480. Bernard
Amadei et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Hart, R. Enhancing Rock Stress Understanding through Numerical Analysis, Int. J. Rock Mech.
& Min. Sci., 40, 1089-1097 (2003).
Hart, R. D. Pile-Supported Foamed Concrete Highway Embankment, presented at The 33rd Annual Southeastern Transportation Geotechnical Engineering Conference, Roanoke, Virginia 2001.
Hashash, Y. M. A., and R. F. Cook. Effective Stress Analysis of Super Collider Tunnels, in
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, pp. 2615-2620. H. J. Siriwardane and M. M.
Zaman, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1994.
6 - 18
Users Guide
Hatami, K., and R. J. Bathurst. Frequency Response Analysis of Reinforced-Soil Retaining Walls,
in Proceedings of the 8th Canadian Conference on Earthquake Engineering (Vancouver, June
1999), pp. 341-346. Vancouver: CAEE/ACGS (1999).
Hatami, K., and R. J. Bathurst. Effect of Structural Design on Fundamental Frequency of
Reinforced-Soil Retaining Walls, Soil Dyn. & Earthquake Eng., 19, 137-157 (2000).
Hatami, K., and R. J. Bathurst. Investigation of Seismic Response of Reinforced Soil Retaining
Walls, in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics (Rolla, Missouri, March 2001), Paper No. 7.18.
Rolla, Missouri: University of Missouri-Rolla (2001).
Hatami, K., and R. J. Bathurst. Modeling Static Response of a Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil
Segmental Retaining Wall Using FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001),
pp. 223-231. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Hatami, K., R. J. Bathurst and T. Allen. A Calibrated FLAC Model for Geosynthetic Reinforced
Soil Modular Block Walls at the End of Construction, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario,
Canada, October 2003), pp. 251-259. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Hatami, K., R. J. Bathurst and P. Di Pietro. Static Response of Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls
with Nonuniform Reinforcement, Int. J. Geomech., 1(4), 477-506 (2001).
Hatami, K., et al. Numerical Study of Retaining Walls with Non-Uniform Reinforcement, in
EuroGeo 2000 (Proceedings of the 2nd European Geosynthetics Conference, Bologna, October
2000), Vol. 1, pp. 219-224. Rome: AGI (2000).
Hatami, K., and G. P. Raymond. Numerical Simulation of Foundation Response to Footing Pressure, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 1785-1792. P. J. Culligan, H. H. Einstein and A. J.
Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Hatzor, Y. H., M. Talesnick and M. Tsesarsky. Continuous and Discontinuous Stability Analysis
of the Bell-Shaped Caverns at Bet Guvrin, Israel, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39, 867-886
(2002).
Hazard, J. F., S. C. Maxwell and R. P. Young. Development of a Finite Difference Model to
Simulate Unstable Slip on a Fault in a Granite Block, University of Keele, Applied Seismology
and Rock Physics Laboratory, 1995.
Henry, E., and C. Dahner-Lindqvist. Footwall Stability at the LKABs Kiruna Sublevel Caving
Operation, Sweden, in MassMin 2000 Proceedings (Brisbane, October-November 2000), pp.
527-533. Carlton, Victoria, Australia: AusIMM (2000).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 19
Ho, S., T. Henderson and E. Li. Construction of Two Road Underpasses at Ma On Shan, Hong
Kong SAR, in Underground Space for Sustainable Urban Development (Proceedings of the
30th ITA-AITES World Tunnel Congress, Singapore, May 2004), Paper No. G05. J. N. Shirlaw,
J. Zhao and R. Krishnan, Eds. ITA-AITES (2004).
Hobbs, B. E., and A. Ord. Numerical Simulation of Shear Band Formation in a Frictional-Dilational
Material, Ingenieur-Archiv, 59, 209-220 (1989).
Hkmark, H. Numerical Study of the Performance of Tunnel Plugs, in Preprints of Contributions
to the Workshop on Computational Methods in Engineering Geology (Lund, Sweden, October
1996), pp. 212-221. R. Pusch and R. Adey, Eds. Lund: Clay Technology (1996).
Holland, K. L., and L. J. Lorig. Numerical Examination of Empirical Rock-Mass Classification
Systems, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 212 (1997).
Howell, G. C., and H. A. D. Kirsten. The Comparison of Numerical Plastic Analysis to Limit
Equilibrium and Closed-Form Elastic Solutions for the Design of Soil-Nailed Walls, in The Application of Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 69-79. Pretoria: ISRM-SANG,
1994.
Huang, H., B. Damjanac and E. Detournay. Normal Wedge Indentation in Rocks with Lateral
Confinement, Rock Mech. Rock Engng., 31(2), 81-94 (1998).
Huang, H., B. Damjanac and E. Detournay. Numerical Modeling of Normal Wedge Indentation in
Rocks with Lateral Confinement, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 064 (1997).
Humphreys, M. P., and L. W. Armstrong. Assessing the Sensitivity of Numerical Models Using
Response Surface Methodology, in Probabilistic Methods in Geotechnical Engineering (Proceedings of the Conference, Canberra, February, 1993), pp. 135-144. K. S. Li and S. -C. R. Lo,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Iannacchione, A. T. Numerical Simulation of Coal Pillar Loading with the Aid of a StrainSoftening Finite Difference Model, in Rock Mechanics as a Guide for Efficient Utilization of
National Resources, pp. 775-782. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1989.
Iannacchione, A. T., and L. E. Vallejo. Stress and Behavior of Material under Direct Shear, in
Rock Mechanics as a Multidisciplinary Science (Proceedings of the 32nd U.S. Symposium, July,
1991), pp. 549-558. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Inel, S., W. H. Roth and C. de Rubertis. Nonlinear Dynamic Effective-Stress Analysis of Two
Case Histories, in Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Case Histories in
Geotechnical Engineering (St. Louis, June, 1993), pp. 1735-1741. Rolla, Missouri: University
of Missouri-Rolla, 1993.
International Geomechanical Commission (Fairhurst, C., E. T. Brown, G. de Marsily, E. Detournay,
V. Nikolaevskiy, J. R. A. Pearson and L. Townley). Underground Nuclear Testing in French Polynesia: Stability and Hydrology Issues, Vols. I-III. Report to the French Government, November,
1998.
6 - 20
Users Guide
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 21
6 - 22
Users Guide
Klar, A., and I. Einav. Pile Installation Using FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario,
Canada, October 2003), pp. 273-278. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Klar, A., and S. Frydman. 3D Formulation for Dynamic Lateral Soil Pile Interaction Using 2D
FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 71-77. D. Billaux, et al., Eds.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Kochen, R. Modelagem Numrica de Escavacoes Subterrneas em Solos e Rochas, in 1994
INFOGEO (Simpsio de Informtica em Geotgecnia), pp. 187-196. Sao Paulo: Associao
Brasileira de Mecnica Dos Solos Ncleo Regional de So Paulo, 1994.
Kochen, R., and A. Negro, Jr. Numerical Modelling of a Tunnel in Soft Porous Clay, in Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground (Proceedings of the International
Symposium, London, April, 1996), pp. 549-552. R. J. Mair and R. N. Taylor, Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Konietzky, H. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis for Temporary Underground Nuclear Waste Storage
in the Czech Republic, Itasca Consultants GmbH, 1997.
Konietzky, H. (with H. Bock, H. Dannemann, U. Estermann, W. Lange and F. Pohl). Numerical
Modelling of the Behaviour of Soft Ground for a Near-Surface Tunnelling Project in the Rhine/Ruhr
District, Interfels News, 9, 1-10 (January, 1994).
Konietzky, H., et al. Thermo-Mechanical Coupled Scoping Calculations for Tunnels, in FLAC
and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis,
September 1999), pp. 325-329. C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Konietzky, H., K. Lorenz and W. Witter. Simulation of Landslide Movement Based on a Multidisciplinary Approach, Felsbau, 22(2), 23-32 (2004).
Konietzky, H., L. te Kamp and P. Kamlot. A Simple Procedure to Model Flow through Fractures and Double Porosity and Its Practical Application, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 141-145.
C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Konietzky, von H., and F. Rummel. Kalibrierte numerische Spannungsfeld-modellierungen,
Geotechnik, 16, 6-11 (1993).
Kramer, J. M., G. J. Karabin and M. T. Hoch. The Fracture Mechanics Approach to Understanding
Support in Underground Coal Mines, in Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on
Coal Pillar Mechanics and Design (Vail, Colorado, June 1999), pp. 115-137. C. Mark et al., Eds.
Pittsburgh: NIOSH (1999).
Krenn, F., and J. Golser. Numerical Calculations of Support Loading Due to Long-Term Rock
Mass Behaviour, in Rock Engineering: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of ISRM Regional
Symposium EUROCK 2004 & 53rd Geomechanics Colloquy, Salzburg, Austria, October 2004),
pp. 753-758. W. Schubert, Ed. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2004).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 23
6 - 24
Users Guide
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 25
Leitao, N. S., and L. R. Sousa. Repowering of the Miranda Hydroelectric Project Numerical
Investigations for the Analysis of the New Underground Structures, in Geoecology and Computers (Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advances of Computer Methods in
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Moscow, February 2000), pp. 113-120. S. A.
Yufin, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Leite, M. H., R. Corthsy, D. E. Gil and G. Beaupr. Reducing the Amount of Cement in Backfilled
Stopes, in CAMI95 (Proceedings of the Third Canadian Conference on Computer Applications
in the Mineral Industry, Montral, October, 1995), pp. 340-347. H. S. Mitri, Ed. Montral:
McGill University Press, 1995.
Lemos Vieira., J., and L. R. Sousa. FLAC Modeling of Shallow Tunnels Under Seismic Action, in
FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International
FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 93-99. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema (2001).
Li, L., et al. Modeling Arching Effects in Narrow Backfilled Stopes with FLAC, in FLAC and
Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC
Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 211-219. R. Brummer, et al., Eds.
Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Li, T., S. Hewson and F. Pothitos. Design and Optimisation of Cadia Hill Open Pit, Cadia
Valley Operations, Newcrest Mining Limited, in Harnessing Technology by Managing Data and
Information (Proceedings of the 5th Large Open Pit Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia,
November 2003), pp. 123-125. C. Workman-Davies and E. Chanda, Eds. Carlton: AUSIMM
(2003).
Lima, A. P., A. S. F. J. Sayo and D. M. S. Gerscovich. Deformability Analysis of Nailed
Soil Slopes, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th U.S. Rock Mechanics
Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 2127-2132. P. J. Culligan, H. H. Einstein
and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Lindblom, U. E. Design Criteria for the Brooklyn Union Gas Storage Caverns at JFK Airport,
New York, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 173 (1997).
Lobos, C. V., and E. F. Guerrero. Anlisis de Estabilidad Esquina Noreste Mina Escondida,
presented at The 4th Chilean Conference on Geotechnical Engineering, Valparaiso, Chile, October
1997.
Lorig, L. Lessons Learned from Slope Stability Studies, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling
in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 17-21.
C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Lorig, L. The Roles and Necessary Capabilities of Numerical Methods for Design Analysis
of Excavations in Rock, in Proceedings of the VII National Congress on Soil Mechanics and
Cement Engineering (Lima, December, 1993), pp. 1-17. Lima: Servicomp Publicaciones, 1993.
6 - 26
Users Guide
Lorig, L. J. Analysis of Novel Retaining Structures Using Explicit Finite Difference Codes,
in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference, Cairns, Australia, May, 1991), pp. 157-164. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Lorig, L. J. Modeling of Support Structures in Hard Rock, in Kalliomekaniikan Paiva 1990
(Finnish Rock Mechanics Day 1990), Paper No. 9. Espoo, Finland: Vuorimiesyhdistys Bergsmannaforeningen r.y., 1990.
Lorig, L. J. Rock Reinforcement: Mechanical Representations and Use in Finite Difference
Element Schemes, in Underground Engineering 1988, pp. 223-232. Roorkee, India: Central
Building Research Institute, 1988.
Lorig, L., and P. Varona. Practical Slope-Stability Analysis Using Finite-Difference Codes, in
Slope Stability in Surface Mining, pp. 115-124. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A.
Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton, Colorado: SME (2000).
Loui, J. P., and P. R. Sheorey. Estimation of Non-Effective Width for Different Panel Shapes in
Room and Pillar Extraction, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39(1), 95-99 (2002).
Lundholm, B. E., and E. Nordlund. The Effect of Overcoring on Elastic Properties and Evaluated
Stress Components, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000), Paper No. UW0953. Lancaster,
Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Ma, F. Axial Tension Development in the Liner of a Proposed Cedar Hills Regional Municipal
Solid Waste Landfill Expansion, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003
(Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October
2003), pp. 279-285. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Ma, F. The Usability Analyses of HDPE Leachate Collection Pipes in a Solid Waste Landfill, in
FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International
FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 287-293. R. Brummer, et al.,
Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
MacLaughlin, M. M., R. B. Langston and T. M. Brady. Numerical Geomechanical Modeling
for Stillwater Mine, Nye, Montana, in Rock Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of
the 38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 423-432.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Malan, D. F., and K. Drescher. Modeling the Post-Failure Relaxation Behaviour of Hard Rock,
in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of the 4th North American Rock
Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000), pp. 909-917. J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema (2000).
Mandl, G. Shear Joints vs Faults, in Faulting in Brittle Rocks, an Introduction to the Mechanics
of Tectonic Faults, pp. 357-375. Berlin: Springer-Verlag (2000).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 27
Martin, C. D., and P. K. Kaiser (Compilers). Mine-by Experiment Committee Report, Phase 1:
Excavation Response Summary and Implications, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, AECL11382, COG-95-347 (1996).
Martin, G. R., and I. P. Lam. Earthquake Resistant Design of Foundations Retrofit of Existing
Foundations, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical
& Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000), Invited Paper, Vol. 1, pp. 1025-1047.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Martin, L., et al. Evaluation of Instrumented Cable Bolts in Cement Grout to Determine Physical
and Numerical Modeling Properties, U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention, Report of Investigations 9662, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2004-140
(2004).
Martinez, R. E., F. J. Buggy and C. P. Gupton. Case History of Ground Improvement for Construction and Hydrotesting of a Large LNG Tank in Puerto Rico, in Foundations and Ground
Improvement (Proceedings of a Special Conference, Virginia Polytechnic University, June 2001),
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 113, pp. 580-594. T. L. Brandon, Ed. Reston, Virginia:
ASCE (2001).
Maxwell, S. C., and R. P. Young. Propagation Effects of an Underground Excavation, Tectonophysics, 289, 17-30 (1998).
Mayeur, B., and D. Fabre. Measurement and Modelling of In-Situ Rock Stresses in the Ambin
Massif, Franco-Italian Alps, in Rock Mechanics for Industry (Proceedings of the 37th U.S. Rock
Mech. Symp., Vail, Colorado, June, 1999), Vol. 2, pp. 1157-1163. Bernard Amadei et al., Eds.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
McCullough, N. J., S. E. Dickenson and P. B. Pizzimenti. The Seismic Modeling of Sheet Pile
Bulkheads for Waterfront Applications, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001),
pp. 61-69. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Millar, D. L. Automated Back Analysis of Ground Response in Rocks and Soils via Evolutionary
Computing, in Prediction and Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 2,
pp. 983-990. G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Millar, D. L., and P. A. Calderbank. On the Investigation of a Multilayer Feedforward Neural
Network Model of Rock Deformability Behaviour, in Proceedings of the Eighth International
Congress on Rock Mechanics (Tokyo, September, 1995), Vol. II, pp. 933-938. T. Fujii, Ed.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1995.
6 - 28
Users Guide
Minkley, W., et al. A Visco-Elasto-Plastic Softening Model and Its Application for Solving
Static and Dynamic Stability Problems in Potash Mining, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France,
October 2001), pp. 21-27. D. Billaux et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Mitchell, C. L. B., and M. A. Nykamp. Shoring Analysis, Design and Construction at the Seattle
Symphonys Benaroya Hall, in Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Case
Histories in Geotechnical Engineering (St. Louis, March 1998), pp. 697-703 (1998).
Mitra, R., E. C. Westman and M. J. Mrugala. Use of Numerical Modeling in Longwall Roof
Performance Analysis, in Gulf Rocks 2004: Rock Mechanics across Borders & Disciplines
(Proceedings of the 6th NARMS Conference, Houston, June 2004). D. P. Yale, S. M. Willson
and A. S. Abou-Sayed, Eds. Paper no. ARMA/NARMS 04-518 (2004).
Mohammad, N., P. W. Lloyd and D. J. Reddish. Longwall Surface Subsidence Prediction through
Numerical Modelling, in Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Ground Control
in Mining (Morgantown, West Virginia, August, 1997), pp. 33-42. Morgantown, West Virginia:
West Virginia University, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1997.
Mrugala, M. J. Steel Set Loads Analysis, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of the 4th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000),
pp. 605-612. J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Mrugala, M. J., and Y. M. A. Hashash. Performance and Modeling of a Shaft in Taylor Marl, in
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Vol. 3, pp. 2615-2620. H. J. Siriwardane
and M. M. Zaman, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1994.
Mller, W. Entstehungsbedingungen fr Liegendschlaege, Glckauf-Forschungshefte, 51(3),
111-118 (1990).
Mller, W. Kopplung von Abso lutspannungsmessungen mit gebirgsmechanischen Berechnungen, Glckauf-Forschungshefte, 51(6), 271-276 (1990).
Mller, W. Loesung von Ausbaufragen mittles kombinierter Modelltechnik, Felsbau, 12(3),
182-188 (1994).
Mller, W. Mathematisches Modell zur Beschreiung von Streckenverformungen, GlckaufForschungshefte, 54(3), 101-106 (1993).
Mller, W. Nachtraegliche Basisabdichtung einer Deponie mit dem Streblangfrontverfahren aus
geotechnischer Sicht, in Abdichtung von Deponien und Altlasten, pp. 593-605. Berlin: EFVerlag fr Energie- und Umvelttechnik GmbH, 1992.
Mller, W. Numerical Simulation of Rock Bursts, Mining Science and Technology, 12, 27-42
(1991).
Mller, W., and H. Meiners. Nachbildung von Gebirgsschlaegen und Gasausbrchen, GlckaufForschungshefte, 53(1), 16-20 (1992).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 29
Mller, W., and J. Vasters. Die Nachbildung des Gebirgsschlags im Physikalischen und Numerischen Modell, Glckauf-Forschungshefte, 53(4), 164-168 (1992).
Muralha, J. The Influence of Mechanical and Geometrical Variability in Rock Mass Deformability, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 200 (1997).
Nagelhout, A. C. G., and J. P. A. Roest. Investigating Fault Slip in a Model of an Underground
Gas Storage Facility, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 212 (1997).
Nakagawa, M., Y. Jiang and T. Esaki. Application of Large-Strain Analysis for Prediction of
Behavior of Tunnels in Soft Rock, in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Vol.
2, pp. 1309-1314. J.-X. Yuan, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
Newcomb, S. R., et al. Pit Slope Stability and Ground Movements Associated with the Development of Loy Yang Power Mine, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on
Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000). Lancaster, Pennsylvania:
Technomic Publishing (2000).
Noor, M., P. W. Lloyd and D. J. Reddish. Longwall Surface Subsidence Prediction through
Numerical Modelling, in Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Ground Control
in Mining (Morgantown, West Virginia, August, 1997), pp. 33-42. Morgantown, West Virginia:
West Virginia University, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1997.
Noorany, I., S. Frydman and C. Detournay. Prediction of Soil Slope Deformation Due to Wetting,
in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Conference, Minneapolis, September 1999), pp. 101-107. C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(1999).
OConnor, C. P., et al. FLAC Numerical Simulations of the Behavior of a Spray-on Liner for
Rock Support, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the
3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 295-299.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
OHearn, B., D. Morrison, G. Allan, M. Board and R. Hart. Use of Numerical Modeling in Mine
Design at Falconbridge, Ltd., SME Annual Meeting (Phoenix, January, 1988), Geomechanics,
Session II, 1988.
Ord, A. Deformation of Rock: A Pressure-Sensitive, Dilatant Material, PAGEOPH, 137(4),
337-366, 1991.
Ord, A. Fluid Flow through Patterned Shear Zones, in Computer Methods and Advances in
Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 7th International Conference, Cairns, Australia, May, 1991),
Vol. 1, pp. 393-398. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Ord, A. Mechanical Controls on Dilatant Shear Zones, in Deformation Mechanisms, Rheology
and Tectonics (Geological Society Special Publication No. 54), pp. 183-192. London: Geological
Society, 1990.
6 - 30
Users Guide
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 31
Pine, R. J., and P. N. Arnold. Application of Risk Assessment Methods to Underground Excavations, in Prediction and Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of
ISRM International Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 2, pp. 1189-1196.
G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Pine, R. J., F. Desaintpaul and J. C. Sharp. An Assessment of the Static and Dynamic Stability
of a Neolithic (6,000 Year Old) Rockfill Burial Mound, in Prediction and Performance in Rock
Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium EUROCK 96,
Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 1, pp. 621-625. G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Pine, R. J., and I. G. T. Thin. Probabilistic Risk Assessment in Mine Pillar Design, in Innovative
Mine Design for the 21st Century (Proceedings of the International Congress on Mine Design,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada, August, 1993), pp. 363-373. W. F. Bawden and J. F. Archibald, Eds.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Poisel, R., A. H. Zettler and W. Unterberger. Tunnelling in Landslides, in Prediction and Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium
EUROCK 96, Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 1, pp. 667-674. G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema, 1996.
Poulsen, B. A., and H. Guo. Numerical Modeling of Longwall Coal Mining through a Weak to
Strong Transition in Strength of Immediate Roof Strata, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France,
October 2001), pp. 287-293. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Pound, C., and J. P. Beveridge. Recent Experiences of the Prediction of Tunneling Induced Ground
Movement, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the
3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 161-167.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Puebla, H., and U. D. Atukorala. Effect of Liquefaction and Soil-Structure Interaction on Response
Spectra, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 79-85. D. Billaux, et al., Eds.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Purwodihardjo, A., and B. Cambou. Prediction of Deformations Induced by Tunneling Using a
Time-Dependent Model, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp.
45-53. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Raffield, M. P., J. V. James, I. Humphries and A. K. Issac. Model Input Parameter Selection through
Instrumentation and Back Analysis of Large Excavation Failure in a Deep Level South African Gold
Mine, in Innovative Mine Design for the 21st Century (Proceedings of the International Congress
on Mine Design, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, August, 1993), pp. 641-652. W. F. Bawden and J. F.
Archibald, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
6 - 32
Users Guide
Ralser, S., B. Hobbs and A. Ord. Computer Modelling of Microfabric Development in Polycrystalline Aggregates, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Deformation of Crustal
Rocks (Mt. Buffalo, Australia, February, 1987), pp. 33-34. Sydney: Geological Society of
Australia, 1987.
Ralser, S., B. E. Hobbs and A. Ord. Computer Simulation of Texture Development in Polycrystalline Aggregates with a Single Slip System, in Proceedings of the Eighth International
Conference on Textures of Materials (Santa Fe, September, 1987), pp. 289-294. Warrendale,
Pennsylvania: Metallurgical Society, Inc., 1988.
Ranjith, P. G., et al. A Parametric Study on Groundwater Flow towards a Tunnel: Using Finite
Difference Method, in Rock Engineering: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of ISRM Regional
Symposium EUROCK 2004 & 53rd Geomechanics Colloquy, Salzburg, Austria, October 2004),
pp. 793-796. W. Schubert, Ed. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2004).
Reddish, D. J., L. R. Stace and M. R. Asef. Rock-Support Interaction Analysis Using a Model
with a Pressure-Dependent Deformation Modulus, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim
(Proceedings of the 4th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000),
pp. 99-103. J. Girard et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Reddish, D. J., L. R. Stace and D. N. Whittles. Numerical Modelling of Longwall Panels as an Aid
to Mine Layout Design, presented at The 105th Annual CIM General Meeting, Montreal, 2003.
Ribeiro e Sousa, L., et al. The Lisbon Metro Yellow Line Extension. Structural Behavior of
the Ameixoeira Station, in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th U.S. Rock
Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 2329-2336. P. J. Culligan,
H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Riddick, G. A., and C. W. Behling. Cylinder Pile Wall Reeves Drive Grand Forks, North
Dakota: A Case History, in Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Geotechnical Conference (University
of Minnesota, February 2004), pp. 135-147. J. F. Labuz and J. G. Bentler, Eds. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota, Dept. of Civil Engineering/Minnesota Geotechnical Society/Geo-Institute
of ASCE (2004).
Rodino, A., and M. Barale. Numerical Simulation of Reinforcement Elements and Jointed Rock
Mass Interaction, in Prediction and Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 2,
pp. 983-990. G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Rodrguez-Ortiz, J. M., P. Varona and P. Velasco. Modeling of Anhydrite Swelling with FLAC, in
FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International
FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 55-62. R. Brummer, et al.,
Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Roest, J. P. A., W. Kamp, H. Zhongjie and M. J. Cockram. Basic Research for the Destressing of
the Rock Ring Surrounding a Gallery Under Severe Stress, in Rock at Great Depth, pp. 517-525.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1989.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 33
Rosengren, L., et al. Modeling Effects of Accidental Explosions in Rock Tunnels, in Technology
Roadmap for Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg,
September 2003), Vol. 2, pp. 985-990. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Roth, W., A. Stirbys, C. de Rubertis and R. Ellis. Performance of a Braced Excavation in Siltstone,
in Proceedings: Third International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering
(St. Louis, June, 1993), Vol. II, pp. 807-816. S. Prakash, Ed. Rolla, Missouri: University of
Missouri-Rolla, 1993.
Roth, W. H., S. Babendererde and S. Inel. An Evaluation of EPB Muck Removal Systems,
presented at The North American 96 Tunnelling Conference, 1996.
Roth, W. H., and A. Delnik. Numerical Modeling of a Crib-Wall Failure, in Proceedings of the
Fourth International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering (St. Louis,
March 1998), pp. 746-754 (1998).
Roth, W., et al. Analysis of Tunnel Response to Adjacent Shaft Excavation, in Tunnels for People
(Proceedings of World Congress 97, 23rd General Assembly of the International Tunnelling
Association, Vienna, April 1997), Vol. 1, pp. 139-144. J. Golser, W. J. Hinkel and W. Schubert,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
Roth, W., R. Poisel and A. H. Zettler. Comparison between Analytical and Numerical Stability
Analyses Using FLAC for Shallow Tunnels in Soft Rock, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France,
October 2001), pp. 399-402. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Roth, W., et al. Performance of a Braced Excavation in Siltstone, in Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St. Louis, June 1993),
Vol. II, pp. 807-816. S. Prakash, Ed. Rolla: University of Missouri-Rolla (1993).
Roth, W. H., S. Inel, C. Davis and G. Brodt. Upper San Fernando Dam 1971 Revisited, in 1993
Annual Conference Proceedings of the Association of State Dam Safety Officials, pp. 49-60.
D. W. Darnton and S. C. Plathby, Eds. Lexington, Kentucky: Assoc. of State Dam Safety Officials,
1993.
Rothenburg, L., M. A. Frayne and D. Z. Mraz. Application of Two and Three Dimensional
Numerical Models for Intact Salt Rock, in Innovative Mine Design for the 21st Century (Proceedings of the International Congress on Mine Design, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, August
1993), pp. 609-620. W. F. Bawden and J. F. Archibald, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Roventa, M., G. Buia and G. O. Madear. Geomechanics Studies on the Stability of Final Slopes in
Rovinari Open-Pits, in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov,
Czech Republic, November 1996), pp. 133-138. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(1997).
Ruest, M. R., et al. The Design of a Backpacked Tunnel against Dynamic Loading, in NARMSTAC 2002: Mining and Tunnelling Innovation and Opportunity, Vol. 1, pp. 211-218.
R. Hammah, et al., Eds. Toronto: University of Toronto Press (2002).
6 - 34
Users Guide
Ruest, M. R., P. P. Andrieux and B. P. Simser. Design of a Backpacked Tunnel Liner Using
FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 403-411. D. Billaux, et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Ruest, M., and L. Martin. FLAC Simulation of Split-Pipe Tests on an Instrumented Cable
Bolt, presented at The CIM Annual General Meeting Proceedings, Vancouver, April-May 2002),
www.cim.org (2002).
Russell, H. Active Role, New Civil Engr., pp. 16-17 (November 10, 1994).
Ryder, J. A., and M. U. Ozbay. Approximate Equivalent Moduli for Use in Modelling of Mining
in Elastic Layered Strata, in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Proceedings
of the 7th International Conference, Cairns, Australia, May, 1991), pp. 415-520. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1991.
Sainsbury, D. P., and Y. Cai. Numerical Analysis of Crown Pillar Recovery Techniques beneath
Paste Fill, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 295-301. D. Billaux, et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Sainsbury, D. P., et al. Investigation of the Geomechanical Criteria for Safe and Efficient Crown
Pillar Extraction beneath Stabilised Rockfill at the Crusader Mine, in Technology Roadmap for
Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg, September
2003), Vol. 2, pp. 1001-1006. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Sainsbury, D. P., M. E. Pierce and L. J. Lorig. Two- and Three-Dimensional Numerical Analysis
of the Interaction between Open-Pit Slope Stability and Remnant Underground Voids, in Harnessing Technology by Managing Data and Information (Proceedings of the 5th Large Open Pit
Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, November 2003), pp. 251-257. C. Workman-Davies
and E. Chanda, Eds. Carlton: AUSIMM (2003).
Sakakibara, T., M. Ujihira and K. Suzuki. Numerical Study on the Cause of a Slope Failure
at a Gravel Pit Using PFC and FLAC, in Numerical Modeling in Micromechanics via Particle
Methods 2004 (Proceedings of the 2nd International PFC Symposium, Kyoto, Japan, October
2004), pp. 51-55. Y. Shimizu, R. D. Hart and P. Cundall, Eds. Leiden: Balkema (2004).
Salzer, K., H. Konietzky and R.-M. Gnther. A New Creep Law to Describe the Transient and
Secondary Creep Phase, presented at The Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering: 4th
European Conference, Udine, Italy, October 1998.
Sard, A., G. Pasamehmetoglu and T. Bozdaj. Modelling of Earthquake Fault by a New Computer
Controlled Direct-Shear Apparatus, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 269
(1997).
Schiller, P., et al. Design of Steel Piles for Stabilization of the West Elk Mine Landslide, in
Proceedings of the 48th Annual Geotechnical Engineering Conference (University of Minnesota,
February 2000), pp. 97-120. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota/Minnesota Geotechnical
Society (2000).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 35
Schleinig, J.-P. Sitz, and Kraue. Numerical Analysis for the Evaluation of Openings for Waste
Disposal Purposes, in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov,
Czech Republic, November 1996), pp. 271-275. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(1997).
Sciarra, N., et al. Underground Cavity Design: The Case of Bressanone (Bozen, Italy), in FLAC
and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 413-419. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
Segalini, A. Numerical Modeling of Time Dependent Slow Moving Landslides in Colluvium, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd
International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 171-178. D. Billaux, et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Sevume, C. In Situ Instrumentation and Monitoring of the Deformation of a Tunnel in a Highly
Stressed Hard Rock Mass, in Proceedings of the 9th ISRM International Congress on Rock
Mechanics (Paris, 1999), Vol. 2, pp. 1429-1434. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Shukha, R., and R. Baker. Mesh Geometry Effects on Slope Stability Calculation by FLAC
Strength Reduction Method Linear and Non-Linear Failure Criteria, in FLAC and Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium,
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 109-116. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema
(2003).
Siebrits, E., M. W. Hildyard and A. Daehnke. Elastodynamics: Past, Present and Future, in The
Application of Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 9-12. Pretoria: ISRMSANG, 1994.
Siefert, M., and H. Wagner. Evaluation and Re-Dimensioning of Room and Pillar Workings in
an Underground Gypsum Mine, in Rock Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of
the 38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 337-342.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Sigl, O., and G. Atzl. Design of Bored Tunnel Linings for Singapore MRT North East Line C706,
Tunn. & Underground Space Tech., 14(4), 481-490 (1999).
Singh, R., P. R. Sheorey and D. P. Singh. Stability of the Parting between Coal Pillar Workings in
Level Contiguous Seams, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39(1), 9-39 (2002).
Sitharam, T. G., and G. M. Latha. Simulation of Excavations in Jointed Rock Masses Using a
Practical Equivalent Continuum Approach, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 39, 517-525 (2002).
Sjberg, J. Analysis of Failure Mechanisms in High Rock Slopes, in Proceedings of the 9th
ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics (Paris, 1999), Vol. 1, pp. 127-130. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (1999).
6 - 36
Users Guide
Sjberg, J. Failure Mechanisms for High Slopes in Hard Rock, in Slope Stability in Surface
Mining, pp. 71-80. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton,
Colorado: SME (2000).
Sjberg, J. Failure Modes and Pillar Behavior in the Zinkgruvan Mine, in Rock Mechanics
(Proceedings of the 33rd U.S. Symposium, Santa Fe, June, 1992), pp. 491-500. J. R. Tillerson
and W. R. Wawersik, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1992.
Sjberg, J., B. Leijon and S. D. McKinnon. Empirical Assessment of Failure Behaviour of Stopes
and Sill Pillars in Swedish Cut-and-Fill Mines, in Prediction and Performance in Rock Mechanics
& Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin,
September, 1996), Vol. 2, pp. 1109-1116. G. Barla, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Sjberg, J., and U. Norstrom. Slope Stability at Aitik, in Slope Stability in Surface Mining, pp.
203-212. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton, Colorado: SME
(2000).
Sjberg, J., J. C. Sharp and D. J. Malorey. Slope Stability at Aznalcollar, in Slope Stability
in Surface Mining, pp. 183-202. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds.
Littleton, Colorado: SME (2000).
Sjberg, J., et al. Stability Analysis of Ore Passes in the Kiirunavaara Mine, in Technology
Roadmap for Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of the 10th Congress of the ISRM, Johannesburg,
September 2003), Vol. 2, pp. 1093-1098. Johannesburg: SAIMM (2003).
Song, W. K., and K. C. Han. Optimal Design of Highway Slopes in a Highly Weathered Rock, in
Proceedings of the 9th ISRM Congress on Rock Mechanics (Paris, 1999), Vol. 1, pp. 131-133.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1999).
Song, W.-K., and J.-H. Kim. Ground Stability above the Old Mined Cavities, in Rock Engineering: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of ISRM Regional Symposium EUROCK 2004 &
53rd Geomechanics Colloquy, Salzburg, Austria, October 2004), pp. 759-763. W. Schubert, Ed.
Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2004).
Soto, C., J. C. Cereceda and F. Orcaistegui. Optimization of the Mining Business through Geomechanics: Two Case Histories, in Proud to Be Miners (Proceedings of MassMin 2004, Santiago,
August 2004), pp. 273-279. A. Karzulovic and M. A. Alfaro, Eds. Santiago: Mineria Chilena
(2004).
Stacey, T. R., and H. A. C. Meintjes. Application of Numerical Modelling to Assess Potential
Movements Resulting from Shallow Undermining, in The Application of Numerical Modeling in
Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 101-114. Pretoria: ISRM-SANG, 1994.
Stead, D., et al. Advanced Numerical Techniques in Rock Slope Stability Analysis Applications and Limitations, in Proceedings of the International Conference of Landslides Causes,
Impacts and Countermeasures (Davos, Switzerland, June 2001), pp. 615-624. Essen: Verlag
Glckauf (2001).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 37
Stewart, A., F. Wessels and S. Bird. Design, Implementation and Assessment of Open-Pit Slopes
at Palabora Over the Last 20 Years, in Slope Stability in Surface Mining, pp. 177-181. W. A.
Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton, Colorado: SME (2000).
Stewart, D. P., M. A. Coulthard and C. F. Swindells. Studies into the Influence of Underground
Workings on Open-Pit Slope Stability, in Rock Mechanics Tools and Techniques (Proceedings of
the 2nd North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Montral, June, 1996), Vol. 1, pp. 515522. M. Aubertin et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Strayer, L. M., P. J. Hudleston and L. J. Lorig. A Numerical Model of Deformation and Fluid-Flow
in an Evolving Thrust Wedge, Tectonophysics, 335, 121-145 (2001).
Sun, Y. Prediction of Long-Term Stability of Emplacement Drifts at Yucca Mountain, in Rock
Mechanics in the National Interest (Proceedings of the 38th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Washington, D.C., July 2001), Vol. 1, pp. 567-573. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Swan, G., and M. Board. Fill-Induced Post-Peak Pillar Stability, in Innovations in Mining
Backfill Technology, pp. 81-88. F. P. Hassani et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1989.
Swan, G., and R. Brummer. Backfill Design for Deep, Underhand Drift-and-Fill Mining, in
Minefill 2001 (Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Mining with Backfill), pp.
359-368. D. Stone, Ed. Littleton, Colorado: SME (2001).
Sweby, G. J., and J. W. Klokow. Rock Engineering Investigation into Aspects of Current Mining
Practice, and Proposed New Mining Method for a Namibian Base Metal Mine, in Prediction
and Performance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International
Symposium EUROCK 96, Turin, September, 1996), Vol. 2, pp. 1063-1069. G. Barla, Ed.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1996.
Sweby, G. J., and G. L. Smith. Realistic Rock Mass Strength Properties for Use in Inelastic
Numerical Modelling, in The Application of Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering,
pp. 31-36. Pretoria: ISRM-SANG, 1994.
Swift, G. M. Back Analysis through Numerical Modelling of a Sandstone Cave, in Rock Engineering: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of ISRM Regional Symposium EUROCK 2004 &
53rd Geomechanics Colloquy, Salzburg, Austria, October 2004), pp. 663-668. W. Schubert, Ed.
Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2004).
Swift, G. M., et al. Numerical Modelling of Rock Loaded to Failure above Underground Cavities,
in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000). Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Synn, J. H., et al. Design of Ground Reinforcement and Support of Shallow Tunnel in Heavily
Fractured Rock Mass, in Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock around the Rim (Proceedings of the 4th North
American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seattle, July-August 2000), pp. 619-623. J. Girard et al.,
Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
6 - 38
Users Guide
Talu, M. S., and A. D. Wilson. Innovative Mining Method, Related Support Systems and Quality
Assurance for Large Underground Crusher Excavation De Beers Finsch Mine, South Africa, in
Proud to Be Miners (Proceedings of MassMin 2004, Santiago, August 2004), pp. 356-362.
A. Karzulovic and M. A. Alfaro, Eds. Santiago: Mineria Chilena (2004).
te Kamp, L., H. Konietzky and P. Blmling Conceptual Modeling of Opalinus Clay with FLAC
and PFC, in Numerical Modeling in Micromechanics via Particle Methods (Proceedings of the
1st International PFC Symposium, Gelsenkirchen, Germany, November 2002), pp. 315-320.
H. Konietzky, Ed. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Thompson, R. J. The Location of Critical Slip Surfaces in Slope-Stability Problems, J. S. Afr.
Inst. Min. Metall., 93(4), 85-95 (April, 1993).
Tinucci, J. P., and B. Damjanac. Analysis of Mining-Induced Fault-Slip at the President Brand
Mine, Part I: Phase I Study, Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., Report to Anglo American Corporation,
Johannesburg (1992).
Tinucci, J. P., and A. J. S. Spearing. Strategies for Clamping Faults and Dikes in High Seismicity
Tabular Mining Conditions, in Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines 93 (Proceedings of the International Symposium, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, August, 1993), pp. 435-440. R. Paul Young,
Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Trueman, R., M. Pierce and R. Wattimena. Quantifying Stresses and Support Requirements in the
Undercut and Production Level Drifts of Block and Panel Caving Mines, Int. J. Rock Mech. &
Min. Sci., 39, 617-632 (2002).
Unterberger, W., P. A. Cundall and A. H. Zettler. Dynamic Substepping Increasing the Power
of Explicit Finite Difference Modelling, in Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (Wuhan, China, November 1997). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
Unterberger, W., B. Hochgatterer and R. Poisel. Numerical Prediction of Vibrations Caused by Rail
Traffic in Tunnels, in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov,
Czech Republic, November 1996), pp. 241-246. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema
(1997).
Unterberger, W., C. Honeger and A. Preh. Advanced Application of FLAC Analyses in Traffic
Vibration Prediction, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings
of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 87-92. D. Billaux,
et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Unterberger, W., R. Poisel and C. Honeger. Numerical Prediction of Surface Vibrations Caused
by High-Speed Rail Traffic in Tunnels, presented at The World Tunnel Congress (ITA), Vienna,
1997.
Vacek, J., and E. Westman. Experimental Study of Rock Mass Decomposition during Slip,
in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov, Czech Republic,
November 1996), pp. 129-132. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1997).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 39
Valdivia, C., and L. Lorig. Slope Stability at Escondida Mine, in Slope Stability in Surface
Mining, pp. 153-162. W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton,
Colorado: SME (2000).
van As, A., and A. R. Guest. Numerical Modeling As a Tool to Estimate Time-Dependent Slope
Failures, in The Application of Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 121-126.
Pretoria: ISRM-SANG, 1994.
van Hout, G. J., and A. R. Leach. Comparison of Bracket Pillars and Backfilling for Stabilising
Major Geological Structures in the Moab Area, Itasca Africa, Report to Vaal Reefs (1996).
van Hout, G., and A. R. Leach. Examination of Concrete Lining Failure in Production Drifts, Part
1: Two- Dimensional Modelling, Itasca Africa, Report to Kimberley and Koffiefontein Diamond
Mines (1996).
Vasak, P., and P. K. Kaiser. Tunnel Stability Assessment during Rockbursts, in CAMI95 (Proceedings of the Third Canadian Conference on Computer Applications in the Mineral Industry,
Montral, October, 1995), pp. 340-347. H. S. Mitri, Ed. Montral: McGill University Press, 1995.
Velasco, E., and L. Lorig. Evaluacin, Uso y Mejoras de los Modelos de Apernado en el Anlisis
de Excavaciones Subterrneas, in Integral Approach to Applied Rock Mechanics (Proceedings of
the 1994 ISRM International Symposium & IV Congreso Sudamericano de Mecanica de Rocas,
Santiago, May, 1994), Vol. 1, pp. 349-360. M. Van Sint Jan et al., Eds. Santiago: Sociedad
Chilena de Geotecnica SOCHIGE, 1994.
Vervoort, A., and B. Van De Steen. Support Interaction in an Underground Storage Facility of
Radioactive Waste in a Clay Layer, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics
2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001),
pp. 255-261. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Vieira, A., L. R. Sousa and J. Barreto. Numerical Investigations for the Analysis of a Large
Underground Station, in Geoecology and Computers (Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advances of Computer Methods in Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Moscow, February 2000), pp. 151-156. S. A. Yufin, Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2000).
Vitsupakorn, V. Initial Results of the Coupled Thermal-Mechanical Analyses of the Khlong Tha
Dan RCC Dam, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of
the 2nd International FLAC Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 179-187. D. Billaux,
et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (2001).
Voight, B., et al. The 26 December (Boxing Day) 1997 Sector Collapse and Debris Avalanche
at Soufrire Hills Volcano, Montserrat, in The Eruption of Soufrire Hills Volcano, Montserrat,
from 1995 to 1999, pp. 363-407. T. H. Druitt and B. P. Kokelaar, Eds. Memoirs, Vol. 21. London:
Geological Society of London (2002).
Voight, B. Structural Stability of Andesite Volcanoes and Lava Domes, Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. (a), 358, 1663-1703 (2000).
6 - 40
Users Guide
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 - 41
Whyatt, J. K., T. J. Williams and M. P. Board. Examination of the Support Potential of Cemented
Fills for Rockburst Control, in Innovations in Mining Backfill Technology, pp. 209-216. F. P.
Hassani et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1989.
Whyatt, J. K., T. J. Williams and M. P. Board. Rock Mechanics Investigations at the Lucky Friday
Mine (in Three Parts), U.S. Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations, RI-9433 (1992).
Wiesner, T. J. Airport Central Drained Basement, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000).
Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing (2000).
Wilkes, T. A. The Support of Highly Fractured Rock in Shallow Open Stopes at Koffiefontien
Mine, Orange Free State, Republic of South Africa, in Rock Support in Mining and Underground
Construction, pp. 177-183. P. K. Kaiser and D. R. McCreath, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1992.
Wilson, C. J. L., and Y. Zhang. Comparison between Experiment and Computer Modelling of
Plane-Strain Simple-Shear Ice Deformation, J. Glaciology, 40(134), 46-55 (1994).
Wong, F., D. Tennant, D. Lawver, D. Vaugh, J. Isenberg, L. Lorig, T. Brandshaug, J. Collins and
T. Hasselman. Analytical Support to Underground Technology Program (UTP) and Lethality
Assessment of Buried Structures Programs (LABS), DNA, DNA-TR-94-189, October, 1995.
Yang, D., E. Naesgaard and B. Gohl. Geotechnical Seismic Retrofit Design of Immersed George
Massey Tunnel (Paper No. 251), in Soil and Rock America 2003 (Proceedings of the 39th U.S.
Rock Mechanics Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, June 2003), pp. 2567-2574. P. J.
Culligan, H. H. Einstein and A. J. Whittle, Eds. Essen: Verlag Glckauf (2003).
Yang, Q. J., and B. de Wit. Settlement Prediction and Control of Multilevel Anchored Wall in
Alluvium and Weak Rock, in GeoEng 2000 (Proceedings of the International Conference on
Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, November 2000). Lancaster, Pennsylvania:
Technomic Publishing (2000).
Yap, T. Y., and C. Pound. A Numerical Study of the Influence of Piles in the Passive Zone
of Embedded Retaining Walls, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003
(Proceedings of the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October
2003), pp. 301-309. R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema (2003).
Yavuz, H. An Estimation Method for Cover Pressure Re-Establishment Distance and Pressure
Distribution in the Goaf of Longwall Coal Mines, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 41, 193-205
(2004).
Yavuz, H., and R. J. Fowell. Softening Effect of Coal on the Design of Yield Pillars, in FLAC
and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC
Conference, Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 313-320. D. Billaux, et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema (2001).
6 - 42
Users Guide
York, G. Towards a Three Dimensional Strike Stabilizing Pillar Model in FLAC, in The Application of Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 53-61. Pretoria: ISRM-SANG,
1994.
York, G., and G. L. Smith. Numerical Modeling of the Behaviour of Concrete Stabilising Pillars
Compared to Reef Pillars in Deep Level Narrow Reef Mining, in Rock Mechanics Models and
Measurements: Challenges from Industry (Proceedings of the 1st North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, The University of Texas at Austin, June, 1994), pp. 911-918. P. Nelson and
S. E. Laubach, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1994.
Yu, C. W., and J. C. Chern. Physical Modelling for Creep Parameters of Soft Rock, in Rock
Mechanics for Industry (Proceedings of the 37th U.S. Rock Mech. Symp., Vail, Colorado, June,
1999), Vol. 2, pp. 919-926. Bernard Amadei et al., Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Yumlu, M., and M. U. Ozbay. A Study of the Behaviour of Brittle Rocks Under Plane Strain and
Triaxial Loading Conditions, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 32(7), 725-733
(1995).
Zettler, A. H., and R. Poisel. The Effectivity of Rock Bolts in Tunnelling Demonstrated by Finite
Difference Models (UDEC, FLAC), in Geomechanics 96 (Proceedings of the International Conference, Roznov, Czech Republic, November 1996), pp. 247-252. Z. Rakowski, Ed. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema (1996).
Zhang, Y., B. E. Hobbs and A. Ord. A Numerical Simulation of Fabric Development in Polycrystalline Aggregates with One Slip System, J. Struct. Geol., 16(9), 1994.
Zhang, Y., B. E. Hobbs, A. Ord and H. B. Mhlhaus. Computer Simulation of Single-Layer
Buckling, J. Struct. Geol., 18(5), 643-655 (1996).
Zipf, R. K. Using a Postfailure Stability Criterion in Pillar Design, in Proceedings of the Second
International Workshop on Coal Pillar Mechanics and Design (Vail, Colorado, June 1999), pp.
181-192. C. Mark et al., Eds. Pittsburgh: NIOSH (1999).
Zipf, R. K. Jr. Pillar Design to Prevent Collapse of Room-and-Pillar Mines, in Underground
Mining Methods: Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies, pp. 493-511.
W. A. Hustrulid and R. L. Bullock, Eds. Littleton, Colorado: SME (2001).
COMMAND SUMMARY
1-1
1 COMMAND SUMMARY
1.1
FLAC Commands
1.1.1
CALL
lename
CONTINUE
GIIC
NEW
<keyword> <t>
PAUSE
QUIT
RESTORE
<lename>
RETURN
SAVE
<lename> <title>
SET
a us, a3, a4, aspect, aunb, autoname, back, beep, cd, columns, cust1, cust2, display, dxf,
echo, lcolor, foreground, giicpath, hbm, hbs, hisle, jrepath, legend, log, maxgiicmem,
message, ncont, ncwrite, output, overlay, overwrite, pagelength, paginate, pcx, plot, plta, pltc,
pltf, pltt, psterminator, range, replot, ucs, vector, xform
STOP
1.1.2
CONFIG
ats, axisymmetry, cppudm, creep, dynamic, extra n, gwow, p stress, thermal, tpow
1-2
1.1.3
ATTACH
aside <long> from i1, j1 to i2, j2 bside <long> from i3, j3 to i4, j4
GENERATE
<x1,y1 x2,y2 x3,y3 x4,y4> <ratio ri rj> <i = i1,i2 j = j1, j2>
<same> <same> <same> <same>
or
keyword value. . .
icol jrow
INITIAL
add, multiply, x, y
1.1.4
GROUP
MARK
i = i1,i2 j = j1,j2
UNMARK
i = i1,i2 j = j1,j2
1.1.5
INITIAL
biot mod, density, fmodulus, ftension, f2modulus, poro, udcoe, vga, vgpcnw, vgpcw, vgp0,
visrat, wk11, wk12, wk22, wpermeability
MODEL
keyword . . . <region i, j> <group name> <notnull> <i =i1, i2 j =j1, j2>
or
load lename
Mechanical Models
anisotropic, cam-clay, drucker, dy, elastic, nn, hoek-brown, mohr-coul, null, ss, subiquitous,
ubiquitous
COMMAND SUMMARY
1-3
atable, bulk, citable, hba, hbs, hbmb, hbsigci, hbs3cv, hb e3plas, hb ind, mtable,
multable, shear, stable, state
Mohr-Coulomb
bulk mod, cohesion, density, dilation, friction, shear mod, state, tension
Ubiquitous-Joint
bulk mod, cohesion, density, dilation, friction, jangle, jcohesion, jdilation, jfriction, jtension,
shear mod, state, tension
Strain-Hardening/Softening
bulk mod, cohesion, ctable, density, dilation, dtable, e plastic, et plastic, friction, ftable, shear mod,
state, tension, ttable
1-4
bijoint, bimatrix, bulk mod, c2table, cj2table, cjtable, co2, cohesion, ctable, d2table, density, di2,
dilation, dj2table, djtable, dtable, e plastic, ej plastic, et plastic, etj plastic, f2table, fjtable, fj2table,
fr2, friction, ftable, jangle, jc2, jcohesion, jd2, jdilation, jf2, jfriction, jtension, shear mod, state,
tension, tjtable, ttable
Double-Yield
bulk mod, cap pressure, cohesion, cptable, ctable, density, dilation, dtable, dy state, e plastic,
et plastic, ev plastic, friction, ftable, multiplier, shear mod, state, tension, ttable
Modified Cam-Clay
bulk current, bulk mod, cam p, cam q, density, ev plastic, ev tot, kappa, lambda, mm, mpc,
mp1, mv0, mv l, poiss, shear mod, sv
Finn
bulk, cohesion, density, dilation, ff c1, ff c2, ff c3, ff c4, ff count, ff evd, ff latency, ff switch,
friction, shear, state, tension
Creep
Classical Viscoelastic (Maxwell Substance)
act energy, a wipp, b wipp, bulk mod, d wipp, density, e dot star, e primary, gas c, n wipp,
shear mod, temp
Burger-Creep Viscoplastic Model
bulk mod, cohesion, density, dilation, e plastic, et plastic, friction, k exx, k eyy, k ezz, k exy,
k shear mod, k viscosity, shear mod, state, tension, viscosity
WIPP-Creep Viscoplastic Model
act energy, a wipp, b wipp, bulk mod, d wipp, density, e dot star, e plastic, e primary, gas c,
kshear, n wipp, qdil, qvol, shear mod, state, tension, temp
COMMAND SUMMARY
1-5
Crushed-Salt Model
act energy, a wipp, b f, b wipp, b0, b1, b2, bulk mod, d f, d wipp, density, e dot star, frac d,
gas c, n wipp, rho, s f, s g1, s k1, shear mod, temp
Groundwater Flow
biot c, k11, k12, k22, permeability, per table, porosity, por table, vol strain
Thermal
density
Isotropic Advection/Conduction
conductivity, econduct, espec heat, f qx, f qy, f rho, f t0, lconduct, lspec heat,
spec heat, thexp
Isotropic Heat Conduction
f thexp, g thexp
TABLE
WATER
1-6
1.1.6
INITIAL
dy damp, ex n, nwpp, pp, rsat, saturation, st damp, sxx, sxy, syy, szz, temperature, xdisplacement, xvelocity, ydisplacement, yvelocity
SET
3d damping, ats, biot, clock, crdt, creeptime, damping, datum, dy damping, dydt, dyn, dytime,
fastow, fastwb, shcall, ow, fobl, fobu, force, fpcoef, funsat, geometry, gravity, gwdt, gwtime,
implicit, large, latency, lmul, maxdt, mech, mindt, multistep, munb, nfunstep, ngw, nmech,
nther, seed, small, sratio, st damping, step, sym, synchronize, temperature, thdt, thermal,
tolint, umul, update
WATER
table
1.1.7
APPLY
ff, nacc, nquiet, nstress, nvelocity, pressure, sacc, squiet, sstress, svelocity, sxx, sxy, syy, xacc,
xforce, xquiet, xtraction, xvelocity, yacc, yforce, yquiet, ytraction, yvelocity
Groundwater Boundary Condition
discharge, leakage, pp
Two-Phase Flow Boundary Condition
nwdischarge, nwpp
Thermal Boundary Condition
COMMAND SUMMARY
1-7
remove
FIX
pp, well
Two-Phase Flow Boundary Condition
nwpp, nwwell
Thermal Boundary Condition
source
Removing Model Boundary Conditions
remove
1-8
1.1.8
beam
node
prop
area, density, e, height, i, pmom, radius, spacing, sycomp, syield, syresid, thexp,
width
chprop
range
hinge
Cable Keywords
cable
node
prop
area, density, e, kbond, perimeter, radius, sbond, sfriction, spacing, szz, thexp,
ycomp, yield
chprop
range
Liner Keywords
liner
node
prop
area, density, e, height, i, pratio, shape, spacing, sycomp, syield, syresid, thexp,
thickness, width
chprop
range
COMMAND SUMMARY
1-9
Pile Keywords
pile
node
prop
chprop
range
hinge
Rockbolt Keywords
rockbolt
node
prop
chprop
range
hinge
Strip Keywords
strip
node
prop
calwidth, density, e, fstar0, fstar1, nstrips, sigc0, strkbond, strsbond, strsctable, strsftable, strthickness, strwidth, strycomp, stryield, tfstrain
chprop
range
Support Keywords
support
prop
1 - 10
1.1.9
INTERFACE
n aside <long> from i1, j1 to i2, j2 bside <long> from i3, j3 to i4, j4
or
INTERFACE
DEFINE
function-name
END
OPT
TABLE
1.1.11
HISTORY
angle, crtime, dump, dytime, element, esxx, esxy, esyy, eszz, ex n, gpp, gwtime, hyst, limits,
list, max, node, pp, property, read, reset, sig1, sig2, sratio, ssi, ssi3d, ssr, ssr3d, sxx, sxy,
syy, szz, temperature, thtime, unbalance, vsi, vsr, vsxx, vsxy, vsyy, vszz, write, x, xacceleration,
xdisplacement, xvelocity, y, yacceleration, ydisplacement, yvelocity
TRACK
COMMAND SUMMARY
1.1.12
1 - 11
CYCLE
n
<continue>
SOLVE
age, aunb, auto, clock, continue, dytime, elastic, force, fos, geometry, implicit, munb, noage,
sratio, step, synchronize, temperature, update
STEP
n
<continue>
1.1.13
COPY
<lename>
LABEL
keyword value . . .
keyword
apply, attach, beam, boundary, cable, cforce, density, disp, dxf, estress, esxx, esxy, esyy, eszz,
ex n, fail, x, ow, fos, gnumber, grid, group, head, history, hoek, hold, hyst, iface, isomax,
isomin, label, liner, mark, mass, model, mohr, noheader, noscale, number, nwflow, nwpp,
overlay, pen, permeability, pile, plasticity, pp, region, rforce, rockbolt, saturation, sdif, sig1, sig2,
sline, sratio, ssi, ssi3d, ssr, ssr3d, state, stress, strip, structure, support, sxx, sxy, syy, szz,
table, tcont, temperature, theta, track, velocity, vsi, vsr, vstress, vsxx, vsxy, vsyy, vszz, water,
xdisp, xvel, ydisp, yvel
1 - 12
a wipp, a 1, a 2, act energy, angle, atable, b f, b wipp, b0, b1, b2, bijoint, bimatrix, biot c,
bulk cur- rent, bulk mod, cam p, cam q, cap pressure, citable, cjtable, cj2table, cohesion,
conductivity, con1, con2, co2, cptable, ctable, c2table, d f, d wipp, density, dilation, di2, djtable,
dj2table, dtable, d2table, dy state, e dot star, e plastic, e primary, econduct, ej plastic, especc heat, et plastic, etj plastic, ev plastic, ev tot, f qx, f qy, f t0, f thexp, ff c1, ff c2, ff c3,
ff c4, ff count, ff evd, ff latency, ff switch, fjtable, fj2table, frac d, friction, fr2, ftable, f2table,
g thexp, gas c, hba, hbs, hbmb, hbsigci, hbs3cv, hb e3plas, hb ind, jangle, jcohesion, jc2,
jdilation, jd2, jfriction, jf2, jtension, k exx, k eyy, k ezz, k exy, k shear mod, k viscosity, kappa,
kshear, k11, k12, k22, lambda, lconduct, lspec heat, mm, mpc, mp1, mtable, multable,
multiplier, mv0, mv 1, n cond, n wipp, n 1, n 2, nuyx, nuzx, per table, poiss, por table,
porosity, qdil, qvol, rho, rs1, rs2, s f, s g1, s k1, shear mod, spec heat, stable, state, sv,
temp, tension, thexp, tjtable, ttable, viscosity, vol strain, xconduct, xmod, xyconduct, yconduct,
ymod
fmodulus, ftension
Switches to Modify Plots
absolute, alias, back, block, colscal, coltable, ll, interval c, inverse, magnify, maximum,
minimum, zero
Color Switches
black, blue, green, cyan, red, magenta, brown, white, gray, lblue, lgreen, lcyan, lred, lmagenta,
yellow, iwhite
PRINT
COMMAND SUMMARY
1 - 13
apply, attach, density, dy damp, dy state, esxx, esxy, esyy, eszz, ex n, fastow, fastwb, sh,
x, uid, funsat, f2modulus, giicpath, gpm, gpp, group, head, history, hyst, iface, information,
jrepath, label, limits, mark, memory, model, nfunstep, nwpp, permeability, poro, pp, rsat,
saturation, sdif, sig1, sig2, sratio, ssi, ssi3d, ssr, ssr3d, state, structure, sxx, sxy, syy, szz,
table, table n, temperature, theta, track, udcoe, version, vga, vgpcnw, vgpcw, vgp0, visrat, vsi,
vsr, vsxx, vsxy, vsyy, vszz, wk11, wk12, wk22, wpermeability, x, xdisp, xflow, xreaction, xvel,
y, ydisp, yflow, yreaction, yvel, $sh
Property Keywords
a wipp, a 1, a 2, act energy, angle, atable, b f, b wipp, b0, b1, b2, bijoint, bimatrix, biot c,
bulk cur- rent, bulk mod, cam p, cam q, cap pressure, citable, cjtable, cj2table, cohesion,
conductivity, con1, con2, co2, cptable, ctable, c2table, d f, d wipp, density, dilation, di2, djtable,
dj2table, dtable, d2table, dy state, e dot star, e plastic, e primary, econduct, ej plastic, especc heat, et plastic, etj plastic, ev plastic, ev tot, f qx, f qy, f t0, f thexp, ff c1, ff c2, ff c3,
ff c4, ff count, ff evd, ff latency, ff switch, fjtable, fj2table, frac d, friction, fr2, ftable, f2table,
g thexp, gas c, hba, hbs, hbmb, hbsigci, hbs3ev, hb e3plas, hb ind, jangle, jcohesion, jc2,
jdilation, jd2, jfriction, jf2, jtension, k exx, k eyy, k ezz, k exy, k shear mod, k viscosity, kappa,
kshear, k11, k12, k22, lambda, lconduct, lspec heat, mm, mpc, mp1, mtable, multable,
multiplier, mv0, mv 1, n cond, n wipp, n 1, n 2, nuyx, nuzx, per table, poiss, por table,
porosity, qdil, qvol, rho, rs1, rs2, s f, s g1, s k1, shear mod, spec heat, stable, state, sv,
temp, tension, thexp, tjtable, ttable, viscosity, vol strain, xconduct, xmod, xyconduct, yconduct,
ymod
SCLIN
n x1, y1 x2, y2
<reset>
SET
TITLE
WINDOW
1.1.14
<xl xu yl yu>
<square on>
<square off>
Other Commands
HELP
SYSTEM
1 - 14
2-1
FISH Statements
2.1.1
Specification Statements
var1(n1, n2 . . . ) <var2(m1, m2 . . . )> <var3(p1, p2 . . . )> . . .
ARRAY
CONSTITUTIVEMODEL <n>
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
INT
FLOAT
STRING
FRIEND
func1 func2 . . .
WHILESTEPPING
WHILE STEPPING
2.1.2
Control Statements
DEFINE
function-name
END
CASEOF
expr
CASE
ENDCASE
CASE OF
END CASE
IF
ELSE
2-2
ENDIF
END IF
EXIT
EXIT SECTION
LOOP
ENDLOOP
or
LOOP
ENDLOOP
END LOOP
SECTION
ENDSECTION
END SECTION
2.1.3
COMMAND
ENDCOMMAND
END COMMAND
2.1.4
2-3
CONFIG
extra n
HISTORY
var
HISTORY
ex n (i,j)
INITIAL
ex n value
MODEL
var
PLOT
ex n <zone>
PLOT
ex n,m <zone>
PLOT
ex n,m,l <zone>
var
ex n <zone>
sh
shcall
SET
SET
var value
TITLE
@str
2-4
2.1.5
app pnt
appgw pnt
appth pnt
att pnt
cf axi
cf creep
cf dyn
cf ext
cf gw
cf ps
cf therm
cm max
crtdel
crtime
dag
dydt gpi
dydt gpj
dytdel
dytime
error
fos f
gwtdel
2-5
gwtime
ieb pnt
ierr
igp
int pnt
izones
jerr
jgp
jzones
large
mech ratio
mode
nerr
nerr sh
s 3dd
s dyn
s echo
s ow
s imp
s log
s mech
s mess
s movie
sm max
2-6
step
str pnt
tab pnt
teng
thtdel
thtime
trac pnt
udm pnt
unbal
unbow
v ngw
v nmech
v ntherm
wbiot
wbulk
wdens
xgrav
ygrav
2.1.6
2-7
clock
cycle
degrad
do update
grand
pi
step
unbal
urand
2.1.7
Gridpoint Variables
damp
ex n
ags
fmod
ftens
f2mod
gow
gmsmul
gpp
g2ow
nwgpp
2-8
rsat
sat
temp
tow
vga
vgpcnw
vgpcw
vgp0
x
xacc
xbody
xdisp
xforce
xvel
y
yacc
ybody
ydisp
yforce
yvel
2-9
Zone Variables
area
density
dy state
e plastic
et plastic
ev plastic
ev tot
ex n
ags
inimodel
model
poro2
pp
state
sxx
sxy
syy
szz
udcoe
visrat
vol strain
vsxx
vsxy
2 - 10
vsyy
vszz
wk11
wk12
wk22
xow
xnwow
yow
ynwow
z group
z model
z prop
zmsmul
Strain Calculations
ssi(i,j)
ssi3d(i,j)
ssr(i,j)
ssr3d(i,j)
vsi(i,j)
vsr(i,j)
fsi(i,j,arr)
fsr(i,j,arr)
2.1.8
2 - 11
available
a wipp
a 1
a 2
act energy
angle
atable
b f
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bijoint
bimatrix
biot c
bulk current
bulk mod
cam p
cam q
cap pressure
citable
2 - 12
cjtable
cj2table
cohesion
conductivity
con1
con2
co2
cptable
ctable
c2table
d f
d wipp
density
dilation
di2
djtable
dj2table
dtable
d2table
dy state
e dot star
e plastic
e primary
econduct
2 - 13
ej plastic
especc heat
et plastic
etj plastic
ev plastic
ev tot
f qx
f qy
f t0
f thexp
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
ff c4
ff count
ff evd
ff latency
ff switch
fjtable
fj2table
frac d
friction
fr2
ftable
2 - 14
f2table
g thexp
gas c
hb e3plas
hb ind
hba
hbs
hbmb
hbs3ev
hbsigci
jangle
jcohesion
jc2
jdilation
jd2
jfriction
jf2
jtension
k exx
k eyy
k ezz
k exy
k shear mod
k viscosity
2 - 15
kappa
kshear
k11
k12
k22
lambda
lconduct
lspec heat
mm
mpc
mp1
mtable
multable
multiplier
mv0
mv l
n cond
n wipp
n 1
n 2
nuyx
nuzx
per table
poiss
2 - 16
por table
porosity
qdil
qvol
rho
rs1
rs2
s f
s g1
s k1
shear mod
spec heat
stable
state
sv
temp
tension
thexp
tjtable
ttable
viscosity
vol strain
xconduct
2 - 17
xmod
xyonduct
yconduct
ymod
2.1.9
Intrinsic Functions
abs(a)
acos(a)
and(a,b)
asin(a)
atan(a)
atan2(a,b)
cos(a)
cparse(s, nc1, nc2)
error
exp(a)
fc arg(n)
oat(a)
fstring(a, isig)
get mem (nw)
grand
in(s)
int(a)
ln(a)
2 - 18
log(a)
lose mem (nw,ia)
max(a,b)
min(a,b)
not(a)
or(a,b)
out(s)
parse(s, i)
pre parse(s, i)
sgn(a)
sin(a)
sqrt(a)
string(a)
tan(a)
type(e)
urand
2.1.10
Tables
y = table(n,x)
table(n,x) = y
x = xtable(n,s)
xtable(n,s) = x
y = ytable(n,s)
ytable(n,s) = y
i = table size(n)
2.1.11
2 - 19
mat transpose
mat inverse
2.1.12
fmem(iad) = f
imem(iad) = i
2.1.13
close
open(filename, wr, mode)
read(ar, n)
write(ar, n)
cparse(s, nc1, nc2)
parse(s, i)
pre parse(s, i)
2.1.14
sopen(mode, ID)
sclose(ID)
swrite(arr, num, ID)
sread(arr, num, ID)
2 - 20
2.1.15
State Variables
zs11
zs22
zs33
zs12
zde11
zde22
zde33
zde12
zart
zdpp
zdrot
zporos
zsub
ztea
zteb
ztec
zted
ztsa
ztsb
ztsc
2 - 21
ztsd
zxbar
zvisc
2.1.17
OPT
2 - 22
2-1
2-2
2-3
In addition, the C++ source codes for all of the models are provided in the \Shared\MODELS
directory. Users can modify these models or create their own constitutive models as dynamic link
libraries (DLLs) by following the procedures given in Section 4 in Optional Features. Please note
that models created as DLLs run considerably faster than models created as FISH functions.
All constitutive models are implemented using the same incremental numerical algorithm: given
the former stress state and the total strain increment for the current timestep, the corresponding
stress increment is determined and the new stress state calculated. Note that all models operate
on effective stresses only; pore pressures are used to convert total stresses to effective stresses
before the constitutive model is called. The reverse process occurs after the model calculations are
complete. A short discussion of the theoretical background for each model is given in the following
sections.*
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Theory\2-Models with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided
for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter, open a
project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project
file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree
Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
2-4
2-5
(2.1)
(21 = 12 )
= K + (4/3)G;
= K (2/3)G;
= bulk modulus; and
= shear modulus.
1
eij =
2
uj
u i
+
xj
xi
t
(2.2)
(2.3)
(21 = 12 )
33 = 0
where 1
2
= 1 (22 /1 ); and
= 2 (22 /1 ).
2-6
(2.4)
(21 = 12 )
E2 (or Ey )
G12 (or Gxy ) cross-shear modulus between plane of isotropy and perpendicular
plane (i.e., xy- or yz-plane)
G13 (or Gxz ) shear modulus in plane of isotropy
21 (or yx )
Poissons ratio for the normal strain in the x-direction (in the plane
of isotropy) related to the normal strain in the y-direction (in the
perpendicular plane) due to uniaxial stress in the y-direction
31 (or zx )
Poissons ratio for the normal strain in the x-direction (in the plane of
isotropy) related to the normal strain in the z-direction due to uniaxial
stress in the z-direction
A transversely isotropic elastic material is characterized by five independent constants (or moduli).
2-7
For a transversely isotropic body whose plane of isotropy lies within the xz-plane, the following
relations apply:
E3 = E1 (or Ez = Ex )
31 = 13 (or zx = xz )
23 = 21 (or yz = yx )
G23 = G12 (or Gyz = Gxy )
G13 =
E1
Ex
or Gxz =
2(1 + 31 )
2(1 + zx )
12 = 21
E1
E2
or xy = yx
Ex
Ey
Figure 2.1
2-8
There are limitations on the variations in elastic properties (Amadei 1982). The following restrictions apply:
Ex > 0
Ey > 0
Gxy > 0
(2.5)
2
1
xy
2
1
xz
(1 xz )
2
2 Ex yx
Ey
For a general orthotropic elastic body, the stress-strain equations are given by Lekhnitskii (1981,
p. 34):
1
(S44 23 ) + (S45 13 )
=
2
e13
1
=
(S45 23 ) + (S55 13 )
2
e12 =
1
(S16 11 ) + (S26 22 ) + (S36 33 ) + (S66 12 )
2
where:
S11 =
cos4
1
212
sin4
+(
) sin2 cos2 +
E1
G12
E1
E2
S22 =
sin4
1
212
cos4
+(
) sin2 cos2 +
E1
G12
E1
E2
S12 = (
1
1
212
1
12
+
+
) sin2 cos2
E1
E2
E1
G12
E1
(2.6)
S13 = (
23
13
) sin2 (
) cos2
E2
E1
S23 = (
23
13
) cos2 (
) sin2
E2
E1
S33 =
1
E3
S44 =
cos2
sin2
+
G23
G13
S45 = (
S55 =
2-9
1
1
) sin cos
G23
G13
sin2
cos2
+
G23
G13
S16
sin2
cos2
1
212
= 2(
) + (
) (cos2 sin2 )
E2
E1
G12
E1
S26
cos2
sin2
1
212
= 2(
) (
) (cos2 sin2 )
E2
E1
G12
E1
S36 = 2(
sin cos
13
23
) sin cos
E1
E2
S66 = 4 (
sin cos
1
1
212
1
1
+
+
) sin2 cos2 +
E1
E2
E1
G12
G12
= angle of anisotropy measured counterclockwise from the x-axis (see Figure 2.2).
2 - 10
y'
x'
Figure 2.2
(2.7)
1
(S16 11 + S26 22 + S66 12 )
2
e11
e22
2e12
=
s11
s12
s16
s12
s22
s26
s16
s26
s66
11
22
12
(2.8)
2 - 11
(2.9)
1
(s16 11 + s26 22 + s36 33 + s66 12 )
2
0
s13
2e12
s16
s12
s22
s23
s26
s13
s23
s33
s36
s16
11
s26 22
33
s36
s66
12
(2.10)
2 - 12
2 - 13
(2.11)
where J2 is the second invariant of the stress deviator tensor. This quantity may be expressed as
J2 =
1
(11 22 )2 + (22 33 )2 + (11 33 )2 + 12 2
6
(2.12)
The shear strain increment, , and volumetric strain increment, e, associated to and have
the form:
= 2 J2
e = e11 + e22 + e33
(2.13)
where J2 , the second invariant of the incremental strain deviator tensor, is given by
J2 =
1
(e11 e22 )2 + (e22 e33 )2 + (e11 e33 )2 + e12 2
6
(2.14)
= e + p
e = ee + ep
(2.15)
2 - 14
where the superscripts e and p refer to elastic and plastic parts, respectively, and the plastic components are nonzero during plastic flow only. The incremental expression of Hookes law in terms
of generalized stresses and strains is:
= G e
= Kee
(2.16)
(2.17)
(2.18)
where q and k are constant material properties and t is the tensile strength for the Drucker-Prager
model. Note that this strength is defined as the maximum value of the mean normal stress for the
material under consideration. For a material whose property q is not equal to zero, the tensile
t
strength cannot exceed the value max
given by
t
=
max
k
q
(2.19)
f =s
2 - 15
f t=0
t
k / q
Figure 2.3
The shear potential function g s corresponds in general to a non-associated flow rule and has the
form
g s = + q
(2.20)
(2.21)
The flow rules are given a unique definition in the vicinity of an edge of the composite yield function
by application of the following technique. A function, h(, ) = 0, which is represented by the
diagonal between the representation of f s = 0 and f t = 0 in the (, ) plane, is defined (see
Figure 2.4). This function may be written
h = P P ( t )
(2.22)
(2.23)
2 - 16
f s=
0
domain 1
h=0
domain 2
t
f =0
Figure 2.4
An elastic guess violating the failure criterion is represented by a point in the (, ) plane located
either in domain 1 or 2, corresponding to positive or negative domains of h = 0, respectively. If in
domain 1, shear failure is declared, and the stress point is brought back to the curve f s = 0 using
a flow rule derived using the potential function g s . If in domain 2, tensile failure takes place, and
the stress point is brought back to f t = 0 using a flow rule derived using g t . Further comments on
this technique may be found in the Mohr-Coulomb model section.
2.4.1.3 Plastic Corrections
First consider shear failure. The flow rule has the form:
g s
g s
ep = s
p = s
(2.24)
where the magnitude of the parameter s remains to be defined. Using Eq. (2.20) for g s , these
expressions give, after partial differentiation:
p = s
ep = s q
2 - 17
(2.25)
The elastic strain increments may be expressed from Eq. (2.15) as total minus plastic increments.
In further using Eq. (2.25), the elastic laws in Eq. (2.16) may be expressed as follows:
= G Gs
= Ke Kq s
(2.26)
Let the new and old stress states be referred to by the superscripts N and O, respectively. Then, by
definition:
N = O +
N = O +
(2.27)
N = I Gs
N = I Kq s
(2.28)
where the superscript I is used to represent the elastic guess obtained by adding to the old stresses,
elastic increments computed using the total strain increments i.e.,
I = O + G
I = O + Ke
(2.29)
The parameter s may now be defined by requiring that the new stress point be located on the shear
yield surface. Substitution of N and N for and in f s = 0 gives, after some manipulations
(see Eqs. (2.17) and (2.28)):
s =
f s ( I , I )
G + Kq q
(2.30)
2 - 18
Noting that the new deviatoric stresses may be obtained by multiplying the corresponding deviatoric
elastic guesses with the ratio N / I , the new stresses may be written
ijN = (ijI I ij )
N
+ N ij
I
(2.31)
t
g
ep = t
(2.32)
where the magnitude of the parameter t must be determined. Using the Eq. (2.21) for g t , these
expressions give, after partial differentiation:
p = 0
ep = t
(2.33)
(2.34)
and
t =
I t
K
(2.35)
(2.36)
In this mode of failure, the new deviatoric stresses correspond to the elastic guess and we may write
ijN = ijI + ( t I )ij
(2.37)
2 - 19
q =
k =
6
3(3 sin )
6
3(3 sin )
sin
c cos
(2.38)
q =
k =
6
3(3 + sin )
6
3(3 + sin )
sin
c cos
(2.39)
2 - 20
In the special case q = 0, the Drucker-Prager criterion degenerates into the von Mises criterion,
which corresponds to a cylinder in the principal stress space. The Tresca criterion is a special case
of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion for which = 0. It is represented in the principal stress space by
a regular hexagonal prism. The von Mises cylinder circumscribes the prism for:
q = 0
2
k = c
3
(2.40)
- 3
Drucker-Prager q > 0
1 =
2 =
Von Mises q = 0
q
3 k
- 2
- 1
Figure 2.5
- 3
Mohr-Coulomb > 0
co
3 C
1 =
2 =
Tresca = 0
- 2
- 1
Figure 2.6
2 - 21
(2.41)
The corresponding principal strain increments e1 , e2 , e3 are decomposed as follows:
p
i = 1, 3
(2.42)
where the superscripts e and p refer to elastic and plastic parts, respectively, and the plastic components are nonzero only during plastic flow. The incremental expression of Hookes law in terms
of principal stress and strain has the form:
(2.43)
2 - 22
Figure 2.7
The failure envelope is defined from point A to point B by the Mohr-Coulomb yield function,
f s = 1 3 N + 2c N
(2.44)
(2.45)
where is the friction angle, c, the cohesion, t , the tensile strength and
N =
1 + sin
1 sin
(2.46)
2 - 23
Note that only the major and minor principal stresses are active in the shear yield formulation;
the intermediate principal stress has no effect. For a material with friction, = 0 and the tensile
t
strength of the material cannot exceed the value max
given by
t
=
max
c
tan
(2.47)
The shear potential function g s corresponds to a non-associated flow rule and has the form
g s = 1 3 N
(2.48)
1 + sin
1 sin
(2.49)
The associated flow rule for tensile failure is derived from the potential function g t , with
g t = 3
(2.50)
The flow rules for this model are given a unique definition in the vicinity of an edge of the composite
yield function in three-dimensional stress space by application of a technique, illustrated below, for
the case of a shear-tension edge. A function, h(1 , 3 ) = 0, which is represented by the diagonal
between the representation of f s = 0 and f t = 0 in the (1 , 3 ) plane, is defined (see Figure 2.8).
This function has the form
h = 3 t + P (1 P )
(2.51)
(2.52)
P = t N 2c N
(2.53)
and
2 - 24
I!
domain 2
domain 1
-
fJ=0
I
Figure 2.8
An elastic guess violating the failure criterion is represented by a point in the (1 , 3 ) plane located
either in domain 1 or 2, corresponding to negative or positive domains of h = 0, respectively. If in
domain 1, shear failure is declared, and the stress point is brought back to the curve f s = 0 using
a flow rule derived using the potential function g s . If in domain 2, tensile failure takes place, and
the stress point is brought back to f t = 0 using a flow rule derived using g t .
Note that, by ordering the stresses as in Eq. (2.41), the case of a shear-shear edge is automatically
handled by a variation on this technique. The technique, applicable for small-strain increments,
is simple to implement: at each step, only one flow rule and corresponding stress correction is
involved in the calculation of plastic flow. In particular, when a stress point follows an edge, it
receives stress corrections alternating between two criteria. In this process, the two yield criteria
are fulfilled to an accuracy which depends on the magnitude of the strain increment. As a validation
of this approach, results obtained for the oedometric test are presented in Section 2.4.2.5.
2 - 25
ei = s
g s
i
i = 1, 3
(2.54)
where s is a parameter of magnitude as yet unknown. Using Eq. (2.48) for g s , these equations
become, after partial differentiation:
e1 = s
p
e2 = 0
p
e3
(2.55)
= s N
The elastic strain increments may be expressed from Eq. (2.42) as total minus plastic increments.
In further using the flow rule Eq. (2.55) above, the elastic laws in Eq. (2.43) become:
(2.56)
Let the new and old stress states be referred to by the superscripts N and O, respectively. Then, by
definition:
iN = iO + i
i = 1, 3
(2.57)
1N = 1I s (1 2 N )
2N = 2I s 2 (1 N )
(2.58)
3N = 3I s (1 N + 2 )
where the superscript I is used to represent the elastic guess, obtained by adding to the old stresses
elastic increments computed using the total strain increments i.e.,
2 - 26
3O
(2.59)
The parameter s may now be defined by requiring that the new stress point be located on the shear
yield surface. Substitution of 1N and 3N for 1 and 3 in f s = 0 gives, after some manipulations
(see Eqs. (2.44) and (2.58)):
f s (1I , 3I )
=
(1 2 N ) (2 1 N )N
s
(2.60)
In the case of tensile failure, the flow rule has the form
p
ei = t
g t
i
i = 1, 3
(2.61)
where the magnitude of the parameter t is not yet defined. Using Eq. (2.50) for g t , this expression
gives, after partial differentiation:
p
e1 = 0
p
e2 = 0
(2.62)
e3 = t
1N = 1I + t 2
2N = 2I + t 2
(2.63)
3N = 3I + t 1
and
t =
f t (3I )
1
(2.64)
2 - 27
The plastic strain is not calculated directly in this model, in order to speed the calculation. The
strain-softening model can be used if plastic strains are needed and/or gradual or no tensile softening
is desired.
2.4.2.5 Oedometer Test
This example concerns the determination of stresses in a Mohr-Coulomb material subjected to an
oedometer test. In this experiment, two of the principal stress components are equal and, during
plastic flow, the stress point evolves along an edge of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion representation
in the principal stress space. The purpose is to validate the numerical technique adopted in FLAC
to handle such a situation. Results of a numerical experiment are presented and compared to an
exact solution.
The boundary conditions for the plane-strain oedometric test are sketched in Figure 2.9. They
correspond to the uniform strain rates:
ex = 0
ey = vt/L
ez = 0
(2.65)
where x and y refer to the system of reference axes sketched in the figure and z is out-of-plane, v is
the constant y-component of the velocity applied to the sample (v < 0) and L is the height of the
sample.
Assuming zero initial stresses, the principal directions of stresses and strains are those of the
coordinate axes. For simplicity, we consider a sample of unit height L = 1.
2 - 28
Figure 2.9
In the elastic range, application of Hookes law gives, using that ey = vt at time t:
x = 2 vt
y = 1 vt
z = x
(2.66)
(2.67)
At the onset of yield, f 1 = f 2 = 0 and, using Eqs. (2.66) and (2.67), we find
2c N
t=
v(1 2 N )
(2.68)
2 - 29
(2.69)
p
eze + ez
exe = ex
(2.70)
eze = ez
The flow rule for plastic flow along the edge of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion corresponding to
x = z has the form (e.g., see Drescher (1991)):
g 1
g 2
+ 2
x
x
g 1
g 2
p
ey = 1
+ 2
y
y
p
ex = 1
ez = 1
(2.71)
g 1
g 2
+ 2
z
z
g 1 = y x N
g 2 = y z N
(2.72)
2 - 30
ex = 1 N
p
ey = 1 + 2
p
ez
(2.73)
= 2 N
ex = 1 N
p
ey = 21
p
ez
(2.74)
= 1 N
The stress increments, derived from Hookes law, are given by the relations:
y = 1 eye + 2 2exe
z = x
(2.75)
x = 1 1 N + 2 (vt 21 + 1 N )
y = 1 (vt 21 ) + 2 21 N
z = x
(2.76)
The parameter 1 may now be determined by expressing the condition that, during plastic flow,
f 1 = 0. Using Eq. (2.67), this condition takes the form
y x N = 0
(2.77)
2 - 31
Substitution of Eq. (2.76) in Eq. (2.77) yields, after some manipulations, the expression
1 = vt
(2.78)
where
=
1 2 N
(1 + 2 )N N 22 (N + N ) + 21
(2.79)
The FLAC simulation is carried out using a single zone of unit dimensions. The following properties
are used in conjunction with the Mohr-Coulomb model:
bulk modulus
shear modulus
cohesion
friction
dilation
tension
200 MPa
200 MPa
1 MPa
10
10 and 0
5.67 MPa
The velocity components are fixed in the x- and y-directions. A velocity of magnitude 105 m/steps
is applied to the top of the model in the negative y-direction for a total of 1000 steps. The stress and
displacement components in the y-direction are monitored and compared to the analytic prediction
obtained from Eqs. (2.66), (2.68) and (2.76), using Eqs. (2.78) and (2.79). Two runs are carried
out using the data file in Example 2.1, with values of 10 and 0 for the dilation parameter. The
match is very good, as may be seen in Figures 2.10 and 2.11 where numerical and analytic solutions
coincide.
2 - 32
2 - 33
4.000
3.500
3.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
(10
-03
Figure 2.10 Oedometric test comparison of numerical and analytical predictions for 10 dilation
4.000
3.500
3.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
(10
-03
Figure 2.11 Oedometric test comparison of numerical and analytical predictions for 0 dilation
2 - 34
y'
weak plane
x'
Figure 2.12 A weak plane oriented at an angle to the global reference frame
2 - 35
For simplicity, we define the global stress components by ij (obtained after application of the
plastic corrections). These global stresses are resolved into local components using the expressions
11
= 11 cos2 + 212 sin cos + 22 sin2
= 11 sin2 212 sin cos + 22 cos2
22
(2.80)
= 33
33
12
= (11 22 ) sin cos + 12 (cos2 sin2 )
where is the joint angle (measured counterclockwise from the x-global axis).
By convention, let represent the magnitude of the tangential traction component on the weak
plane, the associated strain variable is and we have:
|
= |12
= |e12
|
(2.81)
.
With this notation, the local expression of the incremental elastic laws have the form:
= 1 e 11 + 2 (e 22 + e 33 )
11
= 1 e 22 + 2 (e 11 + e 33 )
22
33
e
1 e 33
e
=
= 2G
e
+ 2 (e 11
(2.82)
e
+ e 22 )
where 1 = K + 4G/3, 2 = K 2G/3, and the superscript e stands for elastic part.
2 - 36
f =s
Cj
f t=0
22
jt
Cj / tan j
Figure 2.13 Weak-plane failure criterion in FLAC
The local failure envelope is defined from point A to B by a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion defined
as f s = 0, with
f s = 22
tan j + cj
(2.83)
(2.84)
where j , cj and jt are the friction, cohesion and tensile strength of the weak plane, respectively.
Note that, for a weak plane with a nonzero friction angle, the maximum value of the tensile strength
is given by
t
j,max
=
cj
tan j
(2.85)
2 - 37
The shear and tensile potential functions g s and g t correspond to a non-associated flow rule with
dilatancy, j , and an associated flow rule, respectively. They have the form
g s = 22
tan j
(2.86)
g t = 22
(2.87)
and
The flow rule is given a unique definition in the vicinity of the failure criterion edge by application of
a technique already described in the context of the FLAC Mohr-Coulomb model. Here, a function,
, ) = 0, which may be represented by the diagonal between the representation of f s = 0
h(22
, ) plane, is used (see Figure 2.14). This function has the form
and f t = 0 in the (22
h = jP jP (22
jt )
(2.88)
f s=0
(2.89)
domain 1
h=0
domain 2
f =0
22
2 - 38
, ) plane located
A stress state violating the local failure criterion is represented by a point in the (22
either in domain 1 or 2, corresponding to positive or negative domain of h = 0, respectively. If in
domain 1, shear failure is declared on the plane, and the stress point is brought back to the curve
f s = 0 using a flow rule derived using the potential function g s . If in domain 2, local tensile failure
takes place, and the stress point is brought back to f t = 0 using a flow rule derived using g t .
First consider shear failure on the plane; the flow rule has the form:
g s
11
g s
p
e 22 = s
22
g s
p
e 33 = s
33
g s
p = s
e 11 = s
(2.90)
where the superscript p refers to plastic parts associated with failure on the weak plane, and the
magnitude of s is as yet unknown. Using Eq. (2.86) for g s , these equations become, after partial
differentiation:
p
e 11 = 0
p
e 22 = s tan j
(2.91)
e 33 = 0
p = s
The elastic strain increments in the elastic relations Eq. (2.82) are expressed as differences between
total and plastic strain increments for the step. Assuming that the plastic contributions of general
and local failure are additive, we follow a reasoning similar to that used in the derivation of the
stress corrections for the FLAC Mohr-Coulomb criterion, in which we interpret the elastic guesses
there as the stresses here, obtained after application of the plastic corrections relating to general
failure. (This technique is approximate only when failure occurs both in the matrix and on the weak
plane.) Using this approach, it may be shown that the new stress state may be expressed as:
N
11 = 11 + 2 tan j s
N
22 = 22 + 1 tan j s
N
33 = 33 + 2 tan j s
N = + 2Gs
(2.92)
2 - 39
(2.93)
The new shear stress on the weak plane may be derived from N and , using the relation
N
= 12
12
(2.94)
11
= 2 tan j s
22
= 1 tan j s
33
(2.95)
= 2 tan j
12
= 12
(cos sin ) + 11
cos2 + 22
sin2
11 = 212
(cos sin ) + 11
sin2 + 22
cos2
22 = 212
33 =
33
(2.96)
12 = 12
(cos2 sin2 ) + (11
22
) sin cos
These corrections are added to the stress components ij , which include the stress corrections for
general failure, if any, to provide the new stress state for the step.
2 - 40
We now consider tensile failure on the plane. In this case, the flow rule has the form:
e 11 = t
p
e 22 = t
p
e 33
g t
11
g t
22
(2.97)
g t
=
33
t
p = t
g t
where t is a parameter of magnitude as yet unknown. Using Eq. (2.87) for g t , these equations
become, after partial differentiation:
e 11 = 0
p
e 22 = t
(2.98)
p
e 33
p
=0
= 0
11 = 11 + t 2
N
22 = 22 + t 1
(2.99)
33 = 33 + t 2
N =
and
f t ( 22 )
=
1
t
(2.100)
2 - 41
The local stress corrections for tensile failure on the weak plane may be expressed, after substitution
of Eq. (2.100) for t in Eq. (2.99), as:
)
11 = ( t 22
22 = ( t 22
)
33
2
1
(2.101)
2
= ( t 22
)
1
)
11 = ( t 22
)
22 = ( t 22
1
33
2
= ( t 22
)
1
cos2 + sin2
sin2 + cos2
12 = ( t 22
)(1
(2.102)
2
) sin cos
1
In large-strain mode, the orientation of the weak plane is adjusted to account for rigid body
rotations and rotations due to deformations. The correction , evaluated as average over all
triangles in a zone, has the form
= e 12 +
(2.103)
where:
(2.104)
2 - 42
In large-strain mode, the orientation of the weak plane is adjusted to account for body rotations
see Eqs. (2.103) and (2.104).
t
otherwise (see
The default value for the weak-plane tensile strength is zero if j = 0, and j,max
Eq. (2.85)). This last value is also retained in the code if the value assigned for the weak-plane
t
exceeds t
tensile strength exceeds j,max
. If the computed value of 22
j,max in a zone, then the
tensile strength is set to zero for that zone. This simulates instantaneous softening.
2 - 43
e
ps
=
1 ps
1 ps 2 1 ps
ps 2
ps 2
e1 em + em + e3 em
2
2
2
1
2
(2.105)
where
ps
em =
1 ps
ps
e1 + e3
3
ps
ept = e3
(2.106)
pt
where e3 is the increment of tensile plastic strain in the direction of the major principal stress
(recall that tensile stresses are positive).
The notation used above, and in similar expressions to be presented later, merits some clarification.
ps
p
The term ei is identical to ei , defined previously in Eq. (2.55), where i = 1, 2, 3. The
added superscript, s, denotes that the plastic strain is related to the shear yield surface (rather than
ps
the tensile yield surface). Note that ei are plastic principal strain increments, not shear strain
pt
p
increments. Similarly, e3 is identical to e3 , defined in Eq. (2.62); here, the superscript t denotes
that the plastic strain is related to the tensile yield surface.
The following example demonstrates the relation between the incremental hardening parameter
and the axial strain increment for an unconfined compression test of an axisymmetric sample of
frictionless material. The results show that the average value for the plastic strain increment is
equal to the axial strain increment.
2 - 44
Example 2.2 Relation between incremental hardening parameter and axial strain increment
for an axial compression test
config axi extra 5
g 5 10
mo ss
pro den 1 bul 1e8 she 1e8 fric 0 coh 1e5 tens 1e20
fix y j=1
fix y j=11
ini yvel -.25e-4 j=11
hist syy i=1 j=1
def results
sum = 0.0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
sum = sum + e plastic(i,j)
endloop
endloop
av ep
= sum / float(izones * jzones)
ax e inc = -ydisp(1,jgp) / y(1,jgp)
ii = out( Average plastic strain increment = +string(av ep))
ii = out( Axial strain increment
= +string(ax e inc))
end
cyc 1500
prop e plastic = 0
; reset plastic strain
ini xd 0 yd 0
; and displacements
cyc 40
; Do a strain increment
results
2 - 45
2.4.4.2 User-Defined Functions for Cohesion, Friction, Dilation and Tensile Strength
Consider a one-dimensional stress-strain curve e, which softens upon yield and attains some
residual strength:
yield
e
e=ee
e=ee+ep
eps
eps
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.16 Variation of cohesion (a) and friction angle (b) with plastic strain
2 - 46
eps
eps
(a)
(b)
ss
s=11.5e9 b=8.62e9 d=2000 ftab=1 ctab=2
fric=40 coh=20e6 dil=10 ten=15e6
1 0,40 .01,30
2 0,20e6, .01,10e6
3 0,10 .01,5
4 0,15e6
.01,0.0
dtab=3
ttab=4
Here, the friction function is defined in table 1, the cohesion in table 2, the dilation in table 3 and the
tensile strength in table 4. Note that the initial friction, cohesion, dilation and tensile strength must
be defined (here, to be 40 , 20 MPa, 10 and 15 MPa, respectively). The functions each consist of
two linear segments, as shown in Figure 2.18. The values remain constant for plastic strains greater
than the last table value.
2 - 47
40
30
C
20e6
10e6
0
0
0.01 0.02
0.01
(a) friction
(b) cohesion
15e6
10
5
0
0.02
0.01 0.02
(c) dilation
0.01 0.02
(d) tensile strength
Figure 2.18 Friction (a), cohesion (b), dilation (c) and tensile strength (d)
defined by two linear segments
Hardening behavior for the cohesion, friction and dilation can be produced by an increase in these
properties with increasing plastic strain measure.
2.4.4.3 Implementation Procedure
In the implementation of this model, new stresses for the step are computed, as described in the
FLAC Mohr-Coulomb model description, using the current values of the model properties. Plastic
shear and tensile strain increments are evaluated from Eqs. (2.55) and (2.62) using Eq. (2.60) of s
and Eq. (2.64) of t . Hardening increments are calculated as the surface average of values obtained
from Eqs. (2.105) and (2.106) for all triangles involved in the zone. The hardening parameters
are updated and new model properties are evaluated by linear interpolation in the tables. These
properties are stored for use in the next step. The hardening or softening lags one timestep behind
the corresponding plastic deformation. In an explicit code, this error is small because the steps are
small.
For a material with friction, the maximum value of the tensile strength is evaluated from Eq. (2.47)
using the new cohesion and friction angle. This value is retained by the code if it is smaller than
the tensile strength updated from the table.
2 - 48
(2.107)
f t = 3 t
(2.108)
where
N =
1 + sin
1 sin
(2.109)
2 - 49
2c
N1
2
1
2
3I =
N2 N1
(2.110)
Note that the tensile cap acts on segment B C of the shear envelope and, for a material with
nonzero friction angle 1 , the maximum value of the tensile strength is given by
t max =
c1
tan 1
(2.111)
f1 = 0
s
B
s
f 2 =0
N
f t =0
N 1
=
3
1
c2/tan 2
c1/tan 1
1
2 - 50
The usual assumption is made: that total strain increments can be decomposed into elastic and
plastic parts; the flow rule for plastic yielding has the form
p
ei =
g
i
(2.112)
where i = 1, 3. The potential function g for shear yielding is g s . This function corresponds to the
non-associated law:
g s = 1 3 N
(2.113)
where , the dilation angle, is equal to 2 for failure along A B, 1 along B C, and
N =
1 + sin
1 sin
(2.114)
The potential function for tensile yielding is g t . It corresponds to the associated flow rule,
g t = 3
(2.115)
It may be shown that the plastic strain increments for shear failure have the form:
e1 s = s
p
e2 s = 0
(2.116)
e3 s = s N
The stress corrections for shear failure are:
1 = s (1 2 N )
2 = s 2 (1 N )
3 = s (1 N + 2 )
(2.117)
2 - 51
where
I I N + 2c N
1
3
s =
(1 2 N ) (1 N + 2 ) N
(2.118)
and, by definition:
1 = K +
2 = K
4
G
3
(2.119)
2
G
3
In turn, the plastic strain increments for tensile failure have the form:
e1 t = 0
p
e2 t = 0
(2.120)
e3 t = t
The stress corrections for tensile failure are:
1 = t 2
2 = t 2
(2.121)
3 = t 1
where
3I t
=
1
t
(2.122)
2 - 52
2.4.5.2 Failure Criterion and Flow Rule for the Weak Plane
The stresses, corrected for plastic flow in the matrix, are resolved into components parallel and
perpendicular to the weak plane and tested for ubiquitous-joint failure. The failure criterion is
expressed in terms of the magnitude of the tangential traction component, = | 12 |, and the
normal traction component, 22 , on the weak plane.
The failure criterion is represented in Figure 2.20 and corresponds to two Mohr-Coulomb failure
criteria (f2s = 0 for segment A B; f1s = 0 for segment B C) and a tension failure criterion
(f t = 0, for segment C D). Each shear criterion has the general form f s = 0 and is characterized
by a cohesion and a friction angle cj , j , equal to cj2 , j2 along segment A B and cj1 , j1 along
B C. The tensile criterion is specified by means of the tensile strength, jt (positive value). Thus
we have:
f s = + 22 tan j cj
(2.123)
f t = 22 jt
(2.124)
Note that for a weak plane with nonzero friction angle j1 , the maximum value of the tensile strength
is given by
jt max =
cj1
tan j1
(2.125)
A
f2 s=
f1 s=
0
Cj1
f t =0
C
D
tj
Figure 2.20 FLAC bilinear joint failure criterion
j1
Cj2
j2
3'3'
2 - 53
Yield is detected and stress corrections applied using a technique similar to the one described in the
matrix context.
Here, the flow rule for plastic yielding has the form:
e 22s =
g
22
ps =
(2.126)
ps = |e 12s |
(2.127)
The potential function, g, for shear yielding on the weak plane is g s . It corresponds to the nonassociated law,
g s = + 22 tan j
(2.128)
where j , the dilation angle, is equal to j2 for failure along A B, and j1 along B C.
The potential function, g, for tensile yielding on the weak plane is g t . It corresponds to the associated
flow rule:
g t = 22
(2.129)
It may be shown that the local plastic strain increments for shear failure are such that:
p
(2.130)
2 - 54
(2.131)
where
O + O
22 tan j cj
=
2G + 1 tan j tan j
s
(2.132)
and the superscript O indicates values obtained just before detection of failure on the weak plane.
The plastic corrections for the local shear stress components on the weak plane are derived by
scaling
12
O
= O12
(2.133)
In turn, local plastic strain increments for tensile failure have the form:
p
e 22t = t
pt = 0
(2.134)
(2.135)
2 - 55
where
t
O
22 j
(2.136)
(2.137)
2 - 56
ems =
1
p
p
(e1 s + e3 s )
3
(2.138)
and the plastic strain increments are given by Eq. (2.116), using the expression Eq. (2.118) for s .
For the joint, the formula is
js =
1
p
p
(e 22s )2 + (e 12s )2
3
(2.139)
where the plastic strain increments are given by Eq. (2.130) (see Eq. (2.127)), using the Eq. (2.132)
for s .
The tetrahedron tensile-hardening increment is the plastic volumetric tensile-strain increment.
For the matrix, we have
p
t = 3 t
(2.140)
where the plastic strain increment is given by Eq. (2.120), using the Eq. (2.122) for t .
For the joint, the expression is
p
(2.141)
2 - 57
2 - 58
It is assumed that the tensile strength of the material can never increase. Also, for material with
t
or jt
(see Eqs. (2.111) and (2.125)).
friction, the value will not exceed the maximum value max
max
Note that, by default, the yield model is linear in both the matrix and the joint, in which case only
section 1 (where f1s = 0) and section 3 (where f t = 0) of the yield curve are recognized (even if
properties are assigned for section 2, where f2s = 0). To activate the bilinear laws, the property
bimatrix and/or bijoint must be set to 1.
Also, if the friction angles for sections 1 and 2 become equal, the model will be considered as linear
and section 2 will be ignored (for the matrix and/or the joint, as appropriate). Section 2 will also be
ignored if the intersection of section 1 and 2 corresponds to a stress point which violates the tensile
criterion.
2.4.6 Double-Yield Model
Permanent volume changes caused by the application of isotropic pressure are taken into account
in this model by including, in addition to the shear and tensile failure envelopes in the FLAC strainsoftening/hardening model, a volumetric yield surface (or cap). For simplicity, the cap surface,
defined by the cap pressure pc > 0, is independent of shear stress; it consists of a vertical line on
a plot of shear stress versus mean stress. The hardening behavior of the cap pressure is activated
by volumetric plastic strain and follows a piecewise-linear law prescribed in a user-supplied table
(like that described in Section 2.4.4.2). The tangential bulk and shear moduli evolve as plastic
volumetric strain takes place according to a special law defined in terms of a factor, R, assumed to
be constant and defined as the ratio of elastic bulk modulus to plastic bulk modulus.
Only two additional material parameters and a table are required in addition to those associated
with the strain-softening model:
(1) the initial value of pc , which corresponds to the maximum mean pressure that the material
has experienced in the past;
(2) the value of R, greater than unity, which controls the slope of the stress-strain curve on
volumetric unloading (the swelling line, in soil mechanics terms); and
(3) the table representation of the hardening curve, which relates cap pressure, pc , to plastic
volume strain, epv .
Hence, any laboratory-determined hardening behavior may be modeled within the constraints imposed by a two-parameter model.
2 - 59
(2.142)
The corresponding principal strain increments e1 , e2 , e3 are decomposed as follows:
p
i = 1, 3
(2.143)
where the superscripts e and p refer to elastic and plastic parts, respectively, and the plastic components are nonzero only during plastic flow. (Note that extensional strains are positive.) It is assumed
that the plastic contributions of shear, tensile and volumetric yielding are additive, so we may write
p
ps
pt
pv
(2.144)
where the superscripts ps, pt and pv stand for plastic shear, plastic tensile and plastic volumetric
strain. By convention, in this section, the symbol e is used to refer to the minus volumetric strain
increment (e1 + e2 + e3 ) with plastic part ep and elastic part ee . The symbol epv refers
pv
pv
pv
to minus the value of the plastic volumetric strain (e1 + e2 + e3 ).
The incremental expression of Hookes law in terms of principal stress and strain has the form:
(2.145)
where 1 = Kc + 4Gc /3, 2 = Kc 2Gc /3, and Kc and Gc are the current tangential bulk and
shear moduli, defined according to the following considerations.
Consider an isotropic compression test with increasing pressure, pc . As the material becomes
more compact, its plastic stiffness (dpc /depv ) usually increases; it seems reasonable that the elastic
stiffness will also increase, since the grains are being forced closer together. A simple rule is
adopted in this model whereby, under general loading conditions, the incremental elastic stiffness,
Kc , is a constant factor, R, multiplied by the current incremental plastic stiffness. The values of
bulk and shear modulus, K and G, supplied by the user, are taken as upper limits to Kc and Gc ,
2 - 60
and it is assumed that the ratio Kc /Gc remains constant and equal to K/G. Using incremental
notation, this law is defined by the relations:
Kc = R
pc
epv
Kc := min(Kc , K)
(2.146)
Gc = G
Kc
K
where the factor R is given and pc /epv is the current slope of the table of pc values.
The type of behavior exhibited by the double-yield model is illustrated in Figure 2.21, which shows a
nonlinear volumetric loading curve with several unloading excursions; these excursions are elastic,
with slope related by R to the plastic stiffness at the point of unloading.
Pressure
p
Main
Loading
Path
Unloading
e
- Volumetric Strain
Figure 2.21 Elastic volumetric loading/unloading paths
2 - 61
(2.147)
f = 3
(2.148)
where
N = (1 + sin )/(1 sin )
and is the friction angle, c is the cohesion, and t is the tensile strength.
The volumetric yield function, f v , is defined as
fv =
1
1 + 2 + 3 + pc
3
(2.149)
g s = 1 3 N
g t = 3
1
g v = 1 + 2 + 3
3
(2.150)
where
N = (1 + sin )/(1 sin )
and is the dilation angle.
2 - 62
e
ps
=
1 ps
1 ps 2 1 ps
ps 2
ps 2
e1 em + em + e3 em
2
2
2
1
2
pt
ept = e3
(2.151)
where
ps
ps
ps
em = 1/3 e1 + e3
ps
pt
ej , j = 1, 3 and e3 are plastic shear and tensile strain increments in the principal directions.
In the volumetric direction, the hardening parameter increment is
pv
pv
pv
(2.152)
pv
where ej , j = 1, 3 are plastic volumetric strain increments in the principal directions.
These hardening parameters are used in the tables to determine new values of friction, cohesion,
dilation, tensile strength and cap pressure. The current bulk and shear moduli are also calculated
from the table values as per Eq. (2.146).
2.4.6.4 Plastic Corrections
Let the superscript I be used to represent the elastic guess, obtained by adding to the old stresses,
ijO , elastic increments computed using the total strain increments. In principal axes we then have:
1I = 1O + 1 e1 + 2 (e2 + e3 )
2I = 2O + 1 e2 + 2 (e1 + e3 )
3I = 3O + 1 e3 + 2 (e1 + e2 )
(2.153)
2 - 63
In the FLAC implementation, shear yield is detected if f s (1I , 3I ) < 0, volumetric yield if
fv (1I , 2I , 3I ) < 0, and tensile yield if f t (3I ) < 0. Corresponding plastic corrections are
evaluated using the following techniques.
We first consider the case where tensile failure is not detected for the step but both shear and
volumetric yield conditions are exceeded. Using Eqs. (2.143) and (2.144), the principal strain
increments may be expressed as
ps
pv
i = 1, 3
(2.154)
ps
g s
i
g v
= v
i
ei = s
pv
ei
(2.155)
ps
e1 = s
ps
e2 = 0
ps
e3 = s N
(2.156)
and:
pv
1 v
3
1
= v
3
1
= v
3
e1 =
pv
e2
pv
e3
(2.157)
2 - 64
e1e = e1 s v /3
e2e = e2 v /3
(2.158)
e3e = e3 + s N v /3
With these expressions for the elastic strain increments, Hookes incremental equations yield (see
Eq. (2.145)):
1N = 1I s (1 2 N ) v K
2N = 2I 2 s (1 N ) v K
(2.159)
3N = 3I s (2 1 N ) v K
where iI , i = 1, 3 are the initial trial stresses in Eq. (2.153), and iN = iO + i , i = 1, 3 are
the new principal stresses for the step.
To determine the multipliers s and v , we require that if shear and volumetric yielding occur, the
new stresses lie on both yield surfaces and we must have f s (1N , 3N ) = 0, and f (1N , 2N , 3N ) =
0. Substituting Eq. (2.159) for i , i = 1, 3 in Eqs. (2.147) and (2.149), and solving for s , we obtain
s =
f sI f vI (1 N )
1 2 N 2 N + 1 N N K(1 N )(1 N )
(2.160)
f vI
s (1 N )
K
(2.161)
Hence,
v =
In these equations, the notation f I stands for the function f evaluated for the initial trial stresses.
Eqs. (2.160) and (2.161) can now be used to evaluate the new stresses from Eq. (2.159). These
stresses simultaneously satisfy both yield conditions and both flow rules.
2 - 65
v = 0
s =
f sI
1 2 N 2 N + 1 N N
(2.162)
s = 0
f vI
v =
K
(2.163)
Eq. (2.162) or Eq. (2.163) may be used in Eq. (2.159), as appropriate, to compute new stresses.
We now consider the case where tensile failure is detected by the condition f t (3I ) < 0. If
volumetric failure is not detected, we use the same technique and stress corrections as described
in the Mohr-Coulomb model. If volumetric failure is detected in addition to tensile failure, then
either f s (1I , 3I ) 0 or f s (1I , 3I ) > 0. We begin by assuming that all three yield conditions
are exceeded. We assume that the plastic contributions of shear, volumetric and tensile yielding are
additive i.e.,
ps
pv
pt
i = 1, 3
(2.164)
ei = t
g t
i
i = 1, 3
(2.165)
pt
e1 = 0
pt
e2 = 0
(2.166)
pt
e3 = t
2 - 66
Using the same reasoning as above, and Eqs. (2.156) and (2.157) for the shear and volumetric flow
rule, we obtain:
1N = 1I s (1 2 N ) v K + t 2
2N = 2I 2 s (1 N ) v K + t 2
3N
3I
(2.167)
(2 1 N ) K + 1
The multipliers s , v and t are determined by solving the system of three equations f s (1N , 3N ) =
0, f v (1N , 2N , 3N ) = 0 and f t (3N ) = 0. This gives:
f tI (1 + 2N ) + 3f vI 2f sI
2 1
vI
3(1 + N )f tI 6f vI + 3f sI
f
v =
+
K
2 1
f tI [N (1 + 2N ) + 2 + N ] 3(1 + N )f vI + (1 + 2N )f sI
t =
2 1
s =
(2.168)
2N = 3pc t (1 + N ) + 2c N
(2.169)
3N = t
If only tensile and volumetric yield are detected, then s = 0 in Eq. (2.167). The constants v and
t are determined by requiring that both conditions, f v (1N , 2N , 3N ) = 0 and f t (3N ) = 0, be
fulfilled. After some manipulation, we obtain:
1 f vI + Kf tI
=
K(1 K)
f vI + f tI
t =
1 K
v
(2.170)
2 - 67
3f vI + f tI
2
vI
3f + f tI
= 2I
2
= t
1N = 1I
2N
3N
(2.171)
2 - 68
p
tan -1
( (
hKc
h+Kc
dp
Kc= dee
dp
tan -1Kc
dpc
h= dep
e
dep de
de
R=
dep
dee
e
Figure 2.22 Isotropic consolidation test
Consider the experimental graph of minus mean stress (pressure) versus minus volumetric strain,
for an increasing stress level, with a small unloading excursion, obtained from such a test and
presented in Figure 2.22. The volumetric strain increment, de, at a point of the main loading path
(assuming that we are above any initial preconsolidation stress level) is composed of an elastic part,
dee , and a plastic part, dep . (Recall that in this section, de, dee and dep refer to minus the value
of the volumetric strain.) The observed tangent modulus may be expressed as
hKc
dp
=
de
h + Kc
where h is the plastic modulus, Kc , the elastic modulus and, by definition:
(2.172)
2 - 69
dpc
dep
dp
Kc = e
de
h=
(2.173)
With the above notation convention, the volumetric property R may be defined as
R = Kc / h
(2.174)
dp
Kc
=
de
1+R
(2.175)
Kc
1
dp/de
(2.176)
Values for dp/de and Kc can be estimated from main-loading and unloading increments on the
graph. Hence, R can be calculated from Eq. (2.176). Note that, in the context of this model, the
ratio R is assumed to be constant. Using that Kc = Rh and h = dpc /dep in Eq. (2.172), we may
write, after some manipulation,
dpc
=h=
dep
1+R
R
dp
de
(2.177)
From this, it follows that values of pc for a particular ep can be obtained, to the first approximation,
by multiplying the value p on the graph corresponding to e = ep by the ratio (1 + R)/R. For
example, if R = 5, then the graph curve must be scaled by a factor of 1.2 to convert it to table
values, assuming no over-consolidation.
To be sure that input parameters are reasonable, a single-element test should be done with FLAC,
exercising the double-yield model over stress paths similar to those of the physical tests and plotting
similar graphs.
As an illustration, the data file in Example 2.4 exercises the double-yield model for a material that
exhibits a response eleven times stiffer upon unloading compared to loading.
2 - 70
The loading tangent modulus, dp/de, observed in the physical test, was constant and equal to 10
MPa. The slope of unloading increments corresponded to a value Kc = 110 MPa. To define the
volumetric properties of the numerical model, we substitute those values in Eq. (2.176) and find that
R = 10. As can be seen from Eq. (2.177), the hardening curve has a constant slope corresponding
to dpc /dep = h = 11 MPa. The hardening table is derived from this result, assuming no overconsolidation.
Note that the input value for bulk modulus, K, must be higher than Kc (see Eq. (2.146)). The input
shear modulus controls the ratio of G/K. In this example,
Gc = G
Kc
= 50.77 MPa
K
3Kc 2Gc
= 0.3
2(3Kc + Gc )
Results of the numerical test are presented in the plot of minus vertical stress versus minus vertical
strain in Figure 2.23. The loading slope is 10 MPa, and the unloading slope is eleven times stiffer,
as expected.
2 - 71
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
8-Jun-04 13:43
step
1900
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SYY
( 1, 1)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
10
(10
-04
Figure 2.23 Single-element test in which unloading is eleven times stiffer than
loading
The maximum elastic moduli, K and G, should be estimated for the maximum pressure likely to be
produced in the model. They should not be set larger than this because FLAC does its mass scaling
(for a stable timestep) on the basis of the moduli. Setting them too high will give rise to a sluggish
response (e.g., the model may be slow to converge to a steady-state solution). The elastic moduli
also act as a limit on plastic moduli.
If a material to be modeled has experienced some initial compaction (i.e., it is over-consolidated),
then pc may be set to this preconsolidation pressure. In this case, ep must also be set, so as to be
consistent with pc and the given table (use PROPERTY ev plas to set ep ).
2 - 72
1
p = (1 + 2 + 3 )
3
1
q = (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (1 3 )2
2
(Note that q =
(2.178)
3J2 , where J2 is the second invariant of the effective stress deviator tensor.)
The incremental strain variables associated with p and q are the volumetric strain increment e
and distortional strain increment eq , and we have:
(2.179)
where ej , j = 1, 3 are principal strain increments. By assumption, the principal strain increments
may be decomposed into elastic and plastic parts so that
p
i = 1, 3
(2.180)
2 - 73
V
Vs
(2.181)
v
v
(2.182)
Starting with an initial specific volume v0 , we may thus write, for small volumetric strain increments,
v = v0 (1 + e)
(2.183)
(2.184)
= K + 4G/3; and
= K 2G/3.
Alternatively, using deviatoric parts of incremental stress and strain tensors, we may write:
si = 2Gie
p = Kee
i = 1, 3
(2.185)
2 - 74
In the Cam-clay model, the tangential bulk modulus K in the volumetric relation Eq. (2.185)
is updated to reflect a nonlinear law derived experimentally from isotropic compression tests.
The results of a typical isotropic compression test are presented in the semi-logarithmic plot of
Figure 2.24.
v
v
normal
consolidation line
vA
vB
swelling lines
ln p1
ln p
p
p1
(2.186)
where * and v are two material parameters, and p1 is a reference pressure. (Note that v is the
value of the specific volume at the reference pressure.)
* is used by Wood (1990) to define the slope of the normal consolidation line. It should not
be confused with the plastic (volumetric) multiplier, s , used in the plasticity flow rule given in
Section 2.4.7.3.
2 - 75
An unloading-reloading excursion, from point A or B on the figure, will move the point along an
elastic swelling line of slope , back to the normal consolidation line where the path will resume.
The equation of the swelling lines has the form
v = v ln
p
p1
(2.187)
where is a material constant, and the value of v for a particular line depends on the location of
the point on the normal consolidation line from which unloading was performed.
The recoverable change in specific volume v e may be expressed in incremental form after differentiation of Eq. (2.187):
v e =
p
p
(2.188)
After division of both members by v, and comparing with Eq. (2.182), we may write
p =
vp e
e
(2.189)
In the Cam-clay model it is assumed that any change in mean pressure is accompanied by elastic
change in volume according to the above expression. Comparison with Eq. (2.185) hence suggests
the following expression for the tangent bulk modulus of the Cam-clay material:
K=
vp
(2.190)
Under more general loading conditions, the state of a particular point in the medium might be
represented by a point, such as A, located below the normal consolidation line in the (v, ln p) plane
(see Figure 2.25). By virtue of the law adopted in Eq. (2.188), an elastic path from that point
proceeds along the swelling line through A.
2 - 76
v
normal
consolidation line
A
vcA
vp
vp
ve
A'
vc
A'
A'
ln pc
ln pc
ln p
Figure 2.25 Plastic volume change corresponding to an incremental consolidation pressure change
The specific volume and mean pressure at the intersection of swelling line and normal consolidation
line are referred to as (normal) consolidation (specific) volume and (normal) consolidation pressure:
vcA and pcA , in the case of point A. Consider an incremental change in stress bringing the point
from state A to state A . At A there corresponds a consolidation volume vcA and consolidation
pressure pcA . The increment of plastic volume change v p is measured on the figure by the
vertical distance between swelling lines (associated with points A and A ) and we may write, using
incremental notation:
v p = ( )
pc
pc
(2.191)
After division of the left and right member by v, we obtain, comparing with Eq. (2.182):
ep =
pc
v
pc
(2.192)
Hence, whereas elastic changes in volume occur whenever the mean pressure changes, plastic
changes of volume occur only when the consolidation pressure changes.
2 - 77
(2.193)
(2.194)
lin
ls
plastic dilation
p
qcr=M c
2
e
at
a
itic
cr
-ep<0
plastic compaction
-ep>0
pcr=
pc
2
pc
2 - 78
ei = s
g
i
i = 1, 3
(2.195)
e1 = s ca
p
e2 = s cb
p
e3
(2.196)
= cc
where:
M2
(2p pc ) + (1 2 ) + (1 3 )
3
M2
(2p pc ) + (2 1 ) + (2 3 )
cb =
3
M2
(2p pc ) + (3 1 ) + (3 2 )
cc =
3
ca =
(2.197)
The elastic strain increments may be expressed from Eq. (2.180) as total minus plastic increments.
In further using Eq. (2.196), the elastic laws in Eq. (2.184) become:
(2.198)
2 - 79
Let the new and old stress states be referred to by the superscripts N and O, respectively. Then, by
definition:
iN = iO + i
i = 1, 3
(2.199)
1N = 1I s [1 ca + 2 (cb + cc )]
2N = 2I s [1 cb + 2 (ca + cc )]
(2.200)
3N = 3I s [1 cc + 2 (ca + cb )]
where the superscript I is used to represent the elastic guess, obtained by adding to the old stresses
elastic increments computed using the total strain increments i.e.,
(2.201)
(2.202)
where:
a =2G2 (ca cb )2 + (cb cc )2 + (cc ca )2 + M 2 K 2 (ca + cb + cc )2
b = 2G (1I 2I )(ca cb ) + (2I 3I )(cb cc ) + (3I 1I )(cc ca )
M 2 K(ca + cb + cc )(2pI pc )
(2.203)
c =f (q I , pI )
Of the two roots of this equation, the one with the smallest modulus must be retained.
2 - 80
Note that at the critical point corresponding to pcr = pc /2, qcr = Mpc /2 in Figure 2.26, the
normal to the yield curve f = 0 is parallel to the q-axis. Since the flow rule is associated, the
plastic volumetric strain rate component vanishes there. As a result of the hardening rule Eq. (2.192),
the consolidation pressure pc will not change. The corresponding material point has reached the
critical state in which unlimited shear strains occur with no accompanying change in specific volume
or stress level.
2.4.7.4 Hardening/Softening Rule
The size of the yield curve is dependent on the value of the consolidation pressure pc (see
Eq. (2.193)). This pressure is a function of the plastic volume change and varies with the specific volume, as indicated in Eq. (2.192).
The consolidation pressure pc corresponding to new values for v and p may easily be found by
intersection of the consolidation line with the swelling line through (v, ln p). This gives, using
Eqs. (2.186) and (2.187):
pc = p1 e(v v )/()
(2.204)
where
v = v + ln
p
p1
(2.205)
pc0
p0
(2.206)
2 - 81
6 sin
3 sin
(2.207)
2 - 82
6 sin
3 + sin
(2.208)
The slopes of the normal consolidation and swelling lines ( and ) Ideally, these two parameters should be obtained from an isotropically loaded triaxial test (q = 0) with several unloading
excursions. The slope of the normal compression line in a v versus ln p plot will be the parameter
. The slope of an unloading excursion in the same plot will be the parameter .
These two parameters can also be derived from an oedometer test making certain assumptions. Let
v and H be the vertical and horizontal stresses in an oedometer test. In most oedometer apparatus,
it is not possible to measure the horizontal stresses, H , so the mean stress, p = (v + 2H )/3,
is not known. However, experimental data show that the ratio of horizontal to vertical effective
stresses, K0 , is constant during normal compression. Since p = v (1 + 2K0 )/3 along the normal
compression line, the slope of v vs ln p will be equal to the slope of e versus ln v , where e is the
void ratio = v 1.
The compression index Cc is calculated as the slope of e vs log10 (v ). So the parameter will be:
= Cc / ln(10)
(2.209)
Experimental data show that along a swelling line in an oedometer test, K0 is not constant, so an
estimate of based on the swelling coefficient Cs , will only be an approximation:
Cs / ln(10)
(2.210)
p
p1
(2.211)
(2.212)
2 - 83
In a soil, the undrained shear strength cu is uniquely related to the specific volume vcr by the
equation
vcr
Mp1
exp
cu =
2
(2.213)
Thus, the value of for a given p1 , and therefore v , can be calculated if the undrained shear
strength for a particular specific volume vcr , along with the parameters M, and is known.
Preconsolidation pressure, pc0 The preconsolidation pressure determines the initial size of the
yield surface in the equation
q 2 = M 2 [p(pc0 p)]
(2.214)
If a sample has been submitted to an isotropic loading path, pc0 will be the maximum past mean
effective stress. If the sample has followed other non-isotropic paths, pc0 has to be calculated from
the maximum previous p and q, using Eq. (2.214).
The maximum vertical effective stress can be calculated from an oedometer test using Casagrandes
method (for details, see Britto and Gunn 1987). Some hypothesis has to be made about the maximum
horizontal effective stress. A common hypothesis is Jakys relation (e.g., see Britto and Gunn 1987):
Knc =
h max
1 sin
v max
(2.215)
where Knc is the coefficient of horizontal h max to vertical v max stress at rest for normally consolidated soil. For example, if a soil with an effective friction angle of 20 has experienced a maximum
vertical effective stress, v max = 1 MPa. Then, using Jakys relation:
Knc = 1 sin 20 = 0.658
(2.216)
(2.217)
2 - 84
pmax =
v max + 2h max
= 0.772 MPa
3
(2.218)
2
qmax
= pmax + 2
= 1.026 MPa
M pmax
(2.219)
Initial values for specific volume v0 and current bulk modulus K Given an initial effective
pressure p0 , the initial specific volume, v0 , must be consistent with the choice of parameters , , p1
and pc0 . The initial value v0 is calculated by the code to correspond to the value of the specific
volume corresponding to p0 on the swelling line through the point on the normal consolidation line
at which p = pc0 . From Figure 2.27, it follows that
pc0
v0 = v ln
p1
pc0
+ ln
p0
(2.220)
2 - 85
v
v
swelling line
v0
ln
pc0
p0
v- ln
lnp1
lnp0
lnpc0
pc0
p1
lnp
v0 p0
(2.221)
In FLAC, the default values for v0 and K are evaluated using Eqs. (2.220) and (2.221) when the
first step command is issued.
Maximum value of the elastic parameters K and G In the Cam-clay model, the value of the
current bulk modulus (bulk current) changes as a function of the specific volume and the mean
stress:
K=
vp
(2.222)
The input values of Kmax (bulk) and G (shear) are used in the mass scaling calculation performed
in FLAC to ensure numerical stability (see Section 1.3.5). This calculation is done once every time
a STEP command is issued. These input values should be chosen so as to give an upper bound to
the sum (K + 4/3G), as evaluated by the model between two consecutive STEP commands. Values
2 - 86
should, however, not be set too high or the model may be slow to converge. They should be selected
based on the stress level in the problem.
G or The modified Cam-clay model in FLAC allows the user to specify either a constant shear
modulus or a constant Poissons ratio.
If no Poissons ratio is specified, a constant shear modulus equal to the input value is assumed.
Then the Poissons ratio will vary as a function of the specific volume and the mean stress:
=
3
6
vp
vp
2G
+ 2G
(2.223)
If a nonzero Poissons ratio is specified, the shear modulus will vary at the same rate as the bulk
modulus in order to maintain a constant Poissons ratio:
G=
vp
(1 2)
2 (1 2)
(2.224)
(2.225)
where is the constant Poissons ratio for the test = ( )/, and M, and are Cam-clay
model properties.
2 - 87
3
3 + 2
(2.226)
In soils that have a history of one-dimensional deformation, this ratio is called the coefficient of
earth pressure at rest. The coefficient K0 is evaluated numerically using the data file in Example 2.5
and compared to the analytic value derived from the above expression.
The FLAC simulation is carried out using a single zone of unit dimensions. The following properties
are used in conjunction with the Cam-clay model:
bulk modulus(maximum value), K
Poissons ratio,
frictional constant, M
slope of normal consolidation line,
slope of elastic swelling line,
reference pressure, p1
specific volume, v
50000 Pa
0.3
1.02
0.2
0.05
1 Pa
3.32
2 - 88
The analytical value of K0 is evaluated using the FISH function c konc. A nonzero initial stress
state is specified with values yy = 5 Pa and xx = zz = K0 yy . The initial value of pc
corresponds to a normally consolidated state and is calculated using Eq. (2.219). The velocity
components are fixed in the x- and y-directions. A velocity of magnitude 105 m/steps is applied
to the top of the model in the negative y-direction for a total of 1000 steps. The ratio of horizontal
to vertical stress is monitored and compared to the analytic prediction for K0 . The match is very
good, as may be seen in Figure 2.29, where numerical and analytic solutions coincide. The stress
paths in the (yy , xx ) and (p, q) planes are represented in Figures 2.30 and 2.31; they correspond
to straight line trajectories as expected.
Example 2.5 Oedometer test on a Cam-clay material
;-----------------------------------------------------------; Oedometric test on Cam-clay sample (drained)
; coefficient of earth pressure konc: comparison between
; numerical and analytical predictions
; Wood, Soil behaviour and critical soil mechanics, p314-319
;-----------------------------------------------------------g 1 1
tit
Oedometric test on cam-clay sample R = 1
; --- model properties --model cam-clay
prop shear 250. bulk 50000. dens 1
prop mm 1.02 lambda 0.2 kappa 0.05 poiss 0.3
prop mp1 1. mv l 3.32
; --- boundary conditions --fix x y
ini yvel -0.5e-5 j=2
; --- fish functions --; ... analytical value for konc ...
def c konc
c l = 1. - kappa(1,1)/lambda(1,1)
c b = 3.*c l
c a = (1.+poiss(1,1))*(1.-c l)/(3.*(1.-2.*poiss(1,1)))
m2 = mm(1,1)*mm(1,1)
a1 = -1./c a
a2 = -(c a*m2+c b)/c a
a3 = m2/c a
bq = (a1*a1-3.*a2)/9.
br = (a1*(2.*a1*a1-9.*a2)+27.*a3)/54.
aux = br*br-bq*bq*bq
eta = 0.0
if aux > 0.0 then
aux = (sqrt(aux)+abs(br))(1./3.)
eta = -sgn(br)*(aux+bq/aux)-a1/3.
2 - 89
konc = (3.-eta)/(3.+2.*eta)
else
aux = sqrt(-aux)/abs(br)
teta= atan(aux)+pi
aux1 = 2.*sqrt(bq)
aux2 = a1/3.
eta1 = -aux1*cos((teta)/3.)-aux2
eta2 = -aux1*cos((teta+2.*pi)/3.)-aux2
eta3 = -aux1*cos((teta+4.*pi)/3.)-aux2
konc1 = (3.-eta1)/(3.+2.*eta1)
konc2 = (3.-eta2)/(3.+2.*eta2)
konc3 = (3.-eta3)/(3.+2.*eta3)
konc = max(konc1,konc2)
konc = max(konc,konc3)
end if
; ... Jakys approximate expression for konc = 1 - sin(phi) ...
kjaky = 1.-3.*mm(1,1)/(6.+mm(1,1))
end
; ... initial, normally consolidated state ...
def i state
isyy = -5.0
syy(1,1) = isyy
sxx(1,1) = isyy * konc
szz(1,1) = isyy * konc
p i = -isyy * (1.0 + 2.0 * konc) / 3.
q i = -isyy * (1.0 - konc)
val = q i / (mm(1,1)*p i)
mpc(1,1) = p i * (1.0 + val * val)
end
; ... numerical values for p, q, v ...
def path
s1
= -syy(1,1)
s2
= -szz(1,1)
s3
= -sxx(1,1)
k0
= 0.0
if s1 # 0 then
k0 = s3 / s1
end if
sp
= cam p(1,1)
sq
= cam q(1,1)
dif
= sq / sp - 3.*(1.-k0)/(1.+2.*k0)
sqcr
= sp*mm(1,1)
lnp
= ln(sp)
logsy = log(s1)
c sv
= sv(1,1)
void ratio=c sv-1.
2 - 90
mk
= bulk current(1,1)
mg
= shear mod(1,1)
s1konc = s1 * konc
end
; ... loading-unloading excursions ...
def trip
loop i (1,3)
command
ini yv -0.5e-4 j=2
step 2000
ini yv mul -.1
step 1500
ini yv mul -1
step 2500
end command
end loop
end
; --- histories --his nstep 20
his unbal
his path
his sp
his lnp
his logsy
his sq
his sqcr
his c sv
his mk
his mg
his ydisp i=1 j=2
his k0
his konc
his s1
his s3
his s1konc
his dif
hist void ratio
; --- test --c konc
i state
;trip
step 1000
; --- results --;save coedo.sav
plot hold his 12 cross 13 min 0 max 1 vs -11
2 - 91
0.900
0.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
k0
(FISH)
0.700
konc
(FISH)
0.600
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-04
Figure 2.29 Oedometric test comparison of numerical and analytical values for K0
2 - 92
3.800
3.750
(FISH)
X-axis :
s1
(FISH)
3.700
3.650
3.600
3.550
50
51
51
52
52
53
53
(10
-01
1.560
1.540
1.520
1.500
1.480
1.460
40
41
41
42
42
43
43
44
(10
-01
2 - 93
(2.227)
where 1 and 3 are the major and minor effective principal stresses, and ci , mb , s and a are
material constants that can be related to the Geological Strength Index and rock damage (Hoek
et al., 2002). For interest, the unconfined compressive strength is given by c = ci s a , and the
tensile strength by t = - s ci / mb . Note that the criterion (Eq. (2.227)) does not depend on the
intermediate principal stress, 2 . Thus, the failure envelope is not isotropic.
Assume that the current principal stresses are (1 ,2 , 3 ), and that initial trial stresses (1t ,2t , 3t )
are calculated by using incremental elasticity:
2 - 94
2t
3t
(2.228)
where E1 = K + 4G/3 and E2 = K 2G/3, and (e1 , e2 , e3 ) is the set of principal strain
increments. If the yield criterion (Eq. (2.227)) is violated by this set of stresses, then the strain
increments (prescribed as independent inputs to the model) are assumed to be composed of elastic
and plastic parts:
e3e
(2.229)
p
+ e3
Note that plastic flow does not occur in the intermediate principal stress direction. The final stresses
f f
f
(1 ,2 , 3 ) output from the model are related to the elastic components of the strain increments.
Hence,
(2.230)
1 = 1t E1 e1 E2 e3
f
2 = 2t E2 (e1 + e3 )
f
3
p
3t E1 e3
(2.231)
p
E2 e1
e1 = e3
(2.232)
2 - 95
where the factor depends on stress and is re-computed at each timestep. Eliminating e1 from
Eq. (2.231):
1 = 1t e3 ( E1 + E2 )
2 = 2t e3 E2 (1 + )
(2.233)
3 = 3t e3 ( E2 + E1 )
At yield, Eq. (2.227) is satisfied by the final stresses. That is,
F =
f
f
1
f
3
ci
a
3
+s =0
mb
ci
(2.234)
By substituting values of 1 and 3 from Eq. (2.233), Eq. (2.234) can be solved iteratively for
p
e3 , which is then substituted in Eq. (2.233) to give the final stresses. The method of solution is
described later, but first the evaluation of is discussed.
2.4.8.2 Flow Rules
We need to consider an appropriate flow rule, which describes the volumetric behavior of the material
during yield. In general, the flow parameter will depend on stress, and possibly history. It is not
meaningful to speak of a dilation angle for a material when its confining stress is low or tensile,
because the mode of failure is typically by axial splitting, not shearing. Although the volumetric
strain depends in a complicated way on stress level, we consider certain specific cases for which
behavior is well-known, and determine the behavior for intermediate conditions by interpolation.
Three cases are considered below.
Associated Flow Rule
It is known that many rocks under unconfined compression exhibit large rates of volumetric expansion at yield, associated with axial splitting and wedging effects. The associated flow rule provides
the largest volumetric strain rate that may be justified theoretically. This flow rule is expected to
apply in the vicinity of the uniaxial stress condition (3 0). An associated flow rule is one in
which the vector of plastic strain rate is normal to the yield surface (when both are plotted on similar
axes). Thus,
p
ei =
F
i
(2.235)
where the subscripts denote the components in the principal stress directions, and F is defined by
Eq. (2.234). Differentiating this expression, and using Eq. (2.232):
2 - 96
af =
1
1 + aci (mb 3 /ci + s)a1 (mb /ci )
(2.236)
1
3
(2.237)
(2.238)
1
1
af
+ ( 1cv
1 3
af ) 3cv
(2.239)
2 - 97
(2.240)
a
sci
f
f
then F = 1 3 + ci mb 3 + s = 0
if 3 <
mb
ci
(2.241)
if 3
To initialize the iteration, a starting value for e3 is taken as the absolute maximum of all the
strain increment components. This value, denoted by e1 , is inserted into Eq. (2.233), together
with the value for found from the flow-rule equations, and the resulting stress values inserted into
Eqs. (2.240) and (2.241). The resulting value of F is denoted by F1 . Taking the original value of F
as F0 (and the corresponding plastic strain increment of zero as e0 ), we can estimate a new value
of the plastic strain increment, using a variant of Newtons method:
e2 =
F1 e0 F0 e1
F1 F0
(2.242)
From this, we find a new value of F (call it F2 ) and, if it is sufficiently close to zero, the iteration
stops. Otherwise, we set F0 = F1 , F1 = F2 , e0 = e1 , and e1 = e2 and apply Eq. (2.242)
again.
Tests show that the iteration scheme converges for all stress paths tried so far, including cases
in which s = 0 (material with zero unconfined compressive strength), which led to problems in
previous implementations. For high confining stresses, the iteration converges in one step, but at
low confining stresses, up to ten steps are necessary (the limit built into the code is presently 15).
2 - 98
The value of e3 is calculated by summing the strain increment values for e3 calculated by
Eq. (2.242). Softening behavior is provided by specifying tables that relate each of the properp
p
ties, ci , mb , s and a, to e3 . Each table contains pairs of values: one for the e3 value, and one
for the corresponding property value. It is assumed that the property varies linearly between two
consecutive parameter entries in the table.
A multiplier, (denoted as multable), can also be specified to relate the softening behavior to the
confining stress, 3 . The relation between and 3 is also given in the form of a table. (See
Cundall, et al. (2003) for an application of softening parameters.)
2.4.8.5 Triaxial Compression Test
Triaxial compression tests are performed on models composed of Hoek-Brown material in FLAC
to verify the stress and strain paths that develop. The triaxial load conditions are illustrated in
Figure 2.32. The triaxial tests are performed on a sample of Hoek-Brown material with properties
of mb = 5, s = 1, a = 0.5, ci = 1.0 and 3cv = 1.5, and with elastic properties of E = 100 and
= 0.35. Compression loading tests are performed under two loading conditions: 3 /ci = 0 and
1.0. The analytical solutions for stress and strain during compression loading are presented by the
plots shown in Figures 2.33 and 2.34.
A single-zone model is constructed in FLAC to simulate the triaxial loading tests. The FLAC results
are compared to the analytical solutions in Figures 2.35 through 2.38. The solutions compare within
1%.
2 - 99
2 - 100
2 - 101
2 - 102
5.000
4.000
3.000
1.000
0.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
-01
LEGEND
11-Jun-04 9:45
step 20000
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
-1.600
-1.800
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
Figure 2.36 Triaxial compression test lateral strain versus axial strain
(3 /ci = 0)
2 - 103
5.000
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
-01
LEGEND
11-Jun-04 10:21
step 20000
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
-1.600
-1.800
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
Figure 2.38 Triaxial compression test lateral strain versus axial strain
(3 /ci = 1.0)
2 - 104
2 - 105
;
DEF record variables
;
disp 0 = 0.5*(xdisp(1,1) + xdisp(1,2))
disp 1 = 0.5*(xdisp(2,1) + xdisp(2,2))
eps xx = -( disp 0 - disp 1)/1.0
;
disp 0 = 0.5*(ydisp(1,1) + ydisp(2,1))
disp 1 = 0.5*(ydisp(1,2) + ydisp(2,2))
eps yy = -( disp 0 - disp 1)/1.0
;
sig zz = szz(1,1)
sig xx = sxx(1,1)
sig yy = syy(1,1)
;
record variables = 1.0
;
END
apply yvel y vel j=2
apply yvel minus y vel j=1
his 1 record variables
hist nstep 1000
his 11 eps xx
his 12 eps yy
his 13 eps yy
his 21 sig xx
his 22 sig yy
his 23 sig zz
step cyc
;
; Copy histories to tables
;
DEF copy histories to tables
;
loop j (1,2)
loop i (1,3)
itabloc = int(j*10+i)
command
his write itabloc table itabloc
end command
end loop
end loop
;
; Table 111 contains syy
stress vs axial strain diagram
; Table 112 contains sxx
stress vs axial strain diagram
; Table 113 contains szz
stress vs axial strain diagram
2 - 106
2 - 107
2 - 108
2 - 109
2.5 References
Amadei, B. The Influence of Rock Anisotropy on Measurement of Stresses In Situ. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of California, Berkeley, January, 1982.
Britto, A. M., and M. J. Gunn. Critical State Soil Mechanics via Finite Elements. Chichester
U.K.: Ellis Horwood Ltd., 1987.
Carter, T. G., J. L. Carvalho and G. Swan. Towards the Practical Application of Ground Reaction Curves, in Innovative Mine Design for the 21st Century (Proceedings of the International
Congress on Mine Design Kingston, Ontario, Canada August 1993, pp. 151-171. W. F.
Bawden and J. F. Archibald, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993.
Chen, W. F., and D. J. Han. Plasticity for Structural Engineers. New York: Springer-Verlag,
1988.
Cundall, P., C. Carranza-Torres and R. Hart. A New Constitutive Model Based on the HoekBrown Criterion, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2003 (Proceedings of
the 3rd International FLAC Symposium, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, October 2003), pp. 17-25.
R. Brummer, et al., Eds. Lisse: Balkema, 2003.
Drescher, A. Analytical Methods in Bin-Load Analysis. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1991.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Practical Estimates of Rock Mass Strength, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci., 34(8), 1165-1186 (1998).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM, 1980.
Hoek, E., C. Carranza-Torres and B. Corkum. Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion 2002 Edition, in
Proceedings of NARMS-TAC 2002, 5th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium and 17th
Tunnelling Association of Canada Conference Toronto, Canada July 7 to 10, 2002. Vol.
1., pp. 267-271, R. Hammah, W. Bawden, J. Curran and M. Telesnicki, Eds. Toronto: University
of Toronto Press, 2002.
Lekhnitskii, S. G. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. Moscow: Mir Publishers, 1981.
Pan, X. D., and J. A. Hudson. A Simplified Three Dimensional Hoek-Brown Yield Criterion, in
Rock Mechanics and Power Plants (Proceedings of the ISRM Symp., pp. 95-103. M. Romana,
Ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1988.
Roscoe K. H., and J. B. Burland. On the Generalised Stress-Strain Behavior of Wet Clay, in
Engineering Plasticity, pp. 535-609. J. Heyman and F. A. Leckie, Eds. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1968.
Shah, S. A Study of the Behaviour of Jointed Rock Masses. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto,
1992.
Vermeer, P. A., and R. de Borst. Non-Associated Plasticity for Soils, Concrete and Rock, Heron,
29(3), 3-64 (1984).
2 - 110
Wood, D. M. Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
INTERFACES
4-1
4 INTERFACES
4.1 General Comments
There are several instances in geomechanics in which it is desirable to represent planes on which
sliding or separation can occur for example:
1. joint, fault or bedding planes in a geologic medium;
2. an interface between a foundation and the soil;
3. a contact plane between a bin or chute and the material that it contains; and
4. a contact between two colliding objects.
FLAC provides interfaces that are characterized by Coulomb sliding and/or tensile separation.
Interfaces have the properties of friction, cohesion, dilation, normal and shear stiffness, and tensile
strength. Although there is no restriction on the number of interfaces or the complexity of their
intersections, it is generally not reasonable to model more than a few simple interfaces with FLAC
because it is awkward to specify complicated interface geometry. The program UDEC (Itasca 2004)
is specifically designed to model many interacting bodies; it should be used instead of FLAC for
the more complicated interface problems.
An interface can also be specified between structural elements and a grid, or between two structural
elements. Interface/structural connections are described in Section 4.5.6.
Interfaces may also be used to join regions that have different zone sizes. In general, the ATTACH
command should be used to join sub-grids together. However, in some circumstances it may be
more convenient to use an interface for this purpose. In this case, the interface is prevented from
sliding or opening because it does not correspond to any physical entity.*
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Theory\4-Intface with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided
for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter, open a
project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project
file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree
Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
4-2
4.2 Formulation
An interface is represented as a normal and shear stiffness between two planes which may contact
one another (Figure 4.1).
LM
gridpoint
ks
kn
M
LN
zone
Lo
N
T
Side A
O
P
Side B
S = slider
T = tensile strength
kn = normal stiffness
ks = shear stiffness
Ln = length associated with gridpoint N
Lm = length associated with gridpoint M
denotes limits for joint segments (placed
halfway between adjacent gridpoints)
Figure 4.1
FLAC uses a contact logic, which is similar in nature to that employed in the distinct element
method, for either side of the interface (e.g., Cundall and Hart 1992).
The code keeps a list of the gridpoints (i,j) that lie on each side of any particular surface. Each
point is taken in turn and checked for contact with its closest neighboring point on the opposite
side of the interface. Referring to Figure 4.1, gridpoint N is checked for contact on the segment
between gridpoints M and P. If contact is detected, the normal vector, n, to the contact gridpoint, N,
is computed. A length, L, is also defined for the contact at N along the interface. This length is
equal to half the distance to the nearest gridpoint to the left of N plus half the distance to the nearest
gridpoint to the right, irrespective of whether the neighboring gridpoint is on the same side of the
interface or on the opposite side of N. In this way, the entire interface is divided into contiguous
segments, each controlled by a gridpoint.
During each timestep, the velocity, u i , of each gridpoint is determined. Since the units of velocity
are displacement per timestep, and the calculational timestep has been scaled to unity to speed
convergence (see Section 1.3.5), then the incremental displacement for any given timestep is
INTERFACES
4-3
ui u i
(4.1)
The incremental relative displacement vector at the contact point is resolved into the normal and
shear directions, and total normal and shear forces are determined by:
(t+(1/2)t)
(t+(1/2)t)
(4.2)
(4.3)
where c = cohesion (in stress units) along the interface, L = effective contact
length (Figure 4.1), and = friction angle of interface surfaces.
If the criterion is satisfied (i.e., if |Fs | Fsmax ), then Fs = Fsmax , with the
sign of shear preserved.
In addition, the interface may dilate at the onset of slip (nonelastic sliding).
Dilation is governed in the Coulomb model by a specified dilation angle, .
Dilation is a function of the direction of shearing. Dilation increases if the shear
displacement increment is in the same direction as the total shear displacement,
and decreases if the shear increment is in the opposite direction.
During sliding, shear displacement can cause an increase in the effective normal stress on the interface, according to the relation
n := n +
|Fs |o Fsmax
tan kn
Lks
(4.4)
4-4
where |Fs |o is the magnitude of shear force before the above correction is
made.
3. Tension Bond Two conditions are available for a bonded interface:
a. Bonded interface If a (positive) tensile bond strength is specified
for an interface, each segment of the interface acts as if it is glued
(elastic response only), while the magnitude of the tensile normal
stress is below the bond strength. If the magnitude of the tensile normal stress of a segment exceeds the bond strength (set with tbond),
the bond breaks for that segment, and the segment behaves thereafter as unbonded (separation and slip allowed, as described above,
in the normal way).
A shear bond strength, as well as the tensile bond strength, can be
specified. The bond breaks if the shear stress exceeds the shear bond
strength, or the tensile effective normal stress exceeds the normal
bond strength. The shear bond strength is set to sbr times the normal
bond strength, using the sbratio= sbr property keyword. The default
shear bond strength is 100 times the tensile bond strength.
b. Slip while bonded There is an optional switch (bslip=on) that
allows slip to occur for a bonded interface segment, even though
separation has not occurred. Shear yield is under the control of
the friction and cohesion parameters using the absolute value of the
effective normal force. Note that dilation response is suppressed
(i.e., = 0) when bslip=on. By default bslip=off if not specified.
The corrected forces are then rotated back to the global xy-reference frame (from the normal and
shear directions) and lumped onto the adjacent gridpoints in such a ratio as to preserve moment equilibrium. These are then summed with all other forces when unbalanced force sums are calculated
for each calculation step.
The influence of the interfaces must be accounted for in determination of the critical mechanical
timestep, or instability in the solution may result. The way the fictitious gridpoint mass is increased
in proportion to the interface stiffness at that gridpoint to ensure numerical stability is explained in
Section 1.3.5.
The effect of pore pressure is included in the interface calculation by using effective stress as the
basis for the slip condition. This only applies in CONFIG gw mode. Neither pressure drop normal to
the joint nor influence of normal displacement on pore pressure is calculated. Neither is conduction
of fluid along the interface modeled.
INTERFACES
4-5
4-6
x = 70m
y=0
R = 5.5m
y = -20m
y = -26m
y = -35m
y = -45m
50m
61m
y = -70m
x = 0m
x = 60m
Figure 4.2
Geometry to be modeled
Figure 4.3
x = 100m
INTERFACES
4-7
Stage 3 We now map each region of the grid to its own region of space by using the commands
in Example 4.2.
Example 4.2 Map regions of grid into regions of space
gen
0,-45
0,0
70,0
65.926,-28.519
gen 65.926,-28.519 70,0
100,0
100,-20
gen
60,-70 65.926,-28.519 100,-20
100,-70
gen
0,-70
0,-45
65.926,-28.519 60,-70
i=1,29
i=30,51
i=30,51
i=1,29
j=15,31
j=21,31
j=1,20
j=1,14
Figure 4.4
4-8
In order to create the geometry corresponding to the excavated region, we first move four gridpoints
so that they lie exactly on the endpoints of the straight-line segments. As explained in Section 3.2,
this helps the GENERATE command to do its job correctly. Then, the line segments are rezoned
with GEN line commands, and the circular segment is created with the GEN arc command, as shown
in Example 4.3.
Example 4.3 Create tunnel region
ini
ini
ini
ini
gen
gen
gen
gen
The geometry is illustrated in Figure 4.5. Note that the gridpoint at the left intersection of the
interface and cavern has been moved down slightly; for a more accurate geometry, this point should
be rezoned back to its correct position. (The effect occurs because GEN line should not really be
used across interfaces.)
Figure 4.5
INTERFACES
4-9
Now the interfaces are specified. Because the cavern has been removed, the fault that spans it must
be specified in two parts:
Example 4.5 Create faults
int
int
int
int
int
1
2
3
4
5
Aside
Aside
Aside
Aside
Aside
from
from
from
from
from
1,14
27,14
30,20
29,1
29,15
to
to
to
to
to
22,14
29,14
51,20
29,14
29,31
Bside
Bside
Bside
Bside
Bside
from
from
from
from
from
1,15
27,15
30,21
30,1
30,21
to
to
to
to
to
22,15
29,15
51,21
30,20
30,31
Properties must also be specified for the intact material and for the interfaces. The initial stresses
may also be installed in both the intact material and the interfaces by one INI command. Figure 4.6
shows the grid with cavern removed, and with interfaces drawn, with crosses to denote associated
gridpoints.
4 - 10
3
4
Figure 4.6
INTERFACES
4 - 11
K + 43 G
zmin
(4.5)
where K & G are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively; and
zmin is the smallest width of an adjoining zone in the normal direction see
Figure 4.7.
The max [ ] notation indicates that the maximum value over all zones adjacent to the interface is
to be used (e.g., there may be several materials adjoining the interface).
4 - 12
Z min
Interface
Figure 4.7
To illustrate the approach, consider Figure 4.8, in which two sub-grids of unequal zoning are joined
by the commands in Example 4.6 and are loaded by a pressure on the left-hand part of the upper
surface.
Example 4.6 Joining two sub-grids
g 20 16
mod elas i=1,10 j=1,5
mod elas i=1,20 j=7,16
gen 0,0 0,5 10,5 10,0
i=1,11 j=1,6
gen 0,5 0,10 10,10 10,5 i=1,21 j=7,17
int 1 Aside from 1,6 to 11,6 Bside from 1,7 to 21,7
int 1 glue kn 2e10 ks 2e10
prop dens 1000 sh 3e8 bu 6e8
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=11 j=1,6
fix x i=21 j=7,17
apply p=1e6 i=1,5 j=17
his yd i 1 j 17
step 2000
scl 1 0 9.5 9 1
plo pen bou yd i=5e-4
The minimum zone size adjacent to the interface is 0.5 m, and the value of (K + 4G/3) is 109 Pa.
Hence, we choose both shear stiffness and normal stiffness to be 10 109 /0.5 i.e., kn = ks =
2 1010 Pa/m. The resulting contours of y-displacement are shown in Figure 4.9.
INTERFACES
4 - 13
Figure 4.8
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
Figure 4.9
4 - 14
To test the accuracy of this approach, we do a similar run, but for a single grid with the constant
mesh size of 0.5 m. The data file for this run is given in Example 4.7.
Example 4.7 A single grid for comparison to two sub-grids
g 20 20
mod elas
gen 0,0 0,10 10,10 10,0
prop dens 1000 sh 3e8 bu 6e8
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
apply p=1e6 i=1,5 j=21
his yd i 1 j 21
step 2500
scl 1 0 9.5 9 1
plot pen bou yd i=5e-4
ret
The results from this run are given in Figure 4.10, which is plotted with the same scale and contour
intervals as the previous run. The two plots are almost identical, which indicates that the interface
does not affect the behavior to any great extent.
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
INTERFACES
4 - 15
The prescription given in Eq. (4.5) is reasonable if the material on the two sides of the interface
are similar and variations of stiffness occur only in the lateral directions. However, if the material
on one side of the interface is much stiffer than that on the other, then Eq. (4.5) should be applied
to the softer side. In this case, the deformability of the whole system is dominated by the soft
side; making the interface stiffness ten times the soft-side stiffness will ensure that the interface has
minimal influence on system compliance.
4.4.2 Real Interface Slip and Separation Only
In this case, we simply need to provide a means for one sub-grid to slide and/or open relative to
another sub-grid. The friction (and perhaps cohesion and tensile strength) is important, but the
elastic stiffness is not. The approach of Section 4.4.1 is also used here to determine kn and ks .
However, the other material properties are given real values (see Section 4.4.3 for advice on choice
of properties). As an example, we can allow slip in a bin-flow problem (as shown in Figure 4.11),
corresponding to the data file in Example 4.8.
Example 4.8 Slip in a bin-flow problem
g 7 10
mod mohr i=1,5
mod elas i=7
gen 0,0 0,5 5,5 3,0 i=1,6 j=1,6
gen 3,0 5,5 6,5 6,0 i=7,8 j=1,6
gen 5,5 5,10 6,10 6,5 i=7,8 j=6,11
fix x y i=7,8
fix x i=1
prop dens=2000 shear=1e8 bulk=2e8 fric=30 i=1,5
prop dens=2000 shear=1e8 bulk=2e8
i=7
int 1 Aside from 6,1 to 6,11 Bside from 7,1 to 7,11
int 1 ks=2e9 kn=2e9 fric=15
set large, grav=10
step 1500
plot pen grid vel
ret
4 - 16
INTERFACES
4 - 17
and tensile strength, as well as joint normal and shear stiffnesses. The joint cohesion and friction
angle correspond to the parameters in the Coulomb strength criterion* described in Section 4.2.
Values for normal and shear stiffnesses for rock joints typically can range from roughly 10 to 100
MPa/m for joints with soft clay in-filling, to over 100 GPa/m for tight joints in granite and basalt.
Published data on stiffness properties for rock joints are limited; summaries of data can be found
in Kulhawy (1975), Rosso (1976) and Bandis et al. (1983).
Approximate stiffness values can be back-calculated from information on the deformability and
joint structure in the jointed rock mass and the deformability of the intact rock. If the jointed rock
mass is assumed to have the same deformational response as an equivalent elastic continuum, then
relations can be derived between jointed rock properties and equivalent continuum properties. For
uniaxial loading of rock containing a single set of uniformly spaced joints oriented normal to the
direction of loading, the following relation applies:
1
1
1
+
=
E
Er
kn s
(4.6)
or
kn =
where E
E Er
s (Er E)
= joint spacing.
G Gr
s (Gr G)
(4.7)
4 - 18
The equivalent continuum assumption, when extended to three orthogonal joint sets, produces the
following relations:
Ei =
Gij =
1
1
+
Er
si kni
1
1
1
1
+
+
Gr
si ksi
sj ksj
1
(i = 1, 2, 3)
(4.8)
(i, j = 1, 2, 3)
(4.9)
Several expressions have been derived for two- and three-dimensional characterizations and multiple
joint sets. References for these derivations can be found in Singh (1973), Gerrard (1982(a) and (b))
and Fossum (1985).
Published strength properties for joints are more readily available than stiffness properties. Summaries can be found, for example, in Jaeger and Cook (1969), Kulhawy (1975) and Barton (1976).
Friction angles can vary from less than 10 for smooth joints in weak rock, such as tuff, to over
50 for rough joints in hard rock, such as granite. Joint cohesion can range from zero to values
approaching the compressive strength of the surrounding rock.
It is important to recognize that joint properties measured in the laboratory typically are not representative of those for real joints in the field. Scale dependence of joint properties is a major
question in rock mechanics. Often, the only way to guide the choice of appropriate parameters is
by comparison to similar joint properties derived from field tests. However, field test observations
are extremely limited. Some results are reported by Kulhawy (1975).
The following example illustrates an application of the interface logic to simulate the physical
response of a rock joint subjected to normal and shear loading. The model represents a direct shear
test, which consists of a single horizontal joint that is first subjected to a normal confining stress
and then to a unidirectional shear displacement. Figure 4.12 shows the model.
INTERFACES
4 - 19
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.600
15-Apr-04 16:40
step
3277
-1.050E+00 <x< 2.205E+01
-6.686E+00 <y< 1.641E+01
0.800
Velocity vectors
max vector = 5.051E-07
0
1E -6
Boundary plot
0.400
5E 0
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
4 - 20
INTERFACES
4 - 21
The average shear stress versus shear displacement along the joint is plotted in Figure 4.13, and
the average normal displacement versus shear displacement is plotted in Figure 4.14. These plots
indicate that joint slip occurs for the prescribed properties and conditions. The loading slope in
Figure 4.13 is initially linear and then becomes nonlinear as interface nodes begin to fail, until a
peak shear strength of approximately 5.8 MPa is reached. As indicated in Figure 4.14, the joint
begins to dilate when the interface nodes begin to fail in shear.
4 - 22
JOB TITLE : .
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-05
JOB TITLE : .
-05
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 16:40
step
3277
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
njdisp
(FISH)
X-axis :
sjdisp
(FISH)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-05
INTERFACES
4 - 23
4 - 24
E
B
A
FIXED
F
C
D
FIXED
INTERFACES
4 - 25
Sub-grid 1
4 - 26
Here the starting node on the aside is 4, and the next node to be taken is 7. If
there is no neighbor with the ID of 7, an error is signaled. If the double-node
notation is specified for a chain of beams that is not closed, then only the
direction implied by the pair will be tried. However, the double-node notation
is not needed in that case. The second of the pair is optional and is normally
omitted.
It is recommended that the beam end nodes be specified in advance with STRUCT node commands
so that there are known ID numbers for the from . . . to specification. Otherwise, node numbers will
be assigned automatically.
The following examples demonstrate the interaction between a beam and interface, and between
two beams. In Example 4.10, a ball is dropped onto a single, soft beam (e.g., a trampoline). The
initial and equilibrium positions are shown in Figure 4.17.
INTERFACES
4 - 27
4 - 28
In Example 4.11, the ball falls onto two beams. The lower beam has a moment of inertia two orders
of magnitude higher than the upper beam.
Example 4.11 Ball dropped onto two beams
g 5,5
m e
gen circ 2.5 2.5 2.5
m n
m e reg 3 3
pro d 20000 sh .3e7 bu 5e7
struct node 10 -3,-1 fix x y r
struct node 20 8,-1 fix x y r
struct beam beg node 10 end node 20 seg=15
struct prop 1 e 0.5e10 a .01 i 1e-4
int 1 as from node 10 to node 20 bs from 1,2 to 6,2
int 1 ks 1e8 kn 2e8 fric 2
;
struct node 100 -3,-2 fix x y r
struct node 200 8,-2 fix x y r
struct beam beg node 100 end node 200 seg=15 prop=2
struct prop 2 e 0.5e10 a .01 i 1e-2
int 2 as from node 20 to node 10 bs from node 100 to node 200
int 2 ks 1e8 kn 2e8 fric 2
set grav 10
wind -5 10 -9 6
set large
plot pen noh grid beam white
step 1500
plot pen noh grid beam white
INTERFACES
4 - 29
The initial and equilibrium results are given in Figure 4.18. Note that a higher deformation develops
in the upper beam (beam 2).
4 - 30
mod mohr
gen circ xliner yliner rtunnel
prop den 2000 shear 1e9 bulk 2e9 tens 1e20 fric 30
fix y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=31
set large, grav=10
ini syy -13e5 var 0 3e5
ini sxx -9e5 var 0 2e5
ini szz -10e5 var 0 2.5e5
apply syy=-10e5 j=16 ; surface stress, for large movement
mod null reg 15 7
def liner ; create ring of beam elements
dang = 2.0 * pi / float(nbeam)
x1 = xliner
y1 = yliner + rliner
ang = pi / 2.0
loop n (1,nbeam)
ang = ang + dang
x2 = rliner * cos(ang) + xliner
y2 = rliner * sin(ang) + yliner
command
struct beam beg x1,y1 end x2,y2
end_command
x1 = x2
y1 = y2
end_loop
end
set echo=off
liner
set echo=on
struct prop 1 e=1e12 height 0.28 width 0.28
int 1 Aside from node 1,nbeam to node 1 Bside long from 16,3 to 16,3
int 1 ks 2e9 kn 2e9 fric 30
hist unbal
hist ydis i 16 j 16
hist ydis i 16 j 13
step 1500
save tun_lin.sav
plot boun struct mom yellow fill hold
plot boun beam white ydisp fill hold
ret
A 0.1 m gap is prescribed between the liner and the grid. After the gap closes, moments build in
the liner, as indicated in Figure 4.19. The vertical displacement of the grid is shown by the contour
plot in Figure 4.20.
INTERFACES
4 - 31
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 16:45
step
1500
-1.667E+00 <x< 3.167E+01
-9.182E+00 <y< 2.415E+01
1.500
Boundary plot
0
1.000
1E 1
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
1.373E+06
0.500
0.000
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Apr-04 16:45
step
1500
-1.467E+00 <x< 3.147E+01
-8.992E+00 <y< 2.394E+01
1.500
Y-displacement contours
-1.25E-01
-1.00E-01
-7.50E-02
-5.00E-02
-2.50E-02
0.00E+00
2.50E-02
5.00E-02
1.000
0.500
0.000
1E 1
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
4 - 32
If you type PRINT iface, you will note that normal stresses develop at almost all structural element
nodes along side A of the interface. However, a normal stress develops at only one gridpoint along
side B. This is because the structural element segments do not coincide with the zone edges along
the excavation (see Figure 4.16).
Stress initiation of an interface between a structure and the grid is performed when the stresses
in the grid are initialized. If stresses are initialized in a region that includes an interface, and
a stress gradient is given, the system may not be in exact equilibrium, because of the different
locations at which the stress components are evaluated. This applies to grid/grid interfaces as well
as structure/grid interfaces. For a model with a structure/grid interface, the additional stiffnesses
from the structural nodes will also produce a slight force imbalance that further necessitates some
stepping to reach equilibrium.
Beams can be deleted, and zones can be removed, if they are connected to an interface. Interface
elements will be reformed and interface stresses will be deleted when zones adjacent to the interface
are nulled.
The following example illustrates the use of beams and interfaces to simulate an embedded retaining
wall (e.g., a sheetpile wall). Interfaces are attached to both sides of the beam element wall to
represent the soil/wall interface. The connection of the structural element nodes to the interface
nodes is order dependent: be careful to identify the active side of the beam elements when attaching
each interface (see the INTERFACE command in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference). The
soil/wall properties chosen for this example are for demonstration purposes; actual values for wall
friction and adhesion can be found in the literature (e.g., Clayton et al., 1993). The data file is given
in Example 4.13.
The model is stepped to an equilibrium state with the beam and interfaces embedded within the
grid. Then, zones are nulled to simulate the excavation and the model is stepped to equilibrium
again. Note that the tensile strength of the soil is set to a high value during these stages. This
minimizes the effect of inertial forces during the excavation stage. The tensile strength is reset to
the actual value of zero, and the model is stepped to equilibrium for the final solution. The resulting
displacements in the soil and moments in the wall are plotted in Figure 4.21.
Example 4.13 Modeling an embedded retaining wall
grid 12 11
mod mohr
prop den 2000 bulk 5e9 shear 1e9 coh 1e4 fric 30 tension 1e10
mod null i 5
ini x add -1 i 6 13
fix y j 1
fix x i 1
fix x i 13
ini syy -2.2e5 var 0 2.2e5
ini sxx -1.32e5 var 0 1.32e5
ini szz -0.88e5 var 0 0.88e5
set grav 10
INTERFACES
4 - 33
;
struct beam begin 4.0,11 end 4.0 1 seg 10 prop 10
struct prop 10 e 2e9 a 1 i 0.08333 dens 2000
;
inter 1 as from node 11 to node 1 bs from 5,2 to 5,12
inter 2 as from node 1 to node 11 bs from 6,12 to 6,2
inter 1 kn 1e11 ks 1e11 coh 0 tbond 0 fric 30
inter 2 kn 1e11 ks 1e11 coh 0 tbond 0 fric 30
;
attach aside from 5,1 to 5,2 bside from 6,1 to 6,2
;
hist unbal
set large
solve
model null i 1 4 j 5 11
solve
prop tens 0.0
solve
plot hold xdis fill zero inv disp struct mom
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.200
LEGEND
1.000
16-Apr-04 9:08
step 31215
-1.721E+00 <x< 1.272E+01
-1.721E+00 <y< 1.272E+01
0.800
X-displacement contours
-1.00E-02
-8.00E-03
-6.00E-03
-4.00E-03
-2.00E-03
0.600
0.400
0.200
2E -2
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
1.219E+05
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^1)
0.800
1.000
1.200
Figure 4.21 Displacements of the soil behind the wall and moment distribution
in the wall
4 - 34
INTERFACES
4 - 35
4.6 References
Bandis, S. C., A. C. Lumsden and N. R. Barton. Fundamentals of Rock Joint Deformation, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 20(6), 249-268, 1983.
Barton, N. The Shear Strength of Rock and Rock Joints, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geotech.
Abstr., 13, 255-279, 1976.
Clayton, C. R. I., J. Milititsky and R. T. Woods. Earth Pressure and Earth-Retaining Structures.
London: Blackie Academic & Professional, pp. 145-148, 1993.
Cundall, P. A., and R. D. Hart. Numerical Modeling of Discontinua, Engr. Comp., 9, 101-113,
1992.
Fossum, A. F. Technical Note: Effective Elastic Properties for a Randomly Jointed Rock Mass,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 22(6), 467-470, 1985.
Gerrard, C. M. Equivalent Elastic Moduli of a Rock Mass Consisting of Orthorhombic Layers,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 19, 9-14, 1982a.
Gerrard, C. M. Elastic Models of Rock Masses Having One, Two and Three Sets of Joints, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 19, 15-23, 1982b.
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. UDEC (Universal Distinct Element Code), Version 4.0. Minneapolis: ICG, 2004.
Jaeger, J. C., and N. G. W. Cook. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 2nd Ed. London: Chapman
and Hall, 1969.
Kulhawy, Fred H. Stress Deformation Properties of Rock and Rock Discontinuities, Engineering
Geology, 9, 327-350, 1975.
Rosso, R. S. A Comparison of Joint Stiffness Measurements in Direct Shear, Triaxial Compression,
and In Situ, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 13, 167-172, 1976.
Singh, B. Continuum Characterization of Jointed Rock Masses: Part I The Constitutive Equations, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 10, 311-335, 1973.
4 - 36
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1-1
1 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1.1 Overview
An important aspect of geomechanical analysis and design is the use of structural support to stabilize
a rock or soil mass. Structures of arbitrary geometry and properties, and their interaction with a
rock or soil mass, may be modeled with FLAC. This section describes the structural elements
available in FLAC. Generic concepts, such as geometry specification, linkage of elements to the
grid and to each other, options for specifying end conditions, and specification of properties, are
discussed first. Each type of structural element is then described in detail, including a description of
the numerical formulation and the properties required for each element type. Example applications
are also provided at the end of each section.*
All vector quantities in this section are expressed using indicial notation with respect to a fixed
right-handed rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. Thus, the position vector is denoted by xi ,
where it is understood that the indices range over the set {1, 2}.
Note that, because FLAC is a two-dimensional code, the three-dimensional effect of regularly spaced
elements is accommodated by scaling their material properties in the out-of-plane direction. This
procedure is explained in Section 1.9.4.
1.1.1 Types of Structural Elements
Seven forms of structural support may be specified.
1. Beam Elements Beam elements are two-dimensional elements with three degrees of
freedom (x-translation, y-translation and rotation) at each end node. Beam elements can
be joined together with one another and/or the grid. Beam elements are used to represent a
structural member, including effects of bending resistance and limited bending moments.
Tensile and compressive yield strength limits can also be specified. Beams may be used
to model a wide variety of supports, such as support struts in an open-cut excavation and
yielding arches in a tunnel. Interface elements can be attached on both sides of beam
elements in order to simulate the frictional interaction of a foundation wall with a soil or
rock. Beam elements attached to sub-grids via interface elements can also simulate the
effect of geotextiles. (See Section 1.2.)
* The data files listed in this volume are created in one of two ways: either by typing in the commands
in a text editor; or by generating the model in the GIIC and exporting the file using the File / Export
Record menu item. The files are stored in the directory ITASCA\FLAC500\STRUCTURES with
the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an example
and compare the results to plots in this volume, open a project file in the GIIC, by clicking on the
File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click
on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and
the example data file will be run and plots created.
1-2
Structural Elements
2. Liner Elements Liner elements, like beam elements, are two-dimensional elements
with three degrees of freedom (x-translation, y-translation and rotation) at each end
node, and these elements can be joined together with one another and/or the grid. Liner
elements are also used to represent a structural member in which bending resistance,
limited bending moments and yield strengths are important. The primary difference
between liner elements and beam elements is that liner elements include bending stresses
to check for yielding, whereas beam elements only base the yielding criterion on axial
thrust. Liner elements are recommended for modeling tunnel linings, such as concrete
or shotcrete liners. (See Section 1.3.)
3. Cable Elements Cable elements are one-dimensional axial elements
that may be anchored at a specific point in the grid (point-anchored), or grouted so
that the cable element develops forces along its length as the grid deforms. Cable elements can yield in tension or compression, but they cannot sustain a bending moment. If
desired, cable elements may be initially pre-tensioned. Cable elements are used to model
a wide variety of supports for which tensile capacity is important, including rock bolts,
cable bolts and tiebacks. (See Section 1.4.)
4. Pile Elements Pile elements are two-dimensional elements that can transfer normal
and shear forces and bending moments to the grid. Piles offer the combined features of
beams and cables. Shear forces act parallel to the element, and normal forces perpendicular to the element. The three-dimensional effect of the pile interaction with the grid
can be simulated. A user-defined FISH function describing the load versus deformation
at the pile/medium interface normal to the pile can also be specified. The element does
not yield axially, but plastic hinges can develop. Pile elements are specifically designed
to represent the behavior of foundation piles. (See Section 1.5.)
5. Rockbolt Elements Rockbolt elements, like pile elements, are two-dimensional elements that can transfer normal and shear forces and bending moments to the grid. Rockbolt elements have the same features as pile elements. In addition, rockbolt elements can
account for: (1) the effect of changes in confining stress around the reinforcement; (2)
the strain-softening behavior of the material between the element and the grid material;
and (3) the tensile rupture of the element. Rockbolt elements are well-suited to represent
rock reinforcement in which nonlinear effects of confinement, grout or resin bonding, or
tensile rupture are important. (See Section 1.6.)
6. Strip Elements Strip elements represent the behavior of thin reinforcing strips placed
in layers within a soil embankment to provide structural support. The strip element is
similar to the rockbolt element in that strips can yield in tension or compression, and a
tensile failure strain limit can be defined. Strips cannot sustain a bending moment. The
shear behavior at the strip/soil interface is defined by a nonlinear shear failure envelope
that varies as a function of a user-defined transition confining pressure. Strip elements are
designed to be used in the simulation of reinforced earth retaining walls. (See Section 1.7.)
7. Support Members Support members are intended to model hydraulic props, wooden
props or wooden packs. In its simplest form, a support member is a spring connected
between two boundaries. The spring may be linear, or it may obey an arbitrary relation
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1-3
between axial force and axial displacement, as prescribed from a table of values. The
support member has no independent degrees of freedom: it simply imposes forces on the
boundaries to which it is connected. A support member may also have a width associated
with it. In this case, it behaves as if it were composed of several parallel members spread
out over the specified width. (See Section 1.8.)
In all cases, the commands necessary to define the structure(s) are quite simple, but they invoke
a very powerful and flexible structural logic. This structural logic is developed with the same
finite-difference logic as the rest of the code (as opposed to a matrix-solution approach), allowing
the structure to accommodate large displacements and to be applied for dynamic as well as static
analysis.
1.1.2 Geometry
The geometries of all structural elements are defined by their endpoints. The user defines the
endpoints for beams, liners, cables, piles, rockbolts and strips, whereas the endpoints for support
elements are found automatically by FLAC. Note that cable, pile, rockbolt and strip endpoints have
different mechanical behaviors, depending on the form of specification grid or x,y (see below).
1.1.2.1 Beam, Liner, Cable, Pile, Rockbolt and Strip Elements
The primary format to specify each beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip element is of the form:
STRUCT
where type is beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip. Note that an optional format, using from and
to, is also available to facilitate geometry creation for beams and liners along model boundaries.
See Section 1.1.2.2.
In general, endpoints may be placed at any location inside or outside the FLAC grid. The beginning
and ending locations are identified by the keywords begin and end, respectively. One of three types
of linkage may be defined by phrases following begin and end:
grid = i, j
x,y
node = n
grid = i, j denotes that the beginning (or ending) of the element is linked to gridpoint (i, j) of the host
medium. For example, in Figure 1.1, two beam elements are connected to the grid at gridpoints
(1,2) and (1,3), and at (1,3) and (1,4). The only way that beam and liner elements can interact with
the grid is by linking their nodes to gridpoints with the grid keyword, or via a connection through
interface elements (see Section 1.1.2.2). If the grid keyword is specified for one end of a cable,
then that end of the cable is bonded rigidly to the specified gridpoint; the grout properties are not
used at such an attachment point. This also applies for the pile, rockbolt and strip elements and
coupling-spring properties.
1-4
Structural Elements
If x- and y-coordinates are specified, the endpoint is located at any selected location within or
outside the grid. In Figure 1.1, a cable element (Cable 1) is located with endpoints at (x = 0, y = 3.5)
and (x = 3, y = 3.5). If coordinates are used to specify one end of a cable, even if the coordinates
coincide exactly with a gridpoint, then grout stiffness and strength will operate at the connection
e.g., the cable may pull out. Likewise, if x- and y-coordinates are specified for a pile, rockbolt
or strip node, the coupling-spring properties will operate.
y
Cable 1
5
FLAC grid
Beam 2
3
Beam 1
2
Cable 2
j=1
i=1
Figure 1.1
x
2
node = n links the beginning (or ending) of the beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip to another
node of the structure. The node numbers are assigned sequentially, starting with one, when the
linkage phrase grid = i, j or x, y is used. Alternatively, nodes can be created at any location and
assigned node numbers by the user via the command STRUCT node n x, y to position a node at
a specific location, or via the command STRUCT node n grid i,j to link the node to a gridpoint.
These nodes can then be included in the structural element. Node numbers can be identified by
issuing either the PRINT struct node position or PLOT struct node command. For example, cable 2
in Figure 1.1 is defined by endpoints at node numbers 1 and 6. Node 6 is first located at (x = 3, y =
2). Note that all nodes (and all elements) have unique numbers. Example 1.1 shows the commands
to produce the geometry in Figure 1.1.
Structural element groups are assigned unique ID numbers automatically. A group is a collection
of structural elements of the same type that contains a contiguous set of nodes, and the adjoined
element segments have the same property number (see Section 1.1.6). The group ID numbers can
be found via the PLOT struct number command. For example, in Example 1.1 there are three groups
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1-5
because the two beam elements are connected by a common node (node 2). Note that cable 2 has
a separate group ID number even though it is connected to beam 1 at node 2.
Example 1.1 Specifying structural elements
grid 4
mo el
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
4
beam begin grid 1,2 end grid 1,3
beam begin grid 1,3 end grid 1,4
cable begin 0,3.5 end 3,3.5
node 6 3,2
cable begin node 1 end node 6
;
;
;
;
;
beam 1
beam 2
cable 1
individual node
cable 2
A single element may be divided at its creation into a number of smaller elements or segments using
the segment = n keyword. Each segment represents a structural element. If n = 1, then only one
segment (and, thus, one element) is created. If n >1, then FLAC divides the specified beam, liner,
cable, pile, rockbolt or strip into n elements of equal length. The coordinates and node numbers
for each element are automatically determined by FLAC. The PLOT struct element command plots
the individual elements and their identifying numbers.
The most common reason to specify n>1 is to improve accuracy, especially with cable, pile, rockbolt
and strip elements that are interacting with the host medium. In this case, the distribution of shear
forces along the element is a function, to some extent, of the number of nodal points. The following
rules-of-thumb can be used to determine the number of element nodal points and, thus, segments
for cables, piles, rockbolts and strips.
1. Try to provide approximately one element-nodal point in each FLAC zone.
The reasoning here is that since the zones are constant-stress elements, it is
not necessary to have more than one interaction point within a zone.
2. Try to provide at least two to three structural elements within the development length of the cable or rockbolt. The development length is determined
by dividing the specified yield force by the unit bond value. By following
this procedure, failure by pull-out can occur if such conditions arise. For
example, if cable elements are too long, then only the yield failure mode of
the axial element is possible. (There is no yield in the piles at this time.)
3. If a cable, pile, rockbolt or strip crosses a grid interface, and the calculation
is to be performed in large-strain mode, then enough element segments must
be provided in the part of the element that is distorted by the interface, so that
the proper shear restraint is captured. At least five element segments in this
region must be provided.
1-6
Structural Elements
Structural element segments can be deleted at any time in the calculation process by specifying
the keyword phrase delete n1 n2 following the name of the element type. For example, to delete
beam element segments beginning with segment (i.e., element) number 10 and ending with segment
number 15, use the command
struct beam delete 10 15
If only n1 is given, one element segment is deleted. If neither n1 nor n2 is specified, all segments
are deleted. If the segments to be deleted are connected by a slave (or master) node, the node must
first be unslaved (see Section 1.1.5).
All information related to the geometry and properties of structural elements can be printed with
the PRINT struct command, with appropriate keywords.
1.1.2.2 Beam and Liner Elements Created along Boundaries
Beams and liners can only interact with the FLAC grid in one of two ways: either by directly
connecting nodes to gridpoints (via the grid = i, j linkage), or by using interfaces to connect the
nodes to the grid. If a beam or liner is to be attached along a grid boundary, either every node
must be individually connected to a corresponding gridpoint, or an interface must be created, with
one side of the interface attached to the structural element and the other side attached to the grid.
Geometry creation can become quite tedious in either case. See Section 1.1.4 for details on the
procedures for linking beams and liners to the grid.
An optional format for geometry creation is available to facilitate generation of beams or liners
along grid boundaries. This automation eliminates the requirement for the user to locate and define
gridpoints or an interface between the structural nodes and the grid. The format also allows the
definition of multiple layers of beams or liners along the boundary.
Specification of beam or liner geometry along a grid boundary is given by a command of the form:
STRUCT
where type is beam or liner. If interface is not specified, then structural nodes are created along the
boundary and automatically attached to all the gridpoints along the boundary from gridpoint (i1, j1)
to gridpoint (i2, j2). If interface is specified, then an interface with number ni is automatically created
between the beam or liner and the grid. Interface properties are specified using the INTERFACE
command. (See the INTERFACE command in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference.) The
shortest distance between the specified gridpoints will be taken; the optional keyword long forces
the longer route to be taken. If long is used and i1 = i2 and j2 = j2, then a closed loop of beam or
liner elements is created.
Additional layers of beams or liners can be added by specifying the command of the form:
STRUCT
This command creates another layer adjacent to an existing beam or liner, between the given nodes
n1 and n2. The new layer interacts with the existing layer via the interface. The rules for ordering
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1-7
the nodes are the same as that for the INTERFACE command (i.e., the nodes of the existing beam or
liner have to be given so that the new beam or liner approaches from the left).
If the from and to nodes are the same, a closed loop of structural elements is created. In this case,
the direction must be specified by using the optional node nx. This node is the next node in the
sequence, which conveys the direction required. For example,
struct beam from node 4,5 to node 4 interface 12 prop 22
The starting and ending node is 4, and the next node to be taken is 5. If there is no neighbor with
ID 5, an error is signaled. If the double-node notation is specified for a chain of structural elements
that is not closed, then only the direction implied by the pair will be taken; the double-node notation
is not recognized in this case.
1.1.2.3 Support Elements
A support member is created with a STRUCT command of the following form.
STRUCT
angle
a
The axis of the support member is oriented at a degrees to the x-axis
(default = 90 , if omitted).
remove
or
delete
x,y
Either keyword causes the existing support member closest to (x,y)
to be deleted. The keyword must be the only one given in this case.
segment
n
For a member with non-zero width, the segment keyword specifies
the number of sub-elements that comprise the member (default = 5).
1-8
Structural Elements
width
w
The support member spans a width of w perpendicular to its axis
(default = 0).
When the STRUCT support command is given, FLAC searches for the two nearest boundaries that
intersect the axis of the member and places the member between the two intersection points. An
error will be detected if fewer than two boundaries are found. The points of attachment to the FLAC
grid are preserved regardless of the displacement that occurs subsequently.
1.1.3 Connection of Structural Elements to Each Other
Structural connections are provided by specifying the same grid = i, j, node = n or x,y-coordinates for
the elements to be connected. Any beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip element can be joined to
any other beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip element. (In order to create separate, unconnected
nodes at the same physical location, use the STRUCT node command with a unique node number
for each node.) There is also no limit to the number of elements that can be joined at an endpoint.
The PLOT beam, PLOT liner, PLOT cable, PLOT pile, PLOT rockbolt and PLOT strip commands can
be used with the PLOT struct node command to check whether elements are structurally connected
to each other. For example, if beams and piles are connected, use the command PLOT beam red
pile white struct node to identify structural connections. Elements that are connected will have the
same structural node numbers. When connecting cables to beams, liners, piles, rockbolts or strips,
a pin joint will result if the cable is specified first.
1.1.4 Linkage of Structural Elements to the Grid
In order for beam or liner elements to interact with the model grid, they must be explicitly linked
to the grid. A beam or liner element can be linked to the grid with the grid = i,j option in the
STRUCT command. It should be noted that, even though a beam or liner element node has the same
coordinates as a grid coordinate, the beam or liner will not interact with the grid unless the grid =
i,j option is specified. Further, only the endpoints of the series of elements will be linked to the
grid if more than one segment is requested in a single STRUCT beam or STRUCT liner command;
separate STRUCT beam and STRUCT liner commands must be given if all nodes are to be connected
to gridpoints.
The beam or liner can also be linked to the medium by connecting the beam or liner to an interface.
This is done with the from node n1 to node n2 keyword phrase in the INTERFACE command.
Beams and liners may interact with the grid, and beams and liners may interact with each other via
interfaces. (See the INTERFACE command in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for rules to
include beam elements at interfaces.)
Connection of beam and liner elements to a grid can be a tedious operation. The process to connect
beams or liners to a grid boundary is automated, as explained in Section 1.1.2.2.
Cable, pile, rockbolt and strip elements can interact with the grid via the shear coupling springs
(and normal coupling springs in the case of a pile or rockbolt). Elastic stiffness properties and
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1-9
cohesive and stress-dependent frictional properties describe the interaction between the elements
and the grid. If all the parameters are zero, these elements will not interact with the grid. If a cable,
pile, rockbolt or strip node is placed with the grid keyword, then it will be rigidly connected to that
gridpoint, and the springs will have no effect at that point.
1.1.5 End Conditions
The supplemental command STRUCT node = n keyword provides options for describing the end
conditions of beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt and strip elements. The options include:
(1) free or fixed x- and y-displacements or rotations;
(2) pin joints;
(3) applied velocities;
(4) applied loads or moments; and
(5) slaved nodes.
These options are given by the following qualifying keywords following the node number n.
free
initial
keyword
Certain node variables can be assigned initial values. The following
keywords apply.
rvel
value
rotational velocity for beam, liner, pile or rockbolt
nodes
xdis
value
x-displacement for beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt
or strip nodes
1 - 10
Structural Elements
xvel
value
x-velocity for beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip
nodes
ydis
value
y-displacement for beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt
or strip nodes
yvel
value
y-velocity for beam, liner, cable, pile, rockbolt or strip
nodes
load
pin
slave
unslave
<x> <y>
This option removes the slave condition of node n in the x- and/or
y-direction.
For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes rather than a single node can be
selected. Replace node n with node range n1 n2 to specify a range of nodes, where n1 is the first
node and n2 is the last node in the range.
When using the initial keyword for cable nodes, the velocity can only be assigned in the axial
direction of the element; the cable must be aligned in either the x- or y-direction to specify an axial
velocity.
It should be noted that element nodes that are linked to a FLAC gridpoint will have the same kinematic
restraints as the gridpoint. A consequence of this is that appropriate symmetry conditions used for
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 11
the FLAC grid will also work for the elements. However, beam, liner, pile and rockbolt elements
that terminate at a symmetry line should also have their rotations fixed at the symmetry line.
1.1.6 Material Properties
Property numbers are assigned to elements with the property np keyword. If this keyword is not
specified, the default is np = 1. Each different type of element is then assigned geometric and
material properties by using the STRUCT property = np command. For example, if a beam is to be
used (i.e., one structural cross-section), the commands may be:
struc beam ... prop = 3
struc prop=3 e=200e9 i=2.3e-5
a=4.8e-3
1001 - 1999
2001 - 2999
3001 - 3999
4001 - 4999
5001 - 5999
6001 - 6999
7001 - 7999
If a FLAC data file is imported into the GIIC, the property numbers should correspond to these
ranges in order for the structural element properties dialogs to be active in the GIIC. The property
numbers specified in the data files listed in this chapter correspond to these ranges.
Structural nodes and coupling springs are assigned a property number that corresponds to the element
segment that is connected to the structural nodes. Any properties attributed to the connecting node
(e.g., a plastic hinge node) will be taken from the last element segment created. This is also an
important consideration when a property number is changed for a portion of the element group (see
the STRUCT chprop command, below).
* The Manual of Steel Construction (AISC 1980) lists sectional properties for standard beam
sections.
1 - 12
Structural Elements
It is possible to specify different property numbers within a structural element group. This is done
with the STRUCT chprop np range nel1 nel2 command, where np is the new property number.
Element segments with ID numbers between and including the element numbers nel1 and nel2
have their property numbers changed to the new property number. All nodes and coupling springs
associated with these element segments are also affected. Separate group ID numbers will be
created automatically within the original group, corresponding to the different property numbers.
The mass density (density keyword) must also be given if the weight of the structure is to be
taken into account under gravity or dynamic loading. Gravity forces, Fi , are included in structural
elements based on the formula
Fi = ALgi
where
(1.1)
The required properties for each structural element type are described in the following sections. It
should be noted that all quantities must be given in a consistent set of units (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1
Property
Unit
SI
Imperial
area
length2
m2
m2
m2
cm2
ft2
in2
force/disp
N/m
kN/m
MN/m
Mdynes/cm
lbf /ft
lbf /in
bond stiffness
force/length/disp
N/m/m
kN/m/m
MN/m/m
Mdynes/cm/cm
lbf /ft/ft
lbf /in/in
bond strength
force/length
N/m
kN/m
MN/m
Mdynes/cm
lbf /ft
lbf /in
exposed perimeter
length
in
moment of inertia
m4
m4
cm
cm4
ft
length4
m
m4
ft4
in4
plastic moment
force-length
N-m
kN-m
MN-m
Mdynes-cm
ft-lbf
in-lbf
yield strength
force
kN
MN
Mdynes
lbf
lbf
bar
lbf /ft2
psi
Youngs modulus
stress
where
=
=
=
=
=
1 bar
1 atm
1 slug
1 snail
1 gravity
Pa
kPa
MPa
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 13
bh2
= y
6
(1.2)
For yielding to occur throughout the section, the yield stress must act on the entire section, and the
location of the resultant force on one-half the section must be h/4 from the neutral surface. The
resisting moment, defined as the plastic moment, M P , is
M P = y
bh2
4
(1.3)
The preceding discussion assumes a section that is symmetric about the neutral axis. However, if
the section is not symmetric (for example, a T-section), or if the stress-strain relations for tension
and compression differ appreciably (for example, reinforced concrete), the neutral axis shifts away
from the fibers which first yield, and it is necessary to relocate the neutral axis before the resisting
moment can be evaluated. The neutral axis may be found by integrating the stress profile over the
section and solving for the location of the axis at which stress is zero. In some cases, the integral can
be expressed in terms of one unknown in which case, the solution may not be difficult. However,
if the stress-strain relation for the material does not resemble an ideal elasto-plastic diagram, the
solution may involve a number of trials. Nearly all texts on reinforced concrete or steel design
provide procedures and examples for calculating plastic moments.
The present formulation in FLAC assumes that beam, pile and rockbolt elements behave elastically
until they reach the plastic moment. This assumption is reasonably valid for symmetric rolledsteel sections, because the difference between M P and M E is not large. However, for reinforced
concrete, the plastic moment may be as much as an order of magnitude greater than the elastic
moment.
The section at which the plastic moment occurs can continue to deform without inducing additional
resistance after it reaches M P . The plastic-moment capacity sets the limit for the internal moments
of structural-element segments for beams, piles and rockbolts. In order to limit the moment that is
* Alternatively, inelastic behavior can be specified for liner elements by employing an elastic-plastic
material model that incorporates bending resistance, limiting bending moments and yield strengths
of the liner material. See Section 1.3.1.
1 - 14
Structural Elements
transmitted between element segments, the moment capacity at the nodes must also be restricted.
The condition of increasing deformation with a limiting resisting moment that results in a discontinuity in the rotational motion is called a plastic hinge. Potential plastic hinges are prescribed
to beam, pile or rockbolt nodes by the user. (See the command STRUCT hinge nel1 nel2.) If the
limiting moment is reached at elements connected by a plastic hinge node, then a discontinuity in
the rotational motion will develop. See Section 1.2.4.3 for an example application of plastic hinges
for beams, and Section 1.6.4.2 for an example application of plastic hinges for rockbolts.
Once plastic rotation occurs at a particular location in a structure, this spot is weakened, and future
deformation will tend to occur at the same location. In order for plastic rotation to localize at a
single node, it may be necessary to specify a softening hinge. If the hinge is non-softening, reversal
in the loading can cause a plastic rotation to occur at a different node. This can result in the buildup
of equal and opposite rotations that produce kinks in the structure.
A softening plastic hinge can be simulated by specifying a plastic moment-angular displacement
relation using FISH. FISH access to the plastic moment is provided via the SET pmom func
command. This function provides arguments (using the special function fc arg see Section 2.5.5
in the FISH volume) to access the average axial force in elements adjacent to the hinge node, the
hinge rotation, and the plastic moment. An example application of softening plastic hinges for piles
is given in Section 1.5.4.3.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 15
u2
M[b]
u[b]1
end b
[b]
deflected shape
u[a]2
M[a]
[a]
[a]
u1
end a
Figure 1.2
1 - 16
Structural Elements
A = bh
1
I =12 bh 3
neutral axis
h
h/2
b
Figure 1.3
The orientation of the beam in two-dimensional space is defined by its unit vectors, ni , ti , where
(Figure 1.4):
t1 =
x
= cos ,
z
t2 =
y
= sin
z
z = (x 2 + y 2 )1/2
(1.4)
n1 = t2 = sin
n2 = t1 = cos
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 17
y[b]
ni
ti
Fi[a]
Fit[a]
Fin[a]
y[a]
x
x[a]
Figure 1.4
x[b]
The force vector, Fi , at each node can be resolved into tangential (axial) and normal (shear) component vectors:
Fi = Fit + Fin
= (Fj tj )ti + (Fj nj )ni
(1.5)
= F t ti + F n ni
where:
Fj tj = |Fit | = F t ; and
Fj nj = |Fin | = F n .
Thus:
Fi[a] = F t[a] ti + F n[a] ni
(1.6)
Fi[b]
=F
t[b]
ti + F
n[b]
ni
where the superscripts [a] and [b] identify the ends of the beam.
1 - 18
Structural Elements
The component axial and shear forces and moments at each node are given by the stiffness matrix
for a flexural element:
F t[a]
n[a]
F
[a]
M
=K
t[b]
F
n[b]
F
[b]
M
ut[a]
n[a]
u
[a]
t[b]
u
n[b]
u
[b]
(1.7)
K =
E
L
12I
0
L2
6I
0
L
0
A
12I
0
L2
6I
L
4I
0
6I
L
12I
L2
2I
6I
L
SY M.
4I
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 19
Various moment-release conditions (i.e., pinned joints) may be applied at each end node. These
conditions are:
M [a] = 0;
M [b] = 0; and
M [a] = M [b] = 0.
If M [a] = 0:
[a]
1
n[b]
n[a]
[b]
=
u ]
3/L [ u
2
(1.8)
1
(3/L [ un[b] un[a] ] [a]
2
(1.9)
If M [b] = 0:
[b] =
If M [a] = M [b] = 0:
[a] = [b] = 0
(1.10)
The motion of beam-element nodes uses logic similar to that used for gridpoint translation, described
in Section 1.3.3.5 in Theory and Background. Beam-element nodes that are attached to gridpoints
contribute their shear and axial forces to the gridpoints to which they are attached and translate with
those gridpoints. Moments are transmitted within the beam at the points of attachment (provided
the nodes are not pinned at these points), but there is no moment transmission between the grid and
beam at the gridpoint (i.e., a beam attached to the grid is pin-jointed at the beam-grid connection).
1.2.2 Beam-Element Properties
The beam elements used in FLAC require the following input parameters:
(1) elastic modulus [stress];
(2) cross-sectional area [length2 ];
(3) second moment of area [length4 ] (commonly referred to as the moment of inertia);
(4) spacing [length] (optional if not specified, beams are considered
to be continuous in the out-of-plane direction);
1 - 20
Structural Elements
(5) plastic moment [force-length] (optional if not specified, the moment capacity is assumed to be infinite);
(6) axial peak tensile yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified,
the tensile yield strength is assumed to be infinite);
(7) axial residual tensile yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified, the residual tensile yield strength is zero);
(8) axial compressive yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified,
the compressive yield strength is assumed to be infinite);
(9) density [mass/volume] (optional used for dynamic analysis and
gravity loading); and
(10) thermal expansion coefficient (optional used for thermal analysis).
For beam elements, the height and width of the element cross-section (or the radius for a circular
cross-section) can also be prescribed instead of the area and moment of inertia. The area and
moment of inertia will then be calculated automatically.
Beam-element properties are easily calculated or obtained from handbooks. For example, typical
values for structural steel are 200 GPa for Youngs modulus, and 0.3 for Poissons ratio. For
concrete, typical values are 25 to 35 GPa for Youngs modulus, 0.15 to 0.2 for Poissons ratio, and
2100 to 2400 kg/m3 for mass density. Composite systems, such as reinforced concrete, should
be based on the transformed section. Note that the beam element formulation is a plane-stress
formulation. If the beam is representing a structure that is continuous in the direction perpendicular
to the analysis plane (e.g., a concrete tunnel lining), the value specified for E should be divided by
(1 2 ) to account for plane-strain conditions.
If spaced reinforcement is to be simulated (e.g., spaced struts along a retaining wall), the spacing in
the out-of-plane direction can be prescribed. The spacing parameter is used to automatically scale
properties and parameters to account for the effect of the distribution of the beams over a regularly
spaced pattern. See Section 1.9.4 for more information on the simulation of spaced reinforcement.
Note that the actual beam properties, not scaled properties, are entered in FLAC when spacing is
given.
Axial tensile and compressive yield strength limits can be specified for beams. The yield criterion is
only based on axial thrust. (For yielding behavior that includes bending stresses, the liner structural
element should be used. See Section 1.3.1.) A residual tensile strength limit can also be specified
for tensile failure. Note that this formulation does not consider shear failure. Failure by shear can be
checked by printing or plotting the shear force, dividing by the cross-sectional area and comparing
the resultant shear stress with the maximum shear strength available.
A limiting plastic moment and plastic hinge condition can be prescribed for beam nodes. See
Section 1.1.7 for details. Softening relations for plastic hinges can also be defined by the user.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 21
The effect of linear thermal expansion is implemented in the beam formulation. The temperature
change occurs as a result of either heat conduction or temperature re-initialization in the FLAC grid
(for CONFIG thermal). It is assumed that the grid temperature is communicated instantaneously to
the structural elements. The temperature change generates thermal expansion/contraction in the
structural element axial direction; the effect of beam lateral expansion is neglected, and no other
coupling takes place. The effect of heat conduction in the structural element is not considered.
The incremental axial force generated by thermal expansion in a beam element is calculated using
the formula (note that compression is positive for axial forces):
F = E A T
(1.11)
where E is the Youngs modulus of the element, A is the cross-sectional area, is the linear thermal
expansion coefficient, and T is the temperature increment for the element.
The structural element nodal temperature increment is determined by interpolation of nodal temperature increments in the host zone and stored in a structural node offset. The temperature change
in a structural element is calculated as the average of values at the two nodes. The thermal expansion of a beam element is computed incrementally as the product of the thermal linear expansion
coefficient, temperature change for the step, and element length. Thermal strains, thermal strain
increments and temperatures at structural nodes are not stored.
1.2.3 Commands Associated with Beam Elements
All the commands associated with beam elements are listed in Table 1.2, below. This includes
the commands associated with the generation of beams and those required to monitor histories,
plot and print beam-element variables. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for a detailed
explanation of these commands.
1 - 22
Structural Elements
Table 1.2
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
from
to
node
node
prop
segment
interface
delete
n
n*
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
ij
node
ij
node
np
ns
ni
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
ij
n
ij
n
n1 <nx>
n2
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 23
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
area
density
e
height
i
pmom
radius
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
width
range
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 24
Structural Elements
Table 1.2 Commands associated with beam elements (continued)
PLOT
beam
structure
structure
<beam> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
mome <ng <ng2> >
node
number
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
beam
hinge
node
property
beam
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 25
Pa
(3L2 4a 2 )
24EI
(1.12)
P
X
3
a
P
V
P
Pa
Figure 1.5
Simply supported beam with two equal concentrated loads (distance in units of meters)
1 - 26
Structural Elements
Point loads of P = 10,000 N are applied at the two locations shown in Figure 1.5.
The FLAC model consists of 10 beam segments and 11 nodes, as shown in Figure 1.6. The beam
is created with three separate STRUCT beam commands, to insure that nodes will lie exactly at the
beam third points. Also, four segments are created in the middle third to insure that a node will lie
at the exact beam center so that the displacement of this node can be compared with max . Simple
supports are specified at the beam end nodes by restricting translation in the y-direction. Two point
loads acting in the negative y-direction are applied at the beam third points. The data file for this
model is listed in Example 1.2.
JOB TITLE : .
4.500
3.500
25-Nov-03 10:43
step
2171
-5.152E-01 <x< 9.444E+00
-5.024E+00 <y< 4.935E+00
2.500
1.500
Beam Plot
Structural Element Numbers
0.500
10
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
-4.500
Figure 1.6
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
9.000
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 27
3 prop 1001
4 prop 1001
3 prop 1001
2.0E-4
The displacement field is shown in Figure 1.7. The maximum displacement occurs at the beam
center and equals 6.474 103 m, which is within 0.1 % of the theoretical value of Eq. (1.12).
Figures 1.8 and 1.9 show the shear force and moment distributions, which also correspond with the
theoretical solutions.
The evolution of the moment at x = 1 is shown in Figure 1.10 to reach a steady-state value of 10,000
N-m. In this plot, we overlay two histories, one of which has sampled the moment acting at the right
end of beam segment 1, and the other has sampled the moment acting at the left end of segment 2.
If expressed in a consistent system, these two values should be identical, and the plot demonstrates
that they are. Note that the moment acting on the right end of segment 1 has a positive sign, while
the moment acting on the left end of segment 2 has a negative sign. This is the correct behavior
that satisfies equilibrium.
1 - 28
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
25-Nov-03 8:14
step
2171
-1.448E+00 <x< 1.045E+01
-5.948E+00 <y< 5.948E+00
2.000
Beam Plot
Structural Displacement
Max Value = 6.472E-03
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
Figure 1.7
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
25-Nov-03 8:14
step
2171
-1.112E+00 <x< 1.011E+01
-5.612E+00 <y< 5.612E+00
2.000
Beam Plot
Shear Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -1.000E+04
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
Figure 1.8
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 29
JOB TITLE : .
25-Nov-03 8:14
step
2171
-1.151E+00 <x< 1.015E+01
-5.401E+00 <y< 5.901E+00
2.000
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -3.001E+04
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
Figure 1.9
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 8:14
step
2171
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Moment 2
(El
1)
Rev_Moment 1
(El
0.800
2)
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
12
16
20
(10
02
1 - 30
Structural Elements
vtip
where:
EI
=
M
ML
1 cos(
)
EI
(1.13)
0.006 m3
200 GPa
0.30
200 106 m4
10 m
5 106 N-m
For these conditions, the theoretical tip deflection, vtip , is given by Eq. (1.13) to be 5.477 m.
The FLAC model consists of 10 segments and 11 nodes. The left end is fully fixed, and a moment
vector aligned with the z-direction is applied to the node at the beam tip. The data file for this
example is listed in Example 1.3.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 31
The final structural configuration is shown in Figure 1.12. The y-direction deflection at the beam
tip equals 5.502 m, which is within 0.5% of the analytical solution.
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
2
25-Nov-03 10:46
step
7876
-1.000E+00 <x< 8.540E+00
-2.056E+00 <y< 7.484E+00
11
Beam Plot
Structural Node Numbers
5.500
4.500
10
3.500
9
2.500
8
7
1.500
6
5
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
1 - 32
Structural Elements
V
P
2
PL
4
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 33
We find that the limiting values of moment and shear force are equal to the analytical values of
25 kN-m and 5 kN, respectively (see Figures 1.14 and 1.15). Also, the moment and shear force
distributions correspond with the analytical solution (see Figures 1.16 and 1.17). We also see that
a discontinuity in the rotational motion develops at the center location; the rotation at the center is
nonzero (PRINT struct node hinge).
Note that if the command STRUCT hinge 1 2 is removed from Example 1.4, the limiting values of
moment and shear force also match the analytical values. However, the rotation at the center load
is now zero. If it is only necessary to determine the solution of limiting plastic moment, then it
is not necessary to define locations of plastic hinges. However, plastic hinges should be specified
when running in large-strain mode in order to calculate the post-failure behavior of the structure.
1 - 34
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 8:30
step
3000
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Moment 2
(El
1)
Moment 1
2)
(El
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
1.000
3)
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
10
12
14
(10
-03
Figure 1.14 Moment at right end of segment 1 and left end of segment 2 versus
applied center displacement
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 8:30
step
3000
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Shear Force (El
1)
Shear Force
2)
(El
X-axis :
Number of steps
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
02
Figure 1.15 Shear force at right end of segment 1 and left end of segment 2
versus applied center displacement
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 35
JOB TITLE : .
5.000
25-Nov-03 9:22
step
3000
-1.587E+00 <x< 1.159E+01
-6.324E+00 <y< 6.849E+00
3.000
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -2.504E+04
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 9:22
step
3000
-1.402E+00 <x< 1.140E+01
-6.409E+00 <y< 6.394E+00
3.000
Beam Plot
Shear Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -5.003E+03
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
1 - 36
Structural Elements
If we continue loading a structure in a large-strain fashion, then the addition of the plastic hinge
will allow a discontinuity to develop in the rotation at the center after the plastic moment has been
reached. We illustrate this behavior by modifying the previous example to represent a cantilever
beam (fixed at the left end) with a vertical load applied at the free end (see Example 1.5). The
problem is run in large-strain mode.
The final structural configuration and moment distribution are shown in Figure 1.18. We see that a
discontinuity develops in the rotation at the beam center.
Example 1.5 Cantilever beam with a plastic hinge
struct node 1 0.0,0.0
struct node 2 10.0,0.0
struct beam begin node 1 end node 2 seg 2 prop 1001
struct prop 1001 e 2.06E11 area 0.0060 I 2.0E-4 pmom 25000.0
struct node 1 fix x y r
struct node 2 load 0 -5.5e3 0
struct hinge 1 2
history 1 node 3 ydisplace
history 2 element 1 moment1
history 3 element 1 moment2
history 4 element 2 moment1
history 5 element 2 moment2
history 6 element 1 shear
history 7 element 2 shear
history 8 node 3 adisplacement
set st damping struct=combined 0.8
set large
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 3000
save se 01 05.sav
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 37
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
24-Nov-03 9:33
step
3000
-4.997E-01 <x< 1.049E+01
-5.237E+00 <y< 5.752E+00
2.000
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
5.316E+04
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1 - 38
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 39
Figure 1.19 illustrates the effect of the two braces (compare to Figure 2.32 in the Users Guide).
Trench collapse will still occur for this model, but the failure region is reduced. Additional bracing
and/or sheet piling (represented by vertical beams, liners or piles) may be used to stabilize the
trench.
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 10:37
step
321
-8.093E-01 <x< 5.809E+00
-8.098E-01 <y< 5.809E+00
4.000
X-velocity contours
-3.00E-05
-2.00E-05
-1.00E-05
5.00E-06
1.50E-05
2.50E-05
3.000
2.000
1.000
2E -2
Boundary plot
0
0.000
2E 0
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
1 - 40
Structural Elements
fix y j=1
set grav=9.81
solve
save se 01 07a.sav
; let soil equilibrate under gravity
; build structure
; concrete slab
struc prop=1001 E=17.58e9 I=0.0104 a=.5
struc prop=1002 E=200e9 I=2.3e-5 a=4.8e-3
struc beam beg gr 5,11 end gr 7,11 seg=1 pr=1001
struc beam beg node 1 end 4,13 seg=2 pr=1002
struc beam beg 4,13 end 6,13 seg=2 pr=1002
struc beam beg 6,13 end 6,10 seg=2 pr=1002
struc node=8 5.0,11.5
struc beam beg node=8 end node=1 seg=1 pr=1002
struc beam beg node=8 end node=4 seg=1 pr=1002
struc beam beg node=8 end node=6 seg=1 pr=1002
struc beam beg node=8 end node=2 seg=1 pr=1002
struc node=1 fix r
struc node=2 fix r
struc node=4 Load 0 -1e6 0
struc node=6 Load 0 -1e6 0
; check structure
plot hold beam grid
pause
; check linkage
pr struc beam
hist node 1 adisp avel xdisp xvel ydisp yvel
hist node 1 ndisp nforce sdisp yforce
hist ele 2 axial moment 1 moment 2
solve
plot hold syy fill beam bou
print struc beam
save se 01 07b.sav
The problem configuration is shown in Figure 1.20. The effect of loading the soil with the structure
is illustrated in Figure 1.21. The forces and moments developed in the structure are available via
the command PRINT struct beam.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 41
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.600
1.200
Grid plot
0
0.800
5E 0
Beam plot
0.400
0.000
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.600
1.200
YY-stress contours
-5.00E+05
-4.00E+05
-3.00E+05
-2.00E+05
-1.00E+05
0.00E+00
0.800
0.400
5E 0
0.000
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^1)
1 - 42
Structural Elements
The x-displacement contours around the lined shaft and axial forces in the liner are illustrated in
Figure 1.22. Note that the negative maximum value for the axial force given in the PLOT struct
command changes the sense of the axial force plot so that the plot is displayed outside the shaft
boundary.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 43
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
3.000
25-Nov-03 11:25
step
504
-2.512E+00 <x< 3.051E+01
-2.512E+00 <y< 3.051E+01
I
H
2.000
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 2.00E-03
E: -1.200E-02
Q: 1.200E-02
Beam Plot
F
E
1.500
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
9.360E+06
Beam plot
Q
P
1.000
O
N
M
0.500
L
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
(*10^1)
2.000
2.500
3.000
Figure 1.22 x-displacement contours around lined shaft and axial forces in
liner
The loads and moments in the liner elements are listed (from PRINT struct beam) in Example 1.9.
Note that the moments are equal and opposite in sign at connecting nodes between element segments,
which indicates that the model is at an equilibrium state.
Example 1.9 Results of PRINT struct beam for tunnel liner example
Structural element data ...
Elem ID Nod1 Nod2 Prop
8 1
8
1 1001 beam
7 1
7
8 1001 beam
6 1
6
7 1001 beam
5 1
5
6 1001 beam
4 1
4
5 1001 beam
3 1
3
4 1001 beam
2 1
2
3 1001 beam
1 1
1
2 1001 beam
F-shear
4.224E+03
-4.042E+03
9.746E+02
-2.041E+02
3.141E+03
-3.267E+03
-1.475E+02
-4.613E+02
F-axial
4.550E+06
4.347E+06
9.260E+06
7.891E+06
4.097E+06
4.117E+06
7.737E+06
9.360E+06
Mom-1
Mom-2
9.307E+03 3.626E+03
-4.528E+03 -9.307E+03
-1.904E+03 4.528E+03
-2.528E+03 1.904E+03
7.087E+03 2.528E+03
-1.709E+03 -7.088E+03
-2.214E+03 1.709E+03
-3.626E+03 2.214E+03
1 - 44
Structural Elements
In this simple example, loading is first applied normal to the beam-element geotextile. Then the
upper sub-grid is displaced relative to the lower sub-grid so that sliding occurs along the geotextile
fabric. The axial forces in the beam elements and the shear stress along the lower interface are
plotted in Figure 1.23.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 45
If this model is used for a groundwater flow analysis, the interface/fabric/interface layer will act as
an impermeable barrier to fluid flow. However, with a FISH function that controls APPLY discharge
sources on opposing grid segments, the effect of a leaky layer may be modeled.
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 12:06
step
3000
-1.823E+00 <x< 7.023E+00
-1.423E+00 <y< 7.423E+00
5.500
4.500
Boundary plot
2E 0
3.500
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 1.023E+04
Min. Value = -6.058E+05
2.500
2E 6
Beam Plot
1.500
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
3.887E+02
shear stress
on Interface # 1
Max Value = 6.521E+03
0.500
-0.500
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
Figure 1.23 Axial forces in the geotextile beam and shear stresses along the
lower interface
This simulation of geotextiles assumes that the fabric separates the soil above from the soil below
the fabric. Alternatively, the reinforcement may be embedded within the soil, such as soil nails
or a geo-grid. In this case, the reinforcement acts to improve the shear resistance of the soil, and
cable elements may provide a more reasonable representation. See Section 1.4.6.2 for an example
application.
1 - 46
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 47
JOB TITLE : .
9.000
LEGEND
8.000
25-Nov-03 15:26
step
1532
4.482E-01 <x< 9.552E+00
4.482E-01 <y< 9.552E+00
7.000
Boundary plot
0
1
6.000
2E 0
Beam Plot
5.000
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
6.321E+04
# 2 (Beam )
7.200E+03
# 3 (Beam )
2.296E+04
# 4 (Beam )
7.200E+03
# 5 (Beam )
6.220E+04
Beam Plot
Structural ID Numbers
1
4.000
1
3.000
2.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
9.000
1 - 48
Structural Elements
Sc=Fc
Compression Failure
Force, P
Sc= Fc
St<Ft
ultimate
failure
envelope
Sc= Fc
P
e
failure
envelope
for cracked
section
St=Ft
balanced point
Sc<Fc
Tension Failure
1
e
St=Ft
Bending Moment, M
Tensile
Force, P
St=Ft
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 49
Interaction diagrams can be constructed by knowing or specifying the section geometry and compressive and tensile strengths (in terms of stress) for the material. The thickness and compressive
and tensile strengths are input, and the model uses this information to determine the ultimate capacity for various eccentricities (e in Figure 1.25). As the calculation progresses, the axial forces and
moments in the structural elements are compared to the ultimate capacity. When a node reaches
the ultimate capacity, a fracture flag is set, indicating that all future evaluations for that node will
use the cracked failure envelope and the residual strength capacity.
The following procedure is used to calculate liner forces and moments. First, incremental forces
and moments are calculated from incremental displacements during a timestep, assuming a linearly
elastic stress-strain relation. These incremental forces and moments are added to the total values
for axial force and moment in the liner element at that step. If these values plot outside the ultimate
failure envelope, such as that shown in Figure 1.25, then the total force and moment are adjusted to
return the values to the failure surface. The axial force and moment adjustment is an interpolation
based upon the location of the unadjusted force-moment point relative to the balanced point and
the slope of the failure envelope. Note that this is not related to a plasticity flow rule.
If a residual strength is specified for the liner, then future adjustments for the force and moment
will return values to the cracked failure envelope.
1.3.2 Liner-Element Properties
The liner elements used in FLAC require the following input parameters:
(1) elastic modulus [stress];
(2) Poissons ratio;
(3) cross-sectional area [length2 ];
(4) thickness [length];
(5) second moment of area [length4 ] (commonly referred to as the moment of inertia);
(6) cross-sectional shape factor see Figure 1.26;
(7) spacing [length] (optional if not specified, liners are considered
to be continuous in the out-of-plane direction);
(8) axial peak tensile yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified,
the tensile yield strength is assumed to be infinite);
(9) axial residual tensile yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified, the residual tensile yield strength is zero);
(10) axial compressive yield strength [stress] (optional if not specified,
the compressive yield strength is assumed to be infinite);
1 - 50
Structural Elements
inertial moment
3
5
6
ab
12
9
10
r
4
1
2
(re - ri )
re
ri
web area
total area
Figure 1.26 Shape factors and inertial moments for different shapes
Liner-element properties are calculated or obtained from handbooks in the same manner as beamelement properties. See Section 1.2.2 for recommendations on determining liner properties.
Axial tensile and compressive yield strength limits can be specified for liners. The yield criterion
is based on axial thrust and bending stresses. A residual tensile strength limit can also be specified
for tensile failure. The criterion is illustrated by the moment-thrust diagram in Figure 1.25. Note
that this formulation does not consider shear failure. Failure by shear can be checked by printing
or plotting the shear force, dividing by the cross-sectional area and comparing the resultant shear
stress with the maximum shear strength available.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 51
The effect of linear thermal expansion is also implemented in the liner formulation. This formulation
is identical to that for beam elements. See Section 1.2.2 for details.
1.3.3 Commands Associated with Liner Elements
All the commands associated with liner elements are listed in Table 1.3, below. This includes the
commands associated with the generation of liners and those required to monitor histories, plot
and print rockbolt-element variables. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for a detailed
explanation of these commands.
1 - 52
Structural Elements
Table 1.3
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
from
to
node
node
prop
segment
interface
delete
n
n*
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
ij
node
ij
node
np
ns
ni
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
ij
n
ij
n
n1 <nx>
n2
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 53
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
np
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
area
density
e
height
i
pratio
shape
spacing
sycomp
syield
syresid
thexp
thickness
width
range
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 54
Structural Elements
liner
structure
structure
<liner> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
mome <ng <ng2> >
node
number
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
liner
node
property
liner
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 55
Pl
bh2
(1.14)
where P is the applied load, l is the length, b is the width, and h is the height (or thickness) of the test
beam. The force applied to the beam and the deflection (displacement) of the beam are monitored to
produce a force-displacement curve. The maximum applied load and, hence, the maximum tensile
strength of the shotcrete are determined from this curve.
Two beam bending tests are shown below: one with the residual tensile strength equal to the peak
tensile strength; and one with the residual tensile strength reduced. A FISH function Pforce is
used to monitor the force, P , that develops during the tests. The data file, showing the properties
and dimensions used in the tests, is listed below in Example 1.12.
Example 1.12 Reinforced beam test
grid 20 1
mo el
gen (0.0,0.0) (0.0,0.0225) (0.45,0.0225) (0.45,0.0)
pro bul 1e9 she 1e9 den 1000
fix y i 2 j 2
fix y i 20 j 2
def Pforce
Pforce=yforce(2,2)+yforce(20,2)
end
save bend0.sav
; syresid = syield = 3.2 MPa
stru liner from 2 2 to 20 2 prop 5001
struct prop 5001 dens 1000 e .204e9 area 0.0225 i .042e-3 thick 0.15
struct prop 5001 pratio 0.2 syield 3.2e6 syresid 3.2e6 sycomp 25e6
stru node 7 ini yvel -1e-8
stru node 7 fix y
stru node 13 ini yvel -1e-8
stru node 13 fix y
1 - 56
Structural Elements
mo null i 2 19
hist nstep 1000
hist node 7 ydis
hist node 13 ydis
hist Pforce
set ncw 1000
step 550000
save bend1.sav
; sresid = 1 MPa
rest bend0.sav
stru liner from 2 2 to 20 2 prop 5001
struct prop 5001 dens 1000 e .204e9 area 0.0225 i .042e-3 thick 0.15
struct prop 5001 pratio 0.2 syield 3.2e6 syresid 1.e6 sycomp 25e6
stru node 7 ini yvel -1e-8
stru node 7 fix y
stru node 13 ini yvel -1e-8
stru node 13 fix y
mo null i 2 19
hist nstep 1000
hist node 7 ydis
hist node 13 ydis
hist Pforce
set ncw 1000
step 550000
save bend2.sav
In the first test, the residual tensile strength is set equal to the peak tensile strength (3.2 MPa). Using
Eq. (1.14), the peak applied load is calculated to be 26,667 N for the given model dimensions. A
constant moment develops over the middle third of the model, as shown in Figure 1.27. The loaddeflection plot shown in Figure 1.28 shows that the peak load corresponds to the value calculated
by Eq. (1.14).
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 57
JOB TITLE : .
0.225
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 16:26
step 550000
2.699E-03 <x< 4.473E-01
-2.123E-01 <y< 2.323E-01
0.125
0.075
Liner Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
1.792E+03
0.025
-0.025
-0.075
-0.125
-0.175
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
0.275
0.325
0.375
0.425
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
30-Aug-03 11:51
step 550000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_carga
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
2.500
2.000
7)
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-04
Figure 1.28 Load-deflection plot for residual tensile strength equal to peak
tensile strength
1 - 58
Structural Elements
In the second test, the residual tensile strength is reduced to 1 MPa. The resultant load-deflection
curve is shown in Figure 1.29. Substituting 1 MPa into Eq. (1.14), the applied load P is calculated
to be 8333 N, which agrees with the residual value shown in the figure.
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
30-Aug-03 11:52
step 550000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_carga
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
2.500
2.000
7)
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-04
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 59
node 1 0.0,0.0
node 2 10.0,0.0
liner begin node 1 end node 2 seg 2 prop 5001
prop 5001 e 2.0E11 pratio 0.3 area 0.0060 I 2.0E-4 thick 1.0 &
syield 6.25e7 syresid 6.25e7 sycomp 1e10
struct node 1 fix y
struct node 2 fix y
struct node 3 fix y initial yvel -5.0e-6
history 1 node 3 ydisplace
history 2 element 1 moment1
history 3 element 1 moment2
history 4 element 2 moment1
history 5 element 2 moment2
history 6 element 1 shear
history 7 element 2 shear
history 8 node 3 adisplacement
set st damping struct=combined 0.8
set large
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 3000
save se 01 13.sav
We find that the results for the liner-element model are the same as those for the beam-element
model. The limiting values of moment and shear force equal the analytical values of 25 kN-m and
5 kN, respectively, as shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31. The moment and shear force distributions
correspond with the analytical solution (compare Figures 1.32 and 1.33 to Figure 1.13).
1 - 60
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 13:22
step
3000
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Moment 2
(El
1)
Moment 1
2)
(El
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
1.000
3)
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
10
12
14
(10
-03
Figure 1.30 Moment at right end of segment 1 and left end of segment 2 versus
applied center displacement
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 11:42
step
3000
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Shear Force (El
1)
Shear Force
2)
(El
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
2.000
3)
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
10
12
14
(10
-03
Figure 1.31 Shear force at right end of segment 1 and left end of segment 2
versus applied center displacement
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 61
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
26-Nov-03 13:22
step
3000
-4.889E-01 <x< 1.049E+01
-5.226E+00 <y< 5.752E+00
2.000
Liner Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner) -2.500E+04
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 11:42
step
3000
-4.906E-01 <x< 1.049E+01
-5.497E+00 <y< 5.482E+00
2.000
Liner Plot
Shear Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
5.034E+03
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1 - 62
Structural Elements
The development of a discontinuity in the rotational motion for liner elements is illustrated for
the loading of a cantilever beam. This example is similar to the beam-element test described in
Example 1.5. The example is a cantilever beam (fixed at the left end) with a vertical load applied
at the free end (see Example 1.14). The problem is run in large-strain mode. The cantilever
is composed of two liner element segments. The segment with the fixed end is prescribed highstrength properties. The second segment is prescribed lower values for the axial and residual tensile
yield properties, in order to allow failure to develop in this segment.
The final structural configuration and moment distribution are shown in Figure 1.34. We see that a
discontinuity develops in the rotation at the beam center.
Example 1.14 Cantilever beam with a plastic hinge, using a liner element
struct
struct
struct
struct
node 1 0.0,0.0
node 2 10.0,0.0
liner begin node 1 end node 2 seg 2 prop 5001
prop 5001 e 2.06E11 pratio 0.30 area 0.0060 I 2.0E-4 thick 1.0 &
syield 6.25e7 syresid 6.25e7 sycomp 1e10
struct prop 5002 e 2.06E11 pratio 0.30 area 0.0060 I 2.0E-4 thick 1.0 &
syield 1e10 syresid 1e10 sycomp 1e10
struct chprop 5002 range 1 1
struct node 1 fix x y r
struct node 2 load 0 -5.5e3 0
history 1 node 3 ydisplace
history 2 element 1 moment1
history 3 element 1 moment2
history 4 element 2 moment1
history 5 element 2 moment2
history 6 element 1 shear
history 7 element 2 shear
history 8 node 3 adisplacement
set st damping struct=combined 0.8
set large
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 3000
save se 01 14.sav
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 63
JOB TITLE : .
2.500
LEGEND
1.500
26-Nov-03 11:42
step
3000
-4.303E-01 <x< 9.204E+00
-6.473E+00 <y< 3.161E+00
0.500
Liner Plot
-0.500
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
4.933E+04
# 2 (Liner)
2.127E+04
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
-4.500
-5.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
1 - 64
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 65
; histories
hist unbal
def closure
closure=100.0*(ydisp(6,4)-ydisp(6,8))/(y(6,8)-y(6,4))
end
hist closure
solve
save lining2.sav
;
rest lining0.sav
ini xdisp 0 ydisp 0
m null i 4 7 j 4 6
m null i 5 6 j 7
; unreinforced shotcrete lining with sliding interface
struct prop 5001 dens 2100 e 20e9 thick=0.05 area=0.05 pr=0.2
struct prop 5001 syield=4e6 sycomp=40e6
struct liner long from 4 4 to 8 4 int 1 prop 5001
interf 1 kn 1e8 ks 1e8 fric 35 coh 50e3
; second layer in roof (note order of nodes)
struct liner from node 11 to node 3 int 2 prop 5002
struct prop 5002 dens 2100 e 20e9 thick=0.1 area=0.1 pr=0.2
interf 2 kn 1e8 ks 1e8 glued
; histories
hist unbal
def closure
closure=100.0*(ydisp(6,4)-ydisp(6,8))/(y(6,8)-y(6,4))
end
hist closure
solve
save lining3.sav
In the first case, the tunnel is lined on the sidewalls and arch with 150 mm of shotcrete. The shotcrete
is assumed to be fully bonded to the surrounding rock. The compressive strength is assumed to be 40
MPa, and the tensile strength is assumed to be 4 MPa. No residual tensile strength is specified (i.e.,
the shotcrete is unreinforced). The calculated vertical tunnel closure in this case is approximately
0.23%. The distribution of axial forces in the shotcrete is shown in Figure 1.35. The maximum
axial force is approximately 137 kN.
1 - 66
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
25-Nov-03 18:39
step
1202
-1.553E+00 <x< 1.155E+01
-1.553E+00 <y< 1.155E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
1.373E+05
Liner Plot
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 67
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
28-Apr-04 14:29
step
2290
-1.465E+00 <x< 1.146E+01
-1.465E+00 <y< 1.146E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
6.362E+04
Liner Plot
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
28-Apr-04 14:29
step
1804
-1.465E+00 <x< 1.146E+01
-1.465E+00 <y< 1.146E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
5.922E+04
Liner Plot
0.400
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 2 (Liner)
1.087E+04
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
1 - 68
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 69
The incremental axial force, F t , is calculated from the incremental axial displacement by
F t =
EA
ut
L
(1.15)
A tensile yield-force limit (yield) and a compressive yield-force limit (ycomp) can be assigned to the
cable. Accordingly, cable forces that are greater than the tensile or compressive limits (Figure 1.38)
cannot develop. If either yield or ycomp is not specified, the cable will have zero strength for loading
in that direction.
compressive
force
ycomp
E area
1
extension
axial strain
compression
yield
tensile
force
1 - 70
Structural Elements
Reinforcing
Element (Steel)
Grout Annulus
EXCAVATION
Axial Stiffness
of Steel
m
Reinforcement
Nodal Point
Slider
(Cohesive Strength
of Grout = sbond)
Shear Stiffness
of Grout = kbond
Figure 1.39 Conceptual mechanical representation of fully bonded reinforcement which accounts for shear behavior of the grout annulus
1.4.1.2 Shear Behavior of Grout Annulus
The shear behavior of the grout annulus is represented as a spring-slider system located at the nodal
points shown in Figure 1.39. The shear behavior of the grout annulus, during relative displacement
between the reinforcing/grout interface and the grout/medium interface, is described numerically
by the grout shear stiffness (kbond in Figure 1.40(b)) i.e.,
Fs
= Kbond (uc um )
L
where:
Fs
Kbond
uc
um
L
(1.16)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 71
force/length
sfriction
kbond
1
relative shear
displacement
sbond
perimeter
a) Grout shear strength criterion
Sbond
c
Sfriction
perimeter
=
=
=
=
(1.17)
The mean effective confining stress normal to the element is defined by the equation
nn + zz
+p
c =
2
where:
p
zz
nn
ni
=
=
=
=
(1.18)
pore pressure;
out-of-plane stress; and
xx n21 + yy n22 + 2 xy n1 n2 ,
unit vectors as defined in Eq. (1.4).
The limiting shear-force relation is depicted by the diagram in Figure 1.40(a). The input properties
are shown in bold type on this figure.
1 - 72
Structural Elements
(1.19)
(1.20)
(1.21)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 73
2
Gridpoint
Constant Strain
Finite Difference
Triangle
Reinforcement
Nodal Point
A1
A3
A2
1 - 74
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 75
spaced pattern. See Section 1.9.4 for more information on the simulation of spaced reinforcement.
Note that the actual cable properties, not scaled properties, are entered in FLAC when spacing is
given.
The area, modulus and yield strength of the cable are usually readily available from handbooks,
manufacturers specifications, etc. The properties related to the grout are more difficult to estimate.
The grout annulus is assumed to behave as an elastic-perfectly plastic solid. As a result of relative
shear displacement, ut , between the tendon surface and the borehole surface, the shear force, F t ,
mobilized per length of cable is related to the grout stiffness, Kbond i.e.,
F t = Kbond ut
(1.22)
Usually, Kbond can be measured directly in laboratory pull-out tests. Alternatively, the stiffness can
be calculated from a numerical estimate for the elastic shear stress, G , obtained from an equation
describing the shear stress at the grout/rock interface (St. John and Van Dillen 1983):
G =
where:
u
G
D
t
=
=
=
=
u
G
(D/2 + t) ln(1 + 2t/D)
(1.23)
2 G
ln (1 + 2t/D)
(1.24)
In many cases, the following expression has been found to provide a reasonable estimate of Kbond
for use in FLAC:
Kbond
2 G
10 ln (1 + 2t/D)
(1.25)
The one-tenth factor helps to account for the relative shear displacement that occurs between the
host-zone gridpoints and the borehole surface. This relative shear displacement is not accounted
for in the present formulation.
The maximum shear force per cable length in the grout is determined by Eq. (1.17). The values
for bond cohesive strength and friction angle can be estimated from the results of pull-out tests
conducted at different confining pressures or, should such results not be available, the maximum
force per length may be approximated from the peak shear strength (St. John and Van Dillen 1983):
1 - 76
Structural Elements
peak = I QB
(1.26)
where I is approximately one-half of the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker of the rock
and grout, and QB is the quality of the bond between the grout and rock (QB = 1 for perfect
bonding).
Neglecting frictional confinement effects, Sbond , may then be obtained from:
Sbond = (D + 2t) peak
(1.27)
Failure of reinforcing systems does not always occur at the grout/rock interface. Failure may occur
at the reinforcing/grout interface, as is often true for cable reinforcing. In such cases, the shear
stress should be evaluated at this interface. This means that the expression (D + 2t) is replaced by
(D) in Eq. (1.27).
The calculation of cable-element properties is demonstrated by the following example. A 25.4 mm
(1 inch)-diameter locked-coil cable was installed at 2.5 m spacing, perpendicular to the plane of
analysis. The reinforcing system is characterized by the properties:
cable diameter (D)
hole diameter (D + 2t)
cable modulus (E)
cable ultimate tensile capacity
grout compressive strength
grout shear modulus (Gg )
friction (ignored)
25.4 mm
38 mm
98.6 GPa
0.548 MN
20 MPa
9 GPa
0
Two independent methods are used in evaluating the maximum shear force in the grout. In the first
method, the bond shear strength is assumed to be one-half the uniaxial compressive strength of
the grout. If the grout-material compressive strength is 20 MPa, and the grout is weaker than the
surrounding rock, the grout shear strength is then 10 MPa.
In the second method, reported pull-out data are used to estimate the grout shear strength. The
report presents results for 15.9 mm (5/8 inch)-diameter steel cables grouted with a 0.15 m (5.9
inch) bond length in holes of varying depths. The testing indicated capacities of roughly 70 kN.
If a surface area of 0.0075 m2 (0.15 m 0.05 m) is assumed for the cables, then the calculated
maximum shear strength of the grout is
70 x 103 N
= 9.33 x 106 N/m2 = 9.33 MPa
0.0075 m2
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 77
This value agrees closely with the 10 MPa estimated above, and either value could be used. Assuming failure occurs at the cable/grout interface, the maximum bond force per length is (using
Eq. (1.27) with D + 2t replaced by D):
Sbond = (0.0254 m) (10 MPa) = 800 kN/m
The bond stiffness, Kbond , is estimated from Eq. (1.25). For the assumed values shown above, a
bond stiffness of 1.5 1010 N/m
m is calculated.
Values for Kbond , Sbond , E and tensile yield force are divided by 2.5 to account for the 2.5 m
spacing of cables perpendicular to the modeled cross-section (see Section 1.9.4). This is performed
automatically when the spacing parameter is specified.
The final input properties for FLAC are:
kbond
sbond
E
yield
area
sfriction
spacing
Note that other researchers have reported values for kbond, based upon the results of pull tests, that
are approximately one order of magnitude lower than calculated using Eq. (1.25) (e.g., Ruest and
Martin, 2002).
Another example estimation of grout properties from pull-out tests is presented in Section 9 in the
Examples volume.
The effect of linear thermal expansion is implemented in the cable formulation. The temperature
change occurs as a result of either heat conduction or temperature re-initialization in the FLAC grid
(for CONFIG thermal).
It is assumed that the grid temperature is communicated instantaneously to the structural elements.
The temperature change generates thermal expansion/contraction in the structural element axial
direction; the effect of the cable lateral expansion is neglected, and no other coupling takes place.
The effect of heat conduction in the structural element is not considered.
The incremental axial force generated by thermal expansion in a cable element is calculated using
the formula (note that compression is positive for axial forces):
F = E A T
(1.28)
1 - 78
Structural Elements
where E is the Youngs modulus of the element, A is the cross-sectional area, is the linear thermal
expansion coefficient, and T is the temperature increment for the element.
The structural element nodal temperature increment is determined by interpolation of nodal temperature increments in the host zone and stored in a structural node offset. The temperature change
in a structural element is calculated as the average of values at the two nodes. The thermal expansion of a cable element is computed incrementally as the product of the thermal linear expansion
coefficient, temperature change for the step, and element length. Thermal strains, thermal strain
increments and temperatures at structural nodes are not stored.
1.4.3 Mean Effective Confining Stress
The out-of-plane stress component, zz , can be included or excluded from the calculation of mean
effective confining stress for cable elements, c (see Eq. (1.17)).
Use the keyword szz on or off with the STRUCT prop command to turn the zz component on and
off. By default, zz is included.
1.4.4 Pre-tensioning Cable Elements
Cable elements may be pre-tensioned in FLAC by using the optional keyword tens = t with the
STRUCT cable command. A positive value for t assigns an axial force into the cable element(s)
described by that STRUCT command. It is important to note that the cable with specified pre-tension
is unlikely to be initially in equilibrium with other elements or the FLAC grid to which it is linked.
In other words, some displacement of the cable nodes and linked elements or nodes or gridpoints
is probably required to achieve equilibrium. These displacements will likely result in some loss of
the initial pre-tension.
In practice, pre-tensioned elements may be fully grouted, or they may be left ungrouted over part of
their length. In either case, some anchorage length is provided (usually at the far end) to support the
element during pre-tensioning. To simulate this pre-tensioning in FLAC, several separate STRUCT
commands are required. One STRUCT command is used to define the geometry for the anchorage. A
STRUCT prop command is then used to define the anchorage properties. A third STRUCT command
is used to define the free (i.e., unbonded) section and the pre-tension force. Note that the anchorage
section and free section would be linked by a common cable node. Another STRUCT prop command
(or a STRUCT chprop command) is used to specify the properties for the free length. In most cases,
the free length would have Sbond = 0 (i.e., unbonded). An example of this procedure is shown in
Section 6 in the Examples volume.
As an alternative to specifying a pre-tension to the free length, a load can be applied to the free end
using the STRUCT node n load fx fy command. After equilibrating forces have developed in the
anchorage, the loaded node can be connected to the FLAC grid or another element.
The procedure for subsequent grouting of the free length is to simply change the Kbond and Sbond
values for the free section to appropriate values for a grouted section.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 79
1 - 80
Structural Elements
Table 1.4
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
chprop
prop
segment
delete
tension
n
n*
np
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
value
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
slave
unslave
keyword
area
density
e
kbond
perimeter
radius
sbond
sfriction
spacing
szz
thexp
ycomp
yield
range
ij
n
ij
n
<x> <y>
<x> <y>
keyword
xdis
xvel
ydis
yvel
fx fy
<x> <y> m
<x> <y>
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
on/off
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
* For the keywords x, free, initial and load, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
FLAC Version 5.0
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 81
PLOT
keyword
node
element
nel
cable
structure
structure
<cable> keyword
axial <ng <ng2*> >
bond <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
fyaxial <ng <ng2> >
location <ng <ng2> >
material
node
number
sdisp
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
cable
node
property
keyword
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
cable
1 - 82
Structural Elements
Figure 1.42 shows the axial force distribution that develops along the cable reinforcement. The
vertical centerline displacement is 1.2 cm.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 83
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 15:32
step
5000
-5.407E-01 <x< 1.154E+01
-5.047E+00 <y< 7.034E+00
4.000
Cable Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -4.438E+05
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.224E-02
0
2.000
0.000
2E -2
Grid plot
0
2E 0
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1 - 84
Structural Elements
is added in the second case to include the effect of the frictional resistance.
Example 1.17 Soil nailing support
grid 11 11
m m
prop dens 2000 bulk 5e9 shear 1e9
prop coh 4e4 fr 30
;
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=12
;
ini syy -2.2e5 var 0 2.2e5
ini sxx -1.32e5 var 0 1.32e5
ini szz -0.88e5 var 0 0.88e5
set grav 10
;
hist xdisp i=1 j=12
;
hist 999 unbal
solve elastic
save se 01 17a.sav
; exclude cable friction
free x i=1 j 2 12
struct cable begin 0,3.5 end 8,3.5 seg 8 prop 2001
struct cable begin 0,6.5 end 8,6.5 seg 8 prop 2001
struct cable begin 0,9.5 end 8,9.5 seg 8 prop 2001
struct prop 2001 e=200e9 a=8.5e-3 yield=1e10 kbond=7e6 sbond=1e2 spac 0.5
;
step 2000
save se 01 17b.sav
; include cable friction
restore se 01 17a.sav
free x i=1 j 2 12
struct cable begin 0,3.5 end 8,3.5 seg 8 prop 2001
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 85
In the first case, the soil nails are not sufficient to support the embankment. Figure 1.43 shows the
axial forces in the cables, and indicates that bond yield has been reached at all cable nodes. By
typing the command PRINT struct node spring, it can also be seen that the maximum shear force
per length of cable element has been reached at all nodes.
In the second case, by including a frictional resistance at the nail/soil interface of 20 , the nails
are now sufficient to stabilize the embankment. Figure 1.44 plots the axial forces in the cables for
this case. Note that significantly higher axial forces can now develop as a result of the frictional
resistance.
1 - 86
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.100
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 15:48
step
2004
-7.696E-01 <x< 1.177E+01
-7.696E-01 <y< 1.177E+01
0.900
Cable Plot
0.700
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -3.582E+02
# 2 (Cable) -3.698E+02
# 3 (Cable) -3.685E+02
Displacement vectors
max vector = 4.189E-03
0
0.500
1E -2
0.300
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
Figure 1.43 Axial forces in nails with only cohesive strength at soil/nail interface
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.100
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 15:49
step
2004
-7.696E-01 <x< 1.177E+01
-7.696E-01 <y< 1.177E+01
0.900
Cable Plot
0.700
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -1.436E+03
# 2 (Cable) -1.847E+03
# 3 (Cable) -2.121E+03
Displacement vectors
max vector = 4.120E-04
0
0.500
1E -3
0.300
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
Figure 1.44 Axial forces in nails with both frictional and cohesive strength at
soil/nail interface
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 87
* The coupling springs can also simulate the effect of a continuous wall/medium contact. However,
it is recommended that, for this case, beam elements with interface elements attached on both sides
of the beams be used, because interfaces provide a better representation of the effect of wall/soil
separation. For example, see the diaphragm wall example (Section 11 in the Examples volume).
Note that pile elements cannot be used to simulate a single vertical pile because the structural
element formulation does not apply to axisymmetric geometry (see Section 1.9.1). For such a case,
the three-dimensional program FLAC 3D is recommended.
1 - 88
Structural Elements
Fs
cssstiff
up
um
L
(1.29)
cs_fric
cs_sstiff
1
relative shear
displacement
cs_scoh
perimeter
a) Shear strength criterion
Figure 1.45 Material behavior of shear coupling spring for pile elements
The maximum shear force that can be developed along the pile/grid interface is a function of the
cohesive strength of the interface and the stress-dependent frictional resistance along the interface.
The following relation is used to determine the maximum shear force per length of the pile:
Fsmax
= csscoh + c tan(cssfric ) perimeter
L
(1.30)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
where:
csscoh
c
cssfric
perimeter
=
=
=
=
1 - 89
The mean effective confining stress normal to the element is defined by the equation:
nn + zz
+p
c =
2
where:
p
zz
nn
ni
=
=
=
=
(1.31)
pore pressure;
out-of-plane stress; and
xx n21 + yy n22 + 2 xy n1 n2 ,
unit vectors as defined in Eq. (1.4).
The limiting shear-force relation is depicted by the diagram in Figure 1.45(a). The input properties
are shown in bold type on this figure.
The same interpolation scheme as that employed for the cable elements is used to calculate the
displacement of the grid in the pile axial direction at the pile node.
1.5.1.2 Behavior of Normal Coupling Springs
The normal behavior of the pile/grid interface is represented by a linear spring with a limiting normal
force that is dependent on the direction of movement of the pile node. The normal behavior during
the relative normal displacement between the pile nodes and the grid is described numerically by
the coupling spring normal stiffness (cs nstiff in Figure 1.46(b)) i.e.,
Fn
= csnstiff (upn unm )
L
where
Fn
csnstiff
upn
unm
L
(1.32)
1 - 90
Structural Elements
compressive force/length
cs_nfric
cs_nstiff
1
cs_ncoh
perimeter
cs_nten
relative normal
displacement
cs_nfric
tensile
tensile force/length
Figure 1.46 Material behavior of normal coupling spring for pile elements
A limiting normal force can be prescribed to simulate the localized three-dimensional effect of the
pile pushing through the grid (e.g., a soil being squeezed around a single pile). The limiting force
is a function of a normal cohesive strength and a stress-dependent frictional resistance between the
pile and the grid. The following relation is used to determine the maximum normal force per length
of the pile:
Fnmax
= csncoh + c tan(csnfric ) perimeter
L
where
(1.33)
The mean effective confining stress normal to the element is defined by Eq. (1.31).
The limiting normal-force relation is shown in the diagram in Figure 1.46(a). The cohesive strength
is defined by two property keywords (cs ncoh and cs nten). The value that will be used in Eq. (1.33)
depends on the direction of motion of the pile node. Conceptually, a single normal spring is
considered to be located at each pile node. Positive normal motion is defined to be to the left
when facing along the pile element in the direction of node n to node n+1. The sign convention is
shown in Figure 1.47. Displacement of the node in the positive normal direction is considered as a
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 91
positive displacement with the spring in compression, and cs ncoh is used, while displacement in
the negative normal direction is considered as a negative displacement with the spring in tension,
and cs nten is used. The dual cohesion parameters are useful for cases in which different conditions
exist on both sides of the pile e.g., the pile acts as a retaining wall. If cs nten is not specified,
then its value defaults to that for cs ncoh, and the response is the same for normal movement in
either direction.
cs_ncoh
node
n+1
positive
normal
negative
normal
cs_nten
node n
Figure 1.47 Sign convention for compressive strength of normal coupling
springs
1 - 92
Structural Elements
(7) exposed perimeter [length] of the pile (i.e., the length of the pile surface that
is in contact with the medium);
(8) stiffness of the shear coupling spring [force/pile length/displacement];
(9) cohesive strength of the shear coupling spring [force/pile length];
(10) frictional resistance of the shear coupling spring [degrees];
(11) stiffness of the normal coupling spring [force/pile length/displacement];
(12) cohesive (and tensile) strength [force/pile length] of the normal coupling
spring;
(13) frictional resistance of the normal coupling spring [degrees]; and
(14) normal gap formation between the pile and the medium.
The height and width of the pile element cross-section (or the radius for a circular cross-section)
can also be prescribed instead of the area and moment of inertia. The area and moment of inertia
will then be calculated automatically.
Pile element properties are determined in a fashion similar to that used for beam elements. (See
Section 1.2.2.)
A limiting plastic moment and plastic hinge condition can be prescribed for pile nodes. See
Section 1.1.7 for details. Softening relations for plastic hinges can also be defined by the user. An
example is given in Section 1.5.4.3.
The exposed perimeter of a pile element and the properties of the coupling springs should be
chosen to represent the behavior of the pile/medium interface commensurate with the problem
being analyzed. For piles in soil, the pile/soil interaction can be expressed in terms of a shear
response along the length of the pile shaft as a result of axial loading (e.g., a friction pile) or in
terms of a normal response when the direction of loading is perpendicular to the pile axis (e.g.,
piles used to stabilize a slope).
Pile/soil interaction will depend on whether the pile was driven or cast-in-place. The interaction is
expressed in terms of the shear resistance that can develop along the length of the pile. For example,
driven friction piles receive most of their support by friction or adhesion from the soil along the
pile shaft. A cast-in-place point-bearing pile, on the other hand, receives the majority of its support
from soil near the tip of the pile.
In many cases, properties needed to describe the site-specific response of the pile/soil interaction
will not be available. However, a reasonable understanding of the soil properties at the site is usually
provided from standard in-situ and laboratory tests. In such cases, the pile/soil shear response can
be estimated from the soil properties. If the failure associated with the pile/soil response is assumed
to occur in the soil, then the lower limits for cs sfric and cs scoh can be related to the angle of
internal friction of the soil (for cs sfric) and the soil cohesion times the perimeter of the pile (for
cs scoh). If failure is assumed to occur at the pile/soil interface, the values for cs sfric and cs scoh
may be reduced to reflect the smoothness of the pile surface.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 93
When a pile is loaded laterally, a gap may open on one side between the pile and the medium. If
the load is reversed, the pile first has to close this gap before it can load the medium on the opposite
side. The total size of a gap is an accumulated value. The parameter cs ngap specifies how much of
the gap is effective cs ngap = 0 causes the gap to be ignored completely: the pile is considered
to be always in contact with the medium. cs ngap = 1 causes 100% of the gap to close before the
pile will reload the medium. The selection of an appropriate value for cs ngap requires knowledge
of the actual problem conditions.
It is also possible for users to input their own force-displacement law for the normal coupling
springs. This is accomplished with a FISH function that can be accessed via the pile property
keyword cs nfunc. The procedure to implement user-defined force-displacement laws is described
in Section 1.10.4.
1.5.3 Commands Associated with Pile Elements
All the commands associated with pile elements are listed in Table 1.5, below. This includes the
commands associated with the generation of piles and those required to monitor histories, plot and
print pile-element variables. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for a detailed explanation
of these commands.
1 - 94
Structural Elements
Table 1.5
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
keyword
area
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nfunc
cs ngap
cs nstiff
cs nten
ij
n
ij
n
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 95
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
cs scoh
cs sfric
cs sstiff
density
e
height
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
width
range
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
nbond
ndisp
nforce
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 96
Structural Elements
pile
structure
structure
<pile> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs ndisp <ng <ng2> >
cs nforce <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
moment <ng <ng2> >
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
pile
hinge
node
property
pile
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 97
2
,
O0
h
dh
O0
P/D
y
y
x
1 - 98
Structural Elements
The load is transferred to the medium through uniform skin friction by selecting a constant shear
spring stiffness, cs sstiff, that is two orders of magnitude smaller than both the medium bulk
modulus, K, and the pile axial stiffness, E. The shear cohesion, cs scoh, is set to a high value to
prevent shear yielding.
For comparison to the stress-approximation solution, far-field stress boundary conditions are applied, which correspond to the Flamant solution for a point surface load of intensity 2P , equal to
that of the applied pile load. This solution has the form:
xx
yy
xy
(y0 y)x 2
4P
=
[(y0 y)2 + x 2 ]2
4P
(y0 y)3
=
[(y0 y)2 + x 2 ]2
4P
(y0 y)2 x
=+
[(y0 y)2 + x 2 ]2
(1.34)
In the stress-approximation solution, the stresses due to uniform skin friction are estimated by
assuming a load distribution of intensity 2P /(2D) over a vertical height D (see Figure 1.48).
Neglecting the influence of the overburden at the elevation y = y0 h, and using the Flamant
P
dh over the height
solution, the vertical stress contribution caused by a load increment 2 dP = D
dh may be approximated by:
dyy
2P
(y0 h y)3
=
dh
D [(y0 h y)2 + x 2 ]2
(1.35)
yy
2P
=
D
(y0 h y)3
dh
[(y0 h y)2 + x 2 ]2
(1.36)
yy
P
x2
(y0 y)2
=
ln
+
D
(y0 y)2 + x 2
(y0 y)2 + x 2
(1.37)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 99
and, for y y0 D:
yy
(y0 D y)2 + x 2
P
x2
x2
ln
=
+
D
(y0 y)2 + x 2
(y0 D y)2 + x 2
(y0 y)2 + x 2
(1.38)
Vertical stresses calculated by FLAC are compared to those given by Eqs. (1.37) and (1.38). The
FISH function check syy calculates the vertical stress approximation at the location of zone
centroids, and stores the values in ex 1. Pile element variables are accessed via FISH using the
STR.FIN file (see Section 1.10).
Note that combined damping (SET st damp combined), rather than local damping, is used for this
example (see Section 1.9.3 for a discussion on damping mode). Example 1.18 contains the FLAC
data file for this example.
Example 1.18 Axially loaded pile skin friction
config ex 2
def ini flam
c P = -1.e-3
; half force on plane (symmetry)
c g = 3e2
c k = 5e2
niz = 10
nigp = niz+1
njz = 10
njgp = njz+1
end
ini flam
grid niz njz
gen 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0
model e
prop dens 2000 sh=c g bu=c k
; --- far field boundary conditions --def coe flam
coe = 4.*c P/pi
c yt = y(1,njgp)
end
coe flam
def c sxy
c x2
= c x*c x
val
= c yt - c y
c y2
= val*val
c dis2 = c x2 + c y2
c dis4 = c dis2*c dis2
c sxx = coe*val*c x2/c dis4
c syy = coe*val*c y2/c dis4
1 - 100
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 101
ca str.fin
def find pd
vall = 0.
valf = 0.
nn
= 0
nind = imem(str pnt + $ksnode)
loop while nind # 0
nn = nn + 1
fs = fmem(nind + $kndfs)
len = fmem(nind + $kndefl)
vall = vall + len
valf = valf + fs
nind = imem(nind)
end loop
c pd = abs(valf)/vall
end
find pd
print nn vall valf c pd
pause
def check syy
yt = y(1,njgp)
dd = 5.
scoe = c pd/pi
loop ii (1,niz)
loop jj (1,njz)
xx = (x(ii,jj)+x(ii+1,jj))*0.5
yy = (y(ii,jj)+y(ii,jj+1))*0.5
dis = (yt-yy)*(yt-yy)+xx*xx
disd = (yt-yy-dd)*(yt-yy-dd)+xx*xx
if yy < dd then
ex 1(ii,jj)=scoe*(ln(disd/dis)+xx*xx/disd-xx*xx/dis)
else
ex 1(ii,jj)=scoe*(ln(xx*xx/dis)+1.-xx*xx/dis)
end if
end loop
end loop
end
check syy
plot hold syy
int 5e-5 fill grid bl struct cs sforce
plot hold ex 1 zone int 5e-5 fill grid bl struct cs sforce
save frict compare.sav
Figure 1.49 shows contours of vertical stresses obtained numerically, and a diagram of forces in the
pile shear coupling springs. The contours in Figure 1.50 correspond to the analytical approximation.
As may be observed, the same order of magnitude for the stresses is obtained in the two solutions.
(Discrepancies between the two responses may be attributed to the approximate character of the
1 - 102
Structural Elements
analytical solution.) This example serves to demonstrate the capability of FLAC to transmit loads
adequately to the medium by means of the coupling-spring connections.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:25
step
4314
-1.820E+00 <x< 1.115E+01
-1.487E+00 <y< 1.149E+01
0.800
YY-stress contours
-2.50E-04
-2.00E-04
-1.50E-04
-1.00E-04
-5.00E-05
0.600
0.400
0.200
2E 0
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
Figure 1.49 Shear force at pile/grid interface and FLAC vertical stress contours
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:25
step
4314
-1.732E+00 <x< 1.106E+01
-1.398E+00 <y< 1.140E+01
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
2E 0
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
Figure 1.50 Shear force at pile/grid interface and estimated vertical stress
contours
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 103
End Bearing One way to model end bearing capacity in FLAC is to neglect shear friction along
the bottom segment of the pile and, instead, adjust the properties of the corresponding shear spring
to account for the pile bearing capacity. The approach of assigning a limit-load value on input
is justified by considering that the indentation mechanism responsible for the limit load may not
develop naturally in the approximate FLAC model adopted for the pile analysis (because the pile
model does not account for cavity expansion).
In this example, the end-bearing spring is assigned a limit load, evaluated using an engineering
bearing capacity formula (e.g., see Coduto 1994). The limit load can also be derived from a cavity
expansion theory (e.g., see Bishop et al. (1945), Johnson (1970) and Teh and Houlsby (1991)) or
from information derived from full-scale tests.
To illustrate the effect of end-bearing capacity, we first consider the case corresponding to a friction
pile in sand (see the data file in Example 1.19). The pile and grid geometries are similar to those
of the previous example. Here, the property cs scoh is set to zero and the pile friction to 10 , so
that the pile shear strength is generated by confining pressure according to Eq. (1.30). A downward
velocity is applied at the pile top, and reaction force and vertical displacement are monitored there
for a total of 20,000 steps.
As may be observed from the pile top force-displacement history in Figure 1.51, the pile capacity
has been reached by the end of the test. Figure 1.52 shows the distribution of shear forces and yield
indicator in the shear coupling springs after 20,000 steps. (The slight irregularity in the shear force
profile is caused by the averaging process used to evaluate mean confining stress for definition of
the shear strength property.)
The data file, Example 1.19, is then modified to simulate end bearing. This is accomplished by
assigning a limit-load capacity to the structural node at the base of the pile. The structural node at the
pile base (node 11) is the end-bearing node. The shear cohesion and shear stiffness of the coupling
spring associated with node 11 are adjusted to represent the effect of an end-bearing condition.
The stiffness, Kb , of the bearing spring (at node 11) is adjusted to reflect the pile axial properties
using
Kb = EA/L2e
(1.39)
where E is the pile elastic modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, and Le is the effective length
assigned internally to the bearing spring. The value for Kb (16 109 N/m/m) is assigned via
cs sstiff. Conceptually, the bearing spring acts as a pile extension, and the spring force may be
interpreted as the axial force at the pile base.
The limit load, Fsmax , in the bearing spring is evaluated from an engineering formula (e.g., see
Cernica (1995), p. 395 and p. 120):
Fsmax = A(cNc + LNq )
(1.40)
1 - 104
Structural Elements
where c is the medium cohesion, Nc = 2 Kp (Kp + 1), Kp = (1 + sin )/(1 sin ), is the soil
friction, and Nq = Kp2 . is the unit weight of the medium, and L is the height of the overburden
at the pile-base horizon (buried pile length). The input value of cs scoh for the bearing spring (at
node 11) is calculated by dividing Fsmax by the spring effective length Le , (Fsmax /Le = 0.82 106
N/m), and the property of cs sfric is set to zero.
In order to change the properties of the bottom node, a different property number is first assigned
to the bottom pile element. (Property number 3001 is assigned to element 10, and property number
3002 is assigned to elements 1 through 9.) Because only pile element segments can have property
numbers changed with the STRUCT chprop command, it is necessary to use a FISH function to reassign the structural element property number of the structural node and coupling spring, associated
with the node adjacent to the bottom node. Using FISH function endb prop, structural node 10
is assigned property number 3002, while node 11 (the bottom node) is assigned property number
3001. Note that the FISH function is invoked after one calculation step, because property numbers
are only assigned to nodes when the calculation begins. Use the PRINT struct node info command
to check property number assignment to nodes.
The modified data file is listed in Example 1.20. (Pile element variables are accessed via FISH
using the STR.FIN file (see Section 1.10).) The model is run with the same applied velocity and
number of steps as in the previous example. In this case, as may be seen from the plot of load versus
pile-top settlement in Figure 1.53, the pile capacity has increased. Full capacity is not reached by
the end of the simulation, although the shear capacity is attained as indicated in Figure 1.54; all
shear springs are at yield, but the bearing spring at node 11 is still intact.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 105
1 - 106
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 107
1 - 108
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:29
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Axial Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
6.000
5.000
1)
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
12
16
20
(10
-04
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:29
step 20000
-1.609E+00 <x< 1.161E+01
-1.609E+00 <y< 1.161E+01
0.800
Pile Plot
Sp.Shear Fc on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile )
4.404E+03
Pile Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
Grid plot
0
0.600
0.400
2E 0
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1.52 Friction pile: forces and yield indicators in shear springs
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 109
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:36
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Axial Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_Y Displacement (Nd
6.000
5.000
1)
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-04
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:36
step 20000
-1.498E+00 <x< 1.150E+01
-1.498E+00 <y< 1.150E+01
0.800
Pile Plot
Sp.Shear Fc on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile )
4.252E+03
# 2 (Pile )
2.563E+04
Pile Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
Grid plot
0
0.600
0.400
2E 0
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1.54 End bearing pile: forces and yield indicators in shear springs
1 - 110
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 111
stru pile begin 5.5 12.0 end 5.5 4.0 prop 3001 segment 8
struc prop 3001 e 8e10 radius = 0.5
perimeter = 3.14
struc prop 3001 cs sstif = 1.3e11 cs scoh = 1e10 cs sfric = 30
struc prop 3001 cs nstif = 1.3e9 cs ncoh = 1e4
cs nfric = 0
save sh p0.sav
; set cs ngap = 0 no gap (default : cs ngap = 0)
struc prop 3001 cs ngap = 0
;
; histories
hist unbal
hist node 1 xdisp
hist elem 1 shear
;
; apply horizontal loading (velocity)
stru node 1 fix x ini xvel -1e-7
set large
step 4000
mean stress
save sh p1.sav
; reverse horizontal loading
stru node 1 ini xvel 1e-7
step 8000
mean stress
save sh p2.sav
; reverse horizontal loading again
stru node 1 ini xvel -1e-7
step 8000
mean stress
plot hol bou struc cs nfor fil ex 1,2,3 zone alias Mean Stress pile lmag
plot hol hist -3 v -2
save sh p3.sav
;
restore sh p0.sav
; set cs ngap = 1 for total gap effective (default : cs ngap = 0)
struc prop 3001 cs ngap = 1
;
; histories
hist unbal
hist node 1 xdisp
hist elem 1 shear
;
; apply horizontal loading (velocity)
stru node 1 fix x ini xvel -1e-7
set large
step 4000
mean stress
1 - 112
Structural Elements
save sh p4.sav
; reverse horizontal loading
stru node 1 ini xvel 1e-7
step 8000
mean stress
save sh p5.sav
; reverse horizontal loading again
stru node 1 ini xvel -1e-7
step 8000
mean stress
plot hol bou struc cs nfor fil ex 1,2,3 zone alias Mean Stress pile lmag
plot hol hist -3 v -2
save sh p6.sav
Figure 1.55 shows the normal loading at the pile/grid interface at the end of the first loading
increment. Figure 1.56 shows the same results after the loading is reversed. In the first plot, the
mean stress is increased to the left of the pile; in the second plot, the mean stress is increased to the
right.
In both the case without a gap and that with a gap, the limiting normal force is the same. However,
the normal load versus displacement histories are different. Figures 1.57 and 1.58 show the different
results that are calculated when the gap is not present and when it is fully effective.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 113
JOB TITLE :
(*10^1)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
26-Nov-03 16:48
step
4000
-2.500E+00 <x< 1.350E+01
-2.000E+00 <y< 1.400E+01
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.700
Sp. Norm Fc on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile )
1.000E+04
Mean Stress
Max. Value = 0.000E+00
Min. Value = -1.055E+05
0
0.500
0.300
5E 5
Pile plot
0.100
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 1.55 Normal force at pile/grid interface and mean stress in grid at
4000 steps
JOB TITLE :
(*10^1)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
26-Nov-03 16:48
step 12000
-2.500E+00 <x< 1.350E+01
-2.000E+00 <y< 1.400E+01
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.700
Sp. Norm Fc on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile ) -1.000E+04
Mean Stress
Max. Value = 0.000E+00
Min. Value = -1.055E+05
0
0.500
0.300
5E 5
Pile plot
0.100
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 1.56 Normal force at pile/grid interface and mean stress in grid at
12,000 steps for full gap
1 - 114
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:48
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Shear Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_X Displacement (Nd 1)
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
(10
-05
Figure 1.57 Shear load at top of pile versus horizontal displacement for no
gap
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Nov-03 16:48
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Shear Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_X Displacement (Nd 1)
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
(10
-05
Figure 1.58 Shear load at top of pile versus horizontal displacement for full
gap
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 115
1 - 116
Structural Elements
mo el
prop bulk 5e9 shear 1e9 dens 2000
;
; boundary conditions
fix y j 1
fix x i 1
fix x i 12
;
; initial stress state
ini syy -2.2000E+05 var 0 2.2000E+05
ini sxx -1.3200E+05 var 0 1.3200E+05
ini szz -0.8800E+05 var 0 0.8800E+05
set grav 10
;
; 1 m diameter friction pile
stru pile begin 5.5 12.0 end 5.5 4.0 prop 3002 segment 8
struc prop 3001 e 8e10 radius = 0.5
perimeter = 3.14
struc prop 3001 cs sstif = 1.3e11 cs scoh = 1e4 cs sfric = 30
struc prop 3001 cs nstif = 1.3e10 cs ncoh = 1e4 cs nfric = 0
struc prop 3002 e 8e10 radius = 0.5
perimeter = 3.14
struc prop 3002 cs sstif = 1.3e11 cs scoh = 1e5 cs sfric = 30
struc prop 3002 cs nstif = 1.3e11 cs ncoh = 1e5 cs nfric = 0
struc chprop 3001 range 1 7
save soft p0.sav
; set pmom limit
struc prop 3001 pmom 4.96e4
struc prop 3002 pmom 4.96e4
struc hinge 1 8
;
; histories
hist unbal
hist node 1 xdisp
hist elem 1 shear
;
; apply horizontal loading (velocity)
stru node 1 fix x ini xvel -5e-7
;stru node 2 fix x ini xvel 1e-7
;stru node 3 fix x ini xvel -1e-7
set large
step 4000
mean stress
save soft p1.sav
; reverse horizontal loading
stru node 1 ini xvel 5e-7
step 8000
mean stress
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 117
1 - 118
;
; histories
hist unbal
hist node 1 xdisp
hist elem 1 shear
;
; apply horizontal loading (velocity)
stru node 1 fix x ini xvel -5e-7
set large
step 4000
mean stress
save soft p4.sav
; reverse horizontal loading
stru node 1 ini xvel 5e-7
step 8000
mean stress
save soft p5.sav
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 119
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Aug-04 15:48
step 12000
-2.500E+00 <x< 1.350E+01
-2.000E+00 <y< 1.400E+01
1.000
Boundary plot
0
0.800
2E 0
Pile plot
0.600
Pile plot
Exaggerated Disp.
Magnification = 2.000E+01
Max Disp = 1.587E-02
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 1.59 Magnified plot of pile geometry after load reversal in lateral
direction for non-softening plastic hinges
(magnification factor = 20)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
13-Aug-04 15:49
step 12000
-2.500E+00 <x< 1.350E+01
-2.000E+00 <y< 1.400E+01
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.700
Pile plot
Exaggerated Disp.
Magnification = 8.000E+01
Max Disp = 2.000E-03
0.500
Pile plot
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 1.60 Magnified plot of pile geometry after load reversal in lateral
direction for softening plastic hinges
(magnification factor = 80)
1 - 120
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 121
of the soil are constant with respect to the stress and deformation of the soil, then only two models, at
different initial confining stresses, are required to estimate the normal coupling-spring parameters.*
Stress Boundary
Sandy Clay
Pipe Pushing
Constant Small Velocity
0.381 Pipe Radius
Elasto-Plastic
Response
ij
1.83 m
* This procedure is still valid if the soil properties are nonlinear, but several models may be required
to cover the expected confining stress regime. The normal coupling-spring behavior may then be
implemented via a FISH function by using the cs nfunc keyword.
1 - 122
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : Normal Capacity - 0.762m diam. pile - 3.66m c/c - 6m depth - Sandy Clay
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 11:07
step
0
-1.649E+00 <x< 3.210E+00
-2.309E+00 <y< 2.551E+00
1.500
1.000
Grid plot
0
0.500
1E 0
Interface # 1
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-0.750
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
Figure 1.62 Close-up view of FLAC model (beam and interface elements represent pile/soil interaction)
In this model, the in-plane stresses, xx and yy , define the horizontal stresses, and the out-of-plane
stress, zz , defines the vertical stress for the initial stress state. Two conditions for the initial stress
state are analyzed in this example:
soil stresses at 6 m depth:
xx = -0.0912 MPa
yy = -0.0912 MPa
zz = -0.126 MPa
soil stresses at 12 m depth:
xx = -0.182 MPa
yy = -0.182 MPa
zz = -0.252 MPa
FISH functions are used to monitor the maximum normal force per length of pile, Fnmax /L, and the
average mean effective stress, p , in the model times the exposed perimeter. p is calculated as the
mean value of 0.5 (xx + yy ) for all zones in the model. The exposed perimeter in this example
is considered to be the lower half of the pile boundary that is applying a velocity into the grid.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 123
The relative displacement of the pile through the soil is calculated as the difference between the
y-displacement of the gridpoint at the pile centerline (i = 1, j = 44) and the y-displacement of the
gridpoint at the midpoint between piles (i = 21, j = 51). Example 1.23 lists the data file including
the FISH functions for this example.
Example 1.23 Determining normal coupling-spring properties
; *** File used to determine normal capacity of a single row
; *** of 0.762 m (2.5 ft) diameter piles
; *** spaced 3.66 m (12 feet) c/c in a sandy clay ...
; *** The file can be modified for different initial soil
; *** stress conditions ...
;
grid 20 100
model mohr
gen 0 -10 0 0 1.83 0 1.83 -10 rat 1.08 0.95 j 1,51
gen 0 0 0 10 1.83 10 1.83 0 rat 1.08 1.0526 j 51,101
gen cir 0 0 0.381
m n reg 1 50
def follow mark
nbeam = 0
iprev = 0
jprev = 0
i = istart
j = jstart
loop n (1,1000)
section
i1 = i - 1
j1 = j
if isnext = 1
exit section
endif
i1 = i
j1 = j - 1
if isnext = 1
exit section
endif
i1 = i + 1
j1 = j
if isnext = 1
exit section
endif
i1 = i
j1 = j + 1
if isnext = 1
exit section
1 - 124
endif
n nodes = nbeam + 1
exit
endSection
x0 = x(i,j)
y0 = y(i,j)
x1 = x(i1,j1)
y1 = y(i1,j1)
nbeam = nbeam + 1
command
struct beam beg x0,y0 end x1,y1 seg=1 prop 1001
endCommand
iprev = i
jprev = j
i
= i1
j
= j1
endLoop
end
def isnext
isnext = 0
if i1 < 1
exit
endif
if i1 > igp
exit
endif
if j1 < 1
exit
endif
if j1 > jgp
exit
endif
if i1 = iprev
if j1 = jprev
exit
endif
endif
if and(flags(i1,j1),128) # 0
isnext = 1
endif
end
set istart=1 jstart=44
follow mark
struc prop 1001 e=1 a 1 i 1
struc node range 1 n nodes fix x y r
struc node range 1 n nodes ini yvel -1e-6
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 125
1 - 126
Structural Elements
The value for Fnmax /L at the 6 m depth is found to be 1.06 MN/m (as indicated by the plot of force
versus relative displacement in Figure 1.63). The mean effective confining stress times the exposed
perimeter is found to be 0.26 MN/m (FISH variable p prime, which is also shown in Figure 1.63).
The slope of the plot of Fnmax /L versus relative displacement in Figure 1.63, varies from approximately 88.9 MN/m/m at initial loading to approximately 8.2 MN/m/m before reaching the limit
load. A secant modulus, measured from the initial load to the limit load, is roughly 17.2 MN/m/m.
At 12 m depth, the value for Fnmax /L is calculated to be 1.78 MN/m, the mean effective confining
stress times the exposed perimeter is 0.46 MN/m, and the secant modulus measured from the initial
load to the limit load is approximately 15.7 MN/m/m.
The strength results can now be plotted to determine the coupling-spring parameters, cs nfric and
cs ncoh, as indicated in Figure 1.46(a). The value for cs nfric is determined from the two stress
level tests to be 74.5 , and the value for cs ncoh is 124 kN/m. The value for cs nstiff is estimated
to be 16.5 MN/m/m, which is the average of the secant moduli measured from the two tests.
The zone of yielding at the maximum normal force is shown in Figure 1.64. Note that the failure
extends to the right boundary, which indicates that there is an influence of the pile spacing on the
pile/soil response. Also, a gap forms between the pile and grid, as shown in the figure.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 127
The effect of pile spacing can be evaluated by adjusting the width of the model. The interaction of
the piles may be expected to affect the calculated values for the normal coupling-spring properties.
As the width of the model is increased, the effect of the interaction should diminish.
The values calculated for cs nfric, cs ncoh and cs nstiff from these tests reflect the behavior both
at the pile/soil interface and within a local volume of soil, as a result of the pile movement. This
includes the nonlinear deformation due to local failure of the soil material.
The coupling-spring properties derived in the scheme described above are similar to the py-curves
employed in empirical schemes for pile analysis. However, the p-y approach is intended to capture
the response of the entire soil mass (in an approximate way), whereas FLAC s pile properties reflect
only the local interaction of pile and soil within a distance in the order of the pile spacing. The
long-range effects (e.g., plastic slip surfaces that develop deep within the soil mass) are modeled
in a realistic way by the complete FLAC grid. Therefore, the zones in a region adjacent to the pile
elements, and extending from the pile a distance equal to the pile spacing, should be given an elastic
model if the pile properties are derived by a scheme similar to that described above. Otherwise, the
local pile-soil behavior would be represented twice.
JOB TITLE : Normal Capacity - 0.762m dia. pile - 3.66m c/c - 6m depth- Sandy Cla
06
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 11:34
step 100000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_p_prime
(FISH)
f_n
X-axis :
rel_disp
1.000
0.800
(FISH)
(FISH)
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
(10
-03
Figure 1.63 Pile lateral force (Fn /L) and (p perimeter) versus relative displacement
1 - 128
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : Normal Capacity - 0.762m diam. pile - 3.66m c/c - 6m depth - Sandy Clay
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 11:34
step 100000
-1.395E+00 <x< 2.956E+00
-2.807E+00 <y< 1.545E+00
0.500
0.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
-0.500
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
Beam Plot
Structural Displacement
Max Value = 1.000E-01
Beam plot
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.500
Figure 1.64 Displacement of pile (beams) and zone of shear and tensile yielding at the maximum normal load
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 129
where:
d pl
2 L
(1.41)
d = rockbolt diameter;
L = rockbolt segment length; and
= average angular rotation over the rockbolt.
If this strain exceeds the limit tfstrain, the forces and moment in this rockbolt
segment are set to zero, and the rockbolt is assumed to have failed.
3. The effective confining stress acting on the rockbolt is based on the change
in stress since installation. Stresses in the grid around the rockbolt are stored
when the element is installed, and as calculation progresses, the effective
confining stress around the element is calculated as the change in stress from
the installation state. (For the pile element, the effective confining stress is
based on the current stress state in the zones surrounding the pile.)
4. A user-defined table (cs cftable) can be specified to give a correction factor
for the effective confining stress, in cases of non-isotropic stress, as a function
of a deviatoric stress ratio. By default, the confining stress acting on piles is
given by Eq. (1.31). By specifying a table with cs cftable, factors are applied
to the value of m to account for non-isotropic stresses.
* The rockbolt model was developed in collaboration with Geocontrol S.A., Madrid, Spain for application to analyses in which nonlinear effects of confinement, grout or resin bonding, or tensile
rupture are important.
1 - 130
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 131
(18) cohesive (and tensile) strength of the normal coupling spring [force/rockbolt
length]; and
(19) frictional resistance of the normal coupling spring [degrees].
The radius of the rockbolt element cross-section can also be prescribed instead of the area and
moment of inertia. The area and moment of inertia will then be calculated automatically.
Rockbolt element properties are determined in a fashion similar to that used for beam elements.
(See Section 1.2.2.)
A limiting plastic moment and plastic hinge condition can be prescribed for rockbolt nodes. See
Section 1.1.7 for details. Softening relations for plastic hinges can also be defined by the user.
The exposed perimeter of a rockbolt element and the properties of the coupling springs should be
chosen to represent the behavior of the rockbolt/medium interface commensurate with the problem
being analyzed. The rockbolt/rock interaction can be expressed in terms of a shear response along
the length of the bolt as a result of axial loading and/or in terms of a normal response when the
direction of loading is perpendicular to the rockbolt axis.
1.6.3 Commands Associated with Rockbolt Elements
All the commands associated with rockbolt elements are listed in Table 1.6, below. This includes the
commands associated with the generation of rockbolts, and those required to monitor histories, plot
and print rockbolt-element variables. See Section 1.3 in the Command Reference for a detailed
explanation of these commands.
1 - 132
Structural Elements
Table 1.6
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
pin
slave
unslave
keyword
area
cs ncoh
cs nfric
cs nstiff
ij
n
ij
n
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 133
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
hinge
np
nel1 nel2
keyword
node
element
nel
keyword
cs scoh
cs sfric
cs sstiff
cs sctable
cs sftable
cs cftable
density
e
i
perimeter
pmom
radius
spacing
tfstrain
thexp
ycomp
yield
range
value
value
value
n
n
n
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
adisp
avel
nbond
ndisp
nforce
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
moment1
moment2
shear
1 - 134
Structural Elements
rockbolt
structure
structure
<rockbolt> keyword
adisp <ng <ng2*> >
avel <ng <ng2> >
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs ndisp <ng <ng2> >
cs nforce <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
moment <ng <ng2> >
nbond
node
number
sbond
sdisp
shear <ng <ng2> >
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
rockbolt
node
hinge
property
rockbolt
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 135
LEGEND
0.650
28-Nov-03 13:08
step 20000
-2.639E-01 <x< 6.639E-01
-1.039E-01 <y< 8.239E-01
0.550
Grid plot
0.450
2E -1
Rockbolt Plot
Structural Displacement
Max Value = 2.000E-02
0.350
0.250
0.150
0.050
-0.050
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
1 - 136
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 137
rest pull0.sav
stru pro 4001 e 200e9 a 5e-4 cs sstiff 2.00e7 per 0.08
stru pro 4001 yield 2.25e5 ; ult. tens. strength (450 MPa)*area=Force
stru pro 4001 i=2e-8 ; 0.25*pi*r 4
stru pro 4001 cs sfric=45
stru pro 4001 cs scoh=0.0
step 1
; --- Fish functions --def con p
cpm = - cp
command
ini sxx cpm szz cpm
app pr cp i 1
app pr cp i 5
end command
end
; confining pressure = 5e6
set cp = 5e6
con p
step 20000
save pull3.sav
;
; 4. Confinement = 5 MPa with cohesion table
rest pull0.sav
stru pro 4001 e 200e9 a 5e-4 cs sstiff 2.00e7 per 0.08
stru pro 4001 yield 2.25e5 ;ult. tens. strength (450 MPa) * area = Force
stru pro 4001 i=2e-8 ; 0.25*pi*r 4
stru pro 4001 cs sfric=45
stru pro 4001 cs scoh=0.0
; define table for confining stress correction factor
table 1 0 0.5 0.3 0.48 0.5 0.45 0.6 0.39
0.68 0.36
struct prop 4001 cs cftable 1
;
; note : (snn-szz)/(snn+szz) is 1 , so cfac=0.36
step 1
; --- Fish functions --def con p
cpm = - cp
command
ini sxx cpm
app pr cp i 1
app pr cp i 5
end command
end
; confining pressure = 5e6
set cp = 5e6
1 - 138
Structural Elements
con p
step 20000
save pull4.sav
;
; 5. Tensile rupture
rest pull0.sav
stru pro 4001 e 200e9 a 5e-4 cs scoh 1.00e5 cs sstiff 2.00e7 per 0.08
stru pro 4001 yield 1.0e5 ; ult. tens. strength (200 MPa) * area = Force
stru pro 4001 i=2e-8 ; 0.25*pi*r 4
stru pro 4001 cs sfric=45
stru pro 4001 tfs = 1e-2
step 1
; --- Fish functions --def con p
cpm = - cp
command
ini sxx cpm szz cpm
app pr cp i 1
app pr cp i 5
end command
end
; confining pressure = 5e6
set cp = 5e6
con p
step 30000
save pull5.sav
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 139
In the first test, confining stress dependence on the rockbolt shear bond strength is neglected. The
resulting axial force-deflection plot is shown in Figure 1.66. The peak force is approximately 50 kN.
JOB TITLE : Pull-out Test - single 25mm rockbolt
05
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 13:08
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.66 Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt
1 - 140
Structural Elements
In the second test, displacement weakening of the shear bond strength is introduced using the
cs sctable property. The displacement weakening relation to shear displacement is defined in table
100. The results are shown in Figure 1.67.
JOB TITLE : Pull-out Test - single 25mm rockbolt - cohesion softening
05
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 13:12
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.67 Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with displacement
weakening
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 141
The rockbolt shear bond strength will, in general, increase with increasing effective pressure acting
on the rockbolt. A linear law is implemented in FLAC whereby the rockbolt shear strength is
defined as a constant (cs scohesion) plus the effective pressure on the rockbolt multiplied by the
rockbolt perimeter (perimeter) times the tangent of the friction angle (cs sfriction). The pressure
dependence is activated automatically by issuing the rockbolt properties perimeter and cs sfriction.
In the third test, a 5 MPa confining stress is applied after the rockbolt is installed. Note that one
calculational step is taken in order to assign the rockbolt properties before the confining stress is
applied. The results are shown in Figure 1.68.
JOB TITLE : Pull-out Test - single 25mm rockbolt - confinement = 5 MPa
05
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 13:43
step 20001
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.68 Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with uniform 5 MPa
confinement
1 - 142
Structural Elements
In the fourth test, the property cs cftable is used to define the confining stress applied to the rockbolt,
accounting for the reduced affect of the out-of-plane stress and the in-plane stress normal to the
bolt. Table 1 is used to apply the reduction factor. The results are shown in Figure 1.69. Note that
the pull-out resistance is greatly reduced compared to the previous case (compare Figure 1.69 to
Figure 1.68).
JOB TITLE : Pull-out Test - single 25mm rockbolt - confinement = 5MPa (in plane only)
05
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 13:13
step 20001
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.69 Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with 5 MPa in-plane
confinement and zero out-of-plane confinement
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 143
In the fifth test, yield is used to define the limiting axial yield force (100 kN) of the bolt and tfstrain
is used to define the plastic strain (0.01) at which the bolt ruptures. The results are shown in
Figure 1.70.
JOB TITLE : Pull-out Test - single 25mm rockbolt - tensile rupture
05
LEGEND
9-Jul-04 12:15
step 30001
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-03
Figure 1.70 Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with tensile rupture
1 - 144
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
;
rest
stru
step
save
1 - 145
shear0.sav
prop 4001 pmom=5e3 tfs=1e-2
30000
shear2.sav
Figure 1.71 shows the plot of shear force versus shear displacement for a non-yielding bolt. Figure 1.72 shows the rockbolt geometry at the end of the test. The large displacement of the rockbolt
near the rock surface is a result of the failure of the normal coupling springs, which simulates the
crushing of the rock.
In the second test, pmom is specified to define a limiting moment (5000 N-m) of the bolt, and tfstrain
is set to define a limiting plastic strain (0.01) at which the bolt ruptures. The results are shown in
Figures 1.73 and 1.74.
1 - 146
Structural Elements
05
LEGEND
28-Nov-03 14:33
step 30000
1.400
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-03
Figure 1.71 Rockbolt shear force (N) versus rockbolt shear displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt
JOB TITLE : Shear Test - single 25mm rockbolt
0.700
0.600
28-Nov-03 14:33
step 30000
-2.553E-01 <x< 5.553E-01
-9.236E-02 <y< 7.181E-01
0.500
Grid plot
0.400
2E -1
Rockbolt plot
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 147
JOB TITLE : Shear Test - single 25mm rockbolt - limiting plastic moment
05
LEGEND
1.400
28-Nov-03 19:40
step 30000
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-03
Figure 1.73 Rockbolt shear force (N) versus rockbolt shear displacement (meters) for a single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with tensile rupture
JOB TITLE : Shear Test - single 25mm rockbolt - limiting plastic moment
0.700
0.600
28-Nov-03 19:40
step 30000
-2.516E-01 <x< 5.516E-01
-8.875E-02 <y< 7.145E-01
0.500
Grid plot
0.400
2E -1
Rockbolt plot
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
1 - 148
Structural Elements
Figure 1.75 Cut-away view of a typical reinforced earth retaining wall showing strip reinforcement
* The strip model was developed in collaboration with Terre Arme/Reinforced Earth Company,
Soiltech R & D Division, Nozay, France. The model was developed to represent the behavior of
the Terre Arme reinforcing strips.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 149
if c < 0
Fsmax
= Sbond + c f perimeter
L
if c 0
(1.42)
(1.43)
where:
f =
f0
f = f1
(f0
f1 )
c
c0
if 0 c < c0
(1.44)
if c c0
(1.45)
1 - 150
Structural Elements
and:
L
Sbond
c
perimeter
f0
f1
c0
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(1.46)
p
= pore pressure;
nn = xx n21 + yy n22 + 2 xy n1 n2 ; and
ni = unit vector normal to the strip.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 151
2 strwidth nstrips
calwidth
(1.47)
The cohesion, Sbond , at the strip/interface is calculated from the cohesion of the individual strip
(strbond), the number of strips (nstrips), and the calculation width (calwidth):
Sbond =
strbond nstrips
calwidth
(1.48)
1 - 152
Structural Elements
Table 1.7
STRUCTURE
keyword
begin
end
node
node
prop
prop
segment
delete
n
n*
np
keyword
grid
node
xy
keyword
grid
node
xy
np
ns
<n1 n2>
xy
keyword
x
free
initial
load
slave
unslave
keyword
calwidth
density
e
fstar0
ij
n
ij
n
* For the keywords x, free, initial, load and pin, a range of nodes can be
specified with the phrase range n1 n2.
value
value
value
value
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 153
HISTORY
prop
np
chprop
keyword
node
element
nel
np
keyword
fstar1
nstrips
sigc0
strkbond
strsbond
strsctable
strsftable
strthickness
strwidth
strycomp
stryield
tfstrain
range
value
value
value
n
n
n
value
value
value
value
value
value
nel1 nel2
keyword
sbond
sdisp
sforce
xdisp
xvel
ydisp
yvel
keyword
axial
1 - 154
Structural Elements
strip
structure
structure
<strip> keyword
axial <ng <ng2> >
cs sdisp <ng <ng2> >
cs sforce <ng <ng2> >
element
location <ng <ng2> >
material
node
number
sbond
sdisp
strain <ng <ng2> >
svel
xdisp <ng <ng2> >
xvel <ng <ng2> >
ydisp <ng <ng2> >
yvel <ng <ng2> >
keyword
strip
node
property
strip
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 155
1 - 156
Structural Elements
endloop
ff = sum
dd = step * 1e-6
end
ff
history nstep 100
history 2 ff
history 3 dd
struct node 1 fix x initial xvel=-1.0E-6
save strip1 0.sav
;*** constant strength ****
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 20000
save strip1 1.sav
;*** displ. weakening ****
restore strip1 0.sav
struct prop 7001 strsctable 100
table 100 delete
table 100 0 100000 0.009999 10000
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 20000
save strip1 2.sav
;*** tensile rupture ****
restore strip1 0.sav
struct prop 7001 stryield 100000.0 strsbond 1.0E7 tfstrain 0.08
struct node 1 initial xvel=-5.0E-7
history 999 unbalanced
cycle 50000
save strip1 3.sav
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 157
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
15-Jul-04 10:15
step
0
-2.000E-01 <x< 6.342E-01
-1.843E-01 <y< 5.843E-01
0.400
Grid plot
0.300
2E -1
Strip Plot
Structural Velocity
Max Value = 1.000E-06
Strip Plot
0.200
0.100
0.000
-0.100
-0.050
0.050
0.150
0.250
0.350
0.450
0.550
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Jul-04 11:40
step 20000
4.500
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.77 Strip pull force versus axial displacement strip/interface shear
failure
1 - 158
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
26-Jul-04 11:41
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
5.000
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 1.78 Strip pull force versus axial displacement displacement weakening
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
26-Jul-04 11:42
step 50000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-03
Figure 1.79 Strip pull force versus axial displacement tensile rupture
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 159
1 - 160
Structural Elements
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
27-Jul-04 12:44
step
2410
-2.000E-01 <x< 1.164E+00
-4.642E-01 <y< 8.642E-01
0.500
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
Grid plot
0
2E -1
1E 4
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
B Both directions
Strip Plot
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Strip Plot
Structural Velocity
Max Value = 1.000E-08
-0.300
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
Figure 1.80 Strip element in grid: vertical confining pressure and x-velocity
applied at end node
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 161
03
LEGEND
17-Aug-04 8:06
step 22410
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Axial Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_X Displacement (Nd 1)
8.000
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-05
Figure 1.81 Strip axial force versus axial displacement sigc0 = 120 kPa
03
LEGEND
5-Aug-04 9:08
step 22410
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Axial Force (El 1)
X-axis :
Rev_X Displacement (Nd 1)
8.000
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-05
Figure 1.82 Strip axial force versus axial displacement sigc0 = 70 kPa
1 - 162
Structural Elements
F = k t / (n + 1)
or
(1.49)
F = f (u) / (n + 1)
where: n
= number of sub-members;
u
= displacement of the sub-member;
f (u) = table look-up function; and
kt
= tangential (axial) stiffness.
The total force exerted by the member is the sum of the sub-member forces.
1.8.2 Support-Member Properties
The support elements in FLAC require the following input parameters:
(1) axial stiffness of the support member (force/displacement);
(2) compressive yield strength (force) of the support member; and
(3) spacing [length] (optional if not specified, supports are considered to be continuous in the out-of-plane direction).
If the support member contains sub-elements, then the axial stiffness and yield strength are for the
group of sub-members.
Alternatively, the relation between axial force and axial displacement can be specified by a look-up
table. However, a table should not be used if the support is subjected to unloading. Also, if a
look-up table is specified, spacing does not apply.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 163
prop
PLOT
PRINT
support
structure
keyword
xy
np
keyword
angle
delete
prop
remove
segment
width
keyword
kn
kn
spacing
yprop
value
np
ns
value
value
table
value
value
support
1 - 164
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 165
Figure 1.83 shows the location of the vertical fault and support members. The support members
behave according to the force-displacement relation shown in Figure 1.84. The specified support
yields at 4 MN, as shown.
Figure 1.85 shows that the deformed position of the supports after the upper surface on the right
side of the problem has displaced downward 1 m.
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6.500
28-Nov-03 14:57
step
0
-9.411E-01 <x< 8.941E+00
-1.441E+00 <y< 8.441E+00
5.500
Boundary plot
4.500
2E 0
Support plot
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
1 - 166
Structural Elements
4
Force
3
(x106N)
2
1
0
0
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
Displacement (m)
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6.500
28-Nov-03 14:57
step
500
-9.411E-01 <x< 8.941E+00
-1.441E+00 <y< 8.441E+00
5.500
Boundary plot
4.500
2E 0
Support plot
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 167
1 - 168
Structural Elements
(1.50)
where (Fnmax )s is the (scaled) maximum normal force per unit model thickness calculated by FLAC.
(The superscript s does not denote a power.) We want the total force calculated by FLAC over a
spacing, S, to be the same as the actual force. The actual maximum normal force is then
Fnmax = (Fnmax )s S
and the actual normal force is
(1.51)
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 169
Fn = (Fn )s S
(1.52)
The relation between the actual force and the FLAC force can be satisfied by substituting Eq. (1.51)
and the following relations into Eq. (1.50):
(csncoh )s =
(perimeter)s =
csncoh
S
(1.53)
perimeter
S
(1.54)
The actual normal stress on the pile, n , is calculated by dividing the actual force by the actual
effective area (perimeter L):
(Fn )s S
n =
perimeter L
(1.55)
Note that the choice to scale perimeter is arbitrary, because only the product tan(csnfric ) perimeter
is relevant. Alternatively, the friction term could be scaled.
It is important to remember that the forces (and moments) for structural elements that are calculated
by FLAC are scaled forces (and moments). The actual forces and moments can be calculated
by multiplying the FLAC forces and moments by S. FISH access to FLAC values for forces and
moments access scaled values and, thus, should be multiplied by the appropriate spacing value to
determine the actual values.
The spacing property is provided with beams, liners, cables, piles, rockbolts and supports to scale
properties and account for a spaced pattern of these structural elements.* When spacing is specified
in the STRUCT prop command, the actual properties of the structural elements are input. The scaled
properties are then calculated automatically by dividing the actual properties by the spacing, S.
When the calculation is complete, the actual forces and moments in the spaced structural elements
are then determined automatically (by multiplying by the spacing) for presentation in output results
(i.e., using the PRINT or PLOT command).
The following lists summarize the structural element properties that are scaled when spacing is
specified to simulate regularly spaced structural elements.
* The spacing for strip elements is directly accounted for with the calwidth and nstrips properties.
Note that this is a change from previous versions of FLAC, in which only the scaled values are
printed or plotted.
1 - 170
Structural Elements
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 171
1 - 172
Structural Elements
Figure 1.86 displays the result for the first case. When spacing is given, the actual axial forces
are displayed in the pile axial force plot. Figure 1.87 shows the result for the second case. When
spacing is not given, but the input properties are scaled, the axial force plot displays the scaled
values for axial force. The axial forces in Figure 1.87 must be multiplied by 2 to obtain the actual
values.
Example 1.29 Axial loading of piles at 2 m spacing
grid 5,5
model elastic
group soil notnull
model elastic notnull group soil
prop density=1000.0 bulk=1E8 shear=3E7 notnull group soil
struct node 1 2.5,5.0
struct node 2 2.5,2.5
struct pile begin node 1 end node 2 seg 3 prop 3001
struct prop 3001
; using spacing keyword
struct prop 3001 e 1e10 cs sstiff 1e9 cs scoh 1e20
struct prop 3001 area 1.0 spac 2.0
; without spacing keyword
; struct prop 3001 e 5e9 cs sstiff 5e8 cs scoh 1e20
; struct prop 3001 area 1.0
fix x y j 1
fix x i 6
fix x i 1
struct node 1 load 0.0,-1000000.0, 0.0
history 999 unbalanced
set sratio 1e-4
solve
save spacing.sav
See Sections 6 and 11 in the Examples volume for additional illustrations using spacing with cables
and beams that represent regularly spaced support.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 173
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
18-Aug-04 14:25
step
4473
-8.333E-01 <x< 5.833E+00
-8.333E-01 <y< 5.833E+00
4.000
Pile Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile )
1.778E+06
Boundary plot
0
3.000
2E 0
2.000
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
18-Aug-04 14:02
step
4473
-8.333E-01 <x< 5.833E+00
-8.333E-01 <y< 5.833E+00
4.000
Pile Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Pile )
8.889E+05
Boundary plot
0
3.000
2E 0
2.000
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
1 - 174
Structural Elements
Fi = F t ti + F n ni
=
EA
uj tj ti +
L
(1.56)
12EI
uj nj ni
L3
kx =
F1
u1
(1.57)
EA 2 12EI 2
n
=
t +
L 1
L3 1
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 175
ky =
F2
u2
(1.58)
EA 2 12EI 2
t +
n
L 2
L3 2
M
4EI
| =
(1.59)
The above values (kx , ky and kr ) are local stiffness values for the beam or liner elements, which are
connected to gridpoints of the finite-difference zone. The cable element stiffness, k c , is taken to be
equal to the product of (Kbond L), where L is the length of the cable element. The stiffness for the
pile or rockbolt elements will correspond to that for beam or liner elements if the pile or rockbolt
node is connected to the grid, or to the stiffness for cable elements if not connected to the grid.
The weighted inertial mass is set equal to the sum of stiffnesses for each node (recall that t = 1.0
see Section 1.3.5 in Theory and Background). For the case of a structural node connected to
a gridpoint, the inertial mass becomes:
mx = mG + 4.0(kx + k c )
my = mG + 4.0(ky + k c )
and
(1.60)
mr = 4.0 (kr )
where:
mx = kx
my = ky
mr = kr
(1.61)
1 - 176
Structural Elements
where kx , ky are the sums of the local translational stiffness contributions, and kr is the sum of the
local rotational stiffness contributions from each connected beam. These masses are now used in
the motion equation for the beam, liner, cable, pile and rockbolt element nodes.
For beam, liner, cable, pile and rockbolt elements, experience with FLAC has shown that the
structural-element formulation is stable and converges to the steady-state solution for nearly all
cases. Numerical instability has been observed in the case of an end-loaded column with a lower
pin joint subjected to a velocity load on the free end. This is equivalent to Euler buckling under
dynamic loading.
For support members, the stiffness is not taken into account in the consideration of numerical
stability, mainly because it is difficult to estimate the stiffness in advance for table look-ups. If the
support is stiffer than the rock, this may lead to numerical instability, but the reverse is likely to be
the case in most problems.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 177
ksnode
addr
id
...
prop
addr
id
...
prop
...
prop
prop
addr id
addr id
ksels
int_pnt
str_pnt
ksnseq
...
null
kseseq
addr
id
...
prop
kstype
addr
id
...
prop
kssup
addr id
addr id
...
prop
prop
kssext
...
addr
p1
addr p1
addr p1
addr
p1
...
pN
...
...
pN
pN
...
pN
null
null
1 - 178
Structural Elements
The property data list can be accessed directly from the node element and support lists, to obtain
properties for that particular entity, or the property list can be accessed from the control block.
1.10.2 The Address
The address of a particular entity is a computer index for the location in RAM containing the specific
item of data. Identification (ID) numbers are assigned for nodes, element segments, etc. However,
these numbers are different from addresses. ID numbers are one of the items of data stored in the
list. It is necessary to first obtain the correct address for a particular entity (for example, the address
of node number 13) before other data about node 13 can be extracted.
1.10.3 Obtaining and Using Addresses
Example 1.30 shows a FISH function, get node addr, that allows the user to obtain the address
for any given structural element node.
Example 1.30 FISH function used to obtain the address of a given structural node
call str.fin
def get node addr
ip=imem(str pnt + $ksnode)
; top of node list
loop while ip #0
id num = imem(ip + $kndid) ; id number of the node
if id num = node num then
get node addr = ip
exit
endif
ip=imem(ip)
endloop
end
This FISH function returns the address get node addr for the specified node number
node num. The address is then used to collect a specific item of data associated with that structural
node.
For example, assume that we want to monitor the y-reaction force that develops in pile node number
1 when a velocity is applied and fixed for that node. The FISH function from Example 1.30 is named
node addr.fis and then called into a data file and applied, as shown in Example 1.31, to access
the reaction force and store it as a history.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 179
1 - 180
Structural Elements
Example 1.32 FISH function p y to define the behavior of a normal coupling spring
def p y
; pointer to node structure
ipn = fc arg(1)
fndis = fmem(ipn+$kndua)
;relative displ.
dunrel = fmem(ipn+$kndunr)
;relative displ. increment
; Calculate normal force
it = imem(ipn+$kndtad)
;pointer to property list
stiff = nor stiff
;KN
eflen = fmem(ipn+$kndefl)
;effective length
fn = fmem(ipn+$kndfn) + stiff * eflen * dunrel
; Check for yield
fnmax = nor cohes * eflen
if abs(fn) > fnmax then
fn = sgn(fn) * fnmax
end if
; Store normal force
fmem(ipn+$kndfn) = fn
end
This function is associated with a particular property number when the pile-element property command cs nfunc is given. For this example, the normal spring stiffness and cohesion can be specified
with the SET command. The p y function is implemented, for example, with the following commands:
struct prop 1 cs nfunc = p y
set nor stiff = 1e9 nor cohes = 1e4
p y will then be used, instead of the built-in force-displacement relation, to update the normal
coupling spring forces at every pile node of property number 1 while cycling.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1 - 181
1.11 References
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Manual of Steel Construction, 7th Ed. New York:
AISC, 1980.
Bishop, R., R. Hill and N. Mott. The Theory of Indentation and Hardness Tests, Proc. Phys.
Soc., 57 147-159 (1945).
Cernica, J. N. Foundation Design, in Geotechnical Engineering. John Wiley, 1995.
Chryssanthakis, P., N. Barton, L. Lorig and M. Christianson. Numerical Simulation of Fiber
Reinforced Shotcrete in a Tunnel Using the Discrete Element Method, Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min.
Sci., 34(3-4), Paper No. 054, 1997.
Coduto, D. P. Foundation Design: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall, 1994.
Cook, R. D., D. S. Malkus and M. E. Plesha. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
Analysis, Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989.
Donovan, K., W. G. Pariseau and M. Cepak. Finite Element Approach to Cable Bolting in Steeply
Dipping VCR Stopes, in Geomechanics Application in Underground Hardrock Mining, pp. 6590. New York: Society of Mining Engineers, 1984.
Geddes, J. D. Boussinesq-Based Approximations to the Vertical Stresses Caused by Pile-Type
Subsurface Loadings, Geotechnique 19(4), 509-514 (1969).
Johnson, K. L. The Correlation of Indentation Experiments, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1970.
Ruest, M., and L. Martin. FLAC Simulation of Split-Pipe Tests on an Instrumented Cable Bolt,
CIM Annual General Meeting Proceedings, Vancouver, April-May 2002.
St. John, C. M., and D. E. Van Dillen. Rockbolts: A New Numerical Representation and Its Application in Tunnel Design, in Rock Mechanics Theory - Experiment - Practice (Proceedings
of the 24th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Texas A&M University, June 1983), pp. 13-26.
New York: Association of Engineering Geologists, 1983.
Teh, C. I., and G. T. Houlsby. An Analytical Study of the Cone Penetration Test in Clay, Geotechnique, 41(1), 17-34 (1991).
Terzaghi, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. London: Chapman and Hall, 1943.
1 - 182
Structural Elements
1-1
1-2
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
K + (4/3)G; (2) there is a large contrast in permeability and/or porosity; or (3) there is a large
variation in grid size. Three numerical techniques are available to speed up calculations for these
cases:
1. Saturated fast flow The saturated fast-flow logic is applicable to fully saturated, coupled
fluid-mechanical simulations, when the fluid can be considered as incompressible when
compared to the drained material compressibility. The logic is invoked with the SET
fastow on command. The scheme, theoretical background and efficiency demonstration
are presented in Section 1.4.1.
2. Unsaturated fast flow The unsaturated fast-flow scheme is applicable to those coupled
or uncoupled fluid-flow calculations in which a phreatic surface develops. The scheme
is invoked with the SET funsat on command (for fast-unsaturated flow). The details are
provided in Section 1.4.2.
3. Fluid bulk modulus scaling For steady-state fluid flow simulations involving contrasts
in permeability, porosity and/or grid size, an additional gain in calculation speed may
be obtained by using a numerical technique that relies on local scaling of the fluid bulk
modulus. This scheme is activated with the SET fastwb on and is applicable to fluid flow
only calculations for both fully saturated and unsaturated flow with a phreatic surface.
The approach is presented in Section 1.4.3.
Each of the three fast-flow schemes described above can be activated individually, and funsat and
fastwb can be applied together. However, the fastow scheme must be used separately from funsat
and fastwb. For example, the combination of funsat and fastwb makes sense only in cases in which
the phreatic surface develops and the steady-state flow-only solution is required. Table 1.1 displays
the fast-flow schemes that can be applied for the different fluid-flow and coupled flow cases.
Table 1.1
Partially Saturated
Coupled Fluid-Mech.
Flow-Only
Mech.-Only
Coupled Fluid-Mech.
Flow-only
fastflow
fastwb
fastflow
funsat
funsat
Mech.-only
fastwb
The fluid-flow scheme can be implemented for both thermal and dynamic analyses. The thermal
fluid-flow logic is based on a linear theory that assumes constant material properties. Fluid and
solid temperatures are locally equilibrated. Coupling to the thermal calculation is provided through
the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid, f , and the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient of the grains, g . Nonlinear behavior can be specified by access to pore pressures and
material properties via FISH. An advection model is also provided to take the transport of heat by
convection into account. This includes temperature-dependent fluid density and thermal advection
in the fluid. See Section 1.2.3 in Optional Features for a description of the thermal-fluid coupling.
1-3
Dynamic pore pressure generation and liquefaction due to cyclic loading can also be modeled with
FLAC Section 3.4.4 in Optional Features contains the documentation on this topic.
FLAC does not represent electrical or chemical forces between particles of a partially saturated
material. However, it is possible to introduce such forces by writing a FISH function that supplies
the appropriate internal stresses, based on the local saturation, porosity and/or any other relevant
variable. Similarly, the effect of variable fluid stiffness due to dissolved air is not explicitly modeled,
but a FISH function may be used to vary the local fluid modulus as a function of pressure, time, or
any other quantity.
This chapter is divided into nine major sections:
1. The governing equations for fluid flow and coupled fluid flow-mechanical processes are
given in Section 1.2.
2. The numerical formulation for the basic fluid-flow scheme is described in Section 1.3.
3. The three fast-flow schemes are described in Section 1.4.
4. The calculation modes and associated commands for analyses involving fluid flow are
described in Section 1.5.
5. Section 1.6 provides a description of the different boundary conditions, initial conditions,
and fluid sources and sinks that can be applied in a FLAC model.
6. Section 1.7 discusses the material properties required for a fluid-flow analysis and includes the appropriate units for these properties.
7. The recommended procedures for solving both flow-only and coupled flow problems are
outlined in Section 1.8. This section also contains several examples that illustrate the
application of these procedures. We recommend that you work through these examples
before attempting your own fluid analysis.
8. Modeling techniques for specific fluid applications are described in Section 1.9. Topics
covered are:
modeling solid weight, buoyancy forces and seepage forces in a coupled analysis (Section 1.9.1);
relation between initialization of pore pressures and deformation in a coupled
analysis (Section 1.9.2);
effect of the Biot coefficient (Section 1.9.3);
coupled undrained analysis (Recommendations for determining properties,
such as the undrained shear strength, and example applications are given in
this section, Section 1.9.4.);
recommended approaches for including fluid pressures in analyses involving
support structures (Section 1.9.5);
1-4
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
* The data files listed in this chapter are created in one of two ways: either by typing in the commands
in a text editor, or by generating the model in the GIIC and exporting the file using the File / Export
Record menu item. The files are stored in the directory ITASCA\FLAC\FLUID\1-SinglePhase
with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an
example and compare the results to plots in this volume, open a project file in the GIIC, by clicking
on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project file name (with extension .PRJ).
Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved
states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
1-5
qi = kij k(s)
(P w gk xk )
xj
(1.1)
where qi is the specific discharge vector, kij is the mobility coefficient (FLAC s permeability tensor),
k(s)
is the relative permeability, which is a function of the saturation s, P is the fluid pressure, w
is the mass density of the fluid, and gi , i = 1,2 are the two components of the gravity vector. For
saturated/unsaturated flow in FLAC, the air pressure is assumed to be constant and equal to zero.
For future reference, the quantity = (P w xj gj )/(w g) (where g is the modulus of the gravity
vector) is defined as the head and P /w g as the pressure head.
* In addition to those calculation modes, FLAC provides for the option of coupled fluid-thermalmechanical analysis (i.e., in which the mechanical response of a porous material can be studied
under transient fluid flow and/or thermal conditions). The general equations governing the fluidthermal-mechanical response in FLAC are presented in Section 1.2 in Optional Features.
As a notation convention, the symbol ai denotes component i of the vector {a} in a Cartesian system
of reference axes; Aij is component (i, j ) of tensor [A]. The Einstein summation convention on
repeated indices applies; indices take the values 1, 2 for components that involve spatial dimensions.
1-6
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
=
+ qv
t
xi
(1.2)
where is the variation of fluid content (variation of fluid volume per unit volume of porous
material), and qv is the volumetric fluid source intensity.
The balance of momentum has the form
ij
d u i
+ gi =
xj
dt
(1.3)
where = (1 n)s + nw is the solid bulk density; s and w are the densities of the solid and
fluid phase, respectively, and n is porosity. Note that (1 n)s corresponds to the bulk density of
the dry matrix, d (i.e., = d + nw ).
1.2.1.3 Constitutive Laws
The response equation for the pore fluid depends on the value of the saturation. At full saturation, s
= 1, kija (s) = kij and the fluid can sustain a tension up to a limit, Tf , as described in Section 1.7.4.
For s = 1, the response equation is
P
=M
t
t
t
(1.4)
where M is Biot modulus, is Biot coefficient and is the volumetric strain. Biot modulus is
related to the drained bulk modulus of the porous medium, K, and the fluid bulk modulus, Kw , via
n and , as follows:
M=
Kw
n + ( n)(1 ) KKw
(1.5)
If the compressibility of grains is neglected compared to that of the drained bulk material ( = 1),
we have
M=
Kw
n
(1.6)
1-7
For s < 1, the constitutive response of the pore fluid is described by:
(a) the saturation equation:
1
s
=
t
n
t
t
(1.7)
(1.8)
k(s)
= s 2 (3 2s)
(1.9)
-P
Tf
Figure 1.1
1-8
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
^
k(s)
1
Figure 1.2
(1.10)
where H is the functional form of the constitutive law and is a history parameter. In particular,
the elastic relations which relate effective stresses to strains, have the form
2
ij ijo + (P P o )ij = 2Gij + (K G)kk ij
3
(1.11)
where the superscript o refers to the initial state and kk is the volumetric strain increment.
1.2.1.4 Compatibility Equation
The relation between strain rate and velocity gradient is
uj
1 u i
+
ij =
2 xj
xi
(1.12)
1-9
(1.13)
where qn is the component of the specific discharge normal to the boundary in the direction of the
exterior normal, h is the leakage coefficient e.g., in [m3 /N-sec], p is the pore pressure calculated
by FLAC at the boundary surface, and pe is the known pore pressure in the region to or from which
leakage is assumed to occur.
Additional boundary conditions, such as a given total influx over a uniform pressure boundary
segment, can be imposed using FISH.
1 - 10
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 11
P
xj
(1.14)
Each quadrilateral element is divided into triangles in two different ways (see Figure 1.3(a)). Pore
pressure is assumed to vary linearly in a triangle, and the vector qi is derived for a generic triangle
of area A by application of the Gauss divergence theorem. Using Eq. (1.11) in Section 1.3.3 in
Theory and Background, and Figure 1.3(b) for reference, we obtain
qi
kij
P nj s
A
(1.15)
where
is the summation over the three sides of the triangle, n is the unit normal to the side, and
s is the length of the side.
Figure 1.3
(1.16)
1
k21
P n1 s + k22
P n2 s
q2 =
A
(1.17)
q1 =
1 - 12
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Considering, for example, the contribution of side (ab) of the triangle to the summations:
(ab)
1
(b)
(a)
(b)
(a)
k11 (P (b) + P (a) )(x2 x2 ) + k12 (P (b) + P (a) )(x1 x1 )
2A
(1.18)
(ab)
1
(b)
(a)
(b)
(a)
k21 (P (b) + P (a) )(x2 x2 ) + k22 (P (b) + P (a) )(x1 x1 )
2A
(1.19)
q1
q2
The other two sides, (bc) and (ca), provide similar contributions to qi . This specific discharge
vector contribution is then converted to scalar volumetric flow rates at the nodes by making dot
products with the normals to the three sides of the triangle. The general expression is
Q = qi ni s
(1.20)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(1.21)
The factor of 2 accounts for the fact that the node only captures half the flow crossing a neighboring
edge (since the other half goes to the other node of the edge). Similar expressions apply to nodes
(b) and (c). Nodal flow rates are added from the three triangles meeting at the node and divided
by 2, since the flow sum comes from two overlaid grids. The stiffness matrix [M] of the whole
quadrilateral element is defined in terms of the relation between the pressures at the four nodes and
the four nodal flow rates, as derived above:
{Q} = [M]{P }
(1.22)
For the special case of a square zone, aligned with the coordinate axes, the stiffness matrix has the
form
2
[M] = 2k 1
0
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
1
0
1
2
(1.23)
where k is the isotropic mobility coefficient. This matrix is identical to the one that would be
obtained in a classical finite difference or finite volume method.
1 - 13
The effect of gravity is incorporated as follows. If the gridpoint pressures around a zone conform
to the gradient P /xi = gi w , where gi is the vector of gravitational acceleration, then the nodal
flow rates {Q} should be zero. Hence, Eq. (1.22) is modified as follows:
(1)
where xi
(1.24)
k(s)
= s 2 (3 2s)
(1.25)
This function is empirical but has the property that k = 0 if s = 0, and k = 1 if s = 1 i.e.,
permeability is unchanged for full saturation, and is zero for zero saturation. Further, the gradient
of Eq. (1.25) is zero at s = 0 and s = 1, which is reasonable to expect physically. The value of
s used in Eq. (1.25) is taken as the average saturation of all nodes at which inflow is occurring.
Hence, inflow cannot occur if all inflow nodes are completely unsaturated. Fluid is also prevented
from flowing from a single node of zero saturation (addressing point (b) above) by scaling inflows
according to local saturation:
Qn
Q(in)
=
sn
s(in)
(1.26)
1 - 14
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
V
Q +
t
(1.27)
where V is the total volume associated with the node. The term Q includes contributions from
the four surrounding zones and any sources that are specified by the user (e.g., outflow from a well).
In finite difference form, Eq. (1.27) becomes
P := P
Qt + Vmech
V
(1.28)
where Vmech is the equivalent nodal volume increase arising from mechanical deformations of
the grid. The term V is computed as the sum of the contributions from all triangular sub-zones
connected to the node. Each triangle contributes a third of its volume, and the resulting sum is
divided by two, to account for the double overlay scheme in FLAC.
1.3.4 Continuity at Partially Saturated Nodes
FLAC allows negative pore pressures, up to a user-defined limit of tensile strength for the fluid (set
by WATER tens or INITIAL ftens). If the new nodal pressure computed by Eq. (1.28) results in a
pressure more negative than the tension limit, then the pressure is set to zero, and the nodal outflow
is used to reduce the saturation, s, as follows:
s := s
Q t + Vmech
nV
(1.29)
where nV is the pore volume associated with the node. (n is the porosity and V is the total volume.)
The pressure then remains at zero as long as s < 1; in this case, Eq. (1.29), rather than Eq. (1.28),
is applied. If the computed s is greater than 1, then s is set to 1, and Eq. (1.28) is used again
instead. This scheme ensures that fluid mass is conserved the excess nodal volume is either used
to increase pressure or to increase saturation.
A phreatic surface (viewed as a boundary between nodes with s = 1 and nodes of s < 1) arises
naturally from the algorithms described in Sections 1.3.2 and 1.3.4, above. The scheme seems to
be robust enough to permit multiple phreatic surfaces that may coalesce or divide as conditions
change.
1 - 15
(1.30)
MQt
V
(1.31)
P1 = P0 + P = P0 1
Mkk t
V
(1.32)
where [M] is the stiffness matrix relating pore pressure to flow rate, as defined by Eq. (1.22).
Eq. (1.32) is stable and monotonic if
t <
V
Mkk
(1.33)
The value of t used in FLAC is that given by Eq. (1.33) multiplied by a safety factor of 0.8.
1.3.6 Verification of the Basic Fluid-Flow Scheme
Several verification problems that compare the basic fluid-flow scheme in FLAC to analytical solutions are presented in the Verifications volume. The unsaturated flow logic is verified in Sections 10
and 11 in the Verifications volume. The logic for coupled fluid flow and mechanical analysis is
verified in Sections 9 and 12 in the Verifications volume.
1 - 16
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 17
(1.34)
where Fp is a proportionality (relaxation) coefficient. (The Biot modulus, scaled by the nodal
volume, M/V , is the relaxation coefficient in the basic formulation.)
There are two consequences of this approach.
1. There is an unbalanced volume (or mass) accumulated at each node during the
mechanical calculation. The goal of the mechanical stepping is to reduce the
unbalanced volume throughout the model to a negligible value. Rather than
store unbalanced flow in the domains associated with the node, the unbalanced
flow is stored in a flexible container (balloon) that is associated with each
node.
The volume of the fluid in the balloon is updated as a result of flow ( Q)
after each flow step, and deformation (Vmech ) after each mechanical step:
Vunb := Vunb (1 +
P
Vmech P
)
Qt
Kw
Kw
(1.35)
1 - 18
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Fp V
= Fp 0.5
K + (4/3)G
(1.36)
where K is the drained bulk modulus, G is the shear modulus, V is the volume associated with
the node, and Fp is a dimensionless number. Although the upper bound of Fp = 0.5 guarantees
a convergent algorithm, experience has shown that for smaller values of Fp , the iterations will
converge more quickly. Also, the iterations using the upper bound of Fp may result in a large
fluctuation of pore pressure and other model variables; this can affect the results of nonlinear
mechanical analyses. The default value is selected to be Fp = 0.01. It is possible to reset Fp using
the SET fpcoef value command. It is not recommended to set Fp > 0.2, because it may lead to slow
convergence (or instability in the nonlinear models) and/or inertial effects influencing the solution.
1.4.1.2 Control of a Saturated Fast-Flow Solution
The saturated fast-flow logic can be used for simulating both undrained deformation (i.e., short
time) and coupled fluid flow/deformation of a porous medium (i.e., consolidation). Data files used
for simulations with the basic algorithm can be modified to run with the saturated fast-flow logic
by simply adding the command SET fastow on.
It is possible to switch between the basic logic and the saturated fast-flow logic at any point in the
simulation by specifying SET fastow on/off. However, switching between the two algorithms when
unbalanced forces or unbalanced fluid volumes are large (i.e., when the model is not in equilibrium)
will lead to inaccurate results (or instability).
During cycling using the saturated fast-flow logic, the scaled average unbalanced volume, Vav , and
the maximum unbalanced volume, Vmax , are monitored and printed to the screen. The average
unbalanced volume is defined as
Vav
Vunb
[K + (4/3)G]
av
=
|| ||
V
(1.37)
Vmax
[K + (4/3)G]Vunb
=
|| || V
(1.38)
max
where the summation and maximum are taken over all nodes in the model, and || || is a norm of the
stress in the model. Vav and Vmax are dimensionless numbers that measure the unbalanced volume
in the model.
1 - 19
1
Kw
(1.39)
where s is the change in saturation in one timestep. This equation indicates that there is an
advantage in reducing the mean value of fluid bulk modulus in order to speed the rate at which the
phreatic surface evolves towards its steady-state value.
There are two distinct time scales associated with unsaturated flow (ignoring here the third time
scale associated with mechanical adjustments). There is a short-term time scale (controlled by the
fluid storage, 1/M, and on the order of minutes or hours see the discussion on time scales in
Section 1.8.1 and Eq. (1.57)), associated with the adjustment of the flow field to the given boundary
conditions, including the current location of the phreatic surface. Over the long-term (days, weeks
or years, as controlled by the phreatic storage see the storage estimate in Section 1.8.1 and
Eq. (1.58)), the phreatic surface adjusts its location in response to unbalanced flow around partially
saturated zones. This behavior can be recognized by comparing a typical pressure history with
histories of inflow and outflow (see Section 1.10.3): the pressure history shows convergence to a
steady value, but inflow does not balance outflow, because there is unaccounted flow in or out of the
partially saturated zones. The obvious solution is to increase the timestep by reducing the fluid bulk
modulus. However, there is a complication: if the fluid bulk modulus is reduced by too much, the
volume of fluid added to or subtracted from a zone in one timestep may approach the void volume
of the zone. This leads to numerical instability, because in one step a zone may be over-filled, and
in the next step the flow may compensate too much in the opposite direction, leading to oscillations.
A condition for stability may be derived from the requirement that the fluid storage (used in the
critical timestep evaluation) must remain smaller than the phreatic storage over one zone height,
Lz . The condition may be justified as follows. Let Lx and Ly be the zone dimensions with gravity
acting in the y-direction. For flow under gravity, the specific discharge magnitude is kw g. The
volume of fluid entering a zone in one timestep is thus kw gLx t. For numerical stability, this
volume must be smaller than the void volume, nLx Ly , available in a zone. The critical timestep is
calculated based on the fluid diffusivity. Thus, we have t (L2z n)/(kKw ), and the approximate
criterion for the lower-bound value for fluid bulk modulus follows:
1 - 20
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Kw > aLz w g
(1.40)
1 - 21
(1.41)
where An is the area associated with each node. Note that the fluid bulk modulus value is assigned
to nodes in FLAC.
An upper-bound value for the high fluid bulk modulus, kwbound, must be given using the WATER
bulk command. (Note that the logic will not work if INITIAL fmod is used.)
For fluid-only calculations, this upper bound is used for the high bulk value:
Kwhigh = kwbound
(1.42)
For coupled, unsaturated simulations, the high bulk value is calculated as follows:
Kwhigh = min[kwbound, 20n(K + 4G/3)]
(1.43)
For calculations of the transient evolution of the phreatic surface, a realistic value should be specified
for Kwhigh . For steady state flow calculations, Kwhigh may be reduced to speed convergence.
1.4.2.4 Verification of the Unsaturated Fast-Flow Scheme
The problem of unconfined, steady-state flow toward a riverbank (in Section 11 in the Verifications
volume) is run to verify the unsaturated fast-flow logic.
1 - 22
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 23
1 - 24
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
keyword
specified
command
Permeability
Permeability components
Porosity
Saturation
perm
k11, k12, k22
poros
sat
in
in
in
at
Fluid density
Biot coefficient
Biot modulus
dens
biot c
biot mod
biot mod
bulk
fmod
tens
ftens
globally
in zones
globally
at gridpoints
globally
at gridpoints
globally
at gridpoints
PROPERTY
PROPERTY
PROPERTY
INITIAL, FIX,
FREE
WATER
PROPERTY
WATER
INITIAL
WATER
INITIAL
WATER
INITIAL
Fluid modulus
Fluid tension limit
zones
zones
zones
gridpoints
Note that setting a variable with the WATER command overwrites the whole grid with the new value;
the INITIAL command must be used if spatial variations are required. Note that perm is not a stored
1 - 25
variable it is computed as the average of k11 and k22 for printing, plotting and input purposes.
If not specified, the porosity defaults to 0.5, the saturation to 1.0, and the Biot coefficient to 1.0; all
other variables default to zero.
The fluid-flow solution is controlled by the SET and SOLVE commands. This applies for both the
basic-flow and the fast-flow solution schemes. The SET command allows certain options to be
switched on or switched off, and certain solution parameters to be specified. The keywords
ow and mech control, respectively, whether or not the flow or mechanical calculations are to be
done (see Section 1.8). For the basic-flow, saturated fast-flow and unsaturated fast-flow schemes,
either a coupled analysis (with SET mech on ow on) or an uncoupled analysis (with SET ow on
mech off then SET ow off mech on) can be performed (see Section 1.8.2). The mechanical solution
must be turned off (SET mech off ow on) for the fluid bulk modulus scaling scheme.
When performing a coupled analysis using the basic-flow scheme, several mechanical steps may be
done for every fluid timestep, or several fluid timesteps may be done for every mechanical step; the
keywords nmech and ngw allow the specification of the number of these sub-cycles. An implicit
solution scheme may be used, instead of the default explicit scheme. The command SET implicit
requests this alternative, and the keyword gwdt allows the flow timestep to be set. Section 1.10.5
explains the implicit option.
An automatic algorithm for the basic-flow scheme that controls the number of fluid or mechanical
sub-cycles, based on a given unbalanced force ratio (or unbalanced force) tolerance, is provided.
This algorithm is activated by the auto on keyword in the SOLVE command; the total groundwater
time to be modeled is specified by the age keyword in the SOLVE command. The force ratio
(or force), time and step tolerances are given by the parameters sratio (or force), clock and step
keywords, respectively, in the SET command. See Section 1.8.6 for more details.
Note that the keyword sratio, used in conjunction with the SOLVE command, relates to unbalanced
force ratio tolerance in a coupled or mechanical-only simulation, and to unbalanced flow ratio in a
flow-only simulation. The unbalanced flow ratio is described and examples given in Sections 1.8.4.2
and 1.8.4.3.
A saturated fast-flow simulation is turned on with the SET fastow on command, and the convergence
criterion used by the SOLVE command is then based on Vav and Vmax , as defined by Eqs. (1.37)
and (1.38). The mechanical stepping stops (for SET mech on ow off), or the model is incremented
to the next flow timestep (for SET mech on ow on), when both Vav and Vmax are smaller than
pre-defined limits, and the unbalanced force ratio (or force) is smaller than a pre-defined limit.
The limit for Vav can be set with either the SET aunb value command or the SOLVE aunb value
command. (The default value is aunb = 0.001.) The limit for Vmax can be set with either the SET
munb value command or the SOLVE munb value command. (The default value is munb = 0.01.) The
FISH grid variable unbow stores the unbalanced volumes associated with each node in the model.
The SOLVE auto on command can also be used when the saturated fast-flow scheme is applied
for coupled problems. The nmech keyword should be used in order to increase the mechanical
sub-stepping to reduce the unbalanced force ratio.
The unsaturated fast-flow logic is activated by using the command SET funsat on. The command
must be issued: a) after SET gravity and WATER density are specified; and b) after a realistic fluid
bulk modulus value is given for reference, using the WATER bulk command. (Note that the logic will
1 - 26
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
not work properly if INITIAL fmod is used.) The high and low fluid bulk moduli used by the scheme
are uniform values for the grid* and are computed automatically by FLAC. The low fluid bulk
modulus value is calculated, based on numerical stability considerations for solving the saturation
equation. The fluid bulk modulus value given by the user (with the WATER bulk command) acts as
an upper bound for the high fluid bulk modulus value. This is explained in Section 1.4.2.3.
In the unsaturated fast-flow scheme, each calculation step consists of nfunstep steps: one large
timestep (with low fluid bulk modulus) during which the phreatic surface evolves; and the remaining
steps consisting of small timesteps (with high fluid bulk modulus) to readjust the pore pressures.
The default value for nfunstep is 10; the value can be changed by the user using the SET nfunstep
command. The SOLVE auto on command can also be used when the unsaturated fast-flow scheme
is applied for coupled problems. The nmech keyword should be used in order to increase the
mechanical sub-stepping to reduce the unbalanced force ratio.
The command SET funsat off can be issued to revert back to the standard fluid-flow logic. Note
also that funsat is turned off implicitly by the command SET ow off. In this case (i.e., if funsat is
turned off, after being turned on, and steps taken), the high fluid bulk modulus value will be used
for the rest of the simulation, unless a different value is reassigned, using either the WATER bulk or
INITIAL fmod command.
The fluid bulk modulus scaling scheme may be activated in FLAC by using the command SET fastwb
on. The technique is applicable to flow only calculations, when the steady state solution is required,
but the transient response is unimportant. It should not be used for fully coupled simulations, and
is not applicable for undrained simulations. Before the scheme is activated, global or local values
for the fluid bulk modulus must be assigned using the WATER bulk or INITIAL fmod command.
The fluid bulk modulus scaling scheme can also be used in combination with the unsaturated fastflow logic. In this case, WATER bulk must be used, and both low and high values, calculated as in
Section 1.4.2, are affected by the scaling. The command SET fastwb off may be issued to revert
to the default logic. Also, the fluid bulk modulus scaling scheme will be set off implicitly by the
command SET ow off. Note that if fastwb is turned off, after being turned on, and steps taken, the
local, scaled fluid bulk modulus values will be used for the rest of the simulation, unless different
values are reassigned by the user, using either the WATER bulk or INITIAL fmod command.
The gridpoint and zone variables related to fluid flow for all the flow schemes may be printed or
plotted with the PRINT or PLOT commands, respectively, and the global variables printed with the
PRINT uid command. There are other grid variables that may be printed or plotted, but these
are computed as required, and they are not stored in the grid. xow, yow and head, described
in Section 1.10.2, may be printed, and ow and head may be plotted. There is one grid-related
variable, gow, that may be accessed only through a FISH function; this corresponds to the net
inflow or outflow at a gridpoint. The summation of such flows along a boundary is often useful,
since it can provide a value for the total outflow or inflow for a system. The use of xow, yow or
gow in a FISH function involves a lot of computation; such functions should be used sparingly.
* This is true, unless a combination of the unsaturated fast-flow and fluid bulk modulus scaling
schemes is being used see Section 1.4.3.
1 - 27
Finally, fictitious particles may be injected into the flow field to record flow track over a period of
time. The TRACK command controls this logic, which is described more fully in Section 1.9.8.
There are other keywords related to the plotting of groundwater quantities; these are described in
Section 1.10.2.
1.5.3 ATS Mode Adjust Total Stresses
In the CONFIG gw mode, when pore pressures change due to flow or zone-volume changes, the total
stresses are automatically adjusted by the same amount. Thus,
11 = 22 = 33 = P
(noting that compressive stresses are taken as negative). This adjustment recognizes the fact that
the total stress acting in a zone is the sum of the matrix stress (caused by the forces exerted by the
grains of soil or rock matrix) and the fluid pressure, acting in the void spaces.
However, pore pressures may be changed by the user at any stage, using the INITIAL command, the
WATER table command, the APPLY command, or by using a FISH function to set pore pressures
directly. These cases, in which pore pressure is set by an outside agency, are independent of
FLAC s calculation logic and, by default, there is no adjustment made by the code to total stresses.
The user is responsible for making the appropriate adjustments, if required. Note that such adjustments are not required, for example, if the initial values of stresses and pore pressures are set at the
beginning of a run the desired values can simply be given.
The adjustment of total stresses for user-specified changes in pore pressure can be made automatic
by giving the CONFIG ats command at the beginning of a run. If this is done, then total stresses are
adjusted according to the above equation whenever pore pressures are changed with the INITIAL,
WATER table and APPLY commands, or with the pp(i,j) variable in a user-written FISH function.
If CONFIG ats is used, then care should be taken that the initialization of stresses and pore pressures
at the beginning of a run is done in the correct order pore pressure should be set before stresses,
so that the required values for stresses do not change when a pressure-initialization is made.
See Section 1.9.2 for a simple example illustrating the use of CONFIG ats, and Section 1.9.7 for an
application of CONFIG ats to simulate dewatering.
1 - 28
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1.6 Fluid Flow Boundary Conditions, Initial Conditions, Sources and Sinks
Boundaries are impermeable by default: all gridpoints are initially free i.e., the pore pressure
at such gridpoints is free to vary according to the net inflow and outflow from neighboring zones.
The saturation (initially set to the default value of 1) is also free to vary. These conditions may
be declared explicitly by using the commands FREE pp and FREE sat at the appropriate gridpoints.
The opposite conditions, FIX pp and FIX sat, may also be set at any gridpoint. In general, fluid may
enter or leave the grid at an external boundary if either the pore pressure or the saturation is fixed,
but there are a number of special cases that do not conform to these general rules. A complete
summary of possibilities is given below.
1. Pore pressure free; saturation free This is an impermeable boundary and is
the default condition. There is no exchange between the grid and the outside
world. Pressure and saturation changes are computed according to Eq. (1.28)
or Eq. (1.29), depending on the current value of saturation and whether the
fluid has cavitated (fallen below the tensile limit).
2. Pore pressure xed; saturation free This is the usual boundary for a free
surface (i.e., at the top of the model). Fluid flows to and from the outside world.
The saturation may vary only if the set pressure is exactly zero. Otherwise,
saturation is forced to be 1 (to conform with FLAC s assumption, using the
single-phase option, that pore pressures can only exist in a fully saturated
material). Pore pressure cannot be fixed at a value less than the tensile limit;
FLAC will reset any such pressures to the tensile limit.
3. Pore pressure free; saturation xed This is the condition at a surface with
an applied discharge (e.g., with a specified surface infiltration rate). If the
saturation is set to 1, then pore pressure is calculated in the normal way (no
exchange with the outside world). However, if the pressure tends to fall below
the tensile limit, fluid is injected from outside to keep the pressure at the
tensile limit. If the saturation is set at less than 1, the pore pressure is forced
to be exactly zero, which also implies that fluid is exchanged with the outside
world.
4. Pore pressure xed; saturation xed This is the common boundary condition
for an applied pore pressure. If saturation is set to 1, then fluid is exchanged
with the outside world; no computation of pressure or saturation is done. If
saturation is set at less than 1, then the set pore pressure is redefined as zero.
Pore pressure cannot be fixed at a value less than the tensile limit; FLAC will
reset any such pressures to the tensile limit.
As noted above, certain combinations of conditions are impossible (e.g., pore pressure fixed at a
value less than the tensile limit). FLAC corrects such conditions before executing any calculation
step. Pore pressure is fixed at some pressure by using both the FIX pp and the INITIAL pp commands.
Alternatively, we may do both operations with just one command APPLY pp, for boundaries, or
INTERIOR pp, for interior points. The use of APPLY or INTERIOR has the advantage that the pressure
may be controlled directly by a history (supplied by a FISH function). The commands APPLY
1 - 29
discharge and INTERIOR well cause a prescribed inflow or outflow of fluid, rather than prescribed
pressure, to be applied to the grid. The command APPLY leakage specifies that a leaky boundary
condition be applied to the grid boundary. Again, these commands can refer to a history, if the flow
rate is to vary in a prescribed way. Section 1 in the Command Reference should be consulted for
the format of the commands mentioned here.
If a pore-pressure condition is applied to a free-surface boundary in a fluid-mechanical analysis,
mechanical stresses equivalent to the fluid pressure must also be applied to the free surface. This
may be the case, for example, for a dam reservoir. A convenient way to do this is with the APPLY
pressure command.
As mentioned, fixed-pressure or fixed-saturation gridpoints may act as source or sinks. There is no
explicit command that can be used to measure the inflow or outflow at these points. However, the
FISH grid variable gow records unbalanced nodal flows; a simple function that allows inflows and
outflows to be printed or plotted for any range of gridpoints can be written. (See Sections 1.10.3
and 1.8.4.3.)
Initial distributions of pore pressure, porosity, saturation, Biot modulus, fluid modulus and tension
limit may be specified with the INITIAL or PROPERTY command, as noted in Section 1.5.2. If
gravity is also given (with the SET gravity command), it is important that the initial distributions are
consistent with the gravitational gradient implied by the value of gravity, the given density of water
and the values of saturation and porosity within the grid. If the initial distributions are inconsistent,
then flow may occur in all zones at the start of a run. A few steps should be taken when setting
up a simulation to check for this possibility. Section 3.4.8 in the Users Guide provides a detailed
description of the procedure for setting up initial conditions. FISH functions ININV.FIS and
INIV.FIS are provided in the FISH Library in Section 3 in the FISH volume to compute initial
conditions automatically for horizontally layered media.
If a model containing interfaces is configured for groundwater flow, effective stresses (for the
purposes of slip conditions) will be initialized along the interfaces (i.e., the presence of pore pressures
will be accounted for within the interface stresses when stresses are initialized in the grid). To
correctly account for pore pressures, CONFIG gw must be specified. For example, the WATER table
command (in non-CONFIG gw mode) will not include pore pressures along the interface, because
pore pressures are not defined at gridpoints for interpolation to interface nodes for this mode. Note
that flow takes place, without resistance, from one surface to the other surface of an interface, if they
are in contact. Flow along an interface (e.g., fracture flow) is not computed, and the mechanical
effect of changing fluid pressure in an interface is not modeled. If the interface pore pressure is
greater than the total stress acting across the interface (i.e., if the effective stress tends to be tensile),
then the effective stress is set to zero for the purpose of calculating slip conditions.
Finally, note that fixing pore pressures in an undrained simulation yields inaccurate normal stress
values in the vicinity of the fixed boundary because the total stress correction assumes that fluid
enters and leaves the boundary at fixed pore pressure nodes regardless of whether ow is on or off.
1 - 30
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
kH
gw
(1.44)
kH
gw
(1.45)
1 - 31
perm is given with the PROPERTY command, then permeability will be isotropic. To specify an
anisotropic permeability, the components kij should be given instead with keywords k11, k22 and
k12, which correspond to the components kxx , kyy and kxy , respectively. To derive these components
from given principal values and angles, the same formulas used for stress transformation may be
used (or a graphical construction, such as a Mohrs circle).
If there is a variation of permeability across the grid, the timestep will be dominated by the largest
permeability (see Eq. (1.33)). For problems in which steady state (but not transient behavior) is
required, it may be beneficial to limit the variations in permeability to improve convergence speed.
For example, there will probably be little difference in the final state between systems where there
is a 20:1 variation in permeability, compared to a 200:1 variation, when the permeability contrast
acts in series with the direction of flow. The fluid bulk modulus scaling flow scheme (SET fastwb)
is recommended for these types of problems. Impermeable inclusions can be modeled with FLAC
by assigning a zero permeability to the zones in the region of interest.
1.7.2 Mass Density of Water and Solid
Three different mass densities may be given as input to FLAC in different circumstances: the dry
density of the solid matrix, d ; the saturated density of the solid matrix (bulk density), s ; and the
density of the fluid, w . Note that densities are only required if gravitational loading is specified.
Density units are mass divided by volume (e.g., in SI units, w is 1000 kg/m3 ).
If FLAC is configured for fluid flow (CONFIG gw), then the dry density of the solid material must
be used. FLAC will compute the saturated density of each element using the known density of the
fluid, the porosity, n, and the saturation, s: s = d + nsw .
The only case when the saturated density is given as input is for an effective stress calculation
(static pore-pressure distribution) not carried out in CONFIG gw mode. The WATER table command
(or INITIAL pp command) specifies the location of the water table. The dry density is specified for
zones above the water table, and the saturated density for zones below.
The solid density (dry or saturated) is given using the INITIAL density command. The fluid density
is given using the WATER density command. Note that the standard version of FLAC does not allow
fluid density to vary with position: a single value must be given. (Fluid density can vary with
temperature when using the thermal advection logic see Section 1.2.3 in Optional Features.)
All densities are zone variables in FLAC.
1.7.3 Saturation
Saturation, s, is defined as the ratio of pore volume occupied by fluid to total pore volume. In
FLAC s standard formulation, pore pressure is set identically to zero if the saturation at any point
is less than exactly 1. The effect of dissolved and trapped air may be allowed by reducing the local
fluid modulus, while keeping the saturation at 1 (i.e., we imagine that there is an equivalent fluid
present throughout the pore space). Although no pore pressures are present in a partially saturated
region, the trapped fluid still has weight (i.e., body forces act), and the fluid moves under the action
of gravity (at a reduced apparent permeability (see Eq. (1.25)). The initial saturation may be given
1 - 32
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
by the user, but it is also updated during FLAC s calculation cycle, as necessary, to preserve the mass
balance. Saturation may also be declared to be fixed at any gridpoint. For example, water may enter
and leave at a fixed-saturation gridpoint, even if the pressure is zero. (This could represent recharge
from rainwater or seepage from a free face, respectively.) Hence, the FIX and FREE commands
operate on saturation. This topic is discussed in greater detail in Section 1.6.
1.7.4 Fluid Tension Limit
In fine soils, the pore water may be able to sustain a significant tension; the user may set a limiting
tension, Tf , by means of the WATER tens command (to specify the same limit everywhere) or
the INITIAL ftens command (to specify the limit over a certain range of gridpoints). The tension
limit is always a negative number or zero. (Note that if a positive value for fluid tension limit is
entered, FLAC converts this to a negative value.) When the fluid pressure tries to fall below the
set limit, cavitation occurs and the pressure is then set to zero. The saturation may then also
drop below 1, depending on conditions. If the saturation remains equal to 1, further expansion of
the pore volume will cause negative pore pressures to build up again. Note that a negative pore
pressure is not the same as tension due to capillary, electrical or chemical forces. The latter
forces may be represented by an increased effective stress within the constitutive model (which
must be implemented by means of a FISH function using the single-phase option of FLAC). In this
case, negative fluid pressures are unrelated to the fact that a material is composed of grains the
pressures simply arise from the expansion of a volume filled with fluid. If it is required to model the
full effect (on flow, and on the mechanical response) of capillary forces, then the two-phase flow
option of FLAC should be used (see Section 2).
1.7.5 Fluid Moduli
1.7.5.1 Biot Coefficient and Biot Modulus
The Biot coefficient, , is defined as the ratio of the fluid volume gained (or lost) in a material element
to the volume change of that element when the pore pressure is changed. It can be determined in the
same drained test as that used to determine the drained bulk modulus, K, of the material. Its range of
3n
variation is between 2+n
and 1, where n is the porosity. In the particular case of an incompressible
solid constituent, = 1. This value is the default value adopted by FLAC.
For an ideal porous material, the Biot coefficient is related to the bulk modulus of the solid component
Ks , as follows:
=1
K
Ks
(1.46)
Ku K
2
(1.47)
1 - 33
Kw
n + ( n)(1 )Kw /K
(1.48)
(1.49)
The calculation mode for compressible grains is turned on with the command SET biot on. The
Biot coefficient is a zone property specified using the PROPERTY command. The Biot modulus is
a gridpoint variable specified using the INITIAL command.
1.7.5.2 Fluid Bulk Modulus
In analyses where the grain compressibility can be neglected, the user has the choice to either: (1)
SET biot on, use the default value of Biot coefficient (i.e., = 1) and assign a value equal to Kw /n
to Biot modulus; or (2) SET biot off and give, as input, the fluid bulk modulus Kw and porosity, n.
The bulk modulus, Kw , is defined as
Kw =
P
Vw /Vw
(1.50)
1 - 34
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(1.51)
Kw
n
(1.52)
1.7.6 Porosity
Porosity, n, is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of void volume to total volume of an
element. It is related to the void ratio, e, by
n=
e
1+e
(1.53)
The default value of n, if not specified, is 0.5. n should be given as a positive number between 0
and 1, but small values (say, less than 0.2) should be used with great caution because, for = 1, the
apparent stiffness of the pore fluid is proportional to Kw /n. For low values of n, the stiffness may
become very large in comparison to the stiffness of the solid material, causing the FLAC solution
1 - 35
to take a very long time to converge. Consider reducing Kw in this case see Sections 1.7.5.3 and
1.8.1 for further guidance.
Note that the porosity is only used as a factor in the continuity equation Eq. (1.28), rather than as a
main variable; pressure-change is related directly to volume change, not to porosity change, as in
some formulations. By default, FLAC does not update porosity during the calculation cycle, since
the process is time-consuming, and only the slope of the transient response is affected. However,
if changes of porosity are important in a particular application, they may be included by the use of
a look-up table (see Section 1.10.1 for a description and example).
1 - 36
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Lc
Ku + 4/3G
(1.54)
where Ku is undrained bulk modulus, G is shear modulus, is mass density, and Lc is characteristic
length (i.e., the average dimension of the medium).
1 - 37
tc =
L2c
c
(1.55)
where Lc is the characteristic length (i.e., the average length of the flow path through the medium)
and c is the diffusivity, defined as mobility coefficient k divided by storativity S:
c=
k
S
(1.56)
There are different forms of storativity that apply in FLAC, depending on the controlling process:
1. fluid storage:
S=
=
1
M
n
Kw
(if = 1)
(1.57)
2. phreatic storage:
S=
=
n
1
+
M
w gLp
n
n
+
Kw
w gLp
(if = 1)
(1.58)
3. elastic storage:
1
2
S=
+
M
K + 4/3G
=
n
1
+
Kw
K + 4/3G
(if = 1)
(1.59)
1 - 38
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
For saturated flow-only calculations, S is fluid storage and c is the fluid diffusivity:
c = kM
=k
Kw
n
(if = 1)
(1.60)
For unsaturated flow calculations, S is phreatic storage and the diffusivity estimate is:
c=
k
1
M
=
n
n
(w gLp )
k
1
Kw
1
(w gLp )
(if = 1)
(1.61)
For a coupled, saturated, deformation-diffusion analysis with FLAC, S is elastic storage, and c is
the true diffusivity or generalized coefficient of consolidation, defined from Eqs. (1.56) and (1.59)
as:
c=
k
1
M
2
K+4G/3
k
n
Kw
1
K+4G/3
(if = 1)
There are some properties based on the above definitions worth noting.
1. Because explicit timesteps in FLAC correspond to the time needed for the
information to propagate from one gridpoint to the next in the smallest zone,
the magnitude of the timestep can be estimated using the smallest zone size
for Lc in the formula for characteristic time. It is important to note that the
explicit fluid flow timestep in FLAC is calculated using the fluid diffusivity
Eq. (1.60) (even in a coupled simulation) in the basic method of solution. (A
value closer to the true diffusivity is used in the saturated fast-flow logic
see Section 1.4.1.)
In the basic explicit method of solution, the timestep magnitude may thus
be estimated from the formula obtained after substitution of Eq. (1.60) in
Eq. (1.55), and using the smallest zone size, Lz , for Lc i.e.,
(1.62)
L2z
t = min
kM
1 - 39
L2z n
= min
kKw
(if = 1)
(1.63)
2. In a saturated fluid flow problem, a reduced bulk modulus leads not only to an
increased timestep, but also to an increased time to reach steady state so that
the total number of steps, nt , stays the same. This number may be estimated
by taking the ratio of the characteristic times for the model, tc , to the critical
timestep, t, using Eqs. (1.55), (1.60) and (1.63), which gives
nt =
Lc
Lz
2
(1.64)
where Lc and Lz are characteristic lengths for the model and the smallest zone.
3. In a partially saturated fluid flow problem, adjustments can be made to the
fluid bulk modulus to speed convergence to steady state. This principle is
applied in the unsaturated fast-flow technique discussed in Section 1.4.2. If
done manually, care must be taken to not reduce M (or Kw ) so far that numerical instability will result. A condition for stability may be derived from
the requirement that the fluid storage (used in the critical timestep evaluation)
must remain smaller than the phreatic storage over one zone height, Lz i.e.,
M > aLz w g/n
(1.65)
or
Kw > aLz w g
(if = 1)
(1.66)
1 - 40
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
2 M
K + 4G/3
Kw /n
K + 4G/3
(if = 1)
(1.67)
With this definition for Rk , Eq. (1.62) may be expressed in the following two
forms:
c = kM
=k
1
1 + Rk
Kw 1
n 1 + Rk
(if = 1)
(1.68)
and
k
c= 2
1
4
K+ G
3
1 + 1/Rk
4
1
=k K+ G
3
1 + 1/Rk
(if = 1)
If Rk is small (compared to 1), Eq. (1.68) shows that FLAC s standard explicit
timestep can be considered as representative of the system diffusivity. An
order of magnitude estimate for the number of steps needed to reach full
consolidation, for instance, can be calculated using Eq. (1.64).
If M is large compared to (K + 4G/3)/ 2 , and Rk is large, FLAC s standard explicit timestep will be very small and the problem diffusivity will be
controlled by the matrix (see Eqs. (1.63) and (1.69)). The use of the saturated fast-flow logic is recommended in this case. However, if the standard
method of solution is selected, then in order to increase the timestep without
affecting the true diffusivity significantly, Eq. (1.69) indicates that it is not
computationally necessary to use a value of M larger than roughly 20 times
(K + 4G/3)/ 2 (i.e., a value of Rk much larger than 20). Note that M should
not be made higher than the physical value (which, for example, corresponds
to Kw = 2 GPa for water).
(1.69)
1 - 41
1 - 42
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
If the steady state distribution of pore pressure is known, then to save calculation time, values can
simply be initialized in the grid before cycling the model to mechanical equilibrium (and setting
Kw (or M) = 0, as before). However, it is important to note that, if this approach is used, CONFIG
ats should be selected at the beginning of the run to allow deformation to occur as a result of the
imposed external pore pressure change. Saturation (in CONFIG gw mode) or bulk material density
(not in CONFIG gw mode) may also need to be adjusted if the water level has been moved within
the model. (See Example 1.17.)
1.8.2.2 Driving Mechanism
The model response, in a fully coupled hydromechanical problem, can be driven by changes in either
the fluid flow boundary condition or the mechanical boundary condition. For example, transient
fluid flow to a well located within a confined aquifer is driven by the change in pore pressures at
the well. The consolidation of a saturated foundation as a result of the construction of a highway
embankment is controlled by the mechanical load applied by the weight of the embankment. If
the model response is driven by a change in pore pressures, it is likely that the fluid flow process
can be uncoupled from the mechanical process. This is further described below and illustrated by
Example 1.8. If the perturbation is mechanically driven, the level of uncoupling depends on the
fluid versus solid stiffness ratio, as described below.
1.8.2.3 Stiffness Ratio
The relative stiffness Rk (see Eq. (1.67)) has an important influence on the modeling approach used
to solve a hydromechanical problem.
Relatively stiff matrix (Rk <<< 1)
If the matrix is very stiff (or the fluid highly compressible) and Rk is very
small, the diffusion equation for the pore pressure can be uncoupled, since
the diffusivity is controlled by the fluid (Detournay and Cheng, 1993). The
modeling technique will depend on the driving mechanism (fluid or mechanical
perturbation):
1. In mechanically driven simulations, the pore pressure may be assumed to
remain constant. In an elastic simulation, the solid behaves as if there were
no fluid; in a plastic analysis, the presence of the pore pressure may affect
failure. This modeling approach is adopted in slope stability analyses (e.g.,
see Section 1.8.3).
2. In pore pressure-driven elastic simulations (e.g., settlement caused by fluid
extraction), volumetric strains will not significantly affect the pore pressure
field and the flow calculation can be performed independently (SET ow on,
SET mech off). (In this case, the diffusivity will be accurate, because for
Rk <<< 1, the generalized consolidation coefficient in Eq. (1.62) is comparable to the fluid diffusivity in Eq. (1.60).) In general, the pore pressure
changes will affect the strains, and this effect can be studied by subsequently
1 - 43
cycling the model to equilibrium in mechanical mode (SET mech on, SET ow
off).
Relatively soft matrix (Rk >>> 1)
If the matrix is very soft (or the fluid incompressible) and Rk is very large, then
the system is coupled with a diffusivity governed by the matrix. The modeling
approach will also depend on the driving mechanism.
1. In mechanically driven simulations, the use of the saturated fast-flow logic
(see Section 1.4.1) or the unsaturated fast flow logic is recommended (see
Section 1.4.2).
2. In most practical cases of pore pressure driven systems, experience shows
that the coupling between pore pressure and mechanical fields is weak. If
the medium is elastic, the numerical simulation can be performed with the
flow calculation in flow-only mode (SET ow on, SET mech off), and then in
mechanical-only mode (SET mech on, SET ow off), to bring the model to
equilibrium.
It is important to note that, in order to preserve the diffusivity (and hence the
characteristic time scale) of the system, the fluid modulus M (or Kw ) must be
adjusted to the value
Ma =
n
1
M
(1.70)
2
K+4G/3
or
Kwa =
n
n
Kw
(1.71)
1
K+4G/3
during the flow calculation (see Eq. (1.62)), and to zero during the mechanical
calculation, to prevent further adjustments by volumetric strains (Berchenko
1998).
1 - 44
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Table 1.3
Time Scale
1 - 45
Fluid vs Solid
Adjusted Fluid
Perturbation
Stiffness
Bulk Modulus (M or Kw )
Examples (6)
ts >>> tc
mechanical or
any Rk
no fluid
(steady-state
pore pressure
E.A. 1 (SLOPE.DAT)
analysis)
E.A. 7 (WATER.DAT)
or
E.A. 10 (ROCKSL.DAT)
a
M = 0.0
E.A. 1 (SLOPEGW.DAT)
CONFIG gw
a
or Kw = 0.0
E.A. 11 (DIAP.DAT)
E.A. 14 (EXC.DAT)
SET mech on
E.A. 17 (LINER.DAT)
E.A. 18 (EDAM.DAT)
ts <<< tc
mechanical or
(undrained
pore pressure
any Rk
analysis)
Pore Pressure
realistic value
Generation (3)
for M or Kw
E.A.4 (CAV.DAT)
CONFIG gw
E.A.15 (WHARF.DAT)
E.A.16 (PEMBANK.DAT)
SET mech on
V.P.15 (CAM2.DAT)
V.P.21 (EBANK.DAT)
ts in the
pore pressure
any Rk
range of tc
Uncoupled Flow-
V.P. 14 (BH.DAT)
Mechanical (4)
CONFIG gw
a
1
2
+
M
K +4G/3
Step 1.
M =
SET flow on
or Kw =
n
Kw
+ K +41G/3
Step 2.
M = 0.0
or Kw = 0.0
SET mech on
ts in the
range of tc
mechanical
any Rk
Coupled Flow-
adjust M (or Kw )
Mechanical (5)
so that
CONFIG gw
Rk
20
V.P.9 (H1.DAT)
V.P.18 (MANDEL.DAT)
E.A.13 (EMC.DAT)
SET flow on
SET mech on
1 - 46
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 47
1 - 48
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
After the flow and pore-pressure distribution is determined, if the computed pore pressure is then
to be used in a mechanical calculation, the command SET ow off, mech on should be given. The
fluid bulk modulus should also be set to zero, to prevent extra pore pressures from being generated
by mechanical deformation.
The following examples illustrate the application of the flow-only calculation.
1.8.4.1 Transient Evolution of a Phreatic Surface
As an example of the basic-flow scheme, and comparison to the unsaturated fast-flow scheme, using
the approach described above, consider a vertical 8 m high embankment, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Initially, the water table is two meters above the toe of the embankment throughout the model. The
water table is raised to the ground surface at the left of the model and the evolution of the new
phreatic surface is calculated.
Pore pressures are specified in two different ways in this model (for demonstration purposes): at the
left of the model, the APPLY command sets the FIX condition as well as the value of pore pressure;
at the right of the model, the INITIAL command sets the values of pore pressures, but a series of FIX
commands are necessary as well. The INITIAL sat command initializes the saturation to zero for
gridpoints above the initial location of the water table. The FIX sat commands are used when the
material is kept in a fully saturated state by external conditions (although some of these commands
may not be necessary, since full saturation will be maintained automatically by outflow from the
grid). See Section 1.6 for additional discussion on fluid boundary conditions.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
2-Nov-04 11:36
step
0
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Grid plot
0
1E 1
Fixed Gridpoints
P Pore-pressure
S Saturation
Applied Pore Pressures
O Max Value = 1.000E+05
PS P
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
P
P
P
P
P
P
PS
PS
PS PS PS PS PS PS
S
S
0.750
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
Figure 1.4
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
FLAC grid and fluid boundary conditions for flow-only calculation in an embankment
1 - 49
The fluid modulus can be set to a low value to enable the steady-state phreatic surface to develop
quickly when using the basic fluid-flow scheme, and the mechanical calculation is turned off. Note,
however, that the time scale will be in error in this case. The trick of giving a low modulus is
useful when the steady state phreatic surface is required, but the time taken to reach that state is
unimportant. The final pore-pressure distribution is shown in Figure 1.5.
For partially saturated systems there is an advantage, when using the basic fluid-flow scheme, in
reducing the mean value of fluid bulk modulus in order to speed the rate at which the phreatic surface
evolves toward its steady state. To demonstrate this, if we repeat the run for the same number of
steps, but with a realistic fluid modulus of 2 GPa. The corresponding phreatic surface is shown
in Figure 1.6. The phreatic surface is still almost at the initial elevation of two meters above the
embankment toe.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 12:43
step
3980
Flow Time
6.3680E+07
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
1E 1
-0.750
-1.250
Figure 1.5
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 50
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 12:43
step
3980
Flow Time
3.1840E+03
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
1E 1
-0.750
-1.250
Figure 1.6
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
The example with Kw = 2 GPa illustrates the important point that there are two distinct time scales
associated with unsaturated flow: short time scale (controlled by fluid storage); and long-term
scale (controlled by the phreatic storage), as described in Section 1.4.2.1. For this model, the pore
pressures indicate a convergence to a steady state, but inflow does not balance outflow. The obvious
solution is to reduce the fluid modulus to increase the timestep.
If the fluid modulus is set too low, however, instability in the phreatic surface calculation can occur.
This is illustrated by repeating the run with Kw set equal to 100. This gives rise to the flow pattern
shown in Figure 1.7.
1 - 51
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 12:45
step
261
Flow Time
4.1760E+09
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
1.750
1.250
4.961E-07
0.750
1E -6
Boundary plot
0
0.250
1E 1
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
Figure 1.7
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
The unsaturated fast-flow scheme automatically alternates between high and low fluid bulk moduli,
with an accurate representation of the time scale, to provide an efficient solution for steady-state
flow for this problem, as described in Section 1.4.2. We prescribe the high fluid modulus with the
WATER bulk=2e9 command. We then turn on the unsaturated fast-flow scheme by specifying SET
funsat on. The low fluid modulus will be calculated as described in Section 1.4.2.3. A comparison
between Figure 1.8 below and Figure 1.5 shows that at steady state the pore pressure distribution is
the same. The scheme also provides the transient evolution of pore pressure, as shown by the pore
pressure history plot in Figure 1.9.
1 - 52
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 12:46
step
1548
Flow Time
7.0066E+07
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
1E 1
-0.750
-1.250
Figure 1.8
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 12:46
step
1548
Flow Time
7.0066E+07
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Pore pressure ( 10, 4)
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
06
Figure 1.9
1 - 53
Once the steady state pore pressure distribution has been found, mechanical conditions can be
established. The bulk modulus of water is set to zero to prevent further pore pressure changes,
and a mechanical pressure is applied at the right side of the model, corresponding to the weight
of water acting on the soil surface. The SOLVE elastic command is used to prevent failure during
the mechanical adjustment process. At the end of the simulation, the model is in equilibrium, and
further investigations can be done e.g., the stability for various values of friction and cohesion
and the effect of stabilizing structures (cables, retaining wall).
Although this approach is a simplified one (since it does not model the full fluid/solid coupling), it
does provide some degree of realism. The equilibrium state embodies the varying density of material
due to the varying degrees of saturation. It also supplies appropriate pore pressure contributions to
the effective stresses needed by the constitutive laws.
The data file for the different flow-only calculations for flow though an the embankment is listed
in Example 1.1.
Example 1.1 Unsaturated flow behind an embankment
config gw
grid 20 10
model mohr
ini x mul 2.0
prop dens 1500 sh 3e8 bul 5e8 cohes 5e5 tens 1e10
prop perm 1e-10
model null i=16,20 j=3,10
set grav=10 flow=on mech=off
water dens=1000 bulk 1e5
apply pp 1e5
var 0 -1e5
i=1
ini
pp 0.4e5 var 0 -0.4e5 j=1,5
ini
sat 0 j=6,11
ini
sat 1 i=1
fix
pp j=11
fix
pp i=16
j=3,11
fix
pp i=16,21 j=3
fix
sat i=1
fix
sat i=21
fix
sat i=16,21 j=3
fix
sat i=16
j=3,5
hist pp i 10 j 4
hist gwtime
save ff1_01a.sav
; BASIC - KW=1E5 ****
solve sratio 1e-2
save ff1_01b.sav
; BASIC - KW=2E9 ****
restore ff1_01a.sav
1 - 54
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
water bulk=2e9
step 1028
save ff1_01c.sav
; BASIC - KW=100 ****
restore ff1_01a.sav
water bulk=100.0
solve
save ff1_01d.sav
; FUNSAT - KW=2E9 ****
restore ff1_01a.sav
water bulk=2e9
set funsat on
solve
save ff1_01e.sav
set flow=off mechanical=on
water bulk=0.0
fix x y j 1
fix x i 1
fix x i 21 j 1 3
apply pressure 20000.0 var 0.0 -20000.0 from 21,3 to 16,5
history 3 ydisp i=16, j=11
history 999 unbalanced
solve elastic
save ff1_01f.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pp contours
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: flow vectors
plot hold flow bound
;plot name: pp(10,4) history
plot hold history 1 line vs 2
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid fix apply
;plot name: ydisp(16,11) history
plot hold history 3
1 - 55
1 - 56
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
2-Nov-04 12:59
step 12188
Flow Time
1.0902E+03
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Flow streamlines
Pore pressure contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 1.00E+01
Boundary plot
0
1.000
5E 0
0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
(*10^1)
LEGEND
2-Nov-04 12:59
step
7130
Flow Time
3.7911E+03
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Flow streamlines
Pore pressure contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 1.00E+01
Boundary plot
0
1.000
5E 0
0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
1 - 57
1 - 58
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
3-Nov-04 7:47
step
0
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-3.444E+01 <y< 5.444E+01
3.500
2.500
Permeability
1.000E-11
1.000E-10
1.000E-09
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
PPPP
PP
P
P
P
P
P
PP
PPPP
Fixed Gridpoints
P Pore-pressure
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
JOB TITLE : .
-06
LEGEND
3-Nov-04 7:59
step 25820
Flow Time
3.3825E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 inflow
(FISH)
3 outflow
9.000
8.000
7.000
6.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
4 Groundwater flow time
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
07
1 - 59
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
3-Nov-04 7:59
step 25820
Flow Time
3.3825E+08
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-3.444E+01 <y< 5.444E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
2E 1
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
1 - 60
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 61
As a large amount of plastic flow occurs during loading, the normal stress is applied gradually,
by using the FISH function ramp to supply a linearly varying multiplier to the APPLY command.
Figure 1.15 shows pore pressure contours and vectors representing the applied forces. It is important
to realize that the plastic flow will occur in reality over a very short period of time (on the order
of seconds); the word flow here is misleading since, compared to groundwater flow, it occurs
instantaneously. Hence, the undrained analysis (with SET ow=off) is realistic.
1 - 62
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
3-Nov-04 15:47
step
2621
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
0.400
1E 6
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
1 - 63
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4-Nov-04 13:19
step
1187
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
0.400
1E 6
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
1 - 64
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
tc
=
tcm
M + K + 4/3G Lc
1
1
+
M
K + 4/3G
(1.72)
where M = Kw /n. In most cases, M is approximately 1010 Pa, but the mobility coefficient, k, may
differ by several orders of magnitude; typical values are:
1019 m2 /Pa-sec for granite;
1017 m2 /Pa-sec for limestone;
1015 m2 /Pa-sec for sandstone;
1013 m2 /Pa-sec for clay; and
107 m2 /Pa-sec for sand.
For soil and rock, is of the order of 103 kg/m3 , while K + 4/3G is approximately 108 - 1010
Pa. Using those orders of magnitude in Eq. (1.72), it may be observed that the ratio of fluid-tomechanical time scales may vary between Lc for sand, 106 Lc for clay, 108 Lc for sandstone, 1010 Lc
for limestone and 1012 Lc for granite. If we exclude materials with mobility coefficients larger than
that of clay, it may be observed that this ratio remains very large, even for small values of Lc .
In practice, mechanical effects can then be assumed to occur instantaneously when compared to
diffusion effects; this is also the approach adopted in the basic flow scheme in FLAC (see Section 1.3),
where no time is associated with any of the mechanical sub-steps taken in association with fluid-flow
steps in order to satisfy quasi-static equilibrium. The use of the dynamic option in FLAC may be
considered to study the fluid-mechanical interaction in materials such as sand, where mechanical
and fluid time scales are comparable.
1 - 65
Each fluid step does correspond to a real period of time; this is printed out on the screen when the
STEP command is given. By default, FLAC alternates mechanical steps and fluid steps in the basic
fluid-flow scheme one mechanical step and then one fluid step. At the beginning of the solution
of a coupled problem, even one fluid step may put the system considerably out of equilibrium
(i.e., there will be large unbalanced forces). Hence, many mechanical steps should be taken for
each fluid step. As the consolidation process continues, the changes in fluid pressure will become
small, so that the system will remain in equilibrium. At this stage, several fluid timesteps may be
taken for each mechanical step (the reverse of the previous strategy). This process of controlling
the number of fluid and mechanical steps may be done manually, by using the SET nmech and
SET ngw commands to set the number of mechanical and fluid steps (respectively) done for each
cycle denoted by the STEP command. The unbalanced force ratio (or unbalanced force) should be
monitored during this process. Alternatively, the SOLVE auto on, age = command may be given.
This will cause FLAC to compute until the time given by the age parameter is reached; the number
of fluid and mechanical sub-cycles are adjusted automatically to keep the maximum unbalanced
force ratio (or unbalanced force) below a preset value. The force ratio and force values may be set
with the SET sratio and SET force commands. The parameters step and clock should also be set, to
prevent premature truncation of the run due to limits on step number and elapsed time, respectively,
from being reached.
1.8.6.1 Drained Consolidation beneath a Footing
To illustrate a fully coupled analysis, we continue the footing simulation done in Section 1.8.5
by setting flow on with drainage at the ground surface. Mechanical sub-steps are taken to keep
the unbalanced force ratio below the default unbalanced force ratio tolerance (103 ). The limit
to mechanical steps is nmech, set in this example to 100. The screen printout should be watched
during the calculation process if the actual number of mechanical steps taken is always equal to
the set value of nmech, then something must be wrong. Either the ratio limit or nmech has been
set too low, or the system is unstable and cannot reach equilibrium. The quality of the solution
depends on the ratio tolerance: a small tolerance will give a smooth, accurate response, but the run
will be slow; a large tolerance will give a quick answer, but it will be noisy.
The characteristic time for this coupled analysis is evaluated from Eq. (1.55), using Eq. (1.62)
for the diffusivity and a value Lc = 20 m corresponding to the model width. Using the property
values in Example 1.4, tc is estimated at 5.4 105 seconds. Full consolidation is expected to be
reached within this time scale; the numerical simulation is carried out for a total of 6 105 seconds.
Figure 1.17 shows the pore pressure distribution at a time of 5000 seconds. Figure 1.18 shows
the time histories of displacements under the footing load after the simulation is complete. In this
simulation, pore pressures remain fixed at zero on the ground surface. Hence, the excess fluid
escapes upward.
1 - 66
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
5-Nov-04 8:56
step
2721
Flow Time
5.0000E+03
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
0.400
0.000
1E 6
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
5-Nov-04 15:23
step
7438
Flow Time
6.0710E+05
-2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 1, 11)
-2.200
2 Y displacement( 2, 11)
-2.400
3 Y displacement( 3, 11)
X-axis :
7 Groundwater flow time
-2.600
-2.800
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
04
1 - 67
The coupled simulation can also be run using the saturated fast-flow scheme because the foundation
material is fully saturated. In this case, we begin from the undrained state using the SET fastow on
command (described in Section 1.8.5). When fluid flow is turned on, the coupled calculation will
continue using the saturated fast-flow scheme. The results are similar to the results for the basic
flow case, as indicated by Figure 1.19 (compare to Figure 1.18). The drained run is approximately
30 times faster than the basic flow run. Note that, for this example, the stiffness ratio Rk is 4.5.
The slight oscillation in the displacement histories shown in Figure 1.19 is related to the stiffness
ratio. The displacement histories become smoother as the value for Rk becomes larger i.e., as
the fluid becomes more incompressible.
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
27-Dec-04 14:07
step
3254
Flow Time
6.0076E+05
-1.800
-2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 1, 11)
-2.200
2 Y displacement( 2, 11)
3 Y displacement( 3, 11)
X-axis :
7 Groundwater flow time
-2.400
-2.600
-2.800
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
04
1 - 68
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
5-Nov-04 9:02
step
597
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 1, 11)
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
01
Figure 1.20 Total footing displacement for loading on dry soil foundation
The data file, including the undrained, drained and dry simulations described above, is listed below
in Example 1.5.
Example 1.5 A fully coupled analysis
config gwflow
grid 20,10
model elastic
group soil notnull
model mohr notnull group soil
prop density=2000.0 bulk=5E8 shear=3E8 cohesion=100000.0 friction=25.0 &
dilation=0.0 tension=1e10 notnull group soil
fix x i 1
fix x i 21
fix y j 1
def ramp
ramp = min(1.0,float(step)/200.0)
end
apply nstress -300000.0 hist ramp from 1,11 to 5,11
history 1 pp i=2, j=9
set flow=off
water bulk=2.0E9
initial pp 0.0 j 11
1 - 69
fix pp j 11
history 999 unbalanced
solve elastic
save ff1_05a.sav
; BASIC FLOW ****
set flow=on
set nmech 100
prop perm=1.0E-12 notnull
history reset
history 1 ydisp i=1, j=11
history 2 ydisp i=2, j=11
history 3 ydisp i=3, j=11
history 4 pp i=2, j=9
history 5 pp i=5, j=5
history 6 pp i=7, j=9
history 7 gwtime
solve auto on age 5e3
save ff1_05b.sav
solve age 500000.0
save ff1_05c.sav
; FAST FLOW ****
restore ff1_05a.sav
set flow=on
set fastflow=on
set nmech 100
prop perm=1.0E-12 notnull
history reset
history 1 ydisp i=1, j=11
history 2 ydisp i=2, j=11
history 3 ydisp i=3, j=11
history 4 pp i=2, j=9
history 5 pp i=5, j=5
history 6 pp i=7, j=9
history 7 gwtime
solve auto on age 5e3
save ff1_05d.sav
history 999 unbalanced
solve age 500000.0
save ff1_05e.sav
; NO PORE PRESSURE ****
new
config gwflow
grid 20,10
1 - 70
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
model elastic
group soil notnull
model mohr notnull group soil
prop density=2000.0 bulk=5E8 shear=3E8 cohesion=100000.0 friction=25.0 &
dilation=0.0 tension=1e10 notnull group soil
fix x i 1
fix x i 21
fix y j 1
def ramp
ramp = min(1.0,float(step)/200.0)
end
apply nstress -300000.0 hist ramp from 1,11 to 5,11
set flow=off
history 1 ydisp i=1 j=11
history 999 unbalanced
solve elastic
save ff1_05f.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pp contours
plot hold pp fill zero apply bound
;plot name: disp vectors
plot hold displacement bound
;plot name: ydisp(1,11) history
plot hold history 1 line 2 3 vs 7
;plot name: Plot 12
plot hold history 1 line
1 - 71
1 - 72
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
his gwtime
his pp i 5 j 7
his xdisp ydisp i 3 j 9
fix pp i=41
fix sat i=41
set nmec=100 sratio 1e-2 force 0
set flow on
fix pp i=1,3 j=3
fix pp i=3 j=3,9
fix pp j=9
ini pp 0 i=1 3 j=3
ini pp 0 i=3 j=3,9
ini pp 0 j=9
fix sat i=1,3 j=3
fix sat i=3 j=3,9
fix sat j=9
solve auto on age=5e8 ;--- now do consolidation
save ff1_06c.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: displ. vectors
plot hold displacement bound
;plot name: pp(5,7) history
plot hold history 2 line vs 1
;plot name: displ. histories
plot hold history 3 line 4 line vs 1
;plot name: Plot 4
plot hold pp fill
A trench is excavated in the left-hand part of a flat soil deposit that is initially fully saturated and in
equilibrium under gravity. The material is elastic in this case, but it could equally well have been a
cohesive material, such as clay. In this run, we assume impermeable conditions for the free surfaces.
Figure 1.21 shows the displacement vectors that accumulate during the time that flow is occurring;
the trench is seen at the left-hand side of the model. Figure 1.22 shows the time history of pore
pressure near the crest of the trench in zone (5,7). (Note that there is an initial negative excursion
in pressure arising from the instantaneous expansion of the soil toward the trench.) Figure 1.23
shows histories of horizontal and vertical displacement at the crest. The characteristic time for this
problem, evaluated using the model length of 40 m for Lc , is approximately 5 108 seconds (see
Eqs. (1.55) and (1.62)); the numerical simulation is carried out to that time.
1 - 73
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.500
2.000
9-Nov-04 9:44
step
3665
Flow Time
5.0024E+08
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.822E+01 <y< 2.622E+01
1.500
1.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 3.329E-04
0.500
1E -3
Boundary plot
0
0.000
1E 1
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
9-Nov-04 9:44
step
3665
Flow Time
5.0024E+08
1.200
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Pore pressure ( 5, 7)
X-axis :
1 Groundwater flow time
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
07
Figure 1.22 History of pore pressure behind the face zone (5,7)
1 - 74
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
9-Nov-04 9:44
step
3665
Flow Time
5.0024E+08
3.000
2.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
3 X displacement( 3, 9)
2.000
4 Y displacement( 3, 9)
1.500
X-axis :
1 Groundwater flow time
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
07
Figure 1.23 Displacement histories at the crest vertical (top) and horizontal
(bottom)
We now study the opposite case that in which the free surfaces are assumed to be infinitely
permeable, so that water may enter and leave at will. To do this, we repeat the second stage of the
analysis with the lines shown below added to the data file from Example 1.6.
fix
fix
fix
ini
ini
ini
fix
fix
fix
pp i=1,3 j=3
pp i=3 j=3,9
pp j=9
pp 0 i=1 3 j=3
pp 0 i=3 j=3,9
pp 0 j=9
sat i=1,3 j=3
sat i=3 j=3,9
sat j=9
Figures 1.24 and 1.25 illustrate the displacement field and pore pressure history, respectively, at
a consolidation time of 5 108 seconds. Here the swelling is predominantly at the face of the
trench; the ground uplift occurs well back from the face. Note the time scale of Figure 1.25; the
consolidation process takes place at a rate that is more than an order of magnitude faster than the
previous case (that of impermeable boundaries), since the average flow path is now shorter. In this
example, the height of the model is a representative characteristic length and, since the properties
1 - 75
are similar, the ratio of characteristic times for this case and the previous one is equal to the ratio
of the square of the model height over length (1/25).
In reality, the boundary conditions would be somewhere between the two extremes considered
above. They would also be more complicated, in that water could be expelled from a free face
but would probably not be sucked in; some drawdown may occur initially, but water would be
replaced later by recharge from the far field. The process can become quite complicated, but it is
possible to devise the appropriate boundary conditions and supply them to FLAC. Again, it must
be stressed that several simple models should be studied first, before embarking on a full-scale
simulation. Fully coupled systems are hard to understand; use FLAC as a laboratory to get to know
your system!
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.500
2.000
9-Nov-04 9:45
step
3132
Flow Time
5.0002E+08
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.822E+01 <y< 2.622E+01
1.500
1.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 3.148E-04
0.500
1E -3
Boundary plot
0
0.000
1E 1
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 76
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
27-Dec-04 14:15
step
3132
Flow Time
5.0002E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Pore pressure ( 5, 7)
X-axis :
1 Groundwater flow time
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
07
Figure 1.25 History of pore pressure behind the face zone (5,7)
1.8.6.3 Embankment Heave Caused by Raising the Water Level
The unsaturated fast-flow scheme can be invoked to speed the solution to coupled fluid-mechanical
problems involving the evolution of a phreatic surface. To illustrate the gain in computational
speed, compared to the basic flow scheme, we consider the problem of heave of an embankment
when the water level is raised in the embankment. The problem geometry is similar to that shown
in Figure 1.4. Initially, the water level is horizontal and located 2 meters above the embankment
toe. The water level is then raised upstream to a height of 10 meters. A new phreatic surface
develops across the embankment, and heave occurs at the soil surface as a result of the increase
in pore pressure. We model the problem in two stages: first, we establish the initial equilibrium
conditions with the horizontal water table; and then we raise the upstream water level and solve
the coupled transient fluid-mechanical problem, until steady-state conditions are reached. The
unsaturated fast-flow logic is used to speed the calculation for the second stage.
The initial total stress state and pore pressure distribution for the first stage is shown in Figure 1.26.
The calculation is made with total stresses and pore pressures initialized and steady-state flow
checked, and then the model run to mechanical equilibrium with the fluid-flow mode turned off.
1 - 77
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
11-Jan-05 11:48
step
1067
Flow Time
1.9200E+02
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
5E 5
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 78
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
11-Jan-05 12:00
step
1776
Flow Time
3.0018E+07
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
1E 1
-0.750
-1.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
11-Jan-05 12:00
step
1776
Flow Time
3.0018E+07
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Boundary plot
0.750
1E 1
Displacement vectors
max vector = 2.823E-04
0
0.250
5E -4
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 79
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:09
step
1776
Flow Time
3.0018E+07
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
10 Y displacement( 5, 11)
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
0.000
10
15
20
25
(10
06
1 - 80
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 81
time0
solve auto on age 3e7
time1
save ff1_07b.sav
;*** BRANCH: FUNSAT OFF ****
restore ff1_07a.sav
; --- reset displacements --ini xdis 0 ydis 0 xvel 0 yvel 0
; --- raise water level at 10m, left of the embankment --ini pp 1e5
var 0 -1e5
i=1
water bulk 1e8
his gwtime
his gpp i=5
j=5
his gpp i=10
j=5
his gpp i=15
j=5
his xdisp i=16 j=5
his xdisp i=16 j=7
his syy i=5
j=3
his syy i=10
j=3
his syy i=15
j=3
his ydisp i=5 j=11
his ydisp i=10 j=11
his ydisp i=15 j=11
;
set flow on mech on
set step 1000000
set nmech 500
time0
solve auto on age 3e7
time1
save ff1_07c.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Pore pressure contours
plot hold pp fill int 10000.0 bound
;plot name: Displacement vectors
plot hold bound displacement
;plot name: Y-displacement history
plot hold history 10 11 12 vs 1
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
1 - 82
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
def ini_ij
figp = igp
fjgp = jgp
end
ini_ij
; --- Properties --prop bulk=cbu she=csh den=1000
prop porosity=cpo perm=ck
water den 1000 bulk=cwb ten 1e10
; --- Initial conditions --ini pp cp0
ini syy cs0 sxx cs0 szz cs0
; --- Boundary conditions --fix pp i=figp
fix y
j=1
fix x
apply nstress
cs0 j=fjgp
apply discharge c_q i=1
; --- FISH functions --ca exp_int.fis
def pp_tab
loop i(1,igp)
rval = x(i,1)
e_val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anap = pcoe * exp_int + cp0
nump = gpp(i,1)
xtable(ntab,i)
= rval
ytable(ntab,i)
= anap/cp0
xtable(ntab+1,i) = rval
ytable(ntab+1,i) = nump/cp0
end_loop
end
def erp
erpv = 0.
loop i(1,igp)
rval = x(i,1)
e_val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anap = pcoe * exp_int + cp0
nump = gpp(i,1)
erpv
= erpv + ((anap - nump)/cp0)2
end_loop
erpv = erpv/float(igp)
erp = 100. * sqrt(erpv)
end
def stress_tab
srcoe = 1./(2.*pi)
1 - 83
; radius
; radius
1 - 84
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
; radius
; radius
pp_tab
save ff1_08-4.sav
set flow on mech off
water bulk=uwb
solve age 8
set flow off mech on
water bulk=0.
solve sratio 5.e-3
set ntab = 20
pp_tab
save ff1_08-8.sav
set flow on mech off
water bulk=uwb
solve age 16
set flow off mech on
water bulk=0.
solve sratio 5.e-3
set ntab = 30
pp_tab
save ff1_08-16.sav
set flow on mech off
water bulk=uwb
solve age 32
set flow off mech on
water bulk=0.
solve sratio 5.e-3
set ntab = 40
pp_tab
set ntab = 50
stress_tab
set ntab = 60
u_tab
save ff1_08-32.sav
1 - 85
; age 8
; age 16
; age 32
1 - 86
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
label table 40
pp (anal) at 32 sec
label table 41
pp (Flac) at 32 sec
plot hold table 10 line 11 cross 20 line 21 cross 30 line 31 cross &
40 line 41 cross
;plot name: stress profiles
label table 50
radial stress (anal)
label table 51
radial stress (Flac)
label table 52
hoop stress (anal)
label table 53
hoop stress (Flac)
plot hold table 50 line 51 cross 52 line 53 cross
;plot name: displacement profile
label table 60
vert. disp. (anal)
label table 61
vert. disp. (Flac)
plot hold table 60 line 61 cross
1 - 87
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
Table Plot
pp (anal) at 4 sec
0.600
pp (anal) at 4 sec
0.400
pp (anal) at 8 sec
pp (Flac) at 8 sec
0.200
pp (anal) at 16 sec
pp (Flac) at 16 sec
pp (anal) at 32 sec
pp (Flac) at 32 sec
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
10
(10
01
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
15-Nov-04 10:33
step
3077
Flow Time
3.2007E+01
Table Plot
vert. disp. (anal)
0.000
-1.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
10
(10
01
1 - 88
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(1.73)
where s is the undrained density, and gi is gravitational vector. Undrained density may be expressed
in terms of drained density, d , and fluid density, w , using the expression
s = d + nsw
(1.74)
(1.75)
Substitution of Eqs. (1.74) and (1.75) in Eq. (1.73) gives, after some manipulations,
ij
xj
+ d gi (1 n)
p
nw
=0
xi
xi
(1.76)
where we have introduced fluid unit weight, w , and piezometric head, , as:
w = w g
=
p
w g
xk gk
g
(1.77)
(1.78)
Note that g is the gravitational magnitude. In Eq. (1.78), Einstein notation applies (i.e., summation
over repeated indices).
p
with buoyancy, and
In Eq. (1.76), the term d gi can be associated with solid weight, (1 n) x
i
nw x
with seepage force (drag).
i
1 - 89
1.9.1.1 A Simple Model Illustrating Solid Weight, Buoyancy and Seepage Forces
A simple model is given below to illustrate the contribution of these individual terms in the context
of FLAC methodology. For this example, we consider a layer of soil of large lateral extent and
thickness, H = 10 m, resting on a rigid base. The layer is elastic, the drained bulk modulus, K, is
100 MPa, and the shear modulus, G, is 30 MPa. The density of the dry soil, d , is 500 kg/m3 . The
porosity, n, is uniform with a value of 0.5. The mobility coefficient, k, is 108 m2 /(Pa-sec). The
fluid bulk modulus, Kw , is 2 GPa and gravity is set to 10 m/sec2 .
Initially, the water table is at the bottom of the layer, and the layer is in equilibrium under gravity.
In this example, we study the heave of the layer when the water level is raised, and also the heave
and settlement under a vertical head gradient.
The problem is one dimensional; the FLAC model is a mesh composed of 20 zones: 10 in the
y-direction, and 2 in the x-direction (a minimum of 2 zones is required for contour plotting of zone
variables). The axes origin is at the bottom of the model. The mechanical boundary conditions
correspond to roller boundaries at the base and sides of the model. The fluid-flow boundary
conditions are described for the individual cases below.
This example is run using the groundwater configuration (CONFIG gw). The coupled groundwatermechanical calculations are performed using the basic fluid-flow scheme. For this small model, the
calculation times are quite fast; for larger models, the fast-flow schemes (Section 1.4) or uncoupled
modeling (Section 1.8.7) can be applied to speed the calculation.
For reference in comparison of FLAC results to the analytical solutions, the one dimensional incremental stress-strain relation for this problem condition is
yy + p = (K + 4G/3)y
(1.79)
where is the Biot coefficient (set equal to 1 for this simulation), K is the drained bulk modulus,
G is the shear modulus, and y is the vertical strain.
Solid Weight We first consider equilibrium of the dry layer. The dry density of the material is
assigned, and the saturation is initialized to zero (the default value for saturation is 1 in CONFIG gw
mode). The value of fluid bulk modulus is zero for this stage, the flow calculation is turned off, and
the mechanical calculation is on. The model is cycled to equilibrium. By integration of Eq. (1.73)
applied to the dry medium, we obtain
(1)
yy
= d g(H y)
(1.80)
Vertical stress at the end of the FLAC simulation is plotted versus elevation in Figure 1.32. The
values match those obtained for equilibrium under gravity of the dry medium (Eq. (1.80)), as
expected.
1 - 90
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
30-Dec-04 11:33
step
1075
4.500
4.000
Table Plot
syy (anal)
3.500
syy (Flac)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
(1.81)
The calculated value from FLAC matches the analytical value at this stage (-1.786 103 m). Note
that the equilibrium ratio limit (SET sratio) is reduced to 105 to provide this level of accuracy for
this example.
Buoyancy We continue this example by raising the water table to the top of the model. We reset
the displacements to zero, and assign the fluid properties listed above. The pore pressure is fixed
at zero at the top of the model, and the saturation is initialized to 1 throughout the grid and fixed at
the top. The saturation is fixed at 1 at the top to ensure that all zones will stay fully saturated during
the fluid-flow calculations. (Note that a fluid-flow calculation to steady state is faster if the state
starts from an initial saturation 1 instead of a zero saturation.) Fluid-flow and mechanical modes
are both on for this calculation stage, and a coupled calculation is performed to reach steady state.
The saturated density is used for this calculation, as determined from Eq. (1.74). By integration of
Eq. (1.73) for the saturated medium, we obtain
(2)
yy
= s g(H y)
(1.82)
1 - 91
The comparison of total vertical stress profile from FLAC to that from Eq. (1.82) is shown in
Figure 1.33.
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
21-Jan-05 13:03
step
9610
Flow Time
5.0075E+02
0.900
0.800
Table Plot
syy (anal)
0.700
syy (Flac)
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
(1.83)
1 - 92
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Nov-04 23:45
step
9610
Flow Time
5.0075E+02
-5.667E+00 <x< 7.667E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
u
y
(1.84)
For this example, p1 = 0. After substitution of Eqs. (1.80), (1.82) and (1.83) into Eq. (1.84), we
obtain, after some manipulation:
u
(s w ) d g(H y) = (K + 4G/3)
y
(1.85)
The term (s w ) is the buoyant density. Substitution of Eq. (1.74) for undrained density in
Eq. (1.85) produces
(1 n)w g(H y) = (K + 4G/3)
Finally, after integration, we obtain
u
y
(1.86)
uy =
1 - 93
y
(1 n)w g
H y
(K + 4G/3)
2
(1.87)
(n 1)w gH 2
2(K + 4G/3)
(1.88)
The upward displacement at the model surface calculated by FLAC at this stage compares well
with the analytical value (+1.786 103 m). The induced displacements at this stage are plotted
in Figure 1.35.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Nov-04 23:45
step
9610
Flow Time
5.0075E+02
-5.667E+00 <x< 7.667E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.785E-03
0.600
5E -3
Grid plot
0.400
2E 0
0.200
0.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
1 - 94
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Thus, no displacement is produced. At the end of this stage, the hydrostatic pore pressure is given
by
p
(3)
(3)
pb
y
y
+ pt
1
H
H
(1.89)
(3)
where pb is the fluid pressure at the base of the layer, and pt is the pressure at the top. For this
(3)
case, pb = 0.3 MPa, and pt = 0.2 MPa.
Seepage Force (Upwards Flow) We now study the scenario in which the base of the layer is in
contact with a high-permeability over-pressured aquifer. The pressure in the aquifer is 0.5 MPa.
We continue from the previous stage, reset displacements to zero, and apply a pore pressure of 0.5
MPa at the base (APPLY pp). The coupled mechanical-flow calculation is performed until steady
state is reached. The plot of displacement vectors at this stage, shown in Figure 1.36, indicates
heave as a result of the upwards flow.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Nov-04 23:45
step 17887
Flow Time
3.0059E+03
-5.667E+00 <x< 7.667E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Displacement vectors
max vector = 7.143E-03
0.600
2E -2
Grid plot
0.400
2E 0
0.200
0.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
Figure 1.36 Heave of the layer at steady state seepage force from overpressured aquifer
The analytical solution for the heave can be calculated from Eq. (1.79). There is no change in total
stress, and so the term yy drops out. Also, the Biot coefficient is equal to unity. Thus we can
write:
1 - 95
y
y
(1.90)
where p(3) is given by Eq. (1.89), and p(4) is the steady-state pore pressure distribution at the end
of this stage. This pore pressure is given by
y
y
+ pt
p(4) = b(4) 1
H
H
(1.91)
(4)
where pb = 0.5 MPa. Substitution of Eqs. (1.91) and (1.89) into Eq. (1.90), and further integration
produces
y
p(4) p(3)
y 1
u=
(K + 4G/3)
2H
(1.92)
For y = H , we obtain
u=
p(4) p(3) H
(K + 4G/3) 2
(1.93)
The FLAC result for surface heave compares directly to this result (u = 7.143 103 m).
Seepage Force (Downwards Flow) The seepage force case is repeated for the scenario in which
the base of the layer is in contact with a high-permeability under-pressured aquifer. This time a
pressure value of p (5) = 0.1 MPa is specified at the base. The displacements are reset and the coupled
calculation is made. The layer settles in this case, which can be seen from the displacement vector
plot in Figure 1.37. The analytical value for the displacement may be derived from Eq. (1.93) after
replacing p(5) for p (4) . The FLAC settlement compares well with the analytical settlement of u =
-7.143 103 m.
1 - 96
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Nov-04 23:45
step 18012
Flow Time
3.0034E+03
-5.667E+00 <x< 7.667E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Displacement vectors
max vector = 7.142E-03
0.600
2E -2
Grid plot
0.400
2E 0
0.200
0.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
Figure 1.37 Settlement of the layer at steady state seepage force from
under-pressured aquifer
The complete data file for all of these cases is listed below in Example 1.9.
Example 1.9 Solid weight, buoyancy and seepage forces
config gw
def setup
m_bu = 1e8
; drained bulk modulus
m_sh = 0.3e8 ; shear modulus
m_d
= 500.0 ; material dry mass density
m_n
= 0.5
; porosity
w_d
= 1000. ; water mass density
_grav = 10.
; gravity
_H
= 10.
; height of column
end
setup
def check
al1
= m_bu+4.0*m_sh/3.0
m_rho
= m_d+m_n*w_d
; material wet density
ana_dis1 = -(m_d)*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1)
ana_dis2 = -(m_n-1.0)*w_d*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1)
ana_dis3 = 0.0
ana_dis4 = 2e5*_H/(2.0*al1)
; new pp - old pp=2e5(_H-y)/_H
1 - 97
ana_dis5 = -2e5*_H/(2.0*al1)
; new pp - old pp=-2e5(_H-y)/_H
num_dis = ydisp(1,11)
ii = 1
loop jj (1,jzones)
_yc = (y(ii,jj)+y(ii,jj+1))*0.5
xtable(1,jj)= _yc
ytable(1,jj)= m_d*_grav*(_H - _yc)
xtable(2,jj)= _yc
ytable(2,jj)= m_rho*_grav*(_H - _yc)
xtable(10,jj) = _yc
ytable(10,jj) = -syy(ii,jj)
end_loop
end
grid 2 10
gen 0 0 0 10 2 10 2 0
m e
prop bu m_bu sh m_sh
prop density m_d
; SOLID WEIGHT
; --- (column is dry) --ini sat 0
; --- boundary conditions --fix y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=3
; --- gravity --set grav=_grav
; --- histories --his gwtime
his ydisp i=1 j=5
his ydisp i=1 j=11
; --- initial equilibrium --set sratio 1e-5
set flow off mech on
solve
check
save sbs1.sav
; BUOYANCY 1
ini xdis 0 ydis 0
; --- add water --ini sat 1
fix sat j 11
water den w_d bulk 2e8
prop poro=m_n perm 1e-8
1 - 98
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 99
syy (anal)
label table 10
syy (Flac)
plot hold table 1 line 10 cross
;plot name: disp vectors
plot hold displacement grid
;plot name: pore pressure
plot hold pp fill
;plot name: syy profile2
label table 2
syy (anal)
label table 10
syy (Flac)
plot hold table 2 line 10 cross
;plot name: Plot 6
plot hold saturation fill
1 - 100
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.500
1.000
0.500
1.840E-01
5E -1
Reaction forces
max vector =
2.386E+04
0.000
5E 4
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
1 - 101
This only applies, by default, to equilibrium pore pressures established using the INITIAL pp command, the WATER table command, or a FISH function to initialize pore pressures. A convenient
way to remove this restriction is to use CONFIG ats. In this configuration, pore pressure increments
taking place in the model as a result of the INITIAL pp command, for example, will generate stress
changes and deformations, as appropriate (see Section 1.5.3 for additional information on CONFIG
ats).*
The CONFIG ats configuration offers a convenient way to model the effect, on heave or settlement,
of a soil layer resulting from raising or lowering of a water table. For such problems, it is computationally advantageous to account directly for the stress changes associated with a change of pore
pressures generated in the model by an INITIAL pp or WATER table command, without having to
conduct a fluid flow simulation. A simple example to illustrate the technique is presented below.
A more comprehensive example of the use of CONFIG ats for a dewatering application is provided
in Section 1.9.7.
For the example, we consider a layer of soil of large lateral extent, and thickness H = 10 meters,
resting on a rigid base. The layer is elastic, the drained bulk modulus K is 100 MPa, and the shear
modulus G is 30 MPa. The bulk density of the dry soil, , is 1800 kg/m3 , and the density of water,
w , is 1000 kg/m3 . The porosity, n, is uniform; the value is 0.5. Also, gravity is set to 10 m/sec2 .
Initially, the water table is at the bottom of the layer, and the layer is in equilibrium under gravity.
We evaluate the heave of the layer when the water level is raised to the soil surface. This simple
problem is similar to the one analyzed in Section 1.9.1.1. However, instead of conducting a coupled
fluid-mechanical simulation, we use CONFIG ats. The simulation can be carried out with or without
using the groundwater configuration (CONFIG gw). We consider both cases.
The grid for this example contains 20 zones: 10 in the y-direction, and 2 in the x-direction (a
minimum of 2 zones is required for contour plotting of zone variables). The origin of axes is at the
bottom of the model. The mechanical boundary conditions correspond to roller boundaries at the
base and lateral sides of the model.
We first consider equilibrium of the dry layer. We initialize the stresses, using the INITIAL sxx,
INITIAL syy and INITIAL szz commands, using a value of 0.5714 (equal to (K 2G/3)/(K + 4G/3))
for the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, ko .
There are two competing effects on deformation associated with raising the water level: first, the
increase of pore pressure will generate heave of the layer; and second, the increase in soil bulk
density due to the presence of the water in the pores will induce settlement. To model the combined
effects on deformation, of a rise in water level up to the soil surface, we proceed as follows.
If we do not use CONFIG gw, we specify a hydrostatic pore pressure distribution corresponding to
the new water level by either using the INITIAL pp command or the WATER table command, and we
specify a wet bulk density for the soil beneath the new water level. Finally, we cycle the model
* Pore pressure change that is calculated by FLAC, on the other hand, will always generate stress
change; if the system is brought out of equilibrium by the stress change and mechanical steps are
taken, then deformations will be generated, if conditions allow.
1 - 102
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
to static equilibrium. The effect of the pore pressure change on soil deformation is automatically
taken into account, because CONFIG ats is invoked.
If we do use CONFIG gw, we again specify a hydrostatic pore pressure distribution corresponding
to the new water level using the INITIAL pp command. (Note that the WATER table command cannot
be applied in CONFIG gw mode.) The saturation is initialized to 1 below the water level. However,
we do not update the soil density to account for the presence of water beneath the new water level.
(The adjustment is automatically accounted for by FLAC when in CONFIG gw mode.) Finally, we
SET ow off and cycle the model to static equilibrium.
The final response is identical for both cases. The plot of displacement vectors in Figure 1.39
indicates that the rise of the water table has induced a heave of the soil layer. The surface heave,
uh , can be evaluated analytically using Eq. (1.94):
uh =
(1 n)w g 2
H
21
(1.94)
where 1 = K + 4G/3. The theoretical value for uh is 1.786 103 meters. The theoretical and
numerical values compare well. The data file for the simulations is listed in Example 1.11.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Jan-05 9:18
step
948
-5.667E+00 <x< 7.667E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.786E-03
0
5E -3
0.400
0.200
0.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
1 - 103
1 - 104
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 105
ana_dis = -(m_n-1.0)*w_d*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1)
num_dis = ydisp(1,11)
end
g 2 10
gen 0 0 0 10 2 10 2 0
m e
prop bu m_bu sh m_sh
; --- column is dry --; (must initialize sat at 0)
ini sat 0
prop density m_d
; --- boundary conditions --fix y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=3
; --- gravity --set grav=_grav
; --- histories --his ydisp i=1 j=5
his ydisp i=1 j=11
; --- initial equilibrium --ini syy -1.8e5 var 0 1.8e5
ini sxx -1.029e5 var 0 1.029e5
ini szz -1.029e5 var 0 1.029e5
;
set flow off mech on
water bulk 0
solve sratio 1e-5
save ini2.sav
; --- raise water level --; (initialize sat at 1 below the water level)
ini sat 1
water density w_d
; (cannot use water table command in config gw)
;water table 11
;table 11 (-1,_H) (3,_H)
; (initialize pp instead)
ini pp 1e5 var 0 -1e5
; --- no need to specify wet density below water table --;prop dens m_rho
; --- static equilibrium --set flow off mech on
water bulk 0
solve sratio 1e-5
check
save ats2.sav
1 - 106
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
K
Ks
(1.95)
where K is the drained bulk modulus of the matrix, and Ks is the bulk modulus of the grains (see
Detournay and Cheng 1993, for reference).
For soils, matrix compliance is usually much higher than grain compliance, (i.e., 1/K >>> 1/Ks ),
and it is a valid approximation to assume that the Biot coefficient is equal to 1.
For porous rocks, however, matrix and rock compliances are most often of the same order of
magnitude and, as a result, the Biot coefficient may be almost zero. Consider, for example, a
sample of porous elastic rock. The pores are saturated with fluid at a pressure, p, and a total external
pressure, P , is applied around the periphery (i.e., on the outside of an impermeable sleeve). The
problem can be analyzed by superposition of two stress states: state a, in which fluid pressure and
external pressure are both equal to p; and state b, in which pore pressure is zero, and the external
pressure is P p, see Figure 1.40.
(1.96)
1 - 107
(1.97)
The total strain is given by superposition of the strain in state a and in state b:
= a + b
(1.98)
After substitution of a from Eq. (1.96), and b from Eq. (1.97), we obtain
=
P p
p
+
Ks
K
(1.99)
(1.100)
Clearly then, in the framework of Biot theory, a zero Biot coefficient implies that the elastic stressstrain law becomes independent of pore pressure. Of course, in general, porous rocks do not behave
elastically, and pore pressure has an effect on failure. Also, if fluid flow in rocks occurs mainly in
fractures, Biot theory may not be applicable. Nonetheless, there are numerous instances where the
small value of the Biot coefficient may help explain why pore pressure has little effect on deformation
for solid, porous (i.e., unfractured) rocks. (For example, the effect on surface settlement of raising
or lowering of the water table in a solid porous rock mass may be unnoticeable.)
Note that the above discussion addresses only one of the effects of grain compressibility. The Biot
coefficient also enters the fluid constitutive law, which relates change of fluid content to volumetric
strain.
The logic for grain compressibility, as developed in the framework of Biot theory, is provided in
FLAC. Simple verification examples are described below to illustrate the logic. Also, see Section 14
in the Verifications volume for a more realistic verification example.
For reference in the examples below, in a plane-strain elastic state, the principal stress-strain relations
have the form:
xx + p = (K + 4G/3)xx + (K 2G/3)yy
yy + p = (K + 4G/3)yy + (K 2G/3)xx
p = M( v )
(1.101)
(1.102)
(1.103)
where is the variation of fluid content per unit volume of porous media, and v is the incremental volumetric strain.
1 - 108
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(1.104)
The analytical stresses are obtained by substituting pore pressure and strain components into
Eqs. (1.101) and (1.102):
xx = (K 2G/3) + 2 M yy
(1.105)
yy = (K + 4G/3) + 2 M yy
(1.106)
After 10 calculation steps, yy = 10v. The agreement between analytical and numerical values
for pore pressure and stresses is checked with the FISH function checkit. The analytical and
numerical results are identical. Example 1.12 lists the data file for this example.
Example 1.12 Undrained oedometer test
config gw
def setup
c_b = 2.0
; bulk modulus
c_s = 1.0
; shear modulus
c_n = 0.5
; porosity
c_a = 0.3
; Biot coefficient (alpha)
c_bm = 1.0
; Biot modulus
c_yv = -1e-3 ; y-velocity
c_ns = 10
; number of steps
end
setup
grid 1 1
m e
prop dens 1 bu=c_b sh=c_s
water tens 1e10
set BIOT on
1 - 109
; analytical solution
;
;
;
;
vol strain
pp
sxx, szz
syy
(1.107)
The analytical stresses are then derived from Eqs. (1.101) and (1.102) to be
xx = yy = M(10t)
(1.108)
Numerical and analytical values for pore pressure and stresses are compared with the FISH function
checkit, and the results are identical. Example 1.13 lists the data file.
1 - 110
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 111
(K + 4G/3)yy
(1.109)
After substituting Eq. (1.109) for p in Eq. (1.103) and solving for yy , we find:
yy =
M
(K + 4G/3) + 2 M
(1.110)
Analytical expressions for pore pressure and stress can now be derived from Eqs. (1.101) and
(1.103):
p = M( yy )
xx = (K 2G/3)yy p
(1.111)
(1.112)
Numerical and analytical values for vertical displacement, pore pressure and stresses are compared
with the FISH function checkit, and the results are identical. Example 1.14 lists the data file.
Example 1.14 Pore pressure generation in an infinite layer
config gw
def setup
c_b = 2.0
c_s = 1.0
c_n = 0.5
c_bm = 1.0
c_a = 0.3
c_k = 1.0
c_ws = 1.0
c_ns = 10
end
setup
grid 1 1
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
bulk modulus
shear modulus
porosity
Biot modulus
Biot coefficient (alpha)
mobility
volumetric water source
number of steps
1 - 112
m e
prop dens 1 bu=c_b sh=c_s
water tens 1e10
set BIOT on
prop poro=c_n biot_c=c_a perm=c_k
initial biot_mod=c_bm
set flow on mech on
set ngw 1 nmech 200
interior well 1
fix x
fix y j=1
step c_ns
def checkit
al1
= c_b + 4.0*c_s/3.0
al2
= c_b - 2.0*c_s/3.0
a_vw = c_ws * gwtime
coe1 = c_bm
coe2 = coe1 * c_a
coe3 = coe2 * c_a
a_yd = (coe2 * a_vw)/(al1 + coe3)
a_p
= coe1 * (a_vw - c_a*a_yd)
a_sxx = -c_a * a_p + al2*a_yd
a_syy = 0.0
n_yd = ydisp(1,2)
n_p
= pp(1,1)
n_sxx = sxx(1,1)
n_syy = syy(1,1)
end
checkit
print a_yd n_yd
print a_p n_p
print a_sxx n_sxx
print a_syy n_syy
save ff1_14a.sav
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
; analytical solution
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
1 - 113
1 - 114
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
p=0
1 = 3
(1.113)
During the second stage, in which no drainage is allowed to take place, pore pressure builds up as
a result of volumetric strain, and we have
p = BP
(1.114)
where p is the excess (and also total) pore pressure, B is the Skempton coefficient, and P is the
variation of total mean pressure:
P =
1 3
3
(1.115)
1 - 115
M
=
2
[ n(1 )] + nK/(Kw )
K + M
(1.116)
where M is the Biot modulus, Kw is the bulk modulus of the fluid, is the Biot coefficient, n is the
porosity, and K is the drained bulk modulus of the material.
If the compressibility of the solid phase is neglected compared to that of the drained bulk material
( = 1), we have
B =1
1
1 + Kw /(nK)
(1.117)
By definition of principal effective stresses 1 , 3 , and the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion, we have:
1 = 1 + p
3 = 3 + p
(1.118)
1 3 N + 2C N = 0
(1.119)
and
where N =
1+sin
1sin ,
The test is repeated for various confining pressures, and drained values for cohesion and friction are
derived from a plot of effective minor and major principal stresses at failure. These drained shear
parameters are, in theory, the same as those obtained from consolidated-drained tests.
After substitution of Eq. (1.115) in Eq. (1.114), and then in the resulting expression for p in
Eq. (1.118), we obtain:
1 3
3
1
3 = 3 B
3
1 = 1 B
(1.120)
The failure criterion can be expressed in terms of total stresses by substitution of the above expressions in Eq. (1.119). After some manipulations, we obtain
1 - 116
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
6C N
B(N 1) + 3N
+
=0
1 3
B(N 1) + 3
B(N 1) + 3
(1.121)
Using Eqs. (1.114), (1.115) and (1.121), it may be shown that the pore pressure at failure is given
in terms of confining stress by the expression
3 (N 1) + 2C N
p = B
3 + B(N 1)
(1.122)
The plot of total minor and major principal stresses at failure corresponds to the straight line defined
by Eq. (1.121), and from which consolidated-undrained cohesion and consolidated-undrained angle
of shearing resistance can be derived. Eq. (1.121) is seldom used for practical considerations.
Unconsolidated-undrained test In this test, drainage is not allowed in any stage. For this reason,
the test can be performed more quickly than the second test and, a fortiori, the first test. The sample
is initially stress free and pore pressure free. After application of the confining pressure 3 , the
pore pressure in the sample rises to a value pi , with
pi = B3
(1.123)
(1.124)
1 3
3
(1.125)
The total pore pressure in stage 2 is obtained by superposition of the two contributions pi + p:
p = B
1 + 23
3
(1.126)
The minor and major principal effective stresses are hence given by (see Eq. (1.118)):
1 + 23
3
1 + 23
3 = 3 B
3
1 = 1 B
(1.127)
1 - 117
Substitution of these expressions in the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion Eq. (1.119) gives, after some
manipulations:
3 (1 N )(1 B) + 2C N
3 1 =
B(1 N )/3 1
(1.128)
When the bulk modulus of the fluid is much larger than the drained bulk modulus of the material,
Skempton coefficient B is almost equal to 1 (see Eq. (1.117)). In that case, the deviatoric stress
given in Eq. (1.128) becomes independent of the confining pressure. The failure envelope in total
stress space then corresponds to a Mohr-Coulomb criterion with zero friction and a cohesion equal
to half of the constant deviatoric stress at failure. This cohesion is defined as the undrained shear
strength, Cu , and we have (see Eq. (1.128) with B = 1 and = 1):
C N
Cu =
(1 N )/3 1
(1.129)
Note that the name undrained shear strength is misleading because it implies that this strength value
is unique, which is not the case. A Mohr-Coulomb material will behave as a frictionless cohesive
material in total stress space in the context of this particular test, provided the Skempton coefficient
is equal to 1, but it is not the general condition. In fact, the material shear strength is a function
of the mean effective stress (1 + 3 )/2 at failure. (The mean effective stress at failure is equal to
-Cu /3 in the test above for B = 1.)
1.9.4.2 Short-Time Elasto-Plastic Response Due to Loading by an Embankment
The undrained response of a soil foundation to loading by an embankment is studied in this example.
The soil behavior corresponds to a Mohr-Coulomb material. The size of the model is 40 meters
wide and 10 meters deep. The groundwater free surface is at the ground level. The initial stress and
pore pressure states correspond to equilibrium under gravity, with a ratio of horizontal to vertical
total stress of 0.75. The weight of the embankment is simulated by an applied surcharge.
The soil is a clay material with a low permeability, k, of 1012 (m/s)/(Pa/m). The water bulk
modulus is three orders of magnitude larger than the soil moduli (K + (4/3)G is approximately
106 Pa). The diffusivity, c, is thus controlled by the soil material. Its magnitude can be estimated
from the formula c = k(K + (4/3)G), and is of the order of 106 m2 /s. The time scale for the
diffusion process can be estimated using tc = L2 /c, where L is the problem representative length.
By using L = 10 m, we have that tc is approximately one year. An undrained analysis is justified in
this problem where it is the short-time response, of the order of days, that is of concern.
In an undrained analysis, the flow of fluid is neglected and no time scale is involved. Mechanical
strain is then the only factor to influence the pore pressure, which, in turn, influences the stresses. The
two different undrained simulations, corresponding to the wet and dry approaches, are illustrated
below. The advantage of the dry approach is the speed of calculation, because no pore pressure
calculation is involved. (This approach may, however, not be appropriate to represent the model
1 - 118
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
evolution after the onset of failure.) Note that the apparent Poissons ratio is close to 0.5 in both
simulations and, thus, convergence will be slow. The use of the fast flow logic (described in
Section 1.4.1) would demonstrate the computational speed advantage of the first approach over the
second in this instance. (The first approach uses somewhat more memory because pore pressures
and fluid properties must be stored.)
Wet Simulation
In this approach, the fluid is taken into consideration (i.e., the groundwater configuration is selected,
the water is prescribed a bulk modulus and a density, and the medium is given a porosity) but flow
is prevented. The medium is assigned a dry density because, in the groundwater configuration, wet
densities are computed internally by the code to evaluate gravity forces (based on porosity, water
density and gravity). Also, a drained bulk modulus value is input; the apparent increase of medium
bulk modulus will come as a result of the coupling that takes place in the FLAC logic. Drained
values for cohesion and friction are assigned as material properties because, when pore pressure is
present, FLAC evaluates the yield criterion in terms of effective stresses. Starting from the initial
equilibrium state, the embankment load is applied gradually to the model, which is then cycled to
equilibrium. Contours of vertical displacements, vertical displacement histories at four monitoring
points, and plastic state at the end of the numerical simulation are presented in Figures 1.41 to 1.43.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
27-Dec-04 14:21
step
9782
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Y-displacement contours
-1.00E-01
-8.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-2.00E-02
2.00E-02
0.750
3
0.250
-0.250
2E 5
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.250
History Locations
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 119
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
15-Nov-04 12:25
step
9782
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 2, 9)
2 Y displacement( 8, 9)
0.000
-1.000
3 Y displacement( 8, 6)
4 Y displacement( 8, 3)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
9
(10
03
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Nov-04 12:25
step
9782
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
Boundary plot
0
0.750
1E 1
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
1 - 120
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Dry Simulation
For this simulation, the fluid is not explicitly taken into consideration, but its effect on the stresses
is accounted for by assigning the medium an undrained bulk modulus. In an undrained simulation,
and in the framework of the coupled mechanical-fluid flow theory implemented in FLAC, a variation
of pore pressure is related to a variation of volumetric strain through the formula
p = Mii
Kw
ii
n
(if = 1)
(1.130)
where M is the Biot modulus, is the Biot coefficient, Kw is the fluid bulk modulus and n is the
medium porosity. In a coupled fluid-mechanical simulation, the incremental elastic stress-strain
relations have the form:
ijd = 2Gijd
1
ii + p = Kii
3
(1.131)
where the superscript d indicates deviatoric values. Substitution of Eq. (1.130) in Eq. (1.131) gives:
ijd = 2Gijd
1
ii = (K + 2 M)ii
3
Kw
= (K +
)ii (if = 1)
n
(1.132)
From these relations, it may be seen that the influence of pore pressure changes in an undrained
simulation can be taken into consideration by considering a dry medium with undrained bulk
modulus Ku , such that:
Ku = K + 2 M
=K+
Kw
n
(if = 1)
(1.133)
1 - 121
The groundwater configuration is not selected in this simulation, and a wet density u must be
assigned to the saturated medium, as given by
u = d + w n
(1.134)
Cu = mI sin() + C cos()
(1.135)
where is the friction angle and C is the cohesion. In total stress space, the material behavior
will be seen as frictionless and cohesive. In the dry simulation, the material is assigned a zero
friction and a cohesion value evaluated from the initial conditions using Eq. (1.135). The model
is cycled to equilibrium after gradual application of the embankment load. Contours of vertical
displacements, vertical displacement histories at four monitoring points, and plastic state at the end
of the numerical simulation are presented in Figures 1.41 to 1.43. They can be compared to the
results obtained previously.
1 - 122
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
27-Dec-04 14:21
step
9400
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Y-displacement contours
-1.00E-01
-8.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-2.00E-02
2.00E-02
0.750
3
0.250
-0.250
2E 5
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.250
History Locations
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
15-Nov-04 12:25
step
9400
2.000
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 2, 9)
0.000
2 Y displacement( 8, 9)
-1.000
3 Y displacement( 8, 6)
4 Y displacement( 8, 3)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
9
(10
03
1 - 123
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Nov-04 12:25
step
9400
-2.222E+00 <x< 4.222E+01
-1.722E+01 <y< 2.722E+01
1.750
1.250
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
Boundary plot
0
0.750
1E 1
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
Example 1.15 Undrained analysis for an embankment: wet and dry simulations
; WET SIMULATION ****
new
config gw ex 5
grid 20 10
model mohr
def prop_val
w_bu = 2e9
; water bulk modulus
d_po = 0.5
; porosity
d_bu = 2e6
; drained bulk modulus
d_sh = 1e6
; shear modulus
d_de = 1500
; dry density
w_de = 1000
; water density
b_mo = w_bu / d_po
; Biot modulus, M
u_bu = d_bu + b_mo
; undrained bulk modulus
u_de = d_de + d_po * w_de
; wet density
d_fr = 25.0
; friction
d_co = 5e3
; cohesion
skempton = b_mo / u_bu
; Skempton coefficient
nu_u
= (3.*u_bu-2.*d_sh)/(6.*u_bu+2.*d_sh)
; undrained poissons ratio
1 - 124
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
end
prop_val
;
ini x mul 2
prop dens=d_de sh=d_sh bu=d_bu
prop poros=d_po fric=d_fr coh=d_co tens 1e20
water dens=w_de bulk=w_bu tens=1e30
set grav=10
; --- boundary conditions --fix x i=1
fix x i=21
fix x y j=1
; --- initial conditions --ini syy -2e5 var 0 2e5
ini sxx -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
ini szz -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
ini pp 1e5 var 0 -1e5
set flow=off
; --- surcharge from embankment --def ramp
ramp = min(1.0,float(step)/4000.0)
end
apply syy=0 var -5e4 0 his ramp i=5,8 j=11
apply syy=-5e4 var 5e4 0 his ramp i=8,11 j=11
; --- histories --his nstep 100
his ydisp i=2 j=9
his ydisp i=8 j=9
his ydisp i=8 j=6
his ydisp i=8 j=3
; --- run --solve
save embw.sav
; DRY SIMULATION ****
new
config ex 5
grid 20 10
model mohr
def prop_val
w_bu = 2e9
d_po = 0.5
d_bu = 2e6
d_sh = 1e6
d_de = 1500
w_de = 1000
;
;
;
;
;
;
1 - 125
1 - 126
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
end_command
end_if
end_loop
end_loop
end
ini_u_co
; --- surcharge from embankment --def ramp
ramp = min(1.0,float(step)/4000.0)
end
apply syy=0 var -5e4 0 his ramp i=5,8 j=11
apply syy=-5e4 var 5e4 0 his ramp i=8,11 j=11
his nstep 100
his ydisp i=2 j=9
his ydisp i=8 j=9
his ydisp i=8 j=6
his ydisp i=8 j=3
solve
save embd.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: vert. displacement
plot hold ydisp fill min -0.1 int 0.02 zero apply bound history
;plot name: vert. disp. histories
plot hold history 1 line 2 line 3 line 4 line
;plot name: plasticity
plot hold plasticity bound
1 + p = 1 1 + 2 2
2 + p = 1 2 + 2 1
z + p = 2 (1 + 2 )
and, for undrained conditions:
(1.136)
1 - 127
p = M(1 + 2 )
(1.137)
where:
4
1 = K + G
3
2
2 = K G
3
(1.138)
Substitution of Eq. (1.137) in Eq. (1.136) yields, after adding the first two equations:
1 + 2 = (1u + 2u )(1 + 2 )
z = 2u (1 + 2 )
(1.139)
where:
4
1u = Ku + G
3
2
2u = Ku G
3
(1.140)
(1.141)
3Ku 2G
6Ku + 2G
(1.142)
If Kw >>> K and G, then u = 0.5. By virtue of Eq. (1.141), the out-of-plane stress is then the
mean principal stress and, as asserted, we have
z =
1 + 2
2
(1.143)
1 - 128
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
By definition, the variation of in-plane mean effective stress m may be expressed as follows:
m =
1 + 2
+ p
2
(1.144)
Now, after addition of the three equations in Eq. (1.136), and elimination of the strain term using
Eq. (1.137), we obtain the familiar expression,
p = BP
(1.145)
where P = (1 +2 +z )/3 is the mean total pressure, and B = M/(K + 2 M) is the Skempton
coefficient in FLAC. The out-of-plane stress is the mean in-plane stress, and it follows that (see
Eq. (1.143))
P =
1 + 2
2
(1.146)
(1.147)
In the case when the fluid bulk modulus Kw is much larger than K, the Skempton coefficient B
is equal to 1 and, as the above expression indicates, the variation of mean in-plane effective stress
vanishes: m remains constant and equal to its initial value.
1.9.5 Forces on Liners and Support Structures
Various structural members may be connected to the boundary of the FLAC grid. The structural
forces arising from the presence of groundwater depend very much on details of the connection, the
fluid boundary conditions, and when the support is installed. The following possibilities represent
extreme conditions and apply to, say, a lined tunnel or a retaining wall.
1. Structural connection to grid:
(a) Rigid connection each node of the structure is attached to a grid
node.
(b) No connection the structure exists independently of the grid,
perhaps as a moisture barrier or for its cosmetic value.
1 - 129
1 - 130
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
the total stress exerted by each soil zone contains a pore pressure component; nothing
further needs to be done. As the liner deforms under load, it will affect soil stresses and
local pore pressures.
Case 3
Combination 1(a)-2(c)-3(a) is similar to the previous case, but we set pore pressures fixed
and equal to zero at the tunnel surface, to correspond to drained conditions. Otherwise,
mechanical conditions are similar.
There is no simple answer to the question: Should the fluid pressure be applied to the structure
and/or to the grid boundary? Even for the few cases discussed above, either answer (yes or no) is
possible, depending on conditions.
1.9.6 Fluid Barrier Provided by a Structure
Groundwater cannot flow through interface elements that attach structural (beam) elements and the
grid. This is because there are no fluid boundary conditions defined for beams. This condition can
be used to simulate a fluid barrier provided by a structure. The following example, Example 1.16,
illustrates this condition for the case of an embedded barrier in an embankment. Section 10 in the
Verifications volume is modified to demonstrate the effect of an impermeable barrier. A column
of beam elements defines a vertical structure buried within an embankment. Interface elements are
attached to both sides of the beam elements, with the other side of each interface attached to the
grid. The fluid flow vectors plotted in Figure 1.47 indicate the effect of the structural barrier on the
flow pattern at steady state.
Note that if groundwater flow is to be continuous across the structure, then an interface should first
be declared between the sub-grids. Then, the beam elements are created and attached directly to
the grid. In this case, the sliding on both sides of the structure is not simulated. If sliding on both
sides of the structure, plus flow across the structure, is required, then Example 1.16 can be modified
such that a FISH function controls APPLY discharge sources on opposing grid segments to simulate
leakage through the structure.
Example 1.16 Fluid barrier provided by an embedded structure
config gw
g 30 20
def ini_h2
h1 = 6.
h2 = 1.2
bl = 9.
ck = 1e-10
rw = 1e3
gr = 10.
qt = ck*rw*gr*(h1*h1 - h2*h2)/(2.0*bl)
end
ini_h2
gen 0 0 0 h1 bl h1 bl 0
mo el
m null i=15
ini x add -.3 i 16 31
struct beam begin 4.2,6 end 4.2,3 seg
struc prop 1 e 4 i 6e-6 a .5
int 1 aside from 15,11 to 15,21 bside
int 2 aside from 16,21 to 16,11 bside
int 1 glue kn 1e7 ks 1e7
int 2 glue kn 1e7 ks 1e7
attach aside from 15,1 to 15,10 bside
; --- Properties --prop por .3 perm=ck den 2000
water den=rw bulk 1e3
; --- Initial conditions --ini sat 0
; --- Boundary conditions --ini pp 6e4 var 0 -6e4 i 1
ini pp 1.2e4 var 0 -1.2e4 i 31 j 1 5
fix pp i 1
fix pp i 31
ini sat 1 i 1
ini sat 1 i 31 j 1 5
; --- Settings --set mech off
set grav=gr
set funsat on
; --- Fish functions --def flow
inflow=0.0
outflow=0.0
loop j (1,jgp)
inflow=inflow+gflow(1,j)
outflow=outflow-gflow(31,j)
end_loop
flow=qt
end
; --- Histories --hist nstep 50
hist pp i 15 j 1
hist flow
hist inflow
hist outflow
; --- Step --step 50
1 - 131
10 prop 1
from node 11 to node 1
from node 1 to node 11
1 - 132
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
save ff1_16a.sav
; --- Step to steady-state --solve
save ff1_16b.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: flow vectors
plot hold bound flow beam lmagenta
;plot name: inflow-outflow
plot hold history 3 line 4 line
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6.000
19-Nov-04 11:23
step
475
Flow Time
2.3427E+08
-4.833E-01 <x< 9.183E+00
-1.833E+00 <y< 7.833E+00
5.000
4.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
3.000
1.338E-06
2.000
2E -6
Beam plot
1.000
0.000
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
1 - 133
This analysis can be conducted either outside of the groundwater configuration, or within the
groundwater configuration, but with flow turned off. For both approaches, there is an imposed
change in the pore pressures: outside of CONFIG gw, this can be done with either the WATER table
or INI pp command; within CONFIG gw, it can be done with the INI pp and INI sat commands.
Alternatively, a FISH function can be used. (For example, see the ININV.FIS FISH function in
the FISH Library in Section 3 in the FISH volume.)
In addition, for both approaches, there must also be an adjustment made to the total stresses in
zones in which pore pressures are changed. The total stresses must be corrected because an imposed
instantaneous change in pore pressure in a material does not affect inter-granular forces and, hence,
the effective stress is unchanged in the short-term.* This is done automatically in FLAC if the
CONFIG ats command has been issued at the start of the analysis (see Section 1.5.3). The pore
pressure change times the Biot coefficient is then automatically subtracted from the total stresses
in the affected zones.
The saturation (in CONFIG gw) and bulk mass densities (outside of CONFIG gw) must also be adjusted
if the water level has been moved within the grid. In CONFIG gw mode, saturation must be set to
zero at gridpoints located above the water level; no other adjustment is necessary. Outside of the
CONFIG gw mode, the unsaturated density should be assigned by the user to all zones above the
water table, and the saturated density to all zones below, when the water level is changed.
An example dewatering analysis is provided for the excavation of a trench supported by a retaining
wall built into the ground. The analysis is assumed to start from the stage after the wall has been
constructed. (This example is a simplified version of that given in Section 11 in the Examples
volume.) The problem conditions assume that a thick aquifer is located below a depth of 45 m,
which also corresponds to the bottom of the retaining wall. The pore pressure is assumed to be a
constant value of 450 kPa at this depth. Before excavation of the trench, the ground is dewatered
by lowering the water table by 30 m. The objective is to calculate the displacement of the ground
and the moments in the retaining structure induced by the dewatering.
Two FLAC models are created for this example: one with the groundwater configuration (i.e., with
CONFIG gw); one without the groundwater configuration. The data file for both models is listed in
Example 1.17. The retaining structure is modeled with structural beam elements that are connected
to the grid by interface elements attached to both sides of the beams. The wall thus acts as an
impermeable member (see Section 1.9.6). In this example, the strength properties for the interfaces
are set to high values so that slip and separation at the wall/grid interface do not occur. The model
is first brought to an equilibrium state with the wall embedded within the grid.
For the CONFIG gw case, the initial pore pressure and stress states are established using the FISH
library function ININV.FIS. The water level is assumed to be initially at the ground surface, and
the ratio of effective vertical stress to effective horizontal stress is assumed to be 0.5. Note that
some stepping is required to bring the model to the initial equilibrium state, even though the stresses
and pore pressures are initialized. This is because additional stiffnesses from the structural nodes
* Note that total stresses are adjusted during the calculation process if the pore pressure changes arise
within the calculation cycle (e.g., during flow or mechanical deformation).
1 - 134
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
contribute to the gridpoint stiffnesses, and this produces a slight force imbalance that necessitates
some stepping to equilibrate the model.
The water level is then adjusted using the INITIAL command to change pore pressure and saturation
within the trench region to a depth of 30 m. The model is stepped to a new equilibrium state,
accounting for the effect of the pore pressure change. Figure 1.48 displays the vertical displacement
of the grid and the moment distribution in the wall resulting from the dewatering. Note that the
grid within the upper 30 m of the trench region (the upper-right portion of the grid) settles due to
the dewatering.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
0.000
19-Nov-04 12:03
step
3392
-4.833E+00 <x< 9.183E+01
-7.833E+01 <y< 1.833E+01
Y-displacement contours
-2.00E-02
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
B
C
D
E
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
Figure 1.48 Vertical displacement of grid and moments in structure for dewatering with CONFIG gw
For the analysis outside of the groundwater configuration, the initial pore pressure distribution is
assigned via the WATER table command. The saturated density is specified for all zones because
the water table is located at the top of the model. The initial total stress distribution is assigned with
the INITIAL command. Note that the total stresses in the x- and z-directions are set to correspond to
an effective lateral stress versus effective vertical stress ratio of 0.5. The model is then stepped to
the initial equilibrium state.
The same INITIAL commands used for the CONFIG gw case (Example 1.17) are applied to change
the pore pressure distribution. Note that pore pressures are now assigned as zone variables, so the
INITIAL range is slightly different. In addition, the mass density within the dewatered region is
changed to dry density. (The WATER table command is not used to lower the water table in this
case, because of the condition that the pore pressure remains constant at y = -45 m.) Figure 1.49
1 - 135
shows the vertical displacement of the grid and the moment distribution within the structure as
a result of dewatering. The results are essentially the same as those for the CONFIG gw analysis
(compare to Figure 1.48); the slight difference in moment distribution can be attributed to the way
pore pressures are interpolated from interface nodes to structural nodes in CONFIG gw mode (see
Section 4.5.7 in Theory and Background). In general, the CONFIG gw approach is recommended
when the model includes interface/beam connections.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
0.000
19-Nov-04 12:03
step
3510
-4.833E+00 <x< 9.183E+01
-7.833E+01 <y< 1.833E+01
Y-displacement contours
-2.00E-02
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
B
C
D
E
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
Figure 1.49 Vertical displacement of grid and moments in structure for dewatering without CONFIG gw
1 - 136
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 137
1 - 138
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Vi T t
n
(1.148)
1 - 139
The TRACK command creates either a single particle or several particles evenly distributed along a
line (see the command definition in Section 1 in the Command Reference). As the run progresses,
coordinates are added to a list associated with each particle. These coordinates are only added
when the particle has moved a significant distance about half a zone-width from its previously
recorded position. The list of coordinates may be plotted as a track by PLOT track, or written to a
file by TRACK write. The command TRACK list (or PRINT track) provides a summary of all current
particle positions and a printout of each integrated path length (which is updated at every timestep).
As a demonstration of the logic to track injected substances, consider Example 1.18. We restart the
tunnel model (Example 1.3) from the state of steady flow, and inject two groups of ten particles each.
Figure 1.50 shows the particle tracks after 5000 steps: the particles have all moved completely
through the grid, and have been released into the tunnel. The time necessary for this amount of
movement can be found by subtracting the groundwater time of the final state from that of the starting
state about 3.3 108 seconds, in this case. The position of the particles at any intermediate state
can be determined by executing fewer timesteps.
The fast-flow schemes should be turned off (SET funsat off fastwb off) when performing the tracking
calculation because these schemes affect the magnitude of the timestep (in Eq. (1.148), t is
inversely proportional to the fluid bulk modulus). The schemes will affect changes in di . The
efficiency of the tracking calculation can be improved by setting the fluid bulk modulus to a low
value. The modulus should be selected such that the value for di is of the same order as the zone
size. For example, for this model the zone size in the vicinity of the tunnel is approximately 1 m,
the porosity is 0.5 and the specific discharge is approximately 106 m/sec. In order for di to be
of the same order as the zone size, the timestep should be roughly 5 105 sec. The fluid bulk
modulus corresponding to this timestep is 1000 Pa. (see Eq. (1.63)).
Alternatively, to speed up the process of calculation for particle tracks, the tortuosity may be
artificially increased. For example, a tortuosity of 10 would increase particle speeds by 10, but the
measured time for migration would need to be divided by 10 in order to obtain the correct physical
time.
In addition to the printout options mentioned above, a FISH function may be written to access the
TRACK data structure and determine values of concentration (number of particles per unit area) at
any location for any time. Further, it may be possible to simulate the effects of dispersion by giving
random perturbations to particle locations from time to time. The amplitudes of the perturbations
should depend on local flow rate.
1 - 140
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Nov-04 14:35
step 30820
Flow Time
8.3825E+08
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-3.444E+01 <y< 5.444E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
2E 1
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
1 - 141
(1.149)
where is the seepage factor, which has the dimension of length and is defined as =
A and B are constants determined from the pressure boundary conditions.
kH H /k ;
at
x=0
p = p1
at
x=L
1 - 142
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(1.150)
where:
A=
dp
dx
(1.151)
After differentiation of Eq. (1.150) with respect to x, and substitution into Eq. (1.151), we obtain
kH x/
x/
Ae Be
Qx =
(1.152)
The total amount of leakage into the aquifer is, by continuity of flow, equal to the difference between
the discharge leaving at x = L and that entering at x = 0. Using Eq. (1.152), we obtain after some
manipulation:
kH eL/ 1 p0 + p1
p
Qx = 2
eL/ + 1
2
(1.153)
Eqs. (1.150) and (1.153) are used for comparison to the FLAC solution.
The FLAC data file for this problem is listed in Example 1.19. The analytical solution is programmed
in FISH as part of the data file. The FLAC model is a 20 zone by 2 zone mesh with a constant pore
pressure of p0 = 20 kPa applied at the left boundary, x = 0, and a constant pore pressure of p1 = 10
kPa applied at the right boundary, x = 20 m. A leaky aquifer boundary condition is applied along
the top boundary of the model, y = 1 m, using the APPLY leakage command. The pore pressure at
the top is p = 1.8 kPa, and the leakage coefficient, h, (see Eq. (1.13)) is evaluated to be k /H =
2.98 109 m3 /(N sec), based on the properties of the leaky layer. The properties for this problem
are listed in the ini h4 function in Example 1.19. The fluid-flow calculation mode is turned on,
the mechanical calculation mode is turned off, and the simulation is run until steady state flow is
reached.
1 - 143
The FISH function tab pp compares the amount of leakage calculated by FLAC to the solution of
Eq. (1.153) at steady state flow. The difference is printed (in a FISH dialog message) to be 0.03%.
The analytical and numerical pore pressure profiles recorded along the base of the model, from x
= 0 to x = 20, are compared in Figure 1.52.
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
22-Nov-04 16:21
step
842
Flow Time
4.1859E-01
2.000
1.800
Flac
1.600
1.400
1.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
1 - 144
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
c_h = c_ke/c_he
; leakage coefficient for FLAC
end
ini_h4
grid 20 2
gen 0.,0. 0.,hh rm,hh rm,0. rat 1. 1.
mo el
def ini_ij
figp = igp
fjgp = jgp
end
ini_ij
; --- Properties --prop bulk=2 she=1 den=1000
prop porosity=cpo perm=ck
water bulk=cwb ten 1e10
apply leakage cpstar c_h j=fjgp
ini pp cp0 i=1
fix pp
i=1
ini pp cp1 i=figp
fix pp
i=figp
set mech off flow on
solve sratio 1e-3
def tab_pp
; inputs:
; tab_n: table no. to hold FLAC solutions
; tab_a: table no. to hold analytical solutions
; sum of gp flow at left side
_lambda=sqrt(ck*hh/c_h)
_eL=exp(rm/_lambda)
sa = (cp1-cpstar)/(cp0-cpstar)
ba = (sa*_eL-1.0)/(_eL*_eL-1.)
bb = (_eL*_eL-sa*_eL)/(_eL*_eL-1.)
loop i (1,igp)
x_val=x(i,2)
_ex=exp(x_val/_lambda)
val=ba*_ex+bb/_ex
; analytical pp
c_pp=val*(cp0-cpstar)+cpstar
xtable(tab_a,i)=x_val
ytable(tab_a,i)=c_pp
xtable(tab_n,i)=x_val
ytable(tab_n,i)=gpp(i,1)
end_loop
; analytical discharge
leak_ana = 2.*ck*hh/_lambda*(_eL-1.)/(_eL+1)*((cp0+cp1)/2.-cpstar)
leak_flac=0.
1 - 145
loop j (1,jgp)
leak_flac=leak_flac+gflow(1,j)+gflow(igp,j)
end_loop
leak_err=abs((leak_flac-leak_ana)/leak_ana)*100
oo=out(*** error in leakage = +string(leak_err)+%)
end
set tab_a=100,tab_n=200
tab_pp
save leak.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Plot 1
label table 100
analytical
label table 200
Flac
plot hold table 100 line 200 cross alias Pore pressure distribution
1 - 146
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(1.154)
where Vs is the volume of solid material in the element, which is assumed to remain constant (e.g.,
the material consists of incompressible grains). A similar relation exists for the initial porosity, n ,
and initial element volume, V :
n = 1 Vs /V
(1.155)
V
(1 n )
V
(1.156)
In small-strain mode, the volume strain used by the look-up table is approximated as
ev =
V V
V
(1.157)
1 n
1 + ev
(1.158)
1 - 147
Example 1.20 illustrates the use of Eq. (1.158) in creating a look-up table for porosity. Figure 1.53
shows the resulting distribution of porosities, plotted as contours. The left-hand part of the top
surface of the box moves down as a rigid punch; porosities are reduced under this footing.
Example 1.20 Footing problem that uses a porosity look-up table
conf gw
def make_tab
; Make a table of porosity versus
strain = -0.2
; volume strain. Only valid for
loop n (1,11)
; absolute vol. strains < 20%
xtable(p_tab,n) = strain
ytable(p_tab,n) = 1.0 - (1.0 - start_n) / (1.0 + strain)
strain = strain + 0.04
end_loop
end
set p_tab=1 start_n=0.25 ; Set table number & initial poros
make_tab
; Create the table
grid 10 5
model elastic
prop dens 2000 sh 0.7e8 bu 1e8 poros=start_n por_tab=p_tab
water bulk 2e8
set
flow=off, ncwrite=50
fix
y j=1
fix
x i=1
fix
x i=11
apply yvel=-1e-4 xvel=0 i=1,4 j=6 ; ... "footing" load
step 2000
save ff1_20.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: porosity contours
plot hold porosity fill inv
1 - 148
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
22-Nov-04 10:40
step
2000
-5.556E-01 <x< 1.056E+01
-3.056E+00 <y< 8.056E+00
4.000
porosity
2.33E-01
2.35E-01
2.38E-01
2.40E-01
2.42E-01
2.45E-01
2.48E-01
2.000
-2.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
Figure 1.53 Contours of porosity note reduced porosity under the footing
For large strain mode (SET large), the volume strain is better approximated by
ev =
2(V V )
(V + V )
(1.159)
2 e
v
2 + ev
(1 n )
(1.160)
This expression may be substituted in Example 1.20, instead of that given by Eq. (1.158). Note
that the use of strain-dependent porosity will typically have little effect on the solution, and will
increase the execution time. An approach similar to the one described above may be taken if
strain-dependent permeability is required, but only the isotropic part of the permeability tensor,
(K11 + K22 )/2, is determined from a given table; if the individual components are required to
change, then they should be changed directly by a FISH function.
1 - 149
+Z
1 - 150
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
just before the SOLVE command for the basic-flow run in Example 1.2. The run now terminates
in roughly half the original number of steps, using the basic flow logic. The resulting flow and
pressure fields are almost identical to those of the original run. Note that the use of spup requires
that the two extra arrays, ex 1 and ex 2, are available for use.
It may be possible to make further improvement in convergence speed by using the functions
contained in the TURBO.FIS file in the FISH library. This file is provided for experimental use
only. The scheme periodically makes an estimate of the changing slopes of the pressure histories at
all gridpoints and extrapolates them to an estimated steady state, using the fact that the convergence
must be of logarithmic form. To use this scheme, replace the SOLVE command for the basic-flow
run in Example 1.2 with the lines
call fmod5.fis
call turbo.fis
solve
no turbo
step 500
1 - 151
The run now converges roughly six times faster than the basic flow run. After convergence, a final
500 steps are taken to clean up the flow field, with turbo mode turned off: this removes any
residual noise left by the sudden jumps made by TURBO.FIS. As with spup, the first two extra
arrays are used by TURBO.FIS. The scheme should be used with great caution, and discontinued
if the results look at all strange.
1.10.4.2 Partially Saturated Systems with Permeability Contrasts
The FISH-control acceleration schemes presented above may be applied to partially saturated systems that contain contrasts in permeability. Calling the file FMOD5.FIS, as discussed above, may
do differential fluid modulus scaling. Example 1.21 illustrates the approach for the tunnel model
listed in Example 1.3, with a low value of 10,000 Pa set for fluid modulus, via the WATER bulk command, to speed convergence to steady state. The example also uses the accelerator TURBO.FIS,
as described above.
After running Example 1.21, the histories of inflow and outflow may be plotted see Figure 1.54.
The jumpy nature of the plots comes from the periodic readjustment of the pressure field by the
turbo function. However, it is seen that the two flows converge towards one another. Figure 1.55
shows contours of pore pressure at steady state; the phreatic surface exhibits discontinuities in slope
where it crosses the permeability contrasts, comparable to Figure 1.14.
During differential modulus scaling (file FMOD5.FIS), the mean fluid modulus is preserved at
the value set in the WATER bulk command. The comments made in Section 1.4.2.1 about solution
stability also apply to systems with permeability contrasts. If Kw is set to 103 (instead of 104 ) in
Example 1.21, the inflow and outflow histories do not converge (Figure 1.56), and the flow field
(Figure 1.57) exhibits random vectors. Both indicators confirm that the solution is unstable, and
that a larger Kw should be used.
Note that if an interface is present in the model, separating materials with different permeability,
FMOD5.FIS cannot be used directly. In order for FMOD5.FIS to operate properly, it is necessary to modify the layers of zones adjacent to the interface such that the permeability is continuous
across the interface.
1 - 152
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
-05
LEGEND
22-Nov-04 11:48
step 10982
Flow Time
7.3400E+08
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 inflow
(FISH)
0.800
3 outflow
(FISH)
X-axis :
4 Groundwater flow time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
07
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Nov-04 11:48
step 10982
Flow Time
7.3400E+08
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-3.444E+01 <y< 5.444E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
2E 1
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
1 - 153
JOB TITLE : .
-05
LEGEND
22-Nov-04 11:56
step 17000
Flow Time
1.1362E+10
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 inflow
(FISH)
0.800
3 outflow
(FISH)
X-axis :
4 Groundwater flow time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
09
Figure 1.56 Histories of inflow and outflow tunnel example with Kw = 103
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Nov-04 11:56
step 17000
Flow Time
1.1362E+10
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-3.444E+01 <y< 5.444E+01
3.500
2.500
Boundary plot
1.500
0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
2E 1
4.015E-06
0.500
1E -5
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
1 - 154
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 155
1 - 156
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 157
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 8:13
step 22875
Flow Time
1.1001E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Pore pressure ( 10, 4)
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
12
16
20
(10
03
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 8:13
step 22875
Flow Time
1.1001E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Pore pressure ( 10, 4)
X-axis :
1 Groundwater flow time
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
(10
07
1 - 158
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
In order to confirm the accuracy of the solution, the run is repeated with n jump=60 (i.e., with 60
major steps to cover the requested period rather than 30). The time history is shown in Figure 1.60;
it compares well with that of Figure 1.59, indicating that both solutions accurately capture the
evolution of the phreatic surface.
An approach similar to the one described above could be used if mechanical interaction is to
be included (i.e., if consolidation takes place during the evolution of the phreatic surface). The
system could be brought to mechanical equilibrium during the first part of each major step. When
constructing a solution scheme for a particular application, always keep the natural time scale of
each process in mind.
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
20-Jan-05 8:17
step 37874
Flow Time
1.1001E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Pore pressure ( 10, 4)
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
03
1 - 159
Example 1.22 Alternating scheme for true time evolution of phreatic surface using a FISH
function
config gw
grid 20 10
model mohr
ini
x mul 2.0
prop dens 1500 sh 3e8 bul 5e8 cohes 5e5
prop perm 1e-10
model null i=16,20 j=3,10
set
grav=10 flow=on mech=off ncw=50
water dens=1000
apply pp 1e5
var 0 -1e5
i=1
ini
pp 0.4e5 var 0 -0.4e5 j=1,5
ini
sat 0 j=6,11
ini
sat 1 i=1
fix
pp j=11
fix
pp i=16
j=3,11
fix
pp i=16,21 j=3
fix
sat i=1
fix
sat i=21
fix
sat i=16,21 j=3
fix
sat i=16
j=3,5
def big_jump
float low_mod high_mod
int
n_ss
gw_inc = t_total / n_jump
target = 0.0
command
water bulk=high_mod
step 1000
end_command
loop nn (1,n_jump)
; "Major" steps
target = target + gw_inc
command
water bulk=high_mod
step n_ss
; Flow-field adjustment
water bulk=low_mod
solve age=target
; Phreatic-surface adjustment
end_command
end_loop
end
; high_mod ... fluid modulus for flow-field adjustment phase
; low_mod ... fluid modulus for phreatic-surface adjustment
; n_jump
... number of major steps to encompass given time
1 - 160
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
; n_ss
... number of flow-field adjustment sub-steps
; t_total ... total groundwater time to be modeled
set high_mod=2e9 low_mod=1e5 n_jump=30 n_ss=500
set t_total=11e7 sratio 0.0
hist gwtime
his pp i 10 j 4
his nstep=20
big_jump
save ff1_22a.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pore pressure vs steps
plot hold history 2 line
;plot name: pore pressure vs time
plot hold history 2 line vs 1
;plot name: pp
plot hold pp fill bound
1 - 161
gwtdel
fluid-flow timestep
gwtime
fluid-flow time
wbiot
Biot coefficient
wbulk
wdens
density of water
The following FLAC grid variables can be accessed and modified by a FISH function.
fmod
ftens
gpp
sat
gridpoint saturation
The following FLAC grid variable can be accessed but cannot be modified by a FISH function.
gow
The following FLAC zone variables can be accessed but cannot be modified by a FISH function.
pp
xow
yow
Also, fluid-flow property values may be accessed (changed, as well as tested) in a FISH function.
See the PROPERTY command in Section 1 in the Command Reference) for a list of the fluid-flow
properties.
1 - 162
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1.11 References
Atkinson, J. H., and P. L. Bransby. The Mechanics of Soils An Introduction to Critical State
Soil Mechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
Bear, J. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. New York: Dover, 1972.
Berchenko, J. Thermal Loading of a Saturated Rock Mass: Field Experiment and Modeling
Using Thermoporoelastic Singular Solutions. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, 1998.
Billaux, D., R. Xavier, C. Detournay and R. Hart. FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Symposium, Lyon, France, 29-31 October
2001). The Netherlands: A. A. Balkema, 2001.
Damjanac, B. A Three-Dimensional Numerical Model of Water Flow in a Fractured Rock Mass.
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, June, 1996.
Das, B. M. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Boston: PWS Publishing Co., 1993.
Detournay, E., and A. H-D. Cheng. Fundamentals of Poroelasticity, in Comprehensive Rock
Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 113-171. J. Hudson, E. Hoek, E. T. Brown and C. Fairhurst, Eds.
London: Pergamon Press, 1993.
Strack, O. D. L. Groundwater Mechanics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1989.
Taylor, D.W. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley, 1948.
Terzaghi, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley, 1943.
3-1
If the selected FISH function requires other FISH functions to operate, as noted
in Tables 3.1 to 3.7, these must also be in the working directory.
3. Next, FISH variables, if listed in Tables 3.1 to 3.7, must be set in the data file
with the command
set var1 = value
where var1, var2, etc. are the variable names given in Tables 3.1 to 3.7, which
must be set to specified values.
3-2
FISH in FLAC
If properties are required for FISH constitutive models (see Table 3.5), these
are supplied with the PROPERTY command i.e.,
property
prop1=value
prop2=value ...
Table 3.1
Filename
(.FIS)
3-3
Purpose
Variables SET
before use
Number of
Extra Grid
Variables
(CONFIG
(extra)
Other
Function
Required
(.FIS)
BOUNG
.150
BEAM
beam
ib
jb
nprop
DDONUT
ddonut
rmin
rmax
rtrans rz
ratio h_to_w
distance
DONUT
donut
rmin
rmul
gratio
HOLE
hole
generates quarter-symmetry
radial mesh with square
outer boundaries
rmin
rmul
gratio
QDONUT
qdonut
generates quarter-symmetry
donut-shaped grid
rmin
rmul
gratio
REGADD
reg_add
x_add
i_reg
REGION
ie
je
y_add
j_reg
3-4
FISH in FLAC
Table 3.2
Filename
(.FIS)
BOUNG
BOUNZ
PRSTRUC
Command
pr_struc
Purpose
Variables
SET before
use
Number of
Extra Grid
Variables
(CONFIG
extra)
Other FISH
Function
Required
(.FIS)
b_space
element variables
PS3D
ps3d
REGION
region
i_reg
j_reg
Table 3.3
Filename
(.FIS)
DISPMAG
3-5
disp_mag
Purpose
gp_avg
LUDA
PS3D
EXTRAP
extrap_to_gp
MCFOS
mc_fos
PQ
PS
history qs
history ps
ps
iv
jv
3-6
FISH in FLAC
Table 3.4
Filename
(.FIS)
SERVO
Command
servo
Purpose
Variables SET
before use
Number of
Extra Grid
Variables
(CONFIG extra)
Other FISH
Function
Required
(.FIS)
high_unbal
low_unbal
zonk
i1
j1
relax
i2
j2
high_vel
ZONK
n_small_steps
n_big_steps
Table 3.5
3-7
Filename
(.FIS)
Command
(Model Name)
Purpose
Properties
Number of
Extra Grid
Variables
(CONFIG
extra)
Other FISH
Function
Required
(.FIS)
CAMCLAY m_camclay
FISH version of
modified Cam-clay
model
m_g
m_k
m_kappa
m_lambda
m_m
m_pc
m_p1
m_poiss
m_vl
m_v0
DRUCKER
FISH version of
m_g
m_k
m_kshear
m_g
m_h
m_coh
m_fric
m_dil
m_ten
m_g
m_h
ff_g
m_qdil
m_qvol
m_ten
m_ctab
m_ftab
m_dtab
m_ttab
m_drucker
DY
m_dy
ELAS
m_elas
FINN
finn
Drucker-Prager failure
model
FISH version of
double yield model
FISH version of
elastic-isotropic model
pore pressure
generation model
based on Finn
approach
HOEK
supsolve
HYP
hyper
MDUNCAN m_duncan
generates a Hoek-Brown
failure surface by
manipulating the MohrCoulomb model
elastic hyperbolic law
FISH version of DuncanChang model
MOHR
m_mohr
SS
m_ss
SSCAB
bond_s
SSINT
int_var
UBI
m_ubi
ff_k
ff_fric
ff_ten
ff_c2
ff_c4
mmi*
ssi
sc
nsup
b_mod
yield
ff_dil
ff_c1
ff_c3
ff_latency
mmr
ssr
ns
y_initial
d_bulk
d_coh
d_gmax
d_kb
d_ku
d_n
d_pa
d_shear
d_fric
m_g
m_coh
m_dil
m_g
m_coh
m_dil
m_ctab
m_dtab
sbond
versus
shear
disp
coh_tab*
fri_tab
d_k
d_kmax
d_m
d_nu
d_rf
d_ssmax
m_k
m_fric
m_ten
m_k
m_fric
m_ten
m_ftab
m_g
m_coh
m_dil
m_jfric
m_jten
m_k
m_fric
m_ten
m_jcoh
m_jang
*Properties for this model are specified with the SET command.
Note that if two different FISH constitutive models are used at the same time, there may be a conflict with property names.
Properties should be renamed in this case.
3-8
FISH in FLAC
Table 3.6
Filename
(.FIS)
FMOD5
Command
spup
Purpose
Variables
SET
before use
Number of
Other FISH
Extra Grid
Function
Variables
Required
(CONFIG extra)
(.FIS)
wth
pressures as a function of
k0x
k0z
k0
ININV
INIV
ininv
i_stress
PS
ps
QRATIO
hist qratio
FMOD5
unbalanced flow
TURBO
Table 3.7
Filename
(.FIS)
3-9
DER
derivative
ERFC
erf
Purpose
Variables Set
der_in
der_out
Number of
Extra Grid
Variables
(CONFIG
extra)
Other
FISH
Function
Required
(.FIS)
table of values
finds the error function of
e_val
e_val
erfc
complementary error
e_val
function of e_val
EXPINT
exp_int
e_val
fc
to remove frequencies
filter_in
filter_out
fft_in
FILTER
FFT
filter
fftransform
fft_out
froot
c_x1
bracketed in an interval
c_x2
func
val
INT
integrate
int_in
int_out
of values
LUDA
ludcmp
lubksb
solves systems of
lu_nn
given
equations using
LUdecomposition
NUMBER
number
printing a floating-point
number with user-specified
precision
SPEC
spectrum
acc_in
sd_out
spectrum of an
sv_out
sa_out
accelerogram
pmin
pmax
damp
n_point
3 - 10
FISH in FLAC
BEAM.FIS - 1
BEAM.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
26-Mar-05 15:41
step
0
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Beam plot
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 1
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
BOUNG.FIS/BOUNZ.FIS - 1
to check this assignment. Note that the CONFIG extra command must be specified to have the extra
grid variable available.
In the example data file BOUNG.DAT, boundary gridpoints are identified using BOUNG.FIS
and fixed for visual illustration.
Data File BOUNG.DAT
config ex 1
grid 20 20
mod elas
gen arc 10,10 15 10 180
mark i=1,16 j=6
mark j=6,11 i=6
mark j=6,11 i=16
mod null region 6,6
ca boung.fis
def fix it
loop ii (1,igp)
loop jj (1,jgp)
if ex 1(ii,jj) = 1 then
command
fix x i=ii j=jj
end command
end if
end loop
end loop
end
fix it
plot hold bou bla fix
return
BOUNG.FIS/BOUNZ.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
X X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X X XX
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X X X X X X X X X
X
X
X
X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Figure 1
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
CAMCLAY.FIS - 1
shear modulus
m k
m kappa
m lambda
m m
material constant, m
m p1
reference pressure, p1
m pc
preconsolidation pressure, pc
m poiss
Poissons ratio,
m vl
m v0
These parameters default to zero if not specified. In addition, the user has access to
m e
m ep
m ind
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic
m kc
m p
m q
deviator stress
m v
specific volume
CAMCLAY.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
The following data file exercises the FISH Cam-clay model for a normally consolidated material
subjected to several load-unload excursions in an isotropic compression test. Note that the initial
specific volume must be set to a value consistent with the initial effective pressure and the choice
of model parameters before the Cam-clay model can be invoked (see Section 2.4.7.8 in Theory
and Background). This is accomplished by entering the FISH command set v0 before stepping.
set v0 is defined in CAMCLAY.FIS.
This test was also performed with the built-in model; see Example 3.43 in the Users Guide. The
results from the FISH model are identical to the built-in model.
Data File CAMCLAY.DAT
; Isotropic compression test on Cam-clay sample (drained)
; using CAMCLAY.FIS FISH function
;
config axis
g 1 1
tit
Isotropic compression test for normally consolidated soil
; --- model properties --call camclay.fis
model m camclay
prop m g 250. m k 10000. dens 1
prop m m 1.02 m lambda 0.2 m kappa 0.05
prop m pc 5. m p1 1. m vl 3.32
; --- boundary conditions --fix y
fix x
ini sxx -5. syy -5. szz -5.
ini yvel -0.5e-4 j=2
ini xvel -0.5e-4 i=2
; --- fish functions --; ... numerical values for p, q, v ...
def path
s1
= -syy(1,1)
s2
= -szz(1,1)
s3
= -sxx(1,1)
sp = (s1 + s2 + s3)/3.0
sq = sqrt(((s1-s2)*(s1-s2)+(s2-s3)*(s2-s3)+(s3-s1)*(s3-s1))*0.5)
sqcr= sp*m m(1,1)
lnp = ln(sp)
svol = m v(1,1)
mk = m kc(1,1)
mg = m g(1,1)
end
; ... loading-unloading excursions ...
def trip
CAMCLAY.FIS - 3
loop i (1,5)
command
ini yv -0.5e-4 xv -0.5e-4
step 300
ini xv mul -.1 yv mul -.1
step 1000
ini xv mul -.1 yv mul -.1
step 1000
end command
end loop
end
; --- histories --his nstep 20
his unbal
his path
his sp
his lnp
his sq
his sqcr
his svol
his mk
his mg
his ydisp i=1 j=2
; --- test --set v0
;
see CAMCLAY.FIS
trip
; --- results --plot his 3 vs -10 hold
plot his 7 vs 4 hold
plot his 8 9 vs -10 hold
save c cfish.sav
ret
CAMCLAY.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
26-Mar-05 15:47
step 11500
2.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
3 sp
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev 10 Y displacement( 1, 2)
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-03
Figure 1
JOB TITLE : .
2.950
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
7 svol
(FISH)
X-axis :
4 lnp
(FISH)
2.900
2.850
2.800
2.750
2.700
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
(10
Figure 2
-01
CAMCLAY.FIS - 5
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
26-Mar-05 15:47
step 11500
1.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
8 mk
(FISH)
1.200
9 mg
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev 10 Y displacement( 1, 2)
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-03
Figure 3
CAMCLAY.FIS - 6
FISH in FLAC
DDONUT.FIS - 1
h to w
ratio
rmax
rmin
rtrans
radial distance from hole centroid within which the zone ratio = 1
rz
The data file DDONUT.DAT illustrates the use of this FISH function. Note that there must be an
odd number of zones in the i-direction and an even number in the j -direction.
Data File DDONUT.DAT
g 81 160
model el
call ddonut.fis
set rmin 0.0142 rmax 0.20 rtrans 0.050 rz 20 ratio 1.05
set h to w 2.0 distance 0.142
ddonut
plot hold grid
ret
DDONUT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 9:32
step
0
-5.340E-01 <x< 5.340E-01
-5.340E-01 <y< 5.340E-01
0.200
Boundary plot
0
2E -1
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 1
-0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
Two-hole model
JOB TITLE : .
0.175
LEGEND
0.125
12-Apr-04 9:32
step
0
-2.089E-01 <x< 2.004E-01
-2.082E-01 <y< 2.011E-01
0.075
Grid plot
0
0.025
1E -1
-0.025
-0.075
-0.125
-0.175
Figure 2
-0.125
-0.075
-0.025
0.025
0.075
0.125
0.175
DER.FIS - 1
DER.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
0.600
Table Plot
Table 2
0.400
Table 1
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 1
DISPMAG.FIS - 1
a filled contour plot will be generated. Note that this function requires that one extra grid variable
be designated via the CONFIG extra command. The keyword alias is added to rename ex 1 to
displacement magnitude in the plot legend. Figure 1 shows the plot.
Data File DISPMAG.DAT
config extra 1
call dispmag.fis
grid 5 5
mod el
prop dens 1000 bulk 2e8 sh 1e8
set grav 10
fix x y j 1
step 100
disp mag
plot hold ex 1 fill alias displacement magnitude
DISPMAG.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 9:35
step
100
-8.333E-01 <x< 5.833E+00
-8.333E-01 <y< 5.833E+00
4.000
displacement magnitude
0.00E+00
5.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.50E-04
2.00E-04
2.50E-04
3.00E-04
3.50E-04
4.00E-04
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
Figure 1
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
DONUT.FIS - 1
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 9:37
step
0
-1.335E+01 <x< 1.335E+01
-1.335E+01 <y< 1.335E+01
0.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
Figure 1
-0.500
0.000
(*10^1)
0.500
1.000
Donut-shaped mesh
DONUT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
DRUCKER.FIS - 1
shear modulus
m k
bulk modulus
m kshear
material parameter, k
m qdil
material parameter, qk
m qvol
material parameter, q
m ten
tensile strength
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic shear
plastic tensile
The following problem compares the FISH model to the built-in Drucker-Prager model. The builtin model is used for zones in the left half of the model. The FISH function is used for zones in the
right half.
Data File DRUCKER.DAT
g 12 10
gen 0,0 0,25 30,25 30,0
model drucker i=1,6
prop den 2500 bulk 1.19e10 shear 1.1e10
prop kshear 2.94e6 qvol 1.04 ten 2e6
call drucker.fis
model m ss i=7,12
prop den 2500 m k 1.19e10 m g
1.1e10
prop m kshear 2.94e6 m qvol 1.04 m ten 2e6
i=1,6
i=1,6
i=7,12
i=7,12
DRUCKER.FIS - 2
ini
ini
fix
fix
xv 1e-6
xv -1e-6
x y
x y
FISH in FLAC
i=1
i=13
i=1
i=13
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 9:43
step 15000
-1.883E+00 <x< 3.188E+01
-4.383E+00 <y< 2.938E+01
2.000
Boundary plot
0
1.500
1E 1
1E 8
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.500E-02
0.500
5E -2
0.000
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
Figure 1
2.750
DY.FIS - 1
m k
m coh
cohesion (cohesion)
m fric
m dil
m cpmax
m dymul
m epvol
m ctab
m ftab
m dtab
m ttab
m cptab
m ten
m epten
DY.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
m ind
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic tensile
The following problem compares the FISH model to the built-in double-yield model in a volumetric
loading/unloading test. The built-in model is used for the bottom zone, and the FISH function for
the top zone, of the model.
Data File DY.DAT
title
Volumetric loading/unloading using dy and m dy models
config axi
g 1 3
ca dy.fis
mo m dy j=3
pro m k 1110e6 m g 507.7e6 m pctab 1 m dymul 10 j=3
pro den 1000 m coh 1e10 m ten 1e10 j=3
table 1 0 0 1 1.1e7
mo null j=2
mo dy j=1
pro bu 1110e6 sh 507.7e6 cptable 1 mul 10 j=1
pro den 1000 coh 1e10 ten 1e10 j=1
fix
fix
ini
ini
x i 2 j=1,2
y
yvel -1e-6 j=2
xvel -1e-6 i=2 j=1,2
fix x i 2 j=3,4
ini yvel -1e-6 j=4
ini xvel -1e-6 i=2 j=3,4
hist syy i=1 j=1
hist ydis i=1 j=2
hist syy i=1 j=3
hist ydis i=1 j=4
step 1000
DY.FIS - 3
04
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 12:20
step
1900
2.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SYY
( 1, 1)
Rev_Ave. SYY
2.000
( 1, 3)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
(10
-04
Figure 1
DY.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
ELAS.FIS - 1
shear modulus
m k
bulk modulus
These parameters default to zero if not specified. The user also has access to:
m dvol
m vol
The following problem compares the FISH model to the built-in elastic-isotropic model. The builtin model is used for zones in the left half of the model. The FISH function is used for zones in the
right half of the model.
Data File ELAS.DAT
g 12 10
gen 0,0 0,25 30,25 30,0
model elas i = 1,6
prop den 2500 bulk 1.19e10 shear 1.1e10 i=1,6
call elas.fis
model m elas i = 7,12
prop den 2500 m k 1.19e10 m g 1.1e10
i=7,12
ELAS.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 9:46
step 15000
-1.689E+00 <x< 3.169E+01
-4.189E+00 <y< 2.919E+01
2.000
Boundary plot
0
1.500
1E 1
1E 8
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.500E-02
0.500
5E -2
0.000
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
Figure 1
2.750
ERFC.FIS - 1
et dt
2
et dt
2
of a real variable x using the rational approximation in section 7.1.26 in Abramowitz and Stegun
(1970). The error magnitude is less than 1.5 107 . The value of x is defined by e val; the
functions erf and erfc return the corresponding function value. The following data file plots
functions erf and erfc in the interval [0, 1.5].
Data File ERFC.DAT
new
title
Error and Complementary Error Functions
ca erfc.fis
def plot erf
dx = 1.5/20.
e val = -dx
loop ii (1,21)
e val = e val + dx
xtable(1,ii) = e val
ytable(1,ii) = erf
xtable(2,ii) = e val
ytable(2,ii) = erfc
end loop
end
plot erf
plot hold table 1 line 2 line alias 1: erf
ret
2:erfc min 0
ERFC.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
Reference
Abramowitz, M., and I. A. Stegun. Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1970.
JOB TITLE : .
12-Apr-04 11:35
step
0
0.900
Table Plot
Table 2
0.800
Table 1
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
12
14
(10
Figure 1
-01
EXPINT.FIS - 1
E1 (x) =
x
et
dt
t
of a real and positive variable x, using polynomial approximations in sections 5.1.53 and 5.1.54 in
Abramowitz and Stegun (1970). The error magnitude is less than 2 107 for x 1, and less than
5 105 for x > 1.
The value of x is defined by e val, and the function exp int returns the corresponding value of
E1 . The following data file plots function E1 in the interval [0,1.6].
Data File EXPINT.DAT
new
title
Exponential Integral Function
ca expint.fis
def plot e1
dx = 1.6/20.
e val = 0.
loop ii (1,20)
e val = e val + dx
xtable(1,ii) = e val
ytable(1,ii) = exp int
end loop
end
plot e1
plot hold table 1 line min 0
ret
Reference
Abramowitz, M., and I. A. Stegun. Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1970.
EXPINT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
12-Apr-04 11:37
step
0
1.800
Table Plot
Table 1
1.600
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
(10
Figure 1
-01
EXTRAP.FIS - 1
Note that this function requires that four extra grid variables be designated via the CONFIG extra
command.
Two different procedures are available to perform the extrapolation: a simple averaging and a leastsquares fit. In the simple averaging procedure (invoked by setting the variable gp avg to 1), the
value at each gridpoint is taken to be the average of the values from all non-null zones that use
the gridpoint. In the least-squares-fit procedure (invoked by setting the variable gp avg to 0), the
value at each gridpoint is found by assuming that the field can be described locally by the bilinear
function
f (x, y) = a0 + a1 x + a2 y + a3 xy
(1)
where ai are undetermined coefficients, and x and y are the global problem coordinates. The ai
values are found by sampling the function at the centroids of six nearby zones and performing a
least-squares-fit. The value at the gridpoint is then found by evaluating the function at the gridpoint
location.
Both extrapolation procedures operate in linear time i.e., the execution time depends linearly
on the number of gridpoints. The simple averaging procedure requires less execution time than
the least-squares-fit procedure. Also, the simple averaging procedure will always produce fully
symmetric contours for symmetric problems, while the least-squares-fit procedure may not. This
behavior arises because the six nearby sampling locations are not guaranteed to be placed symmetrically for two symmetric gridpoints. The least-squares-fit procedure is the default, and is
recommended for best accuracy.
An example problem demonstrating the use of the FISH function extrap is provided in the data
file below. A circular hole in a block of elastic material loaded by gravity, and free to expand
laterally at its base, is modeled. Symmetry conditions are employed such that only one-half of the
system is modeled; the grid is shown in Figure 1. A contour plot of the vertical stresses, generated
using the PLOT syy command, is shown in Figure 2. Note that the contours do not extend to the
model boundaries. The results of invoking the FISH function extrap using both of the available
EXTRAP.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
extrapolation procedures in turn are shown in Figures 3 and 4. Both of these plots were generated
using the PLOT ex 2 bound command after performing the extrapolation.
Data File EXTRAP.DAT
; Half of symmetric model of tunnel in elastic material,
; loaded by gravity and free to slide at base.
;
new
config extra=5
;
def fill ex1 syy
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = syy(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
;
grid 10 20
model elastic
gen circle 0.0 10.0 2.0 ; mark hole
model null region 1,11
; make hole zones null
prop dens=1000 shear=0.3e8 bulk=1e8
set grav=9.81
fix x i=1
fix y j=1
solve
sclin 1 8.0 0.0 8.0 20.0
sav sag1.sav
title
Demonstration of extrap FISH function (grid and fixity)
plo hold grid fix
title
Demonstration of extrap FISH function (no extrapolation)
plo hold syy bound
;
call extrap.fis
fill ex1 syy
;
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
title
Demonstration of extrap FISH function (simple average extrapolation)
plo hold bound ex 2 alias yy-stress contours
;
EXTRAP.FIS - 3
set gp avg=0
extrap to gp
title
Demonstration of extrap FISH function (least-squares-fit extrapolation)
plo hold bound ex 2 alias yy-stress contours
;
return
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:05
step
1062
-8.333E+00 <x< 1.833E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
Grid plot
0
5E 0
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
Y Y-direction
B Both directions
2.000
1.500
1.000
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
0.500
0.000
Figure 1
0.000
0.500
(*10^1)
1.000
1.500
EXTRAP.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:04
step
1062
-8.333E+00 <x< 1.833E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
YY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+04
B: -1.750E+05
H: -2.500E+04
Boundary plot
0
1.500
1.000
5E 0
D
0.500
B
0.000
0.000
0.500
(*10^1)
1.000
1.500
Figure 2
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
G
12-Apr-04 10:04
step
1062
-8.333E+00 <x< 1.833E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
F
1.500
yy-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+04
A: -1.750E+05
G: -2.500E+04
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 3
0.000
0.500
(*10^1)
1.000
1.500
Vertical stress contours generated after extrapolating the zonalbased values to gridpoints using the simple averaging procedure
EXTRAP.FIS - 5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
H
12-Apr-04 10:05
step
1062
-8.333E+00 <x< 1.833E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
G
1.500
yy-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+04
B: -1.750E+05
H: -2.500E+04
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 4
0.000
0.500
(*10^1)
1.000
1.500
Vertical stress contours generated after extrapolating the zonalbased values to gridpoints using the least-squares-fit procedure
EXTRAP.FIS - 6
FISH in FLAC
FFT.FIS - 1
(1)
1
[(|fk |)2 + (|fN k |)2 ]
N2
(2)
1
(|f N |)2
2
N2
(3)
P0 =
Pk =
PN =
2
N
2.
Note that an array, worka, is used to manipulate the table data. The array dimension (FISH variable
n point) is defined from the following conditions: (1) to be greater than the number of elements
in the input table; and (2) to be a power of 2. (The array dimension need not be declared manually.)
The fft algorithm requires input data with a constant timestep. So, a timestep is calculated, and
the data are interpolated from the table and stored into the array for processing.
The following example verifies the fft FISH function. The history input is the sum of a sine wave
at 1 Hz and an amplitude of 1, a cosine wave at 5 Hz and an amplitude of 2, and a sine wave at 10 Hz
and an amplitude of 3. The combined history input is calculated by the FISH function cr tab.
The input is plotted in Figure 1. The power spectrum shown in Figure 2 consists of three sharp
peaks at 1, 5 and 10 Hz, with increasing peak values.
Reference
Press, W. H., B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling. Numerical Recipes in C.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
FFT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
FFT.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
Table Plot
Table 1
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
10
12
Figure 1
JOB TITLE : .
12-Apr-04 10:13
step
0
7.000
Table Plot
Table 2
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 2
FFT.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
FILTER.FIS - 1
FILTER.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
Reference
Rabiner, L. R., and B. Gold. Theory and Application of Digital Signal Processing. Prentice-Hall,
1975.
FINN.FIS - 1
Pore Pressure Generation FISH Model Based on the Approach by Martin et al. (1975)
The file FINN.FIS is a FISH function that models dynamic pore-pressure generation based upon
the approaches described by Martin et al. (1975) and Byrne (1991). The detailed explanation of
this model is provided in Section 3.4.4.1 in Optional Features. The function is named finn and
requires that the following parameters be specified with the PROPERTY command:
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
constant C3 in Eq. (3.61), Section 3 in Optional Features, and threshold shear strain for Eq. (3.62) in Optional Features
ff c4
ff coh
cohesion
ff dil
ff fric
ff g
shear modulus
ff k
bulk modulus
tension cutoff
ff evd
FINN.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
The following example application compares the FINN.FIS model to the Finn model described in
Section 3.4.4.1 in Optional Features. The example is the shaking table test given in Example 3.23
in Optional Features. The results are identical to those given for Example 3.23 in Optional
Features. The data file for the FISH model is given in FINN.DAT.
Data File FINN.DAT
conf dyn gw
; shaking table test for liquefaction
call finn.fis
g 1 5
m finn
gen 0 0 0 5 50 5 50 0
fix x y j=1
fix x
set grav 10, flow=off
prop dens 2000
ff g 2e8
ff k 3e8
prop ff fric 35 poros 0.5
water dens 1000
bulk 2e9
tens 1e10
ini pp 5e4
var 0 -5e4
ini syy -1.25e5 var 0 1.25e5
ini sxx -1e5
var 0 1e5 szz -1e5 var 0 1e5
prop ff latency=50
;
; parameters for Martin formula
;prop ff switch = 0
;prop ff c1=0.8
ff c2=0.79
;prop ff c3=0.45 ff c4=0.73
;
; parameters for Byrne formula
prop ff switch = 1
def setCoeff Byrne
ff c1 = 8.7*exp(-1.25*ln(n1 60 ))
ff c2 = 0.4/ff c1
ff c3 = 0.0000
end
set n1 60 = 7
setCoeff Byrne
prop ff c1=ff c1
ff c2=ff c2
prop ff c3=ff c3
;
set ncwrite=50
def sine wave
while stepping
vv = ampl * sin(2.0 * pi * freq * dytime)
loop j (1,jzones)
vvv = vv * float(jgp - j) / float(jzones)
FINN.FIS - 3
loop i (1,igp)
xvel(i,j) = vvv
end loop
end loop
end
def eff stress
eff stress = (sxx(1,2)+syy(1,2)+szz(1,2))/3.0 + pp(1,2)
settlement = (ydisp(1,jgp)+ydisp(2,jgp))/2.0
end
set dy damp=rayl 0.05 20.0
his dytime
his pp i 1 j 2
his eff stress
his settlement
his nstep 20
set ampl=0.005 freq=5.0
solve dyt=10.0
plot hold his 2 3 vs 1 skip 2
save sh tab.sav
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:16
step 41067
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 1, 2)
eff_stress
0.400
(FISH)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 1
Pore pressure (top) and effective stress (bottom) for shaking table
test, using Eq. (3.62) in Optional Features and the FISH Finn
model
FINN.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
Reference
Byrne, P. A Cyclic Shear-Volume Coupling and Pore-Pressure Model for Sand, in Proceedings:
Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
and Soil Dynamics (St. Louis, Missouri, March, 1991), Paper No. 1.24, 47-55.
Martin, G. R., W. D. L. Finn and H. B. Seed. Fundamentals of Liquefaction under Cyclic Loading,
J. Geotech. Engr. Div., ASCE, 101(GT5), 423-438 (May, 1975).
FMOD5.FIS - 1
FMOD5.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:19
step
6361
Flow Time
3.9155E+03
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Flow streamlines
Pore pressure contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 1.00E+01
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 1
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
FROOT.FIS - 1
FROOT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
ytable(1,ii) = func
end loop
end
itis root
plot hold table 1 line 2 cross
ret
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 11:39
step
0
1.600
Table Plot
Table 2
1.200
Table 1
0.800
0.400
0.000
-0.400
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
Figure 1
-01
HOEK.FIS - 1
3 c m + c2 s
(1)
where c is the unconfined compressive strength of the intact rock, m and s are material constants
of the rock mass, and compressive stresses are negative (FLAC convention).
For a given value of 3 , a tangent to the function (Eq. (1)) will represent an equivalent Mohr-Coulomb
yield criterion in the form:
1 = N 3 cM
where N =
1+sin
1sin
(2)
= tan2 ( 2 + 45 ).
By substitution, cM is:
cM = 1 + 3 N
= 3 + 3 c m + c2 s 3 N
= 3 (1 N ) + 3 c m + c2 s
(3)
cM is the apparent uniaxial compressive strength of the rock mass for that value of 3 .
The tangent to the function (1) is defined by
N (3 ) =
1
c m
= 1 +
3
2 3 c m + s c2
(4)
The cohesion (c) and friction angle () can then be obtained from N and cM :
HOEK.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
= 2 tan1
c =
N 90
M
c
2 N
(5)
(6)
The comparison of the Mohr-Coulomb linear approximation to the Hoek-Brown yield surface is
shown in the figure. These equivalent c and are a good approximation of the nonlinear yield
surface for values of the minor principal stress that are close to the given 3 . The FISH function
cfi calculates the value of c and for each zone every ns steps. Thus, as 3 changes, the values
of c and will also change. It is noted that the instantaneous values of c and calculated in this
way closely match those calculated using Hoeks (1990) expressions based on normal and shear
stress.
Hoek and Brown (1982) also define constants mr and sr for properties of a broken rock mass. If
failure occurs, m and s are changed to mr and sr to represent sudden post-failure response. A
progressive strain-softening behavior could be modeled by replacing the Mohr-Coulomb model
with the strain-softening model.
The Hoek-Brown parameters, c , m, s, mr and sr are set in HOEK.FIS via the variables hb sc,
hb mmi, hb ssi, hb mmr and hb ssr, respectively, through the SET command. The FISH
function, cfi, is called to update cohesion, friction and tension variables in the Mohr-Coulomb
model. The dilation angle may be specified using the variable hoek psi (use hoek psi = f i for
an associated flow rule see example below). Note that, if 3 becomes tensile, the yield surface
remains linear with the slope N (3 ) defined at 3 = 0.
The user controls the update process by specifying ns and nsup through the SET command. ns
defines the number of steps taken before cfi is called to update properties. nsup defines the total
number of times cfi is to be called. ns nsup corresponds to the total number of steps in the
FLAC run. The default for ns, if not specified, is 5. This may require variation depending on the
nonlinearity of the failure surface.
A triaxial compression test on a Hoek-Brown material sample is provided below as an example
application of this routine. The test is strain-controlled, and an associated flow rule is selected, for
the numerical simulation.
References
Hoek, E. Estimating Mohr-Coulomb Friction and Cohesion Values from the Hoek-Brown Failure
Criterion, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 27(3), 227-229 (1990).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM, 1982.
Figure 1
HOEK.FIS - 3
HOEK.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
01
LEGEND
-0.600
12-Apr-04 10:25
step
4000
-0.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SYY
( 3, 6)
Ave. SXX
( 3, 6)
Ave. SZZ
( 3, 6)
-1.000
-1.200
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 12)
-1.400
-1.600
-1.800
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
Figure 2
-03
HOEK.FIS - 5
JOB TITLE : .
2.500
12-Apr-04 10:25
step
4000
-1.219E+00 <x< 1.719E+00
-3.686E-01 <y< 2.569E+00
1.500
Boundary plot
0
5E -1
Displacement vectors
max vector = 5.399E-02
1.000
1E -1
0.500
0.000
Figure 3
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
29-Dec-04 15:13
step
4000
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-01
Figure 4
HOEK.FIS - 6
FISH in FLAC
HOLE.FIS - 1
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:31
step
0
-1.675E+00 <x< 1.168E+01
-1.675E+00 <y< 1.168E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1
HOLE.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
HYP.FIS - 1
1
1
Ei
1
Y
(1)
= |1 3 |;
= axial strain;
= maximum value of |1 3 |; and
= initial Youngs modulus (at d = 0).
The equation can be differentiated to obtain the slope of the stress/strain curve:
dd
Ei (Y d )2
=E=
d1
Y2
(2)
K = bulk modulus
Y = (1 3 )max
These names are used just like built-in property names. The constitutive model is given in
HYP.FIS. The use of special statements like f prop and local variables like zs11 is fully
explained in Section 2.8. There are a number of rules to be followed when writing a new constitutive model but, as the example demonstrates, the coding should not be too difficult for the user
with some programming experience.
Other (internal) variables are calculated as required. The FISH function hyper is intentionally
simple: it does not contain any logic to address unloading behavior, frictional effects and stressdependent moduli. These could easily be added, but the objective here is to demonstrate how FISH
can be employed by the FLAC user to construct a constitutive model.
Once the model has been input (via a data file), it may be used just like any other model. In the
following example, the new model hyper is used to obtain the collapse load of a footing (the
Prandtls wedge problem).
HYP.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
The resulting load/displacement curve is shown in Figure 1, and the velocity field is shown in
Figure 2. The response is similar to that produced using the plasticity model mohr, but there are
differences: (a) the collapse load is only reached asymptotically; and (b) the flow field is much
more localized around the footing edge.
Data File HYP.DAT
call hyp.fis ; get user-written law
grid 15 10
model hyper
prop
dens=1000 b mod=1e8
prop
y initial=2e8 yield=2e5
fix x
i=1
fix x y i=16
fix x y j=1
fix x y i=1,4 j=11
ini yvel -5e-5 i 1,4 j=11
def load ;measure load on platen
sum = 0.0
loop i (1,4)
sum = sum + yforce(i,jgp)
end loop
load = sum / 3.5
disp = -ydisp(1,jgp)
anal = (2.0 + pi) * 1e5
end
his load
his anal
his disp
step 10000
plot hold his 1 2 vs 3
plot hold bou vel
HYP.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
5.000
12-Apr-04 10:42
step 10000
4.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
anal
4.000
3.500
(FISH)
X-axis :
disp
(FISH)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 1
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
1.000
12-Apr-04 10:42
step 10000
-7.334E-01 <x< 1.573E+01
-3.233E+00 <y< 1.323E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.600
Velocity vectors
max vector = 1.592E-04
0
0.400
5E -4
0.200
0.000
-0.200
Figure 2
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
HYP.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
ININV.FIS - 1
Initial Equilibrium Stress Distribution in Groundwater Problems for Horizontally Layered Media
(No Voids)
In order to establish an initial stress equilibrium in a groundwater problem, several INITIAL commands must be issued, bearing in mind the following.
1. Saturation should be zero above the water table, and 1 below it.
2. The pore pressure should be zero above the water table, and have a gradient
of w g below it.
3. The gradient of the total vertical stress should be g ( + sat porosity w ).
4. If k0x is the ratio of effective xx to effective yy , then the total xx should be
xx = k0x (yy + pp) pp.*
5. If k0z is the ratio of effective zz to effective yy , then the total zz should be
zz = k0z (yy + pp) pp.
This task is very tedious if many different materials are involved or if porosity varies with depth.
For horizontally layered materials in which the grid is such that j -rows are horizontal, the FISH
function ININV.FIS will perform all the tasks listed above.
The following three parameters must be set:
k0x
k0z
wth
groundwater table height (it is assumed that the water table is initially
horizontal)
ININV.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
ININV.FIS - 3
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
set echo on
pl hol ex 2 fi al YY-effective stress ex 5 in=0.5 lm al water table
ret
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Dec-04 15:22
step
1
Flow Time
2.0000E-02
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
YY-effective stress
-1.50E+05
-1.25E+05
-1.00E+05
-7.50E+04
-5.00E+04
-2.50E+04
0.00E+00
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1
ININV.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
INIV.FIS - 1
Initializing Equilibrium Stress Distribution in Groundwater Problems for Media with Voids
The FISH function INIV.FIS initializes stresses and pore pressures as a function of depth, taking
into account the presence of voids in the model. It is assumed that line j = jgp is the free
surface and that stresses depend on the vertical distance below this. Pore pressures are set to vary
linearly from a free ground surface; a given free-water surface is not recognized. The grid must be
configured for gw.
One input parameter must be set:
k0
The following example illustrates the initialization of stresses in a model with a surface excavation.
Note that there still is an unbalanced force as a result of the excavation; however, the stress state is
close to equilibrium.
Data File INIV.DAT
config gw ex=4
g 10 10
mo e
pro bulk 3e8 she 1e8 den 2000 por .4
pro den 2300 por .3 j 3 5
pro den 2500 por .2 j 1 2
pro perm 1e-9
mo null i=1,3 j=8,10
water bulk 2e9 den 1000
set g=9.8
ca iniv.fis
set k0=0.7
i stress
fix x i 1
fix x i 11
fix y j 1
hist unbal
set flow off
step 1
plot bou estr hold
save iniv.sav
solve
plot bou estress hold
ret
INIV.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:59
step
1
-1.720E+00 <x< 1.172E+01
-1.720E+00 <y< 1.172E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
5E 5
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 10:59
step
1552
-1.720E+00 <x< 1.172E+01
-1.720E+00 <y< 1.172E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
5E 5
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^1)
Figure 2
0.800
1.000
INT.FIS - 1
INT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
0.600
Table Plot
Table 2
0.400
Table 1
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
Figure 1
10
12
14
16
18
LUDA.FIS - 1
(1)
where A is a given square matrix of size n, b is a given vector of size n, and x is the desired solution
vector of size n. The FISH function ludcmp performs an LU-decomposition on the matrix A. If A
is found to be singular, then the FLAC error-handling mechanism is invoked, and an error message
is printed. The FISH function lubksb performs the back-substitution operation to produce the
solution vector x. Both of these functions implement the algorithm described in Press et al. (1986).
An example problem demonstrating the use of the two FISH functions is provided in the data file
below. The size of the matrix A must be set as the FISH variable lu nn. Also, the FISH variables
aa, bb, and indx must be defined as arrays by the calling function. The values in aa will be
overwritten after the call to ludcmp, and the solution vector will overwrite bb after the call to
lubksb.
Reference
Press, W. H., B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling. Numerical Recipes: The Art
of Scientific Computing (FORTRAN Version). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Data File LUDA.DAT
new
; Test LU-decomposition FISH functions on random matrices.
;
new
title
Test LU-decomposition FISH functions on random matrices.
def luda setup
lu nn = 8 ; define dimensions of matrices
end
;
luda setup
;
def make random data
array aa(lu nn,lu nn) indx(lu nn) bb(lu nn) ; needed by LUDA functions
array xx(lu nn)
; just used locally
;--- fill aa for test
loop i (1,lu nn)
loop j (1,lu nn)
aa(i,j) = urand
end loop
end loop
LUDA.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
LUDA.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
7.000
Table Plot
Calculated values
Set values
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
(10
-01
Figure 1
Comparison of unknowns
LUDA.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
MCFOS.FIS - 1
MCFOS.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
4.500
LEGEND
4.000
12-Apr-04 15:57
step
1037
-7.266E-01 <x< 3.727E+00
2.734E-01 <y< 4.727E+00
3.500
strength/stress ratio
1.00E+00
2.00E+00
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
Figure 1
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
3.250
JOB TITLE : .
4.500
12-Apr-04 15:57
step
1037
-1.283E+00 <x< 4.283E+00
-2.833E-01 <y< 5.283E+00
3.500
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
2.500
1.500
0.500
Figure 2
Plasticity indicators
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
MDUNCAN.FIS - 1
11
22
33
12
= 1
11 + 2 (
22 +
33 )
= 1
22 + 2 (
11 +
33 )
= 1
33 + 2 (
11 +
22 )
= 2G
12
(1)
where 1 = K + 4/3G and 2 = K 2/3G, K is the bulk modulus and G is the shear modulus. In
these equations, G = 3KE/(9K E) and Youngs modulus, E, is a nonlinear function of stresses
that varies depending on primary loading or unloading/reloading conditions.
In this version of the model, loading conditions are defined based on the maximum value of a stress
state function, SS , expressed in terms of stress level Sl and minimum compressive stress, 3 . (By
convention, tensile stresses are positive, and principal stresses are ordered such that 1 2 3 .)
The stress level is defined in the framework of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion by the relation
Sl =
1 3
(1 3 )f
(2)
where (1 3 )f is the stress difference at failure, given in terms of cohesion, c, and friction, ,
by
(1 3 )f = 3 (N 1) 2c N
(3)
3 + c/ tan
Pa
1/4
(4)
MDUNCAN.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
Primary loading is assumed to take place when the current value of the stress state function in a
zone is greater than the maximum value reached at that location in the past. Unloading/reloading
conditions are assumed to hold otherwise. For primary loading, Youngs modulus has the form:
E = 1 Rf Sl
2
Kpl Pa
max(3 , 0)
Pa
n
(5)
where the failure ratio Rf , the modulus exponent n, and the modulus number Kpl are three model
parameters. (The value of Rf is always smaller than unity and varies from 0.5 to 0.9 for most soils.)
For unloading/reloading, E obeys the law:
E = Kur Pa
max(3 , 0)
Pa
n
(6)
and the parameter Kur is the unloading/reloading modulus number. (Kur is always larger than Kpl .)
There are two options in the model. In the first one, Poissons ratio is given and assumed to
remain constant. Current values of tangent bulk and shear moduli are then evaluated from E and
, using the relations:
E
3(1 2)
E
G=
2(1 + )
K=
(7)
In the second option, the tangent bulk modulus K varies with 3 , according to the law:
K = Kb Pa
max(3 , 0)
Pa
m
(8)
where the parameter Kb is the bulk modulus number and m is the bulk modulus exponent. (For
most soils, m varies between 0 and 1.) In the FISH constitutive model, values of K are restricted
to the interval [ E3 , 17E]; this corresponds to variations of Poissons ratio between 0 and 0.49.
MDUNCAN.FIS - 3
The constitutive model function is named m duncan and requires that the following parameters
be specified with the PROPERTY command:
d bulk
d coh
cohesion, c
d fric
d gmax
d k
d kb
d kmax
d ku
d m
d n
modulus exponent, n
d nu
d pa
atmospheric pressure, Pa
d rf
failure ratio, Rf
d shear
d ssmax
MDUNCAN.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
MDUNCAN.FIS - 5
step 4000
save dun0.sav
ini yvel mul -0.5
step 800
save dun1.sav
ini yvel mul -1
step 2000
save dun2.sav
ini yvel mul -1
step 800
save dun3.sav
ini yvel mul -1
step 2000
save dun4.sav
ini yvel mul -1
step 800
save dun5.sav
ini yvel mul -1
step 2000
save dun6.sav
plot hold his 1 2 vs 4
save dun.sav
;
ini yvel mul 2.
step 150000
save duna.sav
References
Duncan, J. M., P. Byrne, K. S. Wong and P. Mabry. Strength Stress-Strain and Bulk Modulus
Parameters for Finite Element Analyses of Stresses and Movements in Soil Masses, University of
California, Berkeley, College of Engineering, Report No. UCB/GT/80-01, 1980.
Filz, G., G. W. Clough and J. M. Duncan. SOILSTRUCT. Virginia Tech, Department of Civil
Engineering, 1990.
MDUNCAN.FIS - 6
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
7.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
s1_s3
(FISH)
6.000
s1_s3_ult
5.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
ev
(FISH)
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-04
Figure 1
MOHR.FIS - 1
cohesion
m dil
dilation angle
m fric
friction angle
m g
shear modulus
m k
bulk modulus
m ten
tensile strength
These parameters default to zero if not specified. The user also has access to:
m ind
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic shear
plastic tensile
The following problem compares the FISH model to the built-in Mohr-Coulomb model. The builtin model is used for zones in the left half of the model. The FISH function is used for zones in the
right half of the model.
Data File MOHR.DAT
g 12 10
gen 0,0 0,25 30,25 30,0
model mohr i = 1,6
prop den 2500 bulk 1.19e10 shear 1.1e10 i=1,6
prop coh 2.72e6 fric 44 ten 2e6
i=1,6
call mohr.fis
model m mohr i = 7,12
prop den 2500 m k 1.19e10 m g 1.1e10
prop m coh 2.72e6 m fric 44 m ten 2e6
i=7,12
i=7,12
MOHR.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 12:49
step 15000
-1.467E+00 <x< 3.147E+01
-3.967E+00 <y< 2.897E+01
2.000
Boundary plot
0
1.500
1E 1
1E 8
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.500E-02
0.500
5E -2
0.000
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
Figure 1
2.750
NUMBER.FIS - 1
NUMBER.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
PQ.FIS - 1
1
p = (1 + 2 + 3 )
3
1
q = (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (1 3 )2
2
(1)
Note that p is an effective pressure, defined in terms of the effective principal stresses.
Data File PQ.DAT
g 5 5
mo el
call pq.fis
set iv=3 jv=3
pro bulk 2e8 she 1e8 den 2000
fix x y j 1
fix x i 1
fix x i 6
ini yv -1e-2 j 6
fix y j 6
hist qs
hist ps
step 100
ini yv 0 j 6
ini xv -1e-2 i 6
step 300
plot hold his 1 vs 2
ret
PQ.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 12:51
step
400
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
qs
(FISH)
X-axis :
ps
(FISH)
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
(10
Figure 1
p-q plot
07
PRSTRUC.FIS - 1
5,6
5,7
6,7
7,7
7,6
7,5
6,5
5,5
PRSTRUC.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
F-axial
------------1.0921E+06
1.0921E+06
1.3361E+06
1.3492E+06
1.0793E+06
1.0791E+06
1.3495E+06
1.3358E+06
Str-min
------------4.5272E+06
-4.5269E+06
-5.4849E+06
-5.6054E+06
-4.5077E+06
-4.5072E+06
-5.6065E+06
-5.4839E+06
Str-max
------------4.2100E+06
-4.2098E+06
-5.2035E+06
-5.1883E+06
-4.1264E+06
-4.1259E+06
-5.1893E+06
-5.2026E+06
PS.FIS - 1
LEGEND
29-Dec-04 15:40
step
3435
Flow Time
1.2881E+08
-4.444E-01 <x< 8.444E+00
-2.444E+00 <y< 6.444E+00
4.500
3.500
Boundary plot
2.500
0
Flow vectors
max vector =
2E 0
8.758E-07
1.500
2E -6
phreatic surface
0.500
-1.500
Figure 1
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
PS.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
PS3D.FIS - 1
ex 2
ex 3
When using ps3d, the grid should be configured for at least three extra arrays (CONFIG extra = 3).
The word ps3d should be entered as a command before using the results in the extra arrays. For
example,
ps3d plot boun ex 1 zon fill alias major principal stress
PS3D.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:32
step
100
-8.333E-01 <x< 5.833E+00
-8.333E-01 <y< 5.833E+00
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
Figure 1
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
QDONUT.FIS - 1
(*10^1)
0.900
12-Apr-04 13:33
step
0
-5.665E-01 <x< 1.057E+01
-5.665E-01 <y< 1.057E+01
0.700
Grid plot
0
2E 0
0.500
0.300
0.100
Figure 1
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
QDONUT.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
QRATIO.FIS - 1
QRATIO.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
-06
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:34
step
912
Cons. Time 1.3680E+08
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
inflow
(FISH)
2.500
outflow
2.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.500
1.000
0.500
9
(10
Figure 1
02
REGADD.FIS - 1
j reg
x add
y add
The function REGION.FIS is called to first identify the gridpoints with the region.
The example below is the same as that in Section 3.4 in Theory and Background.
Data File REGADD.DAT
config extra 1
grid 5 20
mod elas
gen line 0.0,3.0 5.0,14.0
gen line 0.0,5.0 5.0,16.0
model null region 1,5
ini x 5.0 y 14.0 i 6 j 14
ini x 0.0 y 5.0 i=1 j 8
set echo off
call region.fis
call regadd.fis
set echo on
plot hold grid mark
set i reg 3 j reg 18 x add 0.0 y add -2.0
reg add
inter 1 as from 1,4 to 6,14 bs from 1,8 to 6,17
mark j 1,4
mark j 17,21
gen adj
plot hold grid
ret
REGADD.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.800
12-Apr-04 13:37
step
0
-8.633E+00 <x< 1.363E+01
-1.133E+00 <y< 2.113E+01
1.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.600
0.200
Figure 1
-0.200
0.200
(*10^1)
0.600
1.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.800
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:37
step
0
-7.600E+00 <x< 1.260E+01
-1.100E+00 <y< 1.910E+01
1.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.600
0.200
0.000
0.400
(*10^1)
Figure 2
0.800
1.200
REGION.FIS - 1
REGION.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
end command
end if
end loop
end loop
end
mark to check
plot hold grid mark
ret
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.800
12-Apr-04 13:39
step
0
-1.133E+00 <x< 2.113E+01
-1.133E+00 <y< 2.113E+01
1.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
Marked Gridpoints
1.000
0.600
0.200
Figure 1
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
SERVO.FIS - 1
Servo Control
A servo-control function is used to minimize the influence of inertial effects on the response of the
model. The FISH file SERVO.FIS shows how the applied vertical velocities can be adjusted as
a function of the maximum unbalanced force in the model. By preventing the unbalanced force
from getting too high (i.e., controlling the inertial effects), the user has better control over model
behavior.
The control is specified by setting the upper limit for unbalanced force, high unbal, and lower
limit, low unbal, with the SET command. The loading velocity is also controlled by specifying
an upper limit (high vel). A command is not issued for this function because it is automatically
invoked at every calculation step through the WHILE STEPPING FISH command.
This function is demonstrated for the problem of a triaxial compression test of a strain-softening
material (data file SERVO.DAT). The stress-strain response of the specimen indicates a weakening
of the material after the peak strength is reached. The servo-control of the applied velocity allows
for an analysis with minimal inertial effects.
Note that FISH functions are built into the data file to calculate the average vertical stress, sigmav,
and average vertical strain, ev, in order to generate the stress-strain plot shown in Figure 1.
The servo-control function will need to be modified for different types of loading.
Data File SERVO.DAT
; Triaxial test of strain-softening material
; with controlled velocity
title
Triaxial test of strain-softening material
config axi
g 5 10
mo ss
call servo.fis
fix y j 1
fix y j 11
ini yvel -2.5e-5 j 11
ini yvel 2.5e-5 j 1
pro den 2500 bulk 2e8 she 1e8 co 2e6 fric 45 ten 1e6 dil 10
pro ftab 1 ctab 2 dtab 3
table 1 0 45 .05 42 .1 40 1 40
table 2 0 2e6 .05 1e6 .1 5e5 1 5e5
table 3 0 10 .05 3 .1 0
app pres 1e6 i 6
ini sxx -1e6 syy -1e6 szz -1e6
def sigmav
sum=0.0
loop i (1,igp)
sum=sum+yforce(i,jgp)
SERVO.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
end loop
sigmav=sum/(x(igp,jgp)-x(1,jgp))
end
def ev
ev=(ydisp(3,1)-ydisp(3,11))/(y(3,11)-y(3,1))
end
hist sigmav
hist ev
hist yv i 1 j 1
hist unbal
set high unbal=5e4
set low unbal=2e4
set high vel=1e-4
step 6000
save servo.sav
plot hold his 1 vs 2
plot hold his 4
plot hold his 3
ret
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
1.600
12-Apr-04 13:40
step
6000
1.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sigmav
(FISH)
X-axis :
ev
(FISH)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-02
Figure 1
Axial stress versus axial strain for a triaxial test with strainsoftening material with controlled velocity
SERVO.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
8.000
12-Apr-04 13:40
step
6000
7.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Max. unbal. force
X-axis :
Number of steps
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
02
Figure 2
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
1.000
12-Apr-04 13:40
step
6000
0.900
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y velocity ( 1, 1)
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
02
Figure 3
SERVO.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
SPEC.FIS - 1
SPEC.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
ca spec.fis
set pmin
set pmax
set dmp
set acc in
set sd out
set sv out
set sa out
set n point
spectra
;
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.5
2.
0.
1
2
3
4
50
label table 1
Input Acceleration
label table 2
Displacement Response
label table 3
Velocity Response
label table 4
Acceleration Response
plot hold table 1 line
plot hold table 2 line
plot hold table 3 line
plot hold table 4 line
SPEC.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
12-Apr-04 13:41
step
0
0.600
Table Plot
Input acceleration
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
Figure 1
Input acceleration
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:41
step
0
2.400
Table Plot
displacement response
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-01
Figure 2
SPEC.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
Velocity response
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-01
Figure 3
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
0.900
12-Apr-04 13:41
step
0
0.800
Table Plot
accleration response
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
Figure 4
-01
SS.FIS - 1
cohesion
m ctab
m dil
dilation angle
m dtab
m fric
friction angle
m ftab
m g
shear modulus
m k
bulk modulus
m ten
tensile strength
m ttab
These parameters default to zero if not specified. The user also has access to:
m epdev
shear-hardening parameter
m epten
tensile-hardening parameter
m ind
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic shear
plastic tensile
The following problem compares the FISH model to the built-in strain-softening model. The builtin model is used for zones in the left half of the model. The FISH function is used for zones in the
right half.
SS.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
xv 1e-6
xv -1e-6
x y
x y
i=1
i=13
i=1
i=13
j=1
j=1
j=5
j=10
est disp
SS.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Dec-04 15:53
step 15000
-1.667E+00 <x< 3.167E+01
-4.167E+00 <y< 2.917E+01
2.000
Boundary plot
0
1.500
1E 1
5E 7
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.629E-02
0.500
5E -2
0.000
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
Figure 1
SS.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
SSCAB.FIS - 1
SSCAB.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
command
stru pro ii e 1.e15 yield 1e20 a 1e-4 sbond 0.25e9 &
kbond 1.e11 sfric 0 perim 1
stru cable beg xi syi end xf syf seg 1 prop ii
end command
syi = syf
end loop
end
call sscab.fis
def find id
ip=imem(str pnt+$ksnode)
loop while ip # 0
case of imem(ip+$kndid)
case 7
ipn7 = ip
case 5
ipn5 = ip
case 4
ipn4 = ip
case 1
ipn1 = ip
end case
ip = imem(ip)
end loop
end
def check sbond
while stepping
pip1 = imem(ipn1+$kndtad)
pip4 = imem(ipn4+$kndtad)
pip5 = imem(ipn5+$kndtad)
pip7 = imem(ipn7+$kndtad)
bs1 = fmem(pip1+$ktypsb)
bs4 = fmem(pip4+$ktypsb)
bs5 = fmem(pip5+$ktypsb)
bs7 = fmem(pip7+$ktypsb)
end
; --- install structural elements --stru set
find id
; --- table 1: sbond as a function of relative shear displacement --table 1 0 0.25e9 0.25e-2 0.25e9 1e-2 0.125e9 4e-2 0.125e9
; --- boundary condition --stru node 7 fix y ini yvel 1e-5
fix x y
; --- histories --hist ns 1
SSCAB.FIS - 3
SSCAB.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
7.000
LEGEND
6.000
12-Apr-04 13:58
step
3000
-2.100E+00 <x< 6.100E+00
-5.997E-01 <y< 7.600E+00
5
5.000
Boundary plot
0
4
2E 0
4.000
Cable Plot
Structural ID Numbers
3
3.000
2
2.000
1
1.000
0.000
Figure 1
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
JOB TITLE : .
7.000
LEGEND
6.000
12-Apr-04 13:58
step
3000
-2.100E+00 <x< 6.100E+00
-5.997E-01 <y< 7.600E+00
5.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
4.000
Cable Plot
Sp.Shear Fc on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable)
1.613E+08
# 2 (Cable)
2.289E+08
# 3 (Cable)
2.289E+08
# 4 (Cable)
1.547E+08
# 5 (Cable)
1.250E+08
# 6 (Cable)
1.250E+08
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
Figure 2
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
SSCAB.FIS - 5
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:58
step
3000
1.400
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Shear Disp. (Nd
1)
Shear Disp.
(Nd
4)
Shear Disp.
(Nd
5)
X-axis :
Y Displacement (Nd
1.000
0.800
7)
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-03
Figure 3
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
12-Apr-04 13:58
step
3000
2.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
bs1
(FISH)
bs4
(FISH)
bs5
(FISH)
X-axis :
Y Displacement (Nd
2.200
2.000
7)
1.800
1.600
1.400
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-03
Figure 4
SSCAB.FIS - 6
FISH in FLAC
SSINT.FIS - 1
Strain-Softening Interface
FISH can be used to adjust material properties locally along an interface. For example, strainsoftening behavior can be prescribed along an interface to represent local weakening of a sliding
fault plane. The interface properties are accessed directly in FLAC s data structure. (Refer to
Section 4 for a program guide to the elements of the data structure.)
The interface logic in FLAC allows for only one set of properties per interface. Therefore, it is
necessary to describe an interface plane by a set of separate interfaces along the plane. This is
done with the FISH function create int in the example data file SSINT.DAT. create int
is problem-dependent; for this example, a slope is bounded by inclined and horizontal weakness
planes. The two planes are represented by 11 interfaces. Each interface has a separate face
prescribed for aside, but the same face for bside. The inclined weakness plane is created with
five INTERFACE commands and the horizontal plane with six INTERFACE commands. For all 11
interfaces, the bside begins at i = 1, j = 2 and ends at i = 25, j = 2; see Figure 1.
The FISH function int var (in file SSINT.FIS) evaluates the relative shear displacement along
all the interfaces at every calculation step, and varies the cohesion and friction as a function of
accumulated relative shear displacement. The variations are prescribed by tables that are set by
coh tab and fri tab. In this example, the initial friction angle is 10 and decreases to 5 after a
relative shear displacement of 2 mm. The variation is prescribed in table #2 (fri tab = 2).
The file INT.FIN, called at the beginning of SSINT.FIS, contains the names and values of
the offsets on the interface data structure. This file is contained in the \FISH\4-ProgramGuide
directory.
An additional FISH function, check int, is given to print the current accumulated relative shear
displacement along each interface, and store the current friction angle of each interface in the table
out tab. Figure 2 shows the friction angle of the interfaces after 2000 steps. Interfaces 9, 10,
and 11 have reached the residual value of 5 . This is consistent with the slope failure indicated by
the displacement vector plot in Figure 3.
Data File SSINT.DAT
grid 24 7
mo el j 1
mo mo i 3 8 j 3 7
gen -3.464 6 -1.887 6 1 1 0 0
gen s s 11 1 11 0 i 11 25 j 1
gen 1 1 -1.3094 5 3 5 7 1 i 3
gen line 1 1 -1.887 6
fix x y j 1
pro bulk 2e9 she 1e9 den 2500
pro bulk 1e9 she 5e8 den 2500
set g 10
def create int
;left side
loop jbeg (3,7)
i 1 11 j 1 2
2
9 j 3 8
j 1
fric 45 i 3 8 j 3 7
SSINT.FIS - 2
jend=jbeg+1
ifn=8-jbeg
command
int ifn aside from 3 jbeg to 3 jend bside from 1 2 to 25 2
int ifn kn 1e9 ks 1e8 fric 10
end command
end loop
;bottom
loop ibeg (3,8)
iend=ibeg+1
ifn=3+ibeg
command
int ifn aside from ibeg 3 to iend 3 bside from 1 2 to 25 2
int ifn kn 1e9 ks 1e8 fric 10
end command
end loop
end
create int
ini syy -1e5 var 0 1e5 j 3 7
ini szz -1e5 var 0 1e5 j 3 7
hist unbal
hist xdisp i 8 j 3
table 1 0 0 10 0
table 2 0 10 1e-3 7 2e-3 5 10 5
ca ssint.fis
set coh tab=1 fri tab=2 out tab=100
step 2000
check int
plot hold bou if
plot hold table 100 both min 0
plot hold grid dis
ret
FISH in FLAC
SSINT.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.000
LEGEND
0.800
29-Dec-04 16:01
step
2000
-4.268E+00 <x< 1.180E+01
-5.036E+00 <y< 1.104E+01
0.600
Boundary plot
1
0
2E 0
0.400
interface id#s
3
4
0.200
10
11
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 1
-0.100
0.100
0.300
(*10^1)
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
0.900
29-Dec-04 16:01
step
2000
0.800
Table Plot
Table 100
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
Figure 2
SSINT.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.000
LEGEND
0.800
29-Dec-04 16:01
step
2000
-4.268E+00 <x< 1.180E+01
-5.036E+00 <y< 1.104E+01
0.600
Grid plot
0
2E 0
0.400
Displacement vectors
max vector = 3.463E-02
0
0.200
1E -1
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 3
-0.100
0.100
0.300
(*10^1)
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
TURBO.FIS - 1
TURBO.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.800
29-Dec-04 16:06
step
1999
Flow Time
1.2301E+03
-9.718E-01 <x< 2.147E+01
-1.222E+00 <y< 2.122E+01
1.400
Flow streamlines
Pore pressure contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 1.00E+01
1.000
0.600
0.200
Figure 1
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
UBI.FIS - 1
cohesion
m dil
dilation angle
m fric
friction angle
m g
shear modulus
m jang
m jcoh
joint cohesion
m jfric
m jten
m k
bulk modulus
m ten
tensile strength
These parameters default to zero if not specified. The user also has access to
m ind
state indicator:
0
elastic
plastic shear
plastic tensile
UBI.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
The following problem (see Section 7 in the Verifications volume) compares the FISH model to
the built-in ubiquitous-joint model. The built-in model is used for the upper half of the grid, and
the FISH function is used for the lower half. The comparison of model results to the analytical
solution is given in Figure 1.
Data File UBI.DAT
title
Compressive Strength of a Jointed Sample. (Built-in + FISH UBI)
g 6 10
gen -3 -5 -3 5 3 5 3 -5
call ubi.fis
;
def sigmav
sum =0.0
loop i (1,igp)
sum = sum + yforce(i,jgp)
end loop
sigmav = sum/(x(igp,jgp)-x(1,jgp))
end
;
def ve
ve = (ydisp(3,1)-ydisp(3,11))/(y(3,11)-y(3,1))
end
;
def anal
mc= 2e3
mfi = 40.0*degrad
jc = 1e3
jfi= 30.0*degrad
sm = 2.0*mc*cos(mfi)/(1.0-sin(mfi))
sj = 2.0*jc/( (1.0-tan(jfi)*tan(30.0*degrad) )*sin(2.0*30.0*degrad) )
anal=min(sj,sm)
end
def servo
while stepping
if unbal > high unbal then
loop i (1,igp)
yvel(i,jgp) = yvel(i,jgp)*0.975
if abs(yvel(i,jgp)) > high vel then
yvel(i,jgp) = sgn(yvel(i,jgp))*high vel
end if
yvel(i,1) = yvel(i,1)*0.975
if abs(yvel(i,1)) > high vel then
yvel(i,1) = sgn(yvel(i,1))*high vel
end if
end loop
UBI.FIS - 3
end if
;
if unbal < low unbal then
loop i (1,igp)
yvel(i,jgp) = yvel(i,jgp)*1.025
if abs(yvel(i,jgp)) > high vel then
yvel(i,jgp) = sgn(yvel(i,jgp))*high vel
end if
yvel(i,1)
= yvel(i,1)*1.025
if abs(yvel(i,1)) > high vel then
yvel(i,1) = sgn(yvel(i,1))*high vel
end if
end loop
end if
end
;
set high unbal 20 low unbal 10 high vel 1.0e-4
;
mo ubi i=1,3
prop den 2000 bulk 1e8 she 7e7 fric 40 co 2e3 ten 2400 i=1,3
prop jco 1e3 jfric 30 jang 60.0 jten 2000
i=1,3
;
mo m ubi i=4,6
prop den 2000 m k 1e8 m g 7e7 m fric 40 m coh 2e3 m ten 2400 i=4,6
prop m jcoh 1e3 m jfric 30 m jang 60.0 m jten 2000
i=4,6
;
fix y j=1
fix y j=11
ini yvel -1e-7 j=11
ini yvel 1e-7 j=1
his unbal
his sigmav
his anal
his ve
his yv i 1 j 1
;
step 3000
print sigmav
print anal
save ubi.sav
UBI.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
29-Dec-04 16:08
step
3000
3.500
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 sigmav
(FISH)
3 anal
(FISH)
X-axis :
4 ve
(FISH)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
(10
-06
Figure 1
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
12-Apr-04 14:22
step
3000
-5.567E+00 <x< 5.567E+00
-5.567E+00 <y< 5.567E+00
2.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.000
2E 4
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.452E-04
0
-2.000
2E -4
-4.000
Figure 2
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
ZONK.FIS - 1
j1,j2
n big steps
n small steps number of FLAC steps within each force reduction step
The applied forces are calculated for the boundary of the extracted region by specifying the FISH
function zonk. The forces are then relaxed by specifying the function relax. The functions
zonk and relax make use of extra arrays 6 and 7; the CONFIG extra command must be specified
to have those extra grid variables available.
The example data file ZONK.DAT illustrates the use of ZONK.FIS to simulate a gradual
excavation in Mohr-Coulomb material.
Data File ZONK.DAT
title
Hole in a Mohr-Coulomb medium
config extra=7
g 10 10
mo ss
prop shear=2.8e9 bulk=3.9e9 dens=2500 coh=3.45e6 fric=30 dil=0 ten=1e10
gen 0 0 0 10 5 10 5 0
; --- boundary conditions --fix y j 1
fix x i 1
app sxx=-30e6 i 11
app syy=-40e6 j 11
; --- initial conditions --ini sxx=-30e6 syy=-40e6 szz=-30e6
; --- histories --hist unbal
hist xd i 3 j 6
hist xv i 3 j 6
hist sxx i 3 j 6
hist syy i 3 j 6
hist szz i 3 j 6
hist sxy i 3 j 6
; --- gradual excavation ---
ZONK.FIS - 2
FISH in FLAC
call zonk.fis
set i1=1 i2=2 j1=5 j2=6
set n big steps=10 n small steps=100
zonk
relax
solve sratio 1.e-3
save zonk.sav
plot hold grid plas his
plot hold his -4 vs -2
ret
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
30-Mar-05 10:54
step
1003
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.400
0.200
0.000
Figure 1
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
ZONK.FIS - 3
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
30-Mar-05 10:54
step
1003
2.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev 4 Ave. SXX
( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Rev 2 X displacement( 3, 6)
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
-03
Figure 2
ZONK.FIS - 4
FISH in FLAC
THERMAL OPTION
1-1
1 THERMAL OPTION
1.1 Introduction
The thermal option of FLAC incorporates both conduction and advection models. The conduction
models allow simulation of transient heat conduction in materials, and the development of thermally
induced displacements and stresses. The advection model takes the transport of heat by convection
into account; it can simulate temperature-dependent fluid density and thermal advection in the fluid.
This thermal option has the following specific features.
1. There are four material models for the thermal behavior of the material:
three conduction models (isotropic conduction, anisotropic conduction and
temperature-dependent conduction); and one advection model (isotropic conduction/advection).
2. As in the standard version of FLAC, different zones may have different thermal
models and properties.
3. Any of the mechanical models may be used with any of the thermal models.
4. Several different thermal boundary conditions may be prescribed.
5. Heat sources may be inserted into the material either as line sources or as
volume sources. These sources may be made to decay exponentially with
time.
6. Both explicit and implicit solution algorithms are available.
7. The thermal option provides for one-way coupling to the mechanical stress
and pore pressure calculations through the thermal expansion coefficients.
8. Temperatures can be accessed via FISH, allowing users to define temperaturedependent properties.
Simulations of full nonlinear coupling between a general deformable solid, deformable fluid and
advective heat transfer are uncommon and difficult to perform. The explicit formulation used in
FLAC may be slow in some circumstances, but it is very tolerant of extreme nonlinearities and
offers a straightforward framework in which to implement complex physics. The method provides
a flexible way to simulate complex, 2D systems involving transient, nonlinear heat, fluid and solid
coupling.
1-2
Optional Features
This chapter contains a description of the thermal formulation (Section 1.2) and the numerical
implementation (Section 1.3). Recommendations for solving thermal problems are also provided
(Section 1.4). The FLAC input commands for thermal analysis (Section 1.5), and the system of units
for thermal analysis (Section 1.6) are given. Finally, several verification problems (Section 1.7) are
described.* Refer to these examples as a guide for creating FLAC models for thermal analysis and
coupled thermal-stress or thermal-groundwater flow analysis.
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Options\1-Thermal with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter,
open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting
the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the
Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved states, and the example data file will be run and plots
created.
THERMAL OPTION
1-3
volume of solid
surf ace area exchanging heat
(1.1)
k
Cv
(1.2)
Thermal diffusivity:
=
where: k is the thermal conductivity;
is the density; and
Cv is the specific heat at constant volume.
Characteristic time for conduction:
tc =
L2c
(1.3)
1-4
Optional Features
1.2.2 Conduction
The variables involved in heat conduction in FLAC are the temperature and the two components of
the heat flux. These variables are related through the energy-balance equation and transport laws
derived from Fouriers law of heat conduction. Substitution of Fouriers law into the energy-balance
equation yields the differential equation of heat conduction which may be solved for particular
geometries and properties, given specific boundary and initial conditions. Thermal volumetric
strains are introduced into the incremental mechanical and fluid constitutive laws to account for
thermal-stress and thermal-pore pressure couplings.
1.2.2.1 Energy-Balance Equation
The differential expression of the energy balance has the form
qT + qvT =
T
t
(1.4)
where qT is the heat-flux vector in [W/m2 ], qvT is the volumetric heat-source intensity in [W/m3 ],
and T is the heat stored per unit volume in [J /m3 ]. In general, temperature changes may be caused
by changes in both energy storage and volumetric strain, , and the thermal constitutive law relating
those parameters may be expressed as:
T
= MT
t
T
v
t
t
(1.5)
(1.6)
T
t
(1.7)
Note that for nearly all solids and liquids, the specific heats at constant pressure and at constant
volume are essentially equal; consequently, Cv and Cp can be used interchangeably.
THERMAL OPTION
1-5
(1.8)
where T is the temperature [ C], and kijT is the thermal conductivity tensor in [W/m C].
1.2.2.3 Mechanical Coupling: Thermal Strains
Solution of thermal-stress problems requires reformulation of the stress-strain rate relations, which
is accomplished by subtracting from the total strain rate that portion due to temperature change.
Because free thermal expansion results in no angular distortion in an isotropic material, the shearingstrain increments are unaffected. The thermal-strain rate associated with the free expansion corresponding to temperature rate T /t have the form:
ijT
t
= t
T
ij
t
(1.9)
where t [1/ C] is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, and ij is the Kronecker delta.
As an example, the mechanical constitutive equations for an elastic material are given by:
ij
ij
T
T
2
P
kk
+
ij = 2G
t
ij + K G
3t
ij
t
t
t
t
3
t
t
(1.10)
where ij and ij are total stresses and strains, is Biot coefficient, K and G are bulk and shear
moduli, and ij is the Kronecker delta.
The differential equation of motion and the rate of strain-velocity relations are based upon mechanical considerations and are unchanged for thermomechanics.
1-6
Optional Features
T
+
t
t
t
(1.11)
where is the variation of fluid content, M is Biot modulus, is Biot coefficient, is the volumetric
strain, and is the volumetric thermal expansion. In FLAC:
= nf + (1 n)g
where: n
f
g
(1.12)
= porosity;
= volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid; and
= volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of the grains (g = 3t ).
Note that the two FLAC properties t and g are not independent; the input values should be
consistent with the relation g = 3t .
1.2.2.5 Initial and Boundary Conditions
Substitution of Eq. (1.8) for qT in Eq. (1.7) yields the differential equation for heat conduction.
Initial conditions correspond to a given temperature field. Boundary conditions are generally
expressed in terms of temperature or the component of the heat-flux vector normal to the boundary.
In this version of FLAC, five types of conditions are considered, corresponding to: (1) given
temperature; (2) given component of the flux normal to the boundary; (3) convective boundaries;
(4) radiative boundaries; and (5) insulated (adiabatic) boundaries.
In FLAC, a convective boundary condition has the form:
qn = h(T Te )
(1.13)
where qn is the component of the flux normal to the boundary in the direction of the exterior normal,
h is the convective heat-transfer coefficient [W/m2 C], T is the temperature of the boundary
surface, and Te is the temperature of the surrounding fluid [ C]. Radiative and adiabatic boundaries
are handled in a similar fashion. Note that in the numerical formulation used in FLAC, boundaries
are adiabatic by default.
THERMAL OPTION
1-7
1.2.3 Advection
The mechanisms of convective heat transfer in porous media considered in the FLAC implementation
are forced convection, in which the heat is carried by the fluid motion, and free convection, which
accounts for fluid motion caused by density differences due to temperature variations.
The working assumptions are those of local thermal equilibrium (flow at low Reynolds number is
considered) and small density variations (Boussinesq approximation applies). The basic hydrothermal equations for saturated fluid flow processes are provided below.
1.2.3.1 Energy Balance for Convective-Diffusive Heat Transport
cT
T
+ qT + 0 cw qw T qvT = 0
t
(1.14)
where T is temperature, qT is thermal flux, qw is fluid specific discharge, qvT is volumetric heat
source intensity, 0 and cw are reference density and specific heat of the fluid, respectively, and cT
is the effective specific heat. The effective specific heat is defined as
cT = Cv + nS0 cw
(1.15)
where and Cv are solid matrix bulk density and bulk specific heat, respectively, n is porosity and
S is saturation.
1.2.3.2 Fluid Mass Balance (Slightly Compressible Fluid)
T
P
= M qw
+
t
t
t
(1.16)
where M is the Biot modulus, is the volumetric strain, and is the volumetric thermal expansion
of the porous matrix. Note that the term nf (f is volumetric thermal expansion of the fluid), which
enters in the expression of the coefficient , is usually neglected in the Boussinesq approximation,
and that the last two terms in Eq. (1.16) are only present if mechanical coupling is considered.
1-8
Optional Features
(1.17)
where k T is the effective thermal conductivity, which is isotropic in the advection formulation. The
effective thermal conductivity is defined in terms of the solid and fluid thermal conductivities, ksT
T , by the equation:
and kw
T
k T = ksT + nSkw
(1.18)
qw = k(P w g x)
(1.19)
where k is the fluid mobility coefficient (intrinsic permeability, , over dynamic viscosity, w ), and
w is the fluid density. In this equation, fluid density is related to temperature changes by the linear
equation
w = 0 [1 f (T T0 )]
(1.20)
where f is the volumetric thermal expansion of the fluid, and T0 is the reference temperature.
In these equations, the Boussinesq approximation, that fluid density variations due to temperature
changes are significant only in their generation of buoyancy forces, has been invoked.
1.2.3.4 Thermal-Mechanical-Pore Pressure Coupling
Coupling to the mechanical constitutive equations is done via effective normal strain rates (i.e.,
total-minus-thermal normal strain-rate components), and pore pressure changes, which affect effective stresses. The advective logic may be used in combination with any of the mechanical
constitutive models available for FLAC. In the example of an elastic material in small strain, the
mechanical constitutive relations are
ij
ij
P
kk
T
T
2
+
ij = 2G
t
ij + K G
3t
ij
t
t
t
t
3
t
t
(1.21)
where ij and ij are total stresses and strains, is the Biot coefficient, K and G are bulk and shear
moduli, t is linear thermal expansion coefficient of the solid matrix, and ij is the Kronecker delta.
THERMAL OPTION
1-9
1 - 10
Optional Features
(1.22)
n=1
where [n](n) is the exterior unit vector normal to edge n, L is the triangle edge length, and A is the
area of the triangle.
1.3.1.2 Nodal Formulation of the Energy-Balance Equation
The energy-balance equation Eq. (1.7) may be expressed as
qi,i + b = 0
(1.23)
where
b = Cv
T
qvT
t
(1.24)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 11
is the equivalent of the instantaneous body forces used in the mechanical node formulation. First,
consider a single triangle. Using this analogy, the nodal heat Qne [W ], n = 1, 3, in equilibrium with
the triangle heat flux and body forces, may be expressed as
Qne
Qnt
qv A
dT
+ mn Cvn
3
dt
(1.25)
where
(n)
Qnt
qi ni L(n)
=
2
(1.26)
and
mn =
A
3
(1.27)
In principle, the nodal form of the energy-balance equation is established by requiring that, at each
global node, the sum of equivalent nodal heat (Qne ) from all triangles meeting at the node (divided
by two for two overlays) and nodal contribution (Qnw ) of applied boundary fluxes and sources be
zero.
The components of the triangle heat-flux vector in Eq. (1.26) are related to the temperature gradient
by means of the transport law (see Eq. (1.8)). In turn, the components of the temperature gradient
can be expressed in terms of the triangles nodal temperatures using Eq. (1.22).
In order to save computer time, a local matrix formulation is adopted in FLAC. At each node, n,
of a particular zone, the sum, Qnz , of contributions Eq. (1.26) from all triangles belonging to the
zone and meeting at the node, is formed and divided by two for two overlays. Local zone matrices
[M] that relate nodal zone values, Qnz , to nodal zone temperatures, T n (n = 1, 4) are assembled.
These matrices being symmetrical, 10 components are computed and saved at the beginning of the
computation and updated every 10 steps in large-strain mode. By definition of zone matrices, we
have:
Qnz = Mnj T j
(1.28)
(1.29)
where [C] is the global matrix and [T ] is, in this context, the global vector of nodal temperatures.
1 - 12
Optional Features
Qne +
Qnw = 0
(1.30)
where, for simplicity of notation, the sign is used to represent summation of the contributions at
global node, n, of all zones meeting at that node. (A zone contribution consists of contributions of
all triangles involved in the zone, divided by two for two overlays.) Using Eq. (1.25) in Eq. (1.30),
we obtain, after some manipulations:
dT n
1
n
n
=
Qapp
QT +
dt
[mCp ]n
where QnT is a function of the nodal temperatures defined in Eq. (1.29), and
contribution of applied volume sources and boundary fluxes, defined as:
Qnapp
qT A
v
(1.31)
n
+ Qw
(1.32)
Eq. (1.31)
is the nodal form of the energy-balance equation at node n; the right-hand side term
QnT + Qnapp is referred to as the out-of-balance heat. One such expression holds at each global
node involved in the discretization. Together they form a system of ordinary differential equations
that is solved in FLAC using both explicit and implicit finite-difference schemes. The domain of
application of each scheme is discussed below.
1.3.1.3 Explicit Finite-Difference Formulation
In the explicit formulation, the temperature at a node is assumed to vary linearly over a time interval
t: the derivative in the left-hand side of Eq. (1.31) is expressed using forward finite differences,
and the out-of-balance heat is evaluated at time t. Starting with an initial temperature field, nodal
temperatures at incremental time values are updated, provided the temperature is not fixed, using
the expression
n
n
n
T<t+t>
= T<t>
+ T<t>
(1.33)
where
n
T<t>
and
QnT <t>
Qnapp<t>
(1.34)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 13
t
[mCp ]n
n =
(1.35)
Numerical stability of the explicit scheme can only be achieved if the timestep remains below a
limiting value.
Stability Criterion
To derive the stability criterion, we consider the situation in which a node, n, in an assembly of
zones is given a temperature perturbation, T0 , from a zero initial state. Using Eq. (1.29), we obtain
QnT = Cnn T0
(1.36)
Qnapp = Dnn T0
(1.37)
where Dnn is used to represent the temperature coefficient in the global convective term at node n.
After one thermal timestep, the new temperature at node n is (see Eqs. (1.33) through (1.35))
n
T<t>
= T0
t
(Cnn + Dnn )
1
[mCp ]n
(1.38)
To prevent alternating signs of temperatures as the computation is repeated for successive t, the
coefficient of T0 in the above relation must be positive. Such a requirement implies that
t <
[mCp ]n
Cnn + Dnn
(1.39)
The value of the timestep used in FLAC is the minimum nodal value of the right-hand side in
Eq. (1.39), multiplied by the safety factor of 0.8.
To assess the influence of the parameters involved, it is useful to keep in mind the following
representation of the critical timestep. If Lc is the smallest triangle characteristic length, we may
write an expression of the form:
tcr
1
1
h
=
+
m L2c
Cv Lc
(1.40)
1 - 14
Optional Features
where tcr is the critical timestep, and m is a constant, larger than unity, which depends on the
medium geometrical discretization (e.g., m = 2 for a regular discretization in squares see
Karlekar and Desmond 1982).
The critical timestep in Eq. (1.40) corresponds to a measure of the characteristic time needed for
the diffusion front to propagate throughout the triangle. To estimate the time needed for the
front to propagate throughout a particular domain, a similar expression can be used, provided Lc is
interpreted as the characteristic length of the domain under consideration. Consider the case where
no convection occurs. By taking the ratio of characteristic times for the domain and the triangle,
it may be seen that the number of steps needed to model the propagation of the diffusion process
throughout that domain is proportional to the ratio of square characteristic lengths for the domain
and the triangle. That number may be so large that the use of the explicit method alone could
become prohibitive.
On the other hand, the advantage of this first-order method is that the calculated timestep is usually
small enough to follow nodal temperature fluctuations accurately.
1.3.1.4 Implicit Finite-Difference Formulation
The requirement that t should be restricted in size to ensure stability sometimes results in an
extremely small timestep of the order of a fraction of a second, especially when transient
conduction in multiple layers is involved. The implicit formulation eliminates this restriction, but
it involves solving simultaneous equations at each timestep.
The implicit formulation in FLAC uses the Crank-Nicolson method, in which the temperature at
a node is assumed to vary quadratically over the time interval t. In this method, the derivative
dT /dt in Eq. (1.31) is expressed using a central-difference formulation corresponding to a halftimestep, while the out-of-balance heat is evaluated by taking average values at t and t + t. In
this formulation, we have:
n
n
n
T<t+t>
= T<t>
+ T<t>
(1.41)
where
n
T<t>
1 n
Qnapp
QT <t+t> + QnT <t> +
2
(1.42)
and
Qnapp =
1 n
Qapp<t+t> +
Qnapp<t>
2
(1.43)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 15
(1.44)
(1.45)
(1.46)
After substitution of Eq. (1.46) into Eq. (1.42), we obtain, using Eq. (1.44):
n
T<t>
j
Cnj T<t>
1
j
+ Cnj T<t> +
Qnapp
2
(1.47)
n
j
j
Qnapp
Cnj T<t> = n Cnj T<t> +
2
(1.48)
For simplicity of notation, we define the known matrix [A] and vector [b<t> ] as
Anj = nj
n
Cnj
2
(1.49)
and
j
Qnapp
bn<t> = n Cnj T<t> +
(1.50)
(1.51)
1 - 16
Optional Features
Such an equation may be written for each of the nodes involved in the grid. The resulting system
of equations is solved in FLAC using Jacobis iterative method. In this approach, temperature
increments at iteration r + 1 and node n are calculated using the recurrence relation:
n<r+1>
T<t>
n<r>
T<t>
1
j <r>
+
Anj T<t> + bn<t>
Ann
(1.52)
where Einsteins notation convention applies to indices j only. Using the definition Eq. (1.49) of
[A], Eq. (1.52) takes the form:
=
n<r+1>
T<t>
n<r>
T<t>
1
1
n
2 Cnn
n
j <r>
n<r>
+ bn<t>
Cnj T<t> T<t>
2
(1.53)
(1.54)
In FLAC, a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 500 iterations are considered, and the criterion for
detection of convergence has the form:
n<r+1>
n<r>
n<r>
T<t>
< 102 max
T<t>
max
T<t>
n
(1.55)
The magnitude of the timestep must be selected in relation to both convergence and accuracy of the
implicit scheme. Although the Crank-Nicolson method is stable for all positive values of t (for
no convection), the convergence of Jacobis method is not unconditionally guaranteed unless the
matrix [A] is strictly diagonally dominant i.e., when
n
Akj
j =1
j =k
<
Akk
(1.56)
for 1 i n (see Dahlquist and Bjorck 1974). According to the definition Eq. (1.49) of Anj and
Eq. (1.35) of n , this sufficient condition is always fulfilled for sufficiently small values of t. If
convergence of Jacobis method is not achieved, an error message is issued. It is then necessary
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 17
to either reduce the magnitude of the implicit timestep or use the explicit method. (The explicit
timestep may be used as a lower bound.)
Also, although the implicit method is second-order accurate, some insight may be needed in selecting
the appropriate timestep. Indeed, its value must remain small compared to the wavelength of
any nodal temperature fluctuation. Typically, the explicit method is used earlier in the run or
in its perturbed stages, while the implicit method is preferred for the remainder of the simulation.
(Alternatively, the implicit method could be used with the explicit timestep value for extra accuracy.)
Computation time and computer memory are two factors that must be taken into consideration when
selecting the implicit approach in FLAC. In the implicit method, a set of equations must be solved
at each timestep requiring a minimum of three iterations. The amount of calculation required for
one iterative step is approximately equal to that needed for one timestep in the explicit scheme.
Also, intermediate values must be stored in the iterative procedure, requiring extra memory to be
allocated in comparison with the explicit scheme. Those inconveniences, however, can be more
than offset by the much larger timestep generally permitted by the implicit method, or by the gain
in accuracy allowed.
1.3.1.5 Thermal-Stress Coupling
The heat transfer may be coupled to thermal-stress calculations at any time during a transient
simulation. The coupling occurs in one direction only i.e., the temperature may result in stress
changes, but mechanical changes in the body resulting from force application do not result in
temperature change. This restriction is not believed to be of great significance here, since the
energy changes for quasi-static mechanical problems are usually negligible. In the absence of pore
pressure, the stress change in a triangular zone is given by (from Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10)):
ij = ij 3K t T
(1.57)
The above assumes a constant temperature in each triangular zone which is interpolated from the
surrounding gridpoints.
Mechanical properties can also be made a function of temperature change by accessing temperature
and property values via FISH.
1.3.1.6 Thermal-Pore Pressure Coupling
Pore pressure change resulting from temperature change is found by adding a contribution, Vther ,
to the term Vmech in the calculation for nodal pore pressure (Eq. (1.28) in Section 1.3.3 in FluidMechanical Interaction). This contribution is calculated using the relation
Vther = nf + (1 n)g
V T
(1.58)
1 - 18
where:Vther
f
g
n
V
T
Optional Features
T ij
(1.59)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 19
(1.60)
where, by definition:
kT
cT
(1.61)
0 cw
qw
cT
(1.62)
D=
and
v=
The Peclet number gives a measure of the relative effects of advection and diffusion, and is defined
as
Pe =
v
D/L
(1.63)
where L is the grid size. The Courant number is a measure of the advective distance covered by
a particle during a timestep t T over L:
Cr =
vt T
L
(1.64)
In the one-dimensional case, for instance, the classical constraints are Pe 2 and Cr 1 (see, for
example, Perrochet and Brod 1993). In the current implementation, the explicit fluid and thermal
timesteps are calculated based on fluid and thermal diffusivities, and are identical to those adopted
in the fluid and conduction logic. The code thus sets no intrinsic limit on the grid Peclet number.
However, the accuracy is likely to be different for different number values and influenced by grid
size and timestep.
Warning: Note that the explicit timestep adopted by FLAC is not unconditionally stable for the
advection logic.
1 - 20
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 21
conductivity
f t0
reference temperature
f thexp
lconduct
lspec heat
spec heat
thexp
In this case, the properties espec heat, econduct, f qx and f qy are calculated automatically by the
code and should only be accessed for reading. (If values are assigned by the user, they will be
ignored.)
If the fluid configuration is not selected, then the properties espec heat, econduct, f qx and f qy
must be assigned values; the properties spec heat, conduct and lconduct are not used. In this case,
the properties to be assigned by the user are (see Section 1.5.1):
econduct
espec heat
f qx
f qy
f t0
reference temperature
1 - 22
Optional Features
lspec heat
thexp
In both configuration cases, the advective term in the heat equation will be activated only if both
fluid density (WATER density) and fluid specific heat (PROP lspec heat) are nonzero.
1.4.2.1 Steady-State Conduction Solution
The initial conditions for an advection simulation often correspond to a steady-state conduction
solution. These conditions can be established by initializing pore pressures and temperatures
directly if they are known, or by letting the code do the calculation. In the latter case, the procedure
is to perform the thermal calculation first, using a zero value of reference fluid density to prevent
addition of the advection term in the energy balance equation (using WATER density=0, with SET
ow off and SET thermal on) and then perform the fluid calculation (with SET ow on and SET
thermal off) after resetting the fluid reference density to a realistic value.
1.4.2.2 Forced Advection and Free Advection Simulations
The property f thexp (see Section 1.5.1) can be set to zero to run simulations in which free advection
is neglected. To model free advection, and neglect forced advection, the fluid reference density
can be set to zero during the thermal calculation, and reset to its actual value for the fluid flow
calculation.
1.4.2.3 Synchronization of Fluid and Thermal Times
It is important to note that the modules must be run independently in this implementation of the
advection logic: fluid flow must be turned off during thermal stepping, and thermal should be off
during the flow calculation.
It is also the users responsibility to synchronize fluid and thermal times as the simulation proceeds.
To do this for explicit calculations, the following procedure can be followed. First, the default
timesteps for fluid and thermal calculation are determined by performing one preview calculation
step of each individual module and recording the timestep value displayed on the screen. The
default fluid (thermal) timestep is a function of grid size, fluid (thermal) properties of mobility,
fluid bulk modulus, and porosity (effective conduction, specific heat). Second, fluid and thermal
timesteps are selected such that: (a) one is an integer multiple of the other; and (b) each timestep
is smaller than or equal to its default value. (The command SET gwdt/thdt is used for this). Finally,
the simulation is run in an alternating sequence of thermal and fluid-flow steps: one step of the
module with the largest timestep; and enough steps of the other module to close the time gap. (An
example of a FISH function devised to do this is included in the data files presented in Section 1.7.)
In addition, if mechanical coupling is considered, enough mechanical steps should be included in
this sequence to keep the system in quasi-static equilibrium.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 23
Lc
Lc
K + (4/3)G
(1.65)
= bulk modulus;
= shear modulus;
= density; and
= characteristic length.
Hence, the ratio of thermal conduction-to-mechanical timestep may be expressed as (see Eq. (1.40))
tther
=
tmech
K + 4/3G Lc
(1.66)
where is the thermal diffusivity. For nonmetals, this property is of the order of 106 m2 /s, at
most. For rock and soil, is of the order of 103 kg/m3 , while K + (4/3)G is approximately 1010
1 - 24
Optional Features
N/m2 . Using those orders of magnitude in Eq. (1.66), it may be observed that the ratio of thermal
conduction-to-mechanical time scales is on the order of 105 Lc . This ratio remains very large, even if
Lc is on the order of 1 mm. In practice, mechanical effects can be assumed to occur instantaneously
when compared to diffusion effects. This is also the approach adopted in FLAC, where no time is
associated with any of the mechanical steps taken in association with the thermal steps.
The second issue concerns the thermal-mechanical coupling in FLAC. This coupling occurs only
in one direction: temperature changes cause thermal strains which influence the stresses to occur;
while the thermal calculation is unaffected by the mechanical changes taking place.
In most modeling situations, the initial mechanical conditions correspond to a state of equilibrium
that must first be achieved before the coupled analysis is started. If the medium is elastic and
the thermal-mechanical response must be investigated, for instance, at a certain thermal time, a
thermal-only calculation may be performed until the desired time (SET thermal on mech off). The
thermal calculation may then be turned off, and the mechanical calculation turned on, using the SET
thermal off and SET mech on commands. Following this, the system may be cycled to mechanical
equilibrium before the response is analyzed. Section 1.7.2.1 presents an example of a thermalmechanical analysis conducted in this way.
For nonlinear mechanical models (i.e., when plasticity is involved), the thermal changes must be
communicated to the mechanical module at closer time intervals to respect the path-dependency of
the system. Typically, at small, dimensionless thermal time, a certain number of mechanical steps
must be taken for each thermal step to allow the system to adjust according to the different time
scales involved. At large dimensionless thermal time, if the system approaches thermal equilibrium,
several thermal timesteps may be taken without significantly disturbing the mechanical state of the
medium. A corresponding numerical simulation may be controlled manually by alternating between
thermal-only and mechanical-only modes. Such a tedious task may be avoided by using the STEP or
SOLVE command while both mechanical and thermal modules are on. By default, one mechanical
step will be taken for each thermal step. Here, thermal steps are assumed to be so small that one
mechanical step is enough to re-equilibrate the system mechanically after each thermal step is taken.
To do more than one mechanical step for each thermal step, the SET nmech nstep command can be
used. For example, SET nmech = 10 will cause 10 mechanical steps to be done for each thermal
step. There will also be cases in which more than one thermal step is required for each mechanical
step. For example, if a creep model is being used, the creep (mechanical) timestep may be greater
than the thermal timestep. Rather than reducing the mechanical timestep, it is more efficient to use
the SET nther nstep command to increase the number of thermal steps run for each mechanical step.
Note that the step number printed to the screen is the thermal step, regardless of the value specified
for nmech.
As discussed below, in Section 1.4.4, the thermal logic can be coupled to the groundwater logic.
This allows the thermal solution to utilize the groundwater command SOLVE auto on age = or SOLVE
auto on step = command, which causes FLAC to adjust mechanical sub-cycles automatically, to
keep the maximum unbalanced mechanical force ratio, or maximum unbalanced mechanical force,
below a preset value. The CONFIG gw and SET ow off commands must be issued to implement this
facility for a thermal-mechanical analysis. An example application is shown in Section 1.7.2.2.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 25
Another alternative is to use the implicit algorithm to ensure that the timesteps are equal. For
example, if the creep timestep is 0.1 second, then the thermal timestep can be adjusted to this value
with the following command sequence:
set thdt = 0.1
set implicit on
solve
If the SOLVE age command is used for a thermal-mechanical analysis, it may be necessary to reduce
the default value for sratio to prevent the run from stopping before the age limit is reached. However,
the limiting mechanical step set by the SET nmech command, and the limiting thermal step set by
the SET nther command, are not affected by sratio.
1.4.4 Thermal-Mechanical-Pore Pressure Coupling
FLAC can also be used to solve coupled thermal-groundwater problems in which temperature change
affects groundwater pore pressures. This coupled response can also be coupled to the mechanical
stress calculation.
The coupling is induced by the influence of temperature change on volumetric change of the fluid
and the grains in a saturated matrix (see Eq. (1.58)). The volumetric thermal expansion coefficients
for the fluid and the grains are prescribed by input properties assigned by the PROPERTY f thexp
and PROPERTY g thexp commands, respectively.
In order to apply the thermal-groundwater coupling, the FLAC grid must be configured for both
the thermal and groundwater options (CONFIG thermal gw). However, the thermal and groundwater
calculations cannot be operating concurrently. For the thermal calculation phase, the groundwater
calculation must be suppressed (SET thermal on ow off); for the groundwater flow calculation
phase, the thermal calculation must be suppressed (SET ow on thermal off).
1 - 26
Optional Features
APPLY
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 27
convection
v1 v2
v1 is the temperature of the medium to which convection occurs. A
history (hist) can be applied to the temperature.*
v2 is the convective heat transfer coefficient (w/m2 C).
A convective boundary condition is applied over the range of gridpoints specified.
ux
v
v is the initial flux (watts/m2 ).
A flux is applied over the range of gridpoints specified. This command
is used to specify a constant flux into (+) or out of (-) a boundary of
the grid. Decay of the flux can be represented by a FISH history
using the hist keyword. For example, the following FISH function
performs an exponential decay of the applied flux:
def decay
thini=0.0
deconst=-1.0
decay=exp(deconst*(thtime-thini))
end
apply flux=10 hist=decay
radiation
v1, v2
v1 is the temperature of the medium to which radiation occurs. (Temperature units must be in K or R.)
v2 is the radiative heat transfer coefficient. (For black bodies, this is
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.668 108 w/m2 K4 .) A history
(hist) can be applied to the temperature.
A radiation boundary condition is applied over the range of gridpoints
specified.
* For a non-dynamic analysis, the history must be specified with a FISH function (see the FISH
function decay above).
In axisymmetry mode (CONFIG axi), the thermal flux, convection or radiation boundary cannot be
specified directly at the axis of symmetry (x = 0) because an area must be associated with the flux.
For the condition to function, the location of this boundary condition must be greater than 0.005
times the adjacent zone size from x = 0.
1 - 28
Optional Features
temperature
v
temperature v, applied at the model boundary gridpoints. A history
(hist) can be applied to the temperature.*
For the convection, flux or radiation boundary condition, an area is required over
which the boundary condition is applied. The area is the distance between the
beginning (i1, j1) and ending (i2, j2) gridpoints of the APPLY command. This
boundary condition cannot be applied at a single gridpoint.
Removing Model Boundary Conditions
remove
thermal range
The keywords remove thermal erase all boundary conditions within
a range. Note that a range must be specified when using the remove
keyword.
CONFIG
thermal
This command specifies extra memory to be assigned to each zone
or gridpoint for a thermal analysis. CONFIG must be given before
the GRID command. CONFIG thermal can be combined with other
options, as described in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference.
FIX
FREE
HISTORY
temp
temperature of gridpoint i, j
thtime
* For a non-dynamic analysis, the history must be specified with a FISH function (see the FISH
function decay above).
THERMAL OPTION
INITIAL
1 - 29
keyword <keyword> value . . . <var vx vy> <mark> <i = i1,i2> <j = j1,j2>
or
keyword <keyword> value . . . <var vx vy> <region i, j>
temp
INTERIOR
source
v
A heat-generated source, v, is applied as a volume source of the
specified strength (in watts/m3 ) in each zone in the specified range (v
is positive for heat generation). When a new source is applied to a
zone with the existing source, the new source strength replaces the
existing source strength.
Decay of the heat source can be represented by a FISH history using
the hist keyword. For example, the following FISH function performs
an exponential decay of the applied source:
def decay
thini=0.0
deconst=-1.0
decay=exp(deconst*(thtime-thini))
end
interior source=1 hist=decay
1 - 30
Optional Features
remove
thermal range
The keywords remove thermal erase all thermal boundary conditions
within a range. Note that a range must be specified when using the
remove keyword. (See Section 1.1.3 in the Command Reference.)
MODEL
th isotropic
th null
Advection Models
th ac
THERMAL OPTION
PLOT
1 - 31
apply
athermal
thermal boundary conditions applied to the model
con1
con2
conductivity
n cond
spec heat
temp
contours of temperature
thexp
apply
con1
con2
conductivity
n cond
spec heat
specific heat, Cp
temp
temperature
thexp
1 - 32
Optional Features
PROPERTY
keyword value <. . . > <region i, j> <var vx vy> <i = i1, i2 j = j1, j2>
This command assigns thermal properties for the thermal conduction and convection
models identified by the MODEL command. There are three types of thermal conduction models and one advection model. The required keywords to specify properties
for each model are listed below. Mass density, density, must also be specified for
each model. Units for thermal properties are listed in Section 1.6.
Conduction Models
Isotropic Heat Conduction
(1)
(2)
(3)
conductivity
spec heat
thexp
spec heat
thexp
xconductivity
yconductivity
specific heat, Cp
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, t
thermal conductivity in the x-direction
thermal conductivity in the y-direction
con1
con2
n cond
spec heat
thexp
f thexp
g thexp
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 33
Advection Model
Isotropic Advection-Conduction
conductivity
(2) econduct
(3) espec heat
(4) f thexp
(5) f qx
(6) f qy
(7) f t0
(8) lconduct
(9) lspec heat
(10) spec heat
(11) thexp
(1)
The command WATER density is used to initialize the fluid reference density, 0 . For
properties to be assigned by the user inside/outside the fluid configuration see
Section 1.4.2.
1 - 34
SET
Optional Features
implicit
off
on
The implicit thermal calculation scheme is turned off or on. The
default is off.
nmech
nstep
The number of mechanical steps to be performed at each mechanicalthermal calculation step is selected. (The use of this command is
discussed in Section 1.4.3.)
nther
nstep
The number of thermal steps to be performed during each thermalmechanical calculation step is selected. (The use of this command is
discussed in Section 1.4.3.)
thdt
t
defines the thermal timestep. By default, FLAC calculates the thermal
timestep automatically for the explicit solution scheme. This keyword
allows the user to choose a different timestep. If FLAC determines
that the user-selected timestep is too large for numerical stability, the
timestep will be reduced to a suitable value when thermal steps are
taken. The calculation will not revert to the user-selected value until
another SET thdt command is issued.
thermal
off
on
causes FLAC to do thermal calculation (SET thermal on) or suppress
thermal calculations (SET thermal off). The on option is the default
if CONFIG thermal is given. This command is normally used for
thermal calculations in conjunction with mechanical or groundwater
flow calculations.
THERMAL OPTION
SOLVE
1 - 35
age
t
the thermal heating time limit for the coupled thermalmechanical calculation
clock
t
computer runtime limit, in minutes. A time limit of greater than 1440
minutes (24 hours) will not be accepted; for longer runtimes (e.g.,
over a weekend), several SOLVE clock commands can be given in
sequence. (Default is t = 1440 minutes.)
noage
turns off the requested time limit previously set by the age keyword.
sratio
value
ratio limit for the thermal calculation process. (By default, the limit
is 103 .) The sratio is defined as the temperature change divided by
the temperature at a gridpoint.
step
s
thermal step limit (The default is s = 100,000 steps.)
temperature
t
The calculation will stop if the maximum temperature change in one
cycle is greater than t. The default is t = 20 C. The temperature
change in one cycle can be reduced by changing the thermal timestep
with the command SET thdt.
1 - 36
Optional Features
Automatic control over the solution can be obtained by using the following keyword
following the SOLVE command:
auto
off
on
In CONFIG th gw mode, if auto = on, then FLAC will do mechanical
sub-cycles until either the mechanical step limit is reached (defined
by the SET nmech command), the unbalanced force limit is reached
(defined by the SET force command), or the out-of-balance force ratio
limit is reached (defined by the sratio keyword following the SOLVE
command). Note that for a thermal-mechanical analysis, the SET
ow off command must also be given. The number of mechanical
sub-steps and thermal steps are reported to the screen continuously
as cycling progresses.
NOTE: Once the limits have been defined (including default values), they remain
in effect until specifically reset in a subsequent SOLVE command, or when a NEW
command is used. The NEW command resets limits to their default values. If the
<Esc> key is pressed during execution, FLAC returns control to the user after the
current step is completed.
See Section 1.4.3 for information on enabling and disabling mechanical and/or thermal steps.
1.5.2 FISH Variables
The following scalar variables are available in a FISH function to assist with thermal analysis:
thtdel
timestep for the thermal calculation (as set by the SET thdt command)
thtime
thermal time
The following FLAC grid variables can be accessed and modified by a FISH function:
temp
temperature
tow
Also, thermal property values may be accessed (changed, as well as tested) in a FISH function. See
the PROPERTY command in Section 1.5.1 for a list of the thermal properties.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 37
Table 1.1
Length
Density
kg/m3
103 kg/m3
106 kg/m3
cm
106 g/cm3
Stress
Pa
kPa
MPa
bar
Temperature
Time
Specific Heat
J/(kg K)
103 J/(kg K)
106 J/(kg K)
Thermal Conductivity
W/(mK)
W/(m2 K)
W/(mK)
(W/m2 K)
W/(mK)
W/(m2 K)
W/(m2 K4 )
W/(m2 K4 )
W/(m2 K4 )
(cal/s)/cm2 K4
W/m2
W/m3
W/m2
W/m3
W/m2
W/m3
(cal/s)/cm2
(cal/s)/cm3
108
2
W/m K4
5.67
108
2
W/m K4
5.67
108
2
W/m K4
1.356
106 cal/(g K)
(cal/s)/cm2 K4
(cal/s)/(cm2 K)
Coefficient
Radiative Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Flux Strength
Source Strength
Decay Constant
s1
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
5.67
s1
s1
s1
1012
cal/(cm2 s K4 )
1 - 38
Optional Features
Table 1.2
Length
ft
in
Density
slugs/ft3
snails/in3
Stress
lbf
psi
Temperature
Time
hr
hr
(32.17)1 Btu/(1b R)
(32.17)1 Btu/(1b R)
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/hr)/(ft R)
(Btu/hr)/(ft2 R)
(Btu/hr)/(ft2 R4 )
(Btu/hr)/ft2
(Btu/hr)/(in R)
(Btu/hr)/(in2 R)
Specific Heat
where:1K
(Btu/hr)/(in2 R4 )
(Btu/hr)/in2
(Btu/hr)/ft3
hr1
1.713
R4 )
109 Btu/(ft2
(Btu/hr)/in3
hr1
hr
1.19
R4 )
1011 Btu/(in2
hr
= 1.8 R;
1J
1J/kg K
1W
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 39
Table 1.3
Problem specifications
Ti = 3000 C
hi = 100 w/m2 C
k1 = 1.6 w/m C
d1 = 25 cm
temperature of outside
convection coefficient
thermal conductivity
thickness
k 1 = 1.6
Figure 1.1
k 2 = 0.2
T2
T1
hi = 100
o
Ti = 3000 C
To = 25 C
ho = 15 w/m2 C
k2 = 0.2 w/m C
d2 = 15 cm
d1 = 25 cm
T3
d 2 = 15 cm
ho = 15
o
To = 25 C
Composite wall
The analytical steady-state to this problem is quite simple and common. The total equilibrium heat
flux is
1 - 40
Optional Features
Ti To
q
=
A
RT
(1.67)
q 1
A hi
T2 = T1
q d1
A k1
T3 = T2
q d2
A k2
(1.68)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 41
solve
save cwall1.sav
;... STATE: CWALL2 ....
def constants
T_i = 3000.0
T_o = 25.0
h_i = 100.0
h_o = 15.0
k_1 = 1.6
k_2 = 0.2
d_1 = 0.25
d_2 = 0.15
R_1 = 1.0 / h_i
R_2 = d_1 / k_1
R_3 = d_2 / k_2
R_4 = 1.0 / h_o
R_t = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + R_4
flux = (T_i - T_o) / R_t
T_1 = T_i - flux * R_1
T_2 = T_1 - flux * R_2
T_3 = T_2 - flux * R_3
end
constants
;
def compare
loop i (1,igp)
xtable(1,i) = x(i,1)
ytable(1,i) = temp(i,1)
if x(i,1) > 0.25 then
x_p = x(i,1) - 0.25
t_anal = -(T_2 - T_3) * x_p / 0.15 + T_2
else
t_anal = -(T_1 - T_2) * x(i,1) / 0.25 + T_1
endif
xtable(2,i) = x(i,1)
ytable(2,i) = t_anal
end_loop
end
compare
save cwall2.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Steady-state temperature distribution
plot hold temperature fill int 250.0 bound
;plot name: Temperature vs distance comparison
1 - 42
Optional Features
label table 1
FLAC
label table 2
analytical solution
plot hold table 2 line 1 cross label 1 red label 2 red
;plot name: Zone distribution
plot hold conductivity block grid
The wall is idealized by the geometry shown in Figure 1.2. Since the model is infinitely long in one
direction, the model is essentially one-dimensional, and horizontal boundaries may be represented
as adiabatic boundaries.
Adiabatic Boundary
INTERFACE
Convective Boundary
Figure 1.2
In the FLAC analysis, the wall is discretized into two rows of finite difference zones (Figure 1.3).
An adiabatic boundary condition (zero heat flux across boundary) is applied to the top and bottom
of this grid to simulate the infinite dimensions of the wall. The appropriate convective boundary
conditions are applied to the ends of the grid, and two different sets of thermal properties are applied
to model the composite material.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 43
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:21
step
5302
Thermal Time 4.8494E+05
-2.222E-02 <x< 4.222E-01
-1.972E-01 <y< 2.472E-01
0.150
0.100
conductivity
2.000E-01
1.600E+00
Grid plot
0
0.050
0.000
1E -1
-0.050
-0.100
-0.150
Figure 1.3
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
0.275
0.325
0.375
Zone distribution
Figure 1.4 shows a contour plot of the steady-state temperature distribution. Figure 1.5 compares
FLAC s temperature distribution with the analytical solution. Table 1.4 displays a more precise
comparison for five points along the wall, including the three interface points (interface refers to
thermal properties, not a mechanical interface).
1 - 44
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
21-Dec-04 16:30
step
5302
Thermal Time 4.8494E+05
-2.354E-02 <x< 4.235E-01
-1.985E-01 <y< 2.485E-01
0.150
0.100
Temperature
0.00E+00
5.00E+02
1.00E+03
1.50E+03
2.00E+03
2.50E+03
0.050
0.000
-0.050
1E -1
-0.100
-0.150
Figure 1.4
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
0.275
0.325
0.375
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:21
step
5302
Thermal Time 4.8494E+05
2.500
Table Plot
analytical solution
2.000
FLAC
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-02
Figure 1.5
THERMAL OPTION
Table 1.4
T1
T2
T3
1 - 45
Position
Analytical ( C)
FLAC ( C)
% Error
0
0.125
0.250
0.325
0.400
2970
2733
2497
1362
226.7
2970
2733
2497
1362
226.7
< 0.01%
< 0.01%
< 0.01%
< 0.01%
< 0.01%
The comparison between FLAC and the analytical solution shows that, for this simple onedimensional problem, FLAC produces excellent agreement. The errors on both the boundaries
and the interface are negligible (<0.1%). Note that the limiting ratio for the SOLVE sratio command is set to 104 to achieve this level of accuracy.
1.7.1.2 Steady-State Temperature Distribution along a Rectangular Fin
A rectangular fin exchanges heat between a wall of constant temperature and an infinite reservoir
of fluid. As equilibrium is reached, the heat flux through the fin and its temperature distribution
become constant.
As shown in Figure 1.6, the fin is 8.33 cm high, 33.33 cm wide, and infinitely long. It is attached
to a wall maintained at 1100 C, and is immersed in a fluid maintained at 100 C. The fin has a
thermal conductivity of 15 w/m C, and a convection coefficient of 15 w/m2 C.
o
Convection Boundary
100 C
8.33 cm
33.33 cm
Figure 1.6
1 - 46
Optional Features
The fin is infinitely long in the direction perpendicular to the analyzed section, so that the problem
may be considered to be two-dimensional. The fin is isotropic, homogeneous and continuous, and
its thermal properties are temperature-independent. Both the wall and the fluid are assumed to be
infinite heat reservoirs.
The solution to the problem of a fin of finite width with a convection condition at the end is given
by Holman (1986):
T T
cosh [m(L x)] + (h/mk) sinh [m(L x)]
=
To T
cosh (mL) + (h/mk) sinh (mL)
(1.69)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 47
JOB TITLE : .
0.225
0.175
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
338
Thermal Time 2.8425E+03
-2.663E-02 <x< 3.599E-01
-1.516E-01 <y< 2.349E-01
T
Grid plot
0
0.125
0.075
1E -1
Fixed Gridpoints
T Temperature
Applied Heat Sources
X Min Value = 4.685E+02
History Locations
0.025
3
-0.025
-0.075
-0.125
Figure 1.7
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
1 - 48
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 49
Figure 1.8 shows the evolution of the temperature and that a steady state has been reached. Figure 1.9
shows the temperature distribution along the fin at steady state. These temperatures are compared
to the analytical solution in Figure 1.10; for all points, the error is within 0.25%.
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
338
Thermal Time 2.8425E+03
1.050
1.000
0.950
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Temperature ( 2, 1)
0.900
Temperature ( 4, 1)
0.850
Temperature ( 6, 1)
0.800
X-axis :
Thermal time
0.750
0.700
0.650
0.600
10
15
20
25
(10
02
Figure 1.8
Temperature evolution
1 - 50
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
0.200
LEGEND
0.150
22-Dec-04 10:35
step
338
Thermal Time 2.8425E+03
-1.852E-02 <x< 3.518E-01
-1.435E-01 <y< 2.268E-01
0.100
Temperature
3.75E+02
4.50E+02
5.25E+02
6.00E+02
6.75E+02
7.50E+02
8.25E+02
9.00E+02
9.75E+02
1.05E+03
0.050
0.000
-0.050
-0.100
Figure 1.9
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
0.275
0.325
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
338
Thermal Time 2.8425E+03
1.100
1.000
Table Plot
analytical
FLAC
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-02
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 51
500 kg/m3
0.2 J/kg C
20 w/m C
The plate is initially at a uniform temperature of 60 C. The surface is then fixed at 32 C, and the
plate itself has internal heat generation of 40 kW/m3 (as shown in Figure 1.11).
q = 40 kW/m 3
32 C
32 C
1m
2
k
t
x
(1.70)
where: T = temperature;
x = distance from slab centerline;
Q = constant volumetric heat generation rate;
k = thermal conductivity;
t = time; and
= diffusivity =
k
Cp .
1 - 52
Optional Features
By symmetry, only half of the plate is modeled. The applied initial and boundary conditions are as
follows:
T
= 0
x
T = Ts
x = L; t > 0
T =
t 0
Ti
x = 0; t > 0
Q
2
2
(1)m em t
T (x, t) = Ts + (L2 x 2 ) + (Ti Ts )
2k
L
m=0
cos(m x)
m
(1.71)
2Q
cos(m x)
2t
m m
(1) e
3
Lk
m
m=0
or
m =
(2m + 1)
, m = 0, 1, 2...
2L
(1.72)
For steady-state condition (t ), the two last terms of Eq. (1.71) tend to zero, so:
Tsteady (x) = Ts +
Q 2
(L x 2 )
2k
(1.73)
The model used to analyze this problem is shown in Figure 1.12; the corresponding FLAC grid
is given in Figure 1.13. Because the plate is infinitely long, and because the heat generation is
uniform, symmetry conditions exist for any plane perpendicular to the long axis of the plate. These
are represented by adiabatic boundaries. Since equal temperatures exist on either side of the plate,
a symmetry line also exists down the center of the plate.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 53
adiabatic boundary
fixed temp.
q = 40 kW/m3
32 C
0.5m
JOB TITLE : .
0.250
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
5000
Thermal Time 5.0000E+00
-2.778E-02 <x< 5.278E-01
-2.278E-01 <y< 3.278E-01
0.150
Grid plot
0
T
1E -1
Fixed Gridpoints
T Temperature
History Locations
0.050
-0.050
-0.150
0.150
0.250
0.350
0.450
1 - 54
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 55
end
def check_temp
tabout1 = tabout+1
loop jj (1,igp)
c_x = x(jj,1)
xtable(tabout,jj) = c_x
ytable(tabout,jj) = ana_temp
xtable(tabout1,jj) = c_x
ytable(tabout1,jj) = temp(jj,1)
end_loop
tabout = tabout + 2
end
;
g 5 1
mo e th_i
gen 0 0 0 .1 .5 .1 .5 0 rat 0.8 1
pro dens 500 spec .2 cond 20
ini temp 60
interior source 4e4 i 1 5 j 1
fix t 32 i 6
set thdt 1e-3
hist temp i 1 j 1
hist thtime
set mech off
ini_th
; t = 0.1
solve age 0.1 sratio 0.0
check_temp
save slab1.sav
;... STATE: SLAB2 ....
; t = 0.5
solve age 0.5 sratio 0.0
check_temp
save slab2.sav
;... STATE: SLAB3 ....
; t = 5.0
solve age 5.0 sratio 0.0
check_temp
save slab3.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Flac zone distribution and boundary conditions
plot hold grid fix history
;plot name: Temperature distributions for different times
1 - 56
Optional Features
label table 1
analytical at t = 0.1
label table 2
FLAC at t = 0.1
label table 3
analytical at t = 0.5
label table 4
FLAC at t = 0.5
label table 5
analytical t = 5.0
label table 6
FLAC at t = 5.0
plot hold table 6 cross 5 line 4 cross 3 line 2 cross 1 line
;plot name: Temperature evolution in the center of the slab
plot hold history 1 line vs 2
;plot name: Temperature distribution at steady state
plot hold temperature fill int 25.0 bound
A FISH function, ana temp, provides the analytical values of temperature from Eq. (1.71). The
values are stored in tables for comparison to the FLAC values at different times (see FISH function
check temp). The temperature distributions for t = 0.1, 0.5 and 5 seconds are compared in
Figure 1.14. The agreement is excellent, with an error of less than 1%.
Figure 1.15 shows the evolution of temperature in the center of the slab (x = 0). Steady-state
conditions are reached at t = 5. Figure 1.16 shows the temperature distribution at steady state.
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
5000
Thermal Time 5.0000E+00
2.800
2.400
Table Plot
FLAC at t = 5.0
analytical t = 5.0
2.000
FLAC at t = 0.5
analytical at t = 0.5
1.600
FLAC at t = 0.1
analytical at t = 0.1
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-02
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 57
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
5000
Thermal Time 5.0000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Temperature ( 1, 1)
X-axis :
Thermal time
2.800
2.400
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
0.250
6-Apr-04 15:30
step
5000
Thermal Time 5.0000E+00
-2.778E-02 <x< 5.278E-01
-2.278E-01 <y< 3.278E-01
0.150
Temperature
2.50E+01
7.50E+01
1.25E+02
1.75E+02
2.25E+02
2.75E+02
Contour interval= 2.50E+01
Boundary plot
0.050
-0.050
1E -1
-0.150
0.150
0.250
0.350
0.450
1 - 58
Optional Features
4m
2m
Material Properties
density ()
specific heat (Cp )
thermal conductivity in x-direction (kx )
thermal conductivity in y-direction (ky )
2.760 kg/m3
725 J/kg C
2 W/m C
1 W/m C
Initial/Boundary Conditions
convective heat transfer coefficient (h)
fluid temperature (TF )
initial bar temperature (Ti )
2 W/m2 C
30 C
300 C
y
o
TF = 30 C
2 L2= 2 m
T i = 300 C
2 L1 = 4 m
Figure 1.17 Problem geometry
It is assumed that the material properties are temperature independent, the convective heat transfer
coefficient is constant, and the bar is of infinite length.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 59
T (x, y, t) = TF +
m=1 n=1
where: x
(1.74)
ex mn t
sin(m L1 ) sin(n L2 )
cos(m x) cos(n y) (Ti TF )
N(m ) N(n )
m n
2
kx
ky
1
Cp ;
ky
kx
2
mn
2 +
= m
n2 ;
1
N (m )
=2
2 +H 2
m
1
;
2
L1 (m +H12 )+H1
1
N (n )
=2
n2 +H22
;
L2 (n2 +H22 )+H2
H1
h
kx ;
H2
h
ky ;
and
1 - 60
Optional Features
y
Convective Boundary
L =1m
2
x
L1 = 2 m
Adiabatic Boundary
THERMAL OPTION
xtable(tabroot,ii)
xtable(tabroot1,ii)
ytable(tabroot,ii)
ytable(tabroot1,ii)
end_loop
1 - 61
=
=
=
=
ii
ii
froot/2.
froot
end
store_root
;
def ini_th
l1
= 2.
l2
= 1.
c_h = 2.
k_x = 2.
k_y = 1.
ti
= 300.
tf
= 30.
h1
= c_h/k_x
h2
= c_h/k_y
h12 = h1*h1
h22 = h2*h2
alpha = k_x/k_y
end
ini_th
def on_gam
on_gam = 2.*(gam2+h22)/(l2*(gam2+h22)+h2)
end
def on_bet
on_bet = 2.*(bet2+h12)/(l1*(bet2+h12)+h1)
end
def gam_sum
gsumo = 0.
gsumn = 0.
jjsav = 0
tau
= thtime/(density(1,1)*spec_heat(1,1))
loop jj (1,100)
gam = ytable(tabroot1,jj)
gam2 = gam*gam
gsumn = gsumo + exp(-gam2*tau)*on_gam *cos(gam*c_y)*sin(gam*l2)/gam
if gsumn = gsumo then
jjsav = jj
jj
= 100
end_if
gsumo = gsumn
end_loop
if jjsav = 0 then
toto = out( Warning: Maximum number of terms reached in gam_sum)
1 - 62
Optional Features
end_if
gam_sum = gsumo
end
def bet_sum
bsumo = 0.
bsumn = 0.
jjsav = 0
tau
= thtime/(density(1,1)*spec_heat(1,1))
loop jj (1,100)
bet
= ytable(tabroot,jj)
bet2 = bet*bet
term1 = exp(-alpha*bet2*tau)*on_bet
bsumn = bsumo + term1 *cos(bet*c_x)*sin(bet*l1)/bet
if bsumn = bsumo then
jjsav = jj
jj
= 100
end_if
bsumo = bsumn
end_loop
if jjsav = 0 then
toto = out( Warning: Maximum number of terms reached in bet_sum)
end_if
bet_sum = bsumo
end
def ana_temp
ana_temp = tf + (ti-tf) * bet_sum * gam_sum
end
def check_temp
c_y = y(1,jpos)
loop kk (1,igp)
c_x = x(kk,jpos)
xtable(tabout,kk) = c_x
ytable(tabout,kk) = ana_temp
xtable(tabout1,kk) = c_x
ytable(tabout1,kk) = temp(kk,jpos)
end_loop
end
;
grid 12 6
mo e th_an
gen 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 rat .95 .9
pro dens 2760 spec 725 xcon 2 ycon 1
ini temp 300
app conv 30 2 i 13 j 1 7
app conv 30 2 i 1,13 j 7
set thdt 1800
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 63
Figure 1.19 shows the FLAC grid used with a finer zoning towards the exposed corner of the bar.
1 - 64
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:41
step
2000
Thermal Time 3.6000E+06
-9.778E-02 <x< 2.098E+00
-5.978E-01 <y< 1.598E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
0.600
5E -1
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 65
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:41
step
2000
Thermal Time 3.6000E+06
1.000
0.900
Table Plot
FLAC at y = 0, t = 1000 hrs
analytical at y = 1, t = 1000 hrs
0.800
0.700
at y = 1, t = 500 hrs
0.600
at y = 0, t = 500 hrs
0.500
0.400
12
16
20
(10
-01
Figure 1.20 FLAC and analytical temperature distribution through the bar
Figures 1.21 and 1.22 show the temperature distribution in the bar for these two times.
JOB TITLE : .
1.600
1.200
6-Apr-04 15:41
step
1000
Thermal Time 1.8000E+06
-1.710E-01 <x< 2.171E+00
-6.710E-01 <y< 1.671E+00
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E -1
Temperature
4.50E+01
5.25E+01
6.00E+01
6.75E+01
7.50E+01
8.25E+01
9.00E+01
9.75E+01
1.05E+02
0.400
0.000
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
1 - 66
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:41
step
2000
Thermal Time 3.6000E+06
-9.778E-02 <x< 2.098E+00
-5.978E-01 <y< 1.598E+00
1.000
Boundary plot
0
0.600
5E -1
Temperature
3.30E+01
3.45E+01
3.60E+01
3.75E+01
3.90E+01
4.05E+01
4.20E+01
4.35E+01
4.50E+01
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
0.025 m
Material Properties
density ()
specific heat (Cp )
thermal conductivity (k)
2550 kg/m3
911.3 J/kg C
2.51 w/m C
Initial Conditions
initial uniform temperature (To )
293 K
5138.65 w/m2
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 67
It is assumed that the material properties are temperature-independent and the flux is constant (no
decay).
The analytical solution for the transient temperature distribution is given by Carslaw and Jaeger
(1959, p. 248):
R2 q
T (r, t) =
kr
erfc
exp
where: t
r
r R
2(t)1/2
t
r R
+ 2
R
R
erfc
(t)1/2
r R
+
R
2(t)1/2
+ To
(1.75)
is the time;
is the distance from the center of the sphere;
is the diffusivity =
k
Cp ;
and
y
eu du = 1 erf(y) = 1
2
y
o
eu du
2
The upper half of the sphere is modeled by the FLAC grid in axisymmetry mode. The FISH function
HOLE.FIS, from the FISH library (Section 3 in the FISH volume), is used to create the grid (see
Figure 1.23). The applied flux is also shown in this figure. The flux is represented as a series of
circles of different radius; the radius size is related to the axisymmetry. All other boundaries of the
grid are adiabatic. The adiabatic boundary is correct for the lines of symmetry at x = 0 and y =
0. The outer boundaries are located 0.25 m from the symmetry lines; the adiabatic condition there
does not influence the results for the selected heating duration (2500 seconds). The FLAC data file
for this problem is shown in Example 1.5.
1 - 68
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 10:57
step
3357
Thermal Time 2.5007E+03
-1.563E-02 <x< 2.656E-01
-1.839E-02 <y< 2.628E-01
0.175
Grid plot
0
5E -2
0.125
0.075
0.025
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 69
1 - 70
Optional Features
rval
= x(7,1)
tabnum = 30
temp_comp
end
ana_temp
ret
save cavity2.sav
;... STATE: CAVITY3 ....
scline 1 (0.017682932,0.017682932) (0.091942504,0.09050523)
save cavity3.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Flac grid and applied flux
plot hold grid apply athermal
;plot name: Temperature distribution at 2500 seconds
plot hold bound temperature
;plot name: Flac and analytical temperature histories at three locations
label table 10
analytical at r = 0.025
label table 1
FLAC
at r = 0.025
label table 2
FLAC
at r = 0.038
label table 3
FLAC
at r = 0.055
label table 20
analytical at r = 0.038
label table 30
analytical at r = 0.055
plot hold table 30 line 1 cross 20 line 10 line 3 cross 2 cross skip 10
Figure 1.24 shows the temperature distribution after 2500 seconds. The temperature contours are
concentric, as expected for this symmetric analysis.
The temperature values are calculated from Eq. (1.75) in a FISH function, temp comp. The
complementary error function is calculated using ERFC.FIS, as described in Section 3 in the
FISH volume. Figure 1.25 compares the FLAC results to the analytical solution for transient
temperature histories at three points located at r = 0.025 m, 0.038 m and 0.055 m from the center
of the sphere. The temperatures agree within a difference of less than 1%.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 71
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 10:57
step
3357
Thermal Time 2.5007E+03
-1.563E-02 <x< 2.656E-01
-1.839E-02 <y< 2.628E-01
0.175
Boundary plot
0
5E -2
0.125
Temperature
Contour interval= 5.00E+00
B: 2.950E+02
I: 3.300E+02
B
0.075
C
D
GF
IH
E
0.025
0.075
0.125
0.175
0.225
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 16:10
step
3357
Thermal Time 2.5007E+03
Table Plot
analytical at r = 0.055
FLAC
3.300
3.250
3.200
at r = 0.025
analytical at r = 0.038
3.150
analytical at r = 0.025
FLAC
at r = 0.055
FLAC
at r = 0.038
3.100
3.050
3.000
2.950
12
16
20
24
(10
02
1 - 72
Optional Features
1 kPa
0.25
1 m2 /s
3/ C
1 w/m C
The slab is a homogeneous, continuous and isotropic half-space. The material is perfectly elastic,
and its thermal properties are temperature-independent.
The analytical solution for the transient thermal response is given by Carslaw and Jaeger (1959, p.
75):
2q
T (x, t) =
k
1/2
e
(x 2 /4t)
x
erfc
2
x
2(t)1/2
where: q
is the applied heat flux; and
erfc (y) is the complementary error function:
2
y
eu du = 1 erf(y) = 1
2
y
o
eu du
2
(1.76)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 73
The solution for the thermally induced stress state is given by Timoshenko and Goodier (1970, p.
435):
y =
ET
1
(1.77)
The thermal problem is one-dimensional (Figure 1.27); the slab was simulated by two rows of zones
for contour plotting purposes (Figure 1.28). A constant heat flux was applied to the left boundary,
while the rest of the boundaries were kept adiabatic to represent thermal symmetry planes. The right
boundary was extended far enough to simulate an infinite depth. The upper and lower boundaries
were mechanically fixed in the vertical direction to represent shear-free symmetry planes. The
FLAC data file is listed in Example 1.6.
Adiabatic Boundary
1 - 74
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
22-Dec-04 11:02
step
3322
Thermal Time 1.0000E+00
-2.778E-01 <x< 5.278E+00
-2.578E+00 <y< 2.978E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
1E 0
Fixed Gridpoints
Y Y-direction
B Both directions
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y B
B
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y B
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 75
e_val = xi
tvalue = cons1*exp(-xi*xi)-xi*erfc
xtable(tabta,ii) = rval
ytable(tabta,ii) = const*tvalue
xtable(tabtn,ii) = rval
ytable(tabtn,ii) = temp(ii,1)
end_loop
end
def stress_comp
cons = 2.*sqrt(c_th * thtime)
const = t_hat*cons
loop ii (1,izones)
rval = 0.5*(x(ii,1)+x(ii+1,1))
;
vertical stress
xi
= rval/cons
e_val = xi
tvalue = cons1*exp(-xi*xi)-xi*erfc
xtable(tabsa,ii) = rval
ytable(tabsa,ii) = - eta*const*tvalue
xtable(tabsn,ii) = rval
ytable(tabsn,ii) = syy(ii,1)
end_loop
end
g 25 2
mo e th_i
gen 0 0 0 .4 5 .4 5 0
pro bulk .67 shear .4 dens 1 spec 1 cond 1 thexp 3
app flux 1 i 1
fix y j 1
fix y j 3
fix x y i 26
hist thtime
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist temp i 1 j 1
set thdt 8e-4
ini_cons
; t = 0.2 sec
set mech off th on
solve age 0.2 sratio 0.0
set mec on th off
set st_damp combine
solve sratio 0.1
set tabta = 1 tabtn = 2 tabsa = 3 tabsn = 4
temp_comp
stress_comp
save slaba.sav
1 - 76
Optional Features
= 30
tabsn
= 40
The thermal timestep is set to 8 104 seconds. First, the problem is solved thermally only (SET
mech off) to an age of 0.2 second (250 steps). Then, the thermal logic is set off, and the mechanical
logic on, in order to obtain the stress distribution at t = 0.2 second (700 steps with SET mech on
ther off). This two-phase process is then repeated until an age of t = 1 second is reached. Note, in
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 77
Figure 1.29, how the temperature (dotted line) remains constant while the problem is being solved
mechanically.
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Ave. SYY
( 1, 1)
-1.000
3 Temperature ( 1, 1)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
02
1 - 78
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
22-Dec-04 11:02
step
3322
Thermal Time 1.0000E+00
-2.778E-01 <x< 5.278E+00
-2.578E+00 <y< 2.978E+00
1.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.00E-01
4.00E-01
6.00E-01
8.00E-01
1.00E+00
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
analytical at t = 1.0
FLAC
at t = 0.2
0.600
analytical at t = 0.2
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
Figure 1.31 FLAC and analytical temperature distribution at 0.2 second and
1 second
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 79
JOB TITLE : .
22-Dec-04 11:02
step
3322
Thermal Time 1.0000E+00
-2.778E-01 <x< 5.278E+00
-2.578E+00 <y< 2.978E+00
1.000
YY-stress contours
-4.00E+00
-3.50E+00
-3.00E+00
-2.50E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.00E+00
-5.00E-01
0.00E+00
0.000
-1.000
1E 0
-2.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.500
Table Plot
FLAC at t = 1.0
-1.000
analytical at t = 1.0
-1.500
FLAC
at t = 0.2
analytical at t = 0.2
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 1.33 FLAC and analytical vertical stress distribution at 0.2 second and
1 second
1 - 80
Optional Features
2178.5 kg/m3
5.4 106 / C
0.26
27.77 GPa
879.23 J/kg C
4.21 w/m C
Initial/Boundary Conditions
initial stress state
initial uniform temperature
no stresses
0 C
1442.3 w/m
It is assumed that the material properties are temperature-independent, the thermal output of the
source is constant (no decay), and the heat line source is of infinite length.
The analytical solution for this problem is given by Nowacki (1962):
T =
r 2
Q
Ei
4
4 t
(1.78)
r =
r 2
r 2
Q G m
r2
4t
E
t
i
4
4 t k
r 2
(1.79)
t =
r 2
Q G m r 2
r2
4t 1
E
t
e
i
4
4 t k
r 2
(1.80)
ur =
r 2
r 2
Qm
r2
t 1 e 4t
Ei
2r
4
4t k
(1.81)
where: T
= temperature;
= radial stress;
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 81
= tangential stress;
ur
= radial displacement;
= time;
= diffusivity =
= ( 1+
1 )t ; and
k
Cp ;
x
eu
u du.
An axisymmetric FLAC model is applied to this problem. The line of symmetry is aligned with the
line heat source. The heat source is assumed to have a fictitious radius of R = 0.01 m, so that the
applied flux will be
Flux = q =
Q
= 22, 955 w/m2
2 R
The constant heat flux q is applied to the left boundary, while the rest of the boundaries are kept
adiabatic to represent thermal symmetry planes. The right boundary is extended far enough to
simulate infinity. The upper and lower sides are mechanically fixed in the vertical direction to
represent shear-free symmetry planes. Right and left boundaries are mechanically fixed in the
x-direction. Figure 1.34 shows this conceptual model. The FLAC data file is given in Example 1.7.
Figure 1.35 shows the zone distribution and boundary conditions actually used (note the window
distortion). Figure 1.36 shows a close-up of the right side of the model with no distortion.
The problem is solved by alternately taking one thermal step and then several mechanical substeps to ensure mechanical equilibrium. The SOLVE auto on age = command is used to adjust the
mechanical sub-steps automatically, to keep the maximum unbalanced mechanical force ratio below
the default limit. Note that the CONFIG gw and SET ow off commands are given in order to use
this solving control. The process is followed to reach a heating age of one year, and then repeated
until an age of 5 years is reached.
1 - 82
Optional Features
Axis of
Radial Symmetry
Adiabatic Boundary
THERMAL OPTION
e_val = xi2
E_xi2 = exp_int
stresses
xtable(tabta,ii)
ytable(tabta,ii)
xtable(tabtn,ii)
ytable(tabtn,ii)
xtable(tabua,ii)
ytable(tabua,ii)
xtable(tabun,ii)
ytable(tabun,ii)
end_loop
1 - 83
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
rval
t_hat*cons1*E_xi2
rval
temp(ii,1)
rval
u_hat*0.5*cons1*rval*(E_xi2 + (1.-exp(-xi2))/xi2)
rval
xdisp(ii,1)
end
def stress_comp
cons = 1./(4.*c_th*thtime)
loop ii (1,izones)
rval = 0.5*(x(ii,1)+x(ii+1,1))
xi2 = rval*rval*cons
e_val = xi2
E_xi2 = exp_int
term = (1.-exp(-xi2))/xi2
;
temperature
xtable(tabsra,ii) = rval
ytable(tabsra,ii) = -s_hat*cons1*(E_xi2 + term)
xtable(tabsrn,ii) = rval
ytable(tabsrn,ii) = sxx(ii,1)
xtable(tabsta,ii) = rval
ytable(tabsta,ii) = -s_hat*cons1*(E_xi2 - term)
xtable(tabstn,ii) = rval
ytable(tabstn,ii) = szz(ii,1)
end_loop
end
g 30 2
mo el th_iso
gen 0 0 0 1 500 1 500 0 rat 1.2 1
ini x .01 i 1
fix y j 1
fix y j 3
fix x i 31
fix x i 1
app flux 2.2955e4 i 1 j 1 3
pro den 2.1785e3 bulk 48.6e9 she 27.77e9
pro cond 4.21 sp 879.23 thexp 5.4e-6
hist thtime
hist unbal
hist szz i 10 j 1
1 - 84
hist temp i 10 j 1
hist xd i 10 j 1
ini_cons
set nmech 5000
;
; 1 year
set mech on th on flow off
solve auto on age 3.1542e7
;
set tabta = 1 tabtn = 2 tabua = 3 tabun = 4
set tabsra = 5 tabsrn = 6 tabsta = 7 tabstn = 8
temp_comp
stress_comp
save source_1yr.sav
;... STATE: SOURCE_5YR ....
;
; 5 years
solve auto on age 1.5771e8
;
set tabta = 10 tabtn = 20 tabua = 30 tabun = 40
set tabsra = 50 tabsrn = 60 tabsta = 70 tabstn = 80
temp_comp
stress_comp
save source_5yr.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Close-up view of Flac grid near source
plot hold grid fix
;plot name: Temperature distribution at 5 years
plot hold bound temperature fill int 10.0
;plot name: Temperature distribution at 1 and 5 years
label table 1
analytical at 1 year
label table 10
analytical at 10 year
label table 2
FLAC
at 1 year
label table 20
FLAC
at 5 year
plot hold table 20 cross 10 line 2 cross 1 line
;plot name: Radial displacement contours at 5 years
plot hold xdisp fill bound
;plot name: Radial displacements at 1 and 5 years
label table 4
FLAC
at 1 year
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 85
label table 40
FLAC
at 5 year
label table 3
analytical at 1 year
label table 30
analytical at 5 year
plot hold table 40 cross 30 line 4 cross 3 line
;plot name: Radial stress contours at 5 years
plot hold sxx fill min -6.5E7 max -5000000.0 int 5000000.0 bound
;plot name: Radial stresses at 1 and 5 years
label table 60
FLAC
at 5 year
label table 50
analytical1 at 5 year
label table 6
FLAC
at 1 year
label table 5
analytical at 1 year
plot hold table 60 cross 50 line 6 cross 5 line
;plot name: Tangential stress contours at 5 years
plot hold szz fill min -7.0E7 max 0.0 int 2500000.0 bound
;plot name: Tangential stresses at 1 and 5 years
label table 8
FLAC
at 1 year
label table 80
FLAC
at 5 year
label table 70
analytical at 5 year
label table 7
analytical at 1 year
plot hold table 80 cross 70 line 8 cross 7 line
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid fix
1 - 86
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
2.750
LEGEND
2.250
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
-5.000E+01 <x< 5.500E+02
-2.000E+00 <y< 3.000E+00
1.750
1.250
B
Y
Y
YY
Y
YYYYYYYYY Y Y Y Y Y
Grid plot
0
B
0.750
1E 2
X
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
Y Y-direction
B Both directions
X
0.250
B
Y
Y
YY
Y
YYYYYYYYY Y Y Y Y Y
B
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-1.750
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
(*10^2)
Figure 1.35 FLAC grid for infinite line heat source (note window distortion)
JOB TITLE : .
4.500
LEGEND
3.500
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
0.000E+00 <x< 9.000E+00
-4.000E+00 <y< 5.000E+00
2.500
1.500
Grid plot
B
0
2E 0
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
Y Y-direction
B Both directions
X
B
0.500
Y
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 87
The analytical solutions for temperature and displacement, Eqs. (1.78) and (1.81), are performed in
the FISH function temp comp, and for radial and tangential stresses, Eqs. (1.79) and (1.80), in the
FISH function stress comp. The results are stored in tables for comparison to FLAC s results.
The FISH function in EXPINT.FIS (see Section 3 in the FISH volume) provides the exponential
integral function.
The results of this analysis are summarized as follows:
Temperature Distribution
Figure 1.37 shows the temperature distribution after five years. (Note the partial window
0 < x < 100 m; this window will be the same for the following contour plots.) Figure 1.38
compares FLAC s results to the analytical solution for t = 1 and 5 years. The agreement
is excellent.
Radial Displacement Distribution
Figure 1.39 shows the radial displacement distribution after five years. Figure 1.40
compares FLAC s results to the analytical solution for t = 1 and 5 years. The agreement
is fairly good for x < 50 m, but the effect of a fixed horizontal displacement at x = 500
makes FLAC underestimate displacements slightly.
Radial Stress Distribution
Figure 1.41 shows the radial stress distribution (sxx) after five years. Figure 1.42 compares FLAC s results to the analytical solution for t = 1 and 5 years. The agreement is
very good, with a small overestimation of stresses for large values of x. This is, again,
due to the fixed displacement boundary.
Tangential Stress Distribution
Figure 1.43 shows the tangential stress distribution (szz) after five years. Figure 1.44
compares FLAC s results to the analytical solution for t = 1 and 5 years. The agreement
is very good, and stresses are, again, slightly overestimated for large values of x.
1 - 88
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
LEGEND
1.200
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+02
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.500E+00
1.000
0.800
Temperature
0.00E+00
4.00E+01
8.00E+01
1.20E+02
1.60E+02
2.00E+02
2.40E+02
2.80E+02
3.20E+02
Contour interval= 1.00E+01
Boundary plot
0
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
2E 1
-0.200
-0.400
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
Table Plot
analytical at 1 year
FLAC
3.500
3.000
at 1 year
analytical at 10 year
FLAC
4.000
2.500
at 5 year
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
(10
01
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 89
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
LEGEND
1.200
6-Apr-04 16:42
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+02
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.500E+00
1.000
0.800
X-displacement contours
0.00E+00
5.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.50E-03
2.00E-03
2.50E-03
3.00E-03
3.50E-03
4.00E-03
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
2E 1
-0.200
-0.400
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
4.500
4.000
Table Plot
analytical at 1 year
3.500
FLAC
3.000
at 1 year
analytical at 5 year
FLAC
at 5 year
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
14
16
18
(10
01
1 - 90
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
LEGEND
1.200
6-Apr-04 16:42
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+02
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.500E+00
1.000
0.800
XX-stress contours
-6.50E+07
-5.50E+07
-4.50E+07
-3.50E+07
-2.50E+07
-1.50E+07
-5.00E+06
0.600
0.400
0.200
2E 1
-0.200
-0.400
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
-1.000
-2.000
Table Plot
analytical at 1 year
FLAC
at 1 year
-3.000
analytical1 at 5 year
FLAC
at 5 year
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
12
16
20
(10
01
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 91
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
LEGEND
1.200
6-Apr-04 16:42
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
0.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+02
-5.000E-01 <y< 1.500E+00
1.000
0.800
ZZ-stress contours
-7.00E+07
-6.00E+07
-5.00E+07
-4.00E+07
-3.00E+07
-2.00E+07
-1.00E+07
0.00E+00
Contour interval= 2.50E+06
Boundary plot
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
2E 1
-0.200
-0.400
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
0.000
22-Dec-04 11:21
step 12000
Thermal Time 1.5771E+08
-1.000
Table Plot
analytical at 1 year
-2.000
FLAC
at 1 year
analytical at 5 year
FLAC
-3.000
at 5 year
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
12
16
20
(10
01
1 - 92
Optional Features
M + 3K t
T
K + 2 M
(1.82)
3t
T
K + 2 M
(1.83)
where
= nf + (1 n)g
(1.84)
The parameters and their dimensionless values for this example are:
density ()
bulk modulus (K)
shear modulus (G)
porosity (n)
Biot modulus (M)
Biot coefficient ()
linear thermal expansion coefficient (t )
fluid volumetric thermal expansion coefficient (f )
grain volumetric thermal expansion coefficient (g )
thermal conductivity (k)
specific heat (Cp )
1
0.67
0.4
0.5
4
1
3
1
9
1
1
For T = 0.4, the analytical values for v (v = 11 +22 +33 ) and P from Eqs. (1.82)
and (1.83) are 2.230 and -0.918, respectively. The results from FLAC agree with these values
(< 0.01% difference).
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 93
1 - 94
Optional Features
0.4
_por*_betaf+(1.-_por)*_betag
_bic*_bim*_beta+3.*_alt*_bu
_bu+_bic*_bic*_bim
(num1/den) * delta_t
_bim*_bu*(_beta-3.*_bic*_alt)
(num2/den) * delta_t
100.0 * (3.0 * xdisp(igp,jgp) - v_strain) / v_strain
100.0 * (gpp(igp,jgp) - delta_p) / delta_p
err_pp
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 95
2686.5 kg/m3
1000 kg/m3
10 GPa
14 GPa
1.1 GPa
0.4 1015 m2 /(Pa s)
0.05
3 w/(m C)
1.2 103 / C
2.4 105 / C
845 J/kg C
Heat Flux
energy release per unit area (q0 )
10 w/m2
2q0 cth t 1 2
T =
erfc( )
e
kth
1 2
2q0 b cth t 1 2
erfc(
)
erfc()
p =
e
e
kth (1 2 )
yy = zz = 21 (p + 0 T )
(1.85)
(1.86)
(1.87)
1 - 96
Optional Features
where t is time, cgw and cth are the hydraulic and thermal diffusivities, and erfc is the complementary error function, and:
x ;
2 cth t
= x
cgw
kgw
S ;
1
M
cth
kth
Cv ;
cgw
cth ;
1
S
= 1 g K;
cgw t
2
K+4G/3 ;
s + n(f g )
g K
K+4G/3 ;
G
K+4G/3 ;
erfc(x) = 1
and
x u2
du.
0 e
Kw
n .
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 97
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
22-Dec-04 17:06
step
2624
Flow Time
3.6162E+03
Thermal Time 3.6162E+03
-5.560E-01 <x< 1.056E+01
-5.506E+00 <y< 5.506E+00
2.000
Grid plot
0
2E 0
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
22-Dec-04 17:06
step
2624
Flow Time
3.6162E+03
Thermal Time 3.6162E+03
-6.419E-02 <x< 2.142E-01
-1.025E-01 <y< 1.759E-01
YPY Y Y Y
0.075
Grid plot
0
5E -2
Fixed Gridpoints
Y Y-direction
P Pore-pressure
Applied Heat Sources
O Max Value = 5.000E-01
0.025
YPY Y Y Y
-0.025
-0.075
0.025
0.075
0.125
0.175
1 - 98
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 99
def ini_param
pas_gw = 7
pas_th = 1
storativity = roc_poro/wat_bulk + 1./(roc_bulk + 4.*roc_shea/3.)
c_th
= k_th/(roc_dens*c_v)
c_gw
= k_gw/storativity
omega2 = c_gw/c_th
omega = sqrt(omega2)
betam = alpha*beta_s + roc_poro * (beta_f - beta_s)
beta0 = betam - alpha*beta_s*roc_bulk/(roc_bulk+4.*roc_shea/3.)
gamma = beta0 / storativity
lam0
= beta_s*roc_bulk/alpha
lam1
= alpha*roc_shea/(roc_bulk + 4.*roc_shea/3.)
aa
= q0 / k_th
bb
= 1./sqrt(pi)
bo_ii = 0
end
ini_param
def profile
cons = 2.*sqrt(c_th * thtime)
const = aa*cons
consp = aa*cons*gamma/(1.-omega2)
loop ii (1,igp)
;
temperature
xi
= x(ii,1)/cons
e_val = xi
tvalue = bb*exp(-xi*xi)-xi*erfc
xtable(tabat,ii) = x(ii,1)
ytable(tabat,ii) = const*tvalue
xtable(tabnt,ii) = x(ii,1)
ytable(tabnt,ii) = temp(ii,1)
;
pore pressure
eta
= xi / omega
e_val = eta
pvalue = bb*exp(-eta*eta)-eta*erfc
xtable(tabap,ii) = x(ii,1)
ytable(tabap,ii) = consp*(tvalue-pvalue)
xtable(tabnp,ii) = x(ii,1)
ytable(tabnp,ii) = gpp(ii,1)
end_loop
;
stresses
loop ii (1,izones)
xzone
= 0.5*(
x(ii+1,1)+
x(ii,1))
xtable(tabsa,ii) = xzone
pzone
= 0.5*( gpp(ii+1,1)+ gpp(ii,1))
tzone
= 0.5*(temp(ii+1,1)+temp(ii,1))
1 - 100
Optional Features
ytable(tabsa,ii)
xtable(tabsz,ii)
ytable(tabsz,ii)
xtable(tabsy,ii)
ytable(tabsy,ii)
xtable(tabsx,ii)
ytable(tabsx,ii)
end_loop
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-2.*lam1*(pzone+lam0*tzone)
xzone
szz(ii,1)
xzone
syy(ii,1)
xzone
sxx(ii,1)
end
def anasol
loop tabin (1,7)
kk = (tabin-1)*5+1
xval = x(kk,1)
taboutp = tabin+100
taboutt = tabin+110
tabouts = tabin+120
loop ii (1,bo_ii)
timeval = xtable(tabin,ii)
cons = 2.*sqrt(c_th * timeval)
const = aa*cons
consp = aa*cons*gamma/(1.-omega2)
;
temperature histories
xi
= xval/cons
e_val = xi
tvalue = bb*exp(-xi*xi)-xi*erfc
xtable(taboutt,ii) = timeval
ytable(taboutt,ii) = const*tvalue
;
pore pressure histories
eta
= xi / omega
e_val = eta
pvalue = bb*exp(-eta*eta)-eta*erfc
xtable(taboutp,ii) = timeval
ytable(taboutp,ii) = consp*(tvalue-pvalue)
;
zz-stress histories
xi
= 0.5*(x(kk,1)+x(kk+1,1))/ cons
e_val
= xi
tvalue = bb*exp(-xi*xi)-xi*erfc
eta
= xi / omega
e_val
= eta
pvalue = bb*exp(-eta*eta)-eta*erfc
tempval = const*tvalue
presval = consp*(tvalue-pvalue)
xtable(tabouts,ii) = timeval
ytable(tabouts,ii) = -2.*lam1*(presval+lam0*tempval)
end_loop
end_loop
THERMAL OPTION
end
def master_step
loop while thtime < master_age
loop jt (1,pas_th)
command
set therm on flow off
step 1
set therm off flow off
solve auto on step 1
end_command
end_loop
loop jg (1,pas_gw)
command
set therm off flow on
step 1
set therm off flow off
solve auto on step 1
end_command
end_loop
bo_ii = bo_ii+1
ii
= bo_ii
xtable(1,ii)=gwtime
ytable(1,ii)=gpp(1,1)
xtable(2,ii)=gwtime
ytable(2,ii)=gpp(6,1)
xtable(3,ii)=gwtime
ytable(3,ii)=gpp(11,1)
xtable(4,ii)=gwtime
ytable(4,ii)=gpp(16,1)
xtable(5,ii)=gwtime
ytable(5,ii)=gpp(21,1)
xtable(6,ii)=gwtime
ytable(6,ii)=gpp(26,1)
xtable(7,ii)=gwtime
ytable(7,ii)=gpp(31,1)
xtable(11,ii)=thtime
ytable(11,ii)=temp(1,1)
xtable(12,ii)=thtime
ytable(12,ii)=temp(6,1)
xtable(13,ii)=thtime
ytable(13,ii)=temp(11,1)
xtable(14,ii)=thtime
ytable(14,ii)=temp(16,1)
xtable(15,ii)=thtime
ytable(15,ii)=temp(21,1)
xtable(16,ii)=thtime
1 - 101
mech off
mech
on
mech off
mech
on
1 - 102
Optional Features
ytable(16,ii)=temp(26,1)
xtable(17,ii)=thtime
ytable(17,ii)=temp(31,1)
xtable(21,ii)=gwtime
ytable(21,ii)=szz(1,1)
xtable(22,ii)=gwtime
ytable(22,ii)=szz(6,1)
xtable(23,ii)=gwtime
ytable(23,ii)=szz(11,1)
xtable(24,ii)=gwtime
ytable(24,ii)=szz(16,1)
xtable(25,ii)=gwtime
ytable(25,ii)=szz(21,1)
xtable(26,ii)=gwtime
ytable(26,ii)=szz(26,1)
xtable(27,ii)=gwtime
ytable(27,ii)=szz(31,1)
end_loop
end
; --- settings --set nmech=5000 force .01
set thdt=22.05 gwdt=3.15
set pas_th=1 pas_gw=7
; --- testing --set master_age = 3600
; 1 min
master_step
set tabat = 200 tabnt = 201 tabap = 202 tabnp
set tabsa = 204 tabsz = 205 tabsy = 206 tabsx
profile
save heat1.sav
;... STATE: HEAT2 ....
;
set master_age = 36000
master_step
set tabat = 300 tabnt
set tabsa = 304 tabsz
profile
save heat2.sav
;... STATE: HEAT3 ....
anasol
save heat3.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Grid
= 203
= 207
; 10 min
= 301 tabap
= 305 tabsy
= 302 tabnp
= 306 tabsx
= 303
= 307
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 103
1 - 104
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 105
FLAC
at at i = 31
plot hold table 107 line 7 cross 106 line 6 cross 105 line 5 &
cross 104 line 4 cross 103 line 3 cross 102 line 2 cross 101 &
line 1 cross skip 50
;plot name: Out-of-plane stress histories
label table 21
FLAC
at i = 1
label table 22
FLAC
at i = 6
label table 23
FLAC
at i = 11
label table 24
FLAC
at i = 16
label table 25
FLAC
at i = 21
label table 26
FLAC
at i = 26
label table 27
FLAC
at i = 31
label table 121
analytical at i = 1
label table 122
analytical at i = 6
label table 123
analytical at i = 11
label table 124
analytical at i = 16
label table 125
analytical at i = 21
label table 126
analytical at i = 26
label table 127
analytical at i = 31
plot hold table 127 line 126 line 125 line 124 line 123 line 122 &
line 121 line 27 cross 26 cross 25 cross 24 cross 23 cross 22 &
cross 21 cross skip 50
The temperature, pore-pressure and out-of-plane stress profiles through the FLAC model are compared to the analytical solutions, Eqs. (1.85), (1.86) and (1.87), via the FISH function profile.
Time histories of the analytical values for temperature, pore pressure and out-of-plane stress are
calculated at selected locations in the model via FISH function anasol for comparison to the
FLAC values. The complementary error function, erfc(x), is solved in the FISH function in
ERFC.FIS, described in the FISH Library in Section 3 in the FISH volume.
1 - 106
Optional Features
The results of the numerical simulation are compared to the analytical solution in the following
figures:
Temperature Results
Figure 1.47 compares temperature profiles after 1 and 10 minutes. Figure 1.50 shows
numerical and analytical temperature histories at i = 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, 31. The temperature agreement is very good (a result to be expected in this problem where the thermal
process is driving).
Pore Pressure Results
Equivalent results for the pore pressure are presented in Figures 1.48 and 1.51. The
agreement is also good.
Stress Profiles
Figures 1.49 and 1.52 provide similar results for the out-of-plane stress. The agreement
is again good; the difference is greatest at gridpoint i = 1, as a result of the high stress
gradient near the inner boundary. This error can be reduced by increasing the number of
zones in this region.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 107
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
23-Dec-04 0:01
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
8.000
7.000
6.000
Table Plot
analytical at 1 min.
FLAC
analytical at 10 min.
FLAC
5.000
at 1 min.
4.000
at 10 min.
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
23-Dec-04 0:01
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
7.000
Table Plot
analytical at 1 min.
5.000
FLAC
4.000
at 1 min.
6.000
analytical at 10 min.
FLAC
at 10 min.
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
1 - 108
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
23-Dec-04 0:01
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
0.000
-0.400
Table Plot
analytical at 1 min.
FLAC
at 1 min.
-0.800
analytical at 10 min.
FLAC
at 10 min.
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
23-Dec-04 0:01
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
8.000
7.000
6.000
Table Plot
Analytical at at i = 1
5.000
Analytical at at i = 6
Analytical at at i = 11
4.000
Analytical at at i = 16
Analytical at at i = 21
3.000
Analytical at at i = 26
Analytical at at i = 31
FLAC
at at i = 1
FLAC
at at i = 6
FLAC
at at i = 11
FLAC
at at i = 16
FLAC
at at i = 21
FLAC
at at i = 26
FLAC
at at i = 31
2.000
1.000
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
03
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 109
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 11:26
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
7.000
Table Plot
FLAC at at i = 31
5.000
analytical at at i = 31
4.000
FLAC
at at i = 26
analytical at at i = 26
FLAC
1.000
at at i = 11
analytical at at i = 11
FLAC
2.000
at at i = 16
analytical at at i = 16
FLAC
3.000
at at i = 21
analytical at at i = 21
FLAC
6.000
0.000
at at i = 6
analytical at at i = 6
FLAC
at at i = 1
10
15
20
25
30
35
analytical at at i = 1
(10
03
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 11:26
step 26128
Flow Time
3.6008E+04
Thermal Time 3.6008E+04
0.000
-0.400
Table Plot
analytical at i = 31
analytical at i = 26
-0.800
analytical at i = 21
analytical at i = 16
-1.200
analytical at i = 11
analytical at i = 6
analytical at i = 1
FLAC
at i = 31
FLAC
at i = 26
FLAC
at i = 21
FLAC
at i = 16
FLAC
at i = 11
FLAC
at i = 6
FLAC
at i = 1
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
03
1 - 110
Optional Features
P
=0
e
x
x 2
(1.88)
where T = (T T0 )/T0 , x = x/L, the origin of the coordinate is at the bottom of the sheet, x is
pointing up, Pe = 0 cw qw L/k T , Pe is the Peclet number, and qw is the specific discharge in the
x-direction.
The solution, with boundary conditions T = 0 at x = 0, and T = T1 at x = 1, is
ePe x 1
T = T1 P
e e 1
(1.89)
The Peclet number for the simulation has magnitude 1.54. The numerical solution for convectionconduction (solid line) is compared to the analytical solution for conduction (symbol) in Figures 1.53
and 1.54. On these plots, the effect of fluid flow is seen to displace the temperature curves in the
direction of the flow.
The FLAC temperature profile for convection-conduction is compared to the analytical solution at
steady state in Figures 1.55 and 1.56. As may be seen from these figures, the match is very good
for this particular simulation.
The numerical simulation can be conducted with or without the fluid configuration and with an
attached grid. These cases are also included (in Example 1.10).
The stability of the numerical algorithm implemented in FLAC can be appreciated by exercising the
files for various values of the grid Peclet and Courant numbers. For example, by varying grid density
and specific discharge, the values of grid Peclet and Courant numbers for which the algorithm is
stable may be derived. (See the discussion on numerical stability in Section 1.3.2.1.)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 111
1 - 112
Optional Features
end
def num_sol
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
table(tabn,c_y) = temp(1,j) / t1
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
converge = 0
loop while n < n_max
n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*c_y*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
if tsum = tsumo then
nit = n
table(tabe,c_y) = 1. - c_y - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out( not converged: x= + string(c_x) + t = + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_loop
end
def ssac_sol
;
steady state advection-conduction sol
tabn = 100
rhow = 10
my_a = f_qy(1,1)*lspec_heat(1,1)*rhow/econduct(1,1)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 113
val = exp(my_a)
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j)
sstemp = (exp(my_a*y(1,j))-val)/(1.-val)
table(tabn,c_y) = sstemp
end_loop
end
; --- settings --set mech off
set therm off flow on
step 1000
set flow off
set thermal on
; --- test --; (adv-cond plot is in solid line)
step 20
cons
num_sol
ana_sol
step 80
num_sol
ana_sol
step 900
num_sol
ana_sol
ssac_sol
save conv_up.sav
;*** BRANCH: FLUID FLOW DOWN ****
new
;... STATE: CONV_DOWN ....
; coupled fluid and thermal
config gw thermal
g 1 25
gen 0 0 0 1 0.1 1 0.1 0
; --- thermal model --;
(note: mechanical model must be assigned too)
model e th_ac
prop conduct 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop lconduct 2.0 lspec_heat 0.2
;prop econducti 2.6 espec_heat 0.201 f_qx 0 f_qy 2
prop density 1000
prop porosity=0.5 perm=2
water bulk=1e4 ten=1e10
; --- use these 2 lines for flow down --ini pp 0
j=1
1 - 114
Optional Features
ini pp 1
j=26
; --- ... and these 2, for flow up --;ini pp 0
j=26
;ini pp 1
j=1
;
fix pp
j=1
fix pp
j=26
water density 10
fix t 100 j=1
fix t 0
j=26
; --- fish constants --def cons
c_cond = 2.6
; conductivity
c_dens = 1000.
; density
c_sph = 0.201
; specific heat
length = 1.
; wall thickness
t1 = 100.
; wall temperature, face 1
tabn = -1
tabe = 0
overl = 1. / length
d = c_cond / (c_dens * c_sph)
dol2 = d * overl * overl
top = 2. / pi
pi2 = pi * pi
n_max = 100
; max number of terms -exact solution
teps = 1.e-5
; small value compared to 1
end
def num_sol
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
table(tabn,c_y) = temp(1,j) / t1
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 115
converge = 0
loop while n < n_max
n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*c_y*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
if tsum = tsumo then
nit = n
table(tabe,c_y) = 1. - c_y - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out( not converged: x= + string(c_x) + t = + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_loop
end
def ssac_sol
;
steady state advection-conduction sol
tabn = 100
rhow = 10
my_a = f_qy(1,1)*lspec_heat(1,1)*rhow/econduct(1,1)
val = exp(my_a)
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j)
sstemp = (exp(my_a*y(1,j))-val)/(1.-val)
table(tabn,c_y) = sstemp
end_loop
end
; --- settings --set mech off
set therm off flow on
step 1000
set flow off
set thermal on
; --- test --; (adv-cond plot is in solid line)
step 20
cons
num_sol
ana_sol
step 80
1 - 116
Optional Features
num_sol
ana_sol
step 900
num_sol
ana_sol
ssac_sol
save conv_down.sav
;*** BRANCH: WITHOUT CONVECTION ****
new
;... STATE: COND ....
config thermal
g 1 25
gen 0 0 0 1 0.1 1 0.1 0
; --- thermal model --;
(note: mechanical model must be assigned too)
model e th_ac
prop conducti 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop
lspec_heat 0.2
; --- use this for flow down --prop econducti 2.6 espec_heat 0.201 f_qx 0 f_qy -2
; --- ... and this for flow up --prop econducti 2.6 espec_heat 0.201 f_qx 0 f_qy 2
;
prop density 1000
water density 10
fix t 100 j=1
fix t 0
j=26
; --- fish constants --def cons
c_cond = 1.6
; conductivity
c_dens = 1000.
; density
c_sph = 0.2
; specific heat
length = 1.
; wall thickness
t1 = 100.
; wall temperature, face 1
tabn = -1
tabe = 0
overl = 1. / length
d = c_cond / (c_dens * c_sph)
dol2 = d * overl * overl
top = 2. / pi
pi2 = pi * pi
n_max = 100
; max number of terms -exact solution
teps = 1.e-5
; small value compared to 1
end
def num_sol
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 117
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
table(tabn,c_y) = temp(1,j) / t1
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
converge = 0
loop while n < n_max
n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*c_y*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
if tsum = tsumo then
nit = n
table(tabe,c_y) = 1. - c_y - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out( not converged: x= + string(c_x) + t = + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_loop
end
def ssac_sol
;
steady state advection-conduction sol
tabn = 100
my_a = f_qy(1,1)*lspec_heat(1,1)/1.6 ;econductivity(1,1)
val = exp(my_a)
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j)
1 - 118
Optional Features
sstemp = (exp(my_a*y(1,j))-val)/(1.-val)
table(tabn,c_y) = sstemp
end_loop
end
; --- settings --set mech off
set thermal on
; --- test --; (adv-cond plot is in solid line)
step 20
cons
num_sol
ana_sol
step 80
num_sol
ana_sol
step 900
num_sol
ana_sol
ssac_sol
save cond.sav
;*** BRANCH: ATTACHED GRID ****
new
;... STATE: COND_ATT ....
; attached grid, fluid density
config thermal
g 1 26
model e th_ac
model null j=11
gen 0 0 0 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.1 0 i=1,2 j=1,11
gen 0 0.5 0 1 0.1 1 0.1 0.5 i=1,2 j=12,27
attach aside from 1,11 to 2,11 bside from 1,12 to 2,12
; --- thermal model --;
(note: mechanical model must be assigned too)
prop conducti 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop
lspec_heat 0.2
prop econducti 2.6 espec_heat 0.201 f_qx 0 f_qy 2
prop density 1000
water density 10
fix t 100 j=1
fix t 0
j=27
; --- fish constants --def cons
c_cond = 1.6
; conductivity
c_dens = 1000.
; density
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 119
c_sph = 0.2
; specific heat
length = 1.
; wall thickness
t1 = 100.
; wall temperature, face 1
tabn = -1
tabe = 0
overl = 1. / length
d = c_cond / (c_dens * c_sph)
dol2 = d * overl * overl
top = 2. / pi
pi2 = pi * pi
n_max = 100
; max number of terms -exact solution
teps = 1.e-5
; small value compared to 1
end
def num_sol
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
table(tabn,c_y) = temp(1,j) / t1
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
converge = 0
loop while n < n_max
n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*c_y*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
if tsum = tsumo then
nit = n
table(tabe,c_y) = 1. - c_y - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
1 - 120
Optional Features
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out( not converged: x= + string(c_x) + t = + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_loop
end
def ssac_sol
;
steady state advection-conduction sol
tabn = 100
my_a = f_qy(1,1)*lspec_heat(1,1)/1.6 ;econductivity(1,1)
val = exp(my_a)
loop j (1,jgp)
c_y = y(1,j)
sstemp = (exp(my_a*y(1,j))-val)/(1.-val)
table(tabn,c_y) = sstemp
end_loop
end
; --- settings --set mech off
set thermal on
; --- test --; (adv-cond plot is in solid line)
step 20
cons
num_sol
ana_sol
step 80
num_sol
ana_sol
step 900
num_sol
ana_sol
ssac_sol
save cond_att.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Temperature comparison between conduction and convection
plot hold table 6 cross 5 line 4 cross 3 line 2 cross 1 line
;plot name: Temperature comparison between analytical and numerical
plot hold table 100 line 5 cross
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 121
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
Table Plot
Table 6
0.600
Table 5
Table 4
Table 3
0.400
Table 2
Table 1
0.200
0.000
10
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
Table Plot
Table 6
Table 5
0.600
Table 4
Table 3
0.400
Table 2
Table 1
0.200
0.000
10
(10
-01
1 - 122
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
Table Plot
analytical
FLAC
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
FLAC
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 123
T1 T0
x + T0
b
(1.90)
where x is measured down, from the top of the layer. Assuming no fluid flow, we have:
dp
= g
dx
(1.91)
Using = 0 [1(T Tr )], where Tr is a reference temperature, and T is given by the temperature
solution (Eq. (1.90)), integration of this equation gives
T1 T0 x 2
p = 0 gx 0 g[(T0 Tr )x +
] + p0
b
2
(1.92)
1 - 124
end
setup
; --- thermal model --;
(note: mechanical model must be assigned too)
model th_ac
prop conduct 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop lconduct 2.0 lspec_heat 0.2
prop f_thexp=_beta f_t0=_t1
;<- free advection
prop density 2000
; --- fluid properties --prop poros=0.5 perm=2.0
water bulk=2e5 ten=-1e10
water density 1000.0
; --- boundary conditions --fix temp _t1 j=1
fix temp _t0 j=11
; --- settings --set grav 10
set mech off
; --- fish functions --def check_it
c_e = 1000. * 10.
; water density times gravity
loop ii (1,jgp)
c_y
= _h/2.-y(1,ii)
ana_p = c_e*c_y*(1.0-_beta*(_t0-_t1)*(1.-c_y/(2.*_h)))
; --- NOTE:
;
instead of fixing pp at the top of the model,
;
we subtract a constant from numerical pp value
;
(to prove that no flow is generated) --table(1,c_y) = ana_p
table(2,c_y) = gpp(1,ii)-gpp(1,jgp)
endloop
end
; --- conduction solution --water dens 0
set flow off therm on
step 500
water dens 1000
set therm off flow on
step 500
check_it
save natdev.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pore pressure distribution
label table 1
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 125
analytical
label table 2
FLAC
plot hold table 2 cross 1 line
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
26-Jul-04 12:52
step
1000
Flow Time
1.2500E+02
Thermal Time 1.5385E+10
Table Plot
FLAC
5.000
4.000
analytical
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
(10
03
1 - 126
Optional Features
k
(0 cw ) (0 gH )f (T1 T0 )
kT
(1.93)
where H is the height of the layer, and T1 ,T0 are the temperatures at bottom and top (see, for
example, Lapwood, 1948). For Rayleigh numbers below the minimum critical value of 4 2 , or
about 39.48, the problem has a trivial steady-state solution, which corresponds to zero specific
discharge (the conduction solution). For Rayleigh numbers above 4 2 , non-trivial solutions may
also exist in the form of convection cells. A spectrum of different steady convection modes can be
realized physically; we consider various geometrical aspect ratios and Rayleigh numbers, and we
seek some of these solutions in this section.
Saturated Porous Square Medium
The first example concerns two-dimensional convection in a square section. With the properties
and dimensions adopted in the model (Example 1.12*), the Rayleigh number for this problem is
about 42. This quantity is larger than the critical value of 4 2 . Therefore, non-trivial solutions can
be expected. We will illustrate one of these solutions: a two-dimensional roll, which we compare
to an analytic solution derived from a linear stability analysis. First, we start with an illustration of
the computational methodology.
We take, as initial conditions, the conduction solution (Eqs. (1.90) and (1.92)). In FLAC, the
transient equations are solved for the fluid, and a value for the bulk modulus of the fluid must be
provided. In the present algorithm, this value affects the magnitude of stable timestep adopted for
the simulation. We select a value of 2 105 Pa, which means that, for the property values and zone
size adopted in the explicit simulation, the fluid timestep is one order of magnitude smaller than
the thermal timestep. We fix the thermal timestep at 5.5 1010 seconds, and the fluid timestep at
5.5 109 seconds. We design a supersolve command with the FISH language, which takes one
thermal step and 10 fluid-flow steps for each superstep in the calculation. In this way, the thermal
and fluid times are synchronized after execution of each superstep. The FLAC grid is shown in
Figure 1.58, together with the location of monitoring points. The initial pore pressure contours
and temperature contours corresponding to the conduction solution for a fluid with temperature
dependent density are plotted in Figures 1.59 and 1.60.
* CAUTION: When running this example in the GIIC, be sure to turn off the listing to the Console
pane using the File / Preference Settings menu item. Otherwise, the size of the save files will
become excessive.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 127
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 15:59
step
2750
Flow Time
1.7250E+13
Thermal Time 1.7250E+13
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
6
12
5
11
Grid plot
0
1.000
4
10
2E 3
History Locations
-1.000
3
9
2
8
-3.000
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 15:59
step
2750
Flow Time
1.7250E+13
Thermal Time 1.7250E+13
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
1 - 128
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 15:59
step
2750
Flow Time
1.7250E+13
Thermal Time 1.7250E+13
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 129
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:06
step 187000
Flow Time
1.1730E+15
Thermal Time 1.1730E+15
1.700
1.600
1.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Temperature ( 4, 4)
1.400
Temperature ( 5, 5)
1.300
Temperature ( 7, 7)
Temperature ( 8, 8)
1.200
Temperature ( 9, 9)
1.100
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.000
0.900
10
12
14
16
18
(10
04
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:06
step 187000
Flow Time
1.1730E+15
Thermal Time 1.1730E+15
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
-1.000
-3.000
1E-12
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
Figure 1.62 Temperature contours and flow vectors after 17,000 supersteps
Ra = 42
1 - 130
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:10
step 297000
Flow Time
1.8630E+15
Thermal Time 1.8630E+15
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:10
step 297000
Flow Time
1.8630E+15
Thermal Time 1.8630E+15
1.800
1.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Temperature ( 4, 4)
1.400
Temperature ( 5, 5)
Temperature ( 7, 7)
Temperature ( 8, 8)
1.200
Temperature ( 9, 9)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.000
0.800
10
15
20
25
(10
04
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 131
The simulation is continued for another 50,000 supersteps. From the evolution of temperature (see
Figure 1.65), it appears that the system has reached a steady state. The temperature contours at the
end of the simulation are plotted in Figure 1.66. A contour plot of pore pressure at the end of the
simulation is sketched in Figure 1.67.
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:32
step 847000
Flow Time
5.3130E+15
Thermal Time 5.3130E+15
1.800
1.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Temperature ( 4, 4)
1.400
Temperature ( 5, 5)
Temperature ( 7, 7)
Temperature ( 8, 8)
1.200
Temperature ( 9, 9)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.000
0.800
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
(10
04
1 - 132
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:32
step 847000
Flow Time
5.3130E+15
Thermal Time 5.3130E+15
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
LEGEND
29-Jul-04 16:32
step 847000
Flow Time
5.3130E+15
Thermal Time 5.3130E+15
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
0
5E-10
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
Figure 1.67 Pore pressure contours and flow vectors after 77,000 supersteps
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 133
The values of numerical steady-state temperature contours for a 2D roll in a square at a Rayleigh
number close to critical are shown in Figure 1.66. They may be compared to the two-dimensional
analytical temperature contour values for mode 1, derived from linear perturbation theory (see, for
example, Zhao et al., 1997) and plotted in Figure 1.68. The 2D analytical solution has the form
x
y
T T0
z
= C1 cos
sin
+ 1
T1 T0
H
H
H
(1.94)
(*10^3)
LEGEND
10-Aug-04 16:17
step
0
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
1 - 134
Optional Features
[kg/m3]
[Pa.sec]
[1/deg.C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[m2]
[Pa]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[1/deg. C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 135
setup
; --- geometry --g 12 12
gen -5e3 -5e3 -5e3 5e3 5e3 5e3 5e3 -5e3
; --- thermal and mechanical models --model e th_ac
; --- properties --;
(mechanical)
prop density=2000 bulk=_bulk shear=_shear
;
(thermal)
prop conduct=_condu spec_heat=_mspec
prop lconduct=_fcond lspec_heat=_fspec
prop f_thexp=_fthex g_thexp=_gthex thexp=_thexp
prop f_t0=20.0
;
(fluid)
prop porosity=_poros perm=_mobil
water bulk=2e5 ten=1e10
water density=_fdens
; --- initial conditions --ini pp 1e8 var 0 -1e8
ini syy -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini sxx -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini szz -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
; --- boundary conditions --fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=13
fix t=220.0 j=1
fix t= 20.0 j=13
; --- settings --set grav=10.0
set gwdt=6.9e9 ;4e8
set thdt=6.9e10 ;4e9
set flow off therm on mech on
; --- histories --his gwtime
his pp i=4 j=4
his pp i=5 j=5
his pp i=7 j=7
his pp i=8 j=8
his pp i=9 j=9
his thtime
his temp i=4 j=4
his temp i=5 j=5
his temp i=7 j=7
his temp i=8 j=8
1 - 136
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 137
supersolve
save h20.sav
;... STATE: H30 ....
set nbigsteps 10000
supersolve
save h30.sav
;... STATE: H40 ....
set nbigsteps 50000
supersolve
save h40.sav
;*** BRANCH: ANALYTICAL SOLUTION ****
new
;... STATE: ANA_SOL ....
config gw thermal
def setup
_T0
= 20.
_T1
= 220.
_deltaT = _T1 - _T0
_H
= 1e4
end
setup
; --- geometry --g 12 12
gen -5e3 -5e3 -5e3 5e3 5e3 5e3 5e3 -5e3
; --- thermal and mechanical models --model e th_ac
; -------------------------------------------------------------------; temperature from linear stability analysis:
;
defined up to a constant c_1, see Zhao & al. [1997]
;
here, c_1 is defined by requiring that the temperature
;
at middle of left edge of model be equal to the numerical value
; -------------------------------------------------------------------def clsa
tcl = 148.0
; temperature, middle of left boundary
tstarcl = (tcl - _T0)/_deltaT
c1 = tstarcl - 0.5
end
clsa
def tstar
x1star = 0.5 + xval/_H
x2star = 0.5 + yval/_H
tstar = c1*cos(pi*x1star)*sin(pi*x2star) + 1.-x2star
1 - 138
end
def lsatemp
loop ii (1,igp)
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = x(ii,jj)
yval = y(ii,jj)
temp(ii,jj)=tstar*_deltaT+_T0
endloop
endloop
end
lsatemp
save ana_sol.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Grid and monitoring points
plot hold grid history
;plot name: Temperature contours and flow
plot hold temperature fill flow bound
;plot name: Pore pressure contours
plot hold pp fill flow
;plot name: Temperature evolution
plot hold history 8 line 9 line 10 line 11 line 12 line
;plot name: Temperature contours
plot hold temperature fill bound
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 139
(*10^4)
LEGEND
14-Feb-05 20:02
step 1067000
Flow Time
6.6930E+15
Thermal Time 6.6930E+15
-4.444E+04 <x< 4.444E+04
-4.444E+04 <y< 4.444E+04
2.500
1.500
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
5E-10
-2.500
-1.500
-0.500
(*10^4)
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
Figure 1.69 Steady-state temperature contours and flow vectors for 8 1 box,
Ra = 42
* CAUTION: When running this example in the GIIC, be sure to turn off the listing to the Console
pane using the File / Preference Settings menu item. Otherwise, the size of the save files will
become excessive.
1 - 140
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^4)
14-Feb-05 20:02
step 1067000
Flow Time
6.6930E+15
Thermal Time 6.6930E+15
-4.100E+04 <x< -1.900E+04
-1.000E+04 <y< 1.200E+04
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
0.400
2.136E-10
5E-10
0.000
Boundary plot
0
5E 3
-0.400
-0.800
-3.400
-3.000
(*10^4)
-2.600
-2.200
Example 1.13 Steady-state convection in a long porous box heated from below
; convection in a porous layer
config gw thermal
def setup
_grav
= 10.
_T0
= 20.
_T1
= 220.
_deltaT = _T1 - _T0
_H
= 1e4
; --- fluid --_fdens = 1000.
_fvisc = 1e-3
_fthex = 1.543e-4 ;2.07e-4
_fspec = 4185.0
_fcond = 0.6
; --- porous medium --_poros = 0.1
_iperm = 1e-14
_young = 1.78e9
_poiss = 0.23
_condu = 3.35
;
;
;
;
;
density
viscosity
vol. therm. exp.
spec. heat
conductivity
;
;
;
;
;
porosity
intrinsic perm
Young modulus
Poissons ratio
conductivity
[kg/m3]
[Pa.sec]
[1/deg.C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[m2]
[Pa]
[W/(m deg.C)]
THERMAL OPTION
_thexp = 7e-5
; lin.th.exp.coe.
_mspec = 803.0
; spec. heat
; --- derived quantities --_condu = _condu*(1.0-_poros)
_mobil = _iperm/_fvisc
_rdev = _fthex/100.0
_gthex = _thexp * 3.0
_bulk = _young/(3.0*(1.0-2.0*_poiss))
_shear = _young/(2.0*(1.0+_poiss))
ra1 = _fdens*_fspec
ra2 = _fdens*_grav
ra3 = _fthex*_deltaT
ra4 = _iperm*_H/_fvisc
ra5 = _condu+_poros*_fcond
rayleigh = ra1*ra2*ra3*ra4/ra5
end
setup
; --- geometry --g 96 12
gen -4e4 -5e3 -4e4 5e3 4e4 5e3 4e4 -5e3
; --- thermal and mechanical models --model e th_ac
; --- properties --;
(mechanical)
prop density=2000 bulk=_bulk shear=_shear
;
(thermal)
prop conduct=_condu spec_heat=_mspec
prop lconduct=_fcond lspec_heat=_fspec
prop f_thexp=_fthex g_thexp=_gthex thexp=_thexp
prop f_t0=20.0
;
(fluid)
prop porosity=_poros perm=_mobil
water bulk=2e5 ten=1e10
water density=_fdens
; --- initial conditions --ini pp 1e8 var 0 -1e8
ini syy -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini sxx -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini szz -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
; --- boundary conditions --fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=97
fix t=220.0 j=1
fix t= 20.0 j=13
; --- settings ---
1 - 141
[1/deg. C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
1 - 142
set grav=10.0
;<--set gwdt=6.9e9
set thdt=6.9e10
set flow off therm on mech on
; --- histories --his gwtime
his pp i=4 j=4
his pp i=5 j=5
his pp i=7 j=7
his pp i=8 j=8
his pp i=9 j=9
his thtime
his temp i=4 j=4
his temp i=5 j=5
his temp i=7 j=7
his temp i=8 j=8
his temp i=9 j=9
his ns 5000
; --- test --set mech off
fix x y
;
; --- conduction solution --;
ini temp 220 var 0 -200
def ini_pp
_b=1e4
_dT = 220.-20.
loop ii (1,igp)
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = -y(ii,jj)+5e3
anap = _fdens*10.*xval*(1.0-_fthex*_dT*xval/(2.0*_b))
gpp(ii,jj) = anap
endloop
endloop
end
ini_pp
;pause
;
; --- convection --;
def supersolve
loop ii (1,nbigsteps)
command
set flow off therm on
step 1
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 143
1 - 144
Optional Features
(*10^3)
LEGEND
16-Feb-05 15:16
step 3030000
Flow Time
6.0000E+12
Thermal Time 6.0000E+12
-6.667E+03 <x< 6.667E+03
-6.667E+03 <y< 6.667E+03
3.000
1.000
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
-1.000
-3.000
2E -8
-3.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
(*10^3)
* CAUTION: When running this example in the GIIC, be sure to turn off the listing to the Console
pane using the File / Preference Settings menu item. Otherwise, the size of the save files will
become excessive.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 145
1 - 146
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 147
end
ini_pp
;
; --- convection --;
def supersolve
loop ii (1,nbigsteps)
command
set flow off therm on
step 1
set therm off flow on
step 100
end_command
end_loop
end
set nbigsteps=30000
save tini.sav
;
supersolve
save tf.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: FLAC grid and location of monitoring points
plot hold grid history
;plot name: temperature contours
plot hold temperature fill
;plot name: pore pressure contours
plot hold pp fill
;plot name: temp histories
plot hold history 8 line 9 10 11 12 vs 7
;plot name: temp contours and flow vectors
plot hold temperature fill flow
1 - 148
Optional Features
(*10^4)
LEGEND
17-Feb-05 17:00
step 638000
Flow Time
1.5660E+16
Thermal Time 1.5660E+16
-2.222E+04 <x< 2.222E+04
-2.222E+04 <y< 2.222E+04
1.250
0.750
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-1.750
2E-10
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^4)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
Figure 1.72 Steady-state temperature contours and flow vectors coarse grid
* CAUTION: When running this example in the GIIC, be sure to turn off the listing to the Console
pane using the File / Preference Settings menu item. Otherwise, the size of the save files will
become excessive.
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 149
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^4)
LEGEND
17-Feb-05 9:07
step 515507
Flow Time
3.2336E+15
Thermal Time 3.2338E+15
-2.222E+04 <x< 2.222E+04
-2.222E+04 <y< 2.222E+04
1.250
0.750
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-1.750
5E-10
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^4)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^4)
LEGEND
17-Feb-05 13:02
step 1188000
Flow Time
1.8360E+15
Thermal Time 1.8360E+15
-2.222E+04 <x< 2.222E+04
-2.222E+04 <y< 2.222E+04
1.250
0.750
Temperature
0.00E+00
2.50E+01
5.00E+01
7.50E+01
1.00E+02
1.25E+02
1.50E+02
1.75E+02
2.00E+02
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-1.750
5E-10
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^4)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
Figure 1.74 Steady-state temperature contours and flow vectors fine grid
1 - 150
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 151
1 - 152
fix x y
;
; --- conduction solution --;
ini temp 220 var 0 -200
def ini_pp
_b=1e4
_dT = 220.-20.
loop ii (1,igp)
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = -y(ii,jj)+5e3
anap = _fdens*10.*xval*(1.0-_fthex*_dT*xval/(2.0*_b))
gpp(ii,jj) = anap
endloop
endloop
end
ini_pp
;
; --- convection --;
def supersolve
loop ii (1,nbigsteps)
command
set flow off therm on
step 1
set therm off flow on
step 10
end_command
end_loop
end
set nbigsteps=58000
;
set ncw 1000
; --- Note: reset to vertical in this run --save hg1_0.sav
;... STATE: HG1_1 ....
supersolve
save hg1_1.sav
;*** BRANCH: MEDIUM GRID ****
new
;... STATE: HG2_0 ....
; convection in a porous layer, medium grid
config gw thermal
def setup
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
_grav
= 10.
_T0
= 20.
_T1
= 220.
_deltaT = _T1 - _T0
_H
= 1e4
; --- fluid --_fdens = 1000.
; density
_fvisc = 1e-3
; viscosity
_fthex = 1.543e-4 ;2.07e-4
; vol. therm. exp.
_fspec = 4185.0
; spec. heat
_fcond = 0.6
; conductivity
; --- porous medium --_poros = 0.1
; porosity
_iperm = 1e-14
; intrinsic perm
_young = 1.78e9
; Young modulus
_poiss = 0.23
; Poissons ratio
_condu = 3.35
; conductivity
_thexp = 7e-5
; lin.th.exp.coe.
_mspec = 803.0
; spec. heat
; --- derived quantities --_condu = _condu*(1.0-_poros)
_mobil = _iperm/_fvisc
_rdev = _fthex/100.0
_gthex = _thexp * 3.0
_bulk = _young/(3.0*(1.0-2.0*_poiss))
_shear = _young/(2.0*(1.0+_poiss))
ra1 = _fdens*_fspec
ra2 = _fdens*_grav
ra3 = _fthex*_deltaT
ra4 = _iperm*_H/_fvisc
ra5 = _condu+_poros*_fcond
rayleigh = ra1*ra2*ra3*ra4/ra5
end
setup
; --- geometry --grid 48 12
gen -2e4 -5e3 -2e4 5e3 2e4 5e3 2e4 -5e3
; --- thermal and mechanical models --model e th_ac
; --- properties --;
(mechanical)
prop density=2000 bulk=_bulk shear=_shear
;
(thermal)
prop conduct=_condu spec_heat=_mspec
prop lconduct=_fcond lspec_heat=_fspec
prop f_thexp=_fthex g_thexp=_gthex thexp=_thexp
1 - 153
[kg/m3]
[Pa.sec]
[1/deg.C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[m2]
[Pa]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[1/deg. C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
1 - 154
prop f_t0=20.0
;
(fluid)
prop porosity=_poros perm=_mobil
water bulk=2e5 ten=1e10
water density=_fdens
; --- initial conditions --ini pp 1e8 var 0 -1e8
ini syy -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini sxx -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini szz -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
; --- boundary conditions --fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=49
fix t=220.0 j=1
fix t= 20.0 j=13 ;49
; --- settings --set grav=10.0
set gwdt=6.9e9 ;4e8
set thdt=6.9e10 ;4e9
set flow off therm on mech on
; --- histories --his gwtime
his pp i=4 j=4
his pp i=5 j=5
his pp i=7 j=7
his pp i=8 j=8
his pp i=9 j=9
his thtime
his temp i=4 j=4
his temp i=5 j=5
his temp i=7 j=7
his temp i=8 j=8
his temp i=9 j=9
his ns 5000
; --- test --set mech off
fix x y
;
; --- conduction solution --;
ini temp 220 var 0 -200
def ini_pp
_b=1e4
_dT = 220.-20.
loop ii (1,igp)
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 155
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = -y(ii,jj)+5e3
anap = _fdens*10.*xval*(1.0-_fthex*_dT*xval/(2.0*_b))
gpp(ii,jj) = anap
endloop
endloop
end
ini_pp
; --- convection --;
def supersolve
loop ii (1,nbigsteps)
command
set flow off therm on
step 1
set therm off flow on
step 10
end_command
end_loop
end
set nbigsteps=77000
;
set ncw 1000
; --- Note: reset to vertical in this run --save hg2_0.sav
;... STATE: HG2_1 ....
supersolve
save hg2_1.sav
;*** BRANCH: FINE GRID ****
new
;... STATE: HG3_0 ....
; convection in a porous layer, fine grid
config gw thermal
def setup
_grav
= 10.
_T0
= 20.
_T1
= 220.
_deltaT = _T1 - _T0
_H
= 1e4
; --- fluid --_fdens = 1000.
; density
[kg/m3]
_fvisc = 1e-3
; viscosity
[Pa.sec]
_fthex = 1.543e-4 ;2.07e-4
; vol. therm. exp. [1/deg.C]
_fspec = 4185.0
; spec. heat
[J/(kg deg.C)]
1 - 156
_fcond = 0.6
; conductivity
; --- porous medium --_poros = 0.1
; porosity
_iperm = 1e-14
; intrinsic perm
_young = 1.78e9
; Young modulus
_poiss = 0.23
; Poissons ratio
_condu = 3.35
; conductivity
_thexp = 7e-5
; lin.th.exp.coe.
_mspec = 803.0
; spec. heat
; --- derived quantities --_condu = _condu*(1.0-_poros)
_mobil = _iperm/_fvisc
_rdev = _fthex/100.0
_gthex = _thexp * 3.0
_bulk = _young/(3.0*(1.0-2.0*_poiss))
_shear = _young/(2.0*(1.0+_poiss))
ra1 = _fdens*_fspec
ra2 = _fdens*_grav
ra3 = _fthex*_deltaT
ra4 = _iperm*_H/_fvisc
ra5 = _condu+_poros*_fcond
rayleigh = ra1*ra2*ra3*ra4/ra5
end
setup
; --- geometry --grid 96 24
gen -2e4 -5e3 -2e4 5e3 2e4 5e3 2e4 -5e3
; --- thermal and mechanical models --model e th_ac
; --- properties --;
(mechanical)
prop density=2000 bulk=_bulk shear=_shear
;
(thermal)
prop conduct=_condu spec_heat=_mspec
prop lconduct=_fcond lspec_heat=_fspec
prop f_thexp=_fthex g_thexp=_gthex thexp=_thexp
prop f_t0=20.0
;
(fluid)
prop porosity=_poros perm=_mobil
water bulk=2e5 ten=1e10
water density=_fdens
; --- initial conditions --ini pp 1e8 var 0 -1e8
ini syy -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini sxx -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
ini szz -2.1e8 var 0 2.1e8
Optional Features
[W/(m deg.C)]
[m2]
[Pa]
[W/(m deg.C)]
[1/deg. C]
[J/(kg deg.C)]
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 157
1 - 158
Optional Features
THERMAL OPTION
1 - 159
1.8 References
Carslaw, H. S., and J. C. Jaeger. Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd Ed. London: Oxford Press,
1959.
Detournay, E., and A. H.-D. Cheng. Comprehensive Rock Engineering. Pergamon Press Ltd.,
1993.
Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 6th Ed. McGraw-Hill: New York, 1986.
Horne, R. N., and M. J. OSullivan. Oscillatory Convection in a Porous Medium Heated from
below, J. Fluid Mech., 66(Part 2), 339-352 (1974).
Karlekar, B. V., and R. M. Desmond. Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed. St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing
Company, 1982.
Lapwood, E. R. Convection of a Fluid in a Porous Medium, Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 44,
508-521 (1948).
McTigue, D. F. Thermoelastic Response of Fluid-Saturated Porous Rock, J. Geophys. Res.,
91(B9), 9533-9542 (1986).
Nowacki, W. Thermoelasticity. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1962.
Ozisik, M. N. Heat Conduction. John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1980.
Perrochet, P., and D. Brod. Stability of the Standard Crank-Nicolson-Galerkin Scheme Applied
to the Diffusion-Convection Equation: Some New Insights, Water Resources Research, 29(9),
3291-3297 (September, 1993).
Timoshenko, S. P., and J. N. Goodier. Theory of Elasticity, 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1970.
Zhao, C., H. B. Mhlhaus and B. E. Hobbs. Finite Element Analysis of Steady-State Natural
Convection Problems in Fluid-Saturated Porous Media Heated from below, Int. J. Num. & Analy.
Method. Geomech., 21, 863-881 (1997).
1 - 160
Optional Features
2-1
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Options\2-Creep with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided
for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter, open a
project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project
file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree
Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
2-2
Optional Features
F
F
+
k
(2.1)
where u is the velocity, and F is the force. Denoting the new value of force by F , and the old value
by F , over a timestep of t, we can rewrite Eq. (2.1) as
F F
F + F
u
=
+
t
kt
2
(2.2)
This is a central difference equation, since the velocity is calculated at the midpoint between the
instance when F and F are defined. Solving for F :
F = (F C1 + ku) C2
where:
C1 = 1
kt
2
C2 =
1
1+
kt
2
(2.3)
2-3
An equation identical to Eq. (2.3) can be written for the relation between deviatoric stresses and
strain increments:
(2.4)
where:
1
ij ij
3
ijd = ij
1
ij
3 ij
ijd = ij
C1 = 1
Gt
2
C2 =
1
1+
Gt
2
Here, ij are the components of the input strain-increment tensor, ij are the components of
the previous stress tensor, and G is the shear modulus. For the volumetric component of stress and
strain, we assume that there are no viscous effects elastic relations apply, as follows:
iso =
1
+ Kkk
3 kk
(2.5)
where K is the bulk modulus. The final stress tensor is given by the sum of the deviatoric and
isotropic parts:
ij = ijd + iso ij
(2.6)
The material properties required for this model are shear and bulk moduli (for the elastic behavior)
and the viscosity. Under an applied shear stress, the material flows continuously, but it behaves
elastically under an applied isotropic stress.
2-4
Optional Features
(2.7)
3 1/2
2
ijd ijd
1/2
, with ijd
(2.8)
where G is the shear modulus, and ijd is the deviatoric part of the strain rate tensor.
The creep strain-rate tensor is calculated as
d
ij
3
cr
ijc =
2
(2.9)
(2.10)
(2.11)
2-5
where:
1 =
2 =
A1 n1
ref
ref
< 1
A2 n2
ref
ref
> 2
With these two terms, several options (described below) are possible.
1. The Default Option
ref
ref
= 2
=0
ref
=0
ref
= large
1
2
cr = A1 n1 + A2 n2
ref
ref
< < 2
(a) 1
ref
= 2
= ref > 0
cr =
A2 n2
A1 n1
< ref
> ref
2-6
Optional Features
ref
(b) 1
ref
< 2
cr
ref
(c) 1
A2 2
= A1 n1 + A2 n2
A1 n1
ref
< 1
ref
ref
1 < < 2
ref
> 2
ref
> 2
ref
NOTE: Do not use option (c). It implies that creep occurs for < 2
ref
ref
ref
for > 1 , but not for 2 < < 1 .
and
Let ij be the stress tensor at time t, and let ij = ije + ijc be the strain-rate tensor, which consists
of an elastic component (ije ) and a creep component (ijc ).
(t+t)
The stress ij
Volumetric Component
(t+t)
kk
(t)
(2.12)
+ 2G(ij ijc ) t
(2.13)
= kk + 3K kk t
Deviatoric Component
d(t+t)
ij
d(t)
= ij
where ijc is given by Eq. (2.9), and K and G are the elastic bulk and shear moduli.
In FLAC, velocities and strain rates are evaluated at mid-step. Therefore, the deviatoric stresses in
Eq. (2.9) can be calculated as the average:
d(t+ t
2 )
ij
1 d(t)
d(t+t)
ij + ij
2
An iteration is performed between Eqs. (2.9) and (2.14) to obtain a better approximation.
(2.14)
2-7
(2.15)
kk ij
3
(2.16)
ijde
ijd
2G
(2.17)
kk ij
3
(2.18)
The viscous part of the deviatoric strain-rate is coaxial with the deviatoric stress tensor (normalized
by its magnitude, , defined in Eq. (2.23)), and is given by
3 ij
=
2
d
ijdv
(2.19)
where the scalar strain-rate, , is composed of two parts, p and s , corresponding to primary and
secondary creep, respectively:
= p + s
(2.20)
2-8
Optional Features
The formulation for the primary creep rate depends on the magnitude of the secondary creep rate:
p =
(A Bp )s ,
if s ss
/
{A B(ss
s )p }s
if s <
ss
(2.21)
(2.22)
=
3 ijd ijd
2
(2.23)
kk
3K
(2.24)
deviatoric stress components, ijd , are then computed on the basis of Eqs. (2.15), (2.17) and (2.19),
as follows:
(2.25)
where ijd are the stress components that exist on entry to the constitutive model, and t is the
creep timestep.
2-9
On the next and subsequent iterations, the averages of the new and old stress components are used
in the creep equations that is:
(2.26)
Further, the mean primary creep strain, p , is determined as follows during every iteration:
p = p + p t/2
(2.27)
and used in Eq. (2.21). The quantity p is the primary creep strain on entry to the constitutive
model; it is updated on exit, as follows:
p := p + p t
(2.28)
The WIPP-model notation is summarized, and typical values are listed, in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
WIPP notation
Units
Typical Value
A
B
D
n
Q
R
ss
n
Pa s1
cal/mol
cal/mol K
s1
4.56
127
5.79 1036
4.9
12,000
1.987
5.39 108
2 - 10
Optional Features
eij = ij
(2.29)
evol
ij
3
(2.30)
where
kk
3
(2.31)
evol = kk
(2.32)
0 =
and
Also, Kelvin, Maxwell and plastic contributions to stresses and strains are labeled using the superscripts .K , .M and .p , respectively. With those conventions, the model deviatoric behavior may be
described by the relations:
Strain rate partitioning:
p
K
M
+ eij
+ eij
eij = eij
(2.33)
K
K
Sij = 2K eij
+ 2GK eij
(2.34)
Kelvin:
2 - 11
Maxwell:
M
=
eij
Sij
Sij
+ M
M
2G
2
(2.35)
Mohr-Coulomb:
1 p
g
evol ij
ij
3
g
g
g
=
+
+
11
22
33
eij =
p
evol
(2.36)
0 = K(evol evol )
(2.37)
In those formulas, the properties K and G are the bulk and shear moduli, and is the dynamic viscosity (kinematic viscosity times mass density). The Mohr-Coulomb yield envelope is a composite
of shear and tensile criteria. The yield criterion is f = 0, and in the principal axes formulation we
have:
Shear yielding:
f = 1 3 N + 2C N
(2.38)
f = t 3
(2.39)
Tension yielding:
where C is the material cohesion, is the friction, N = (1 + sin )/(1 sin ), t is the tensile
strength, and 1 and 3 are the minimum and maximum principal stresses (compression negative).
The potential function g has the form:
Shear failure:
g = 1 3 N
(2.40)
2 - 12
Optional Features
Tension failure:
g = 3
(2.41)
where is the material dilation, and N = (1 + sin )/(1 sin ). Finally, is a parameter
that is nonzero during plastic flow only, which is determined by application of the plastic yield
condition f = 0.
The model implementation closely follows the procedures described in the FLAC manual for the
Burger creep and Mohr-Coulomb models. The principle is to write Eqs. (2.33) to (2.37) in the form
of finite increments:
p
K
M
eij = eij
+ eij
+ eij
(2.42)
K
Sij t = 2K eij
+ 2GK eij K t
(2.43)
M
=
eij
Sij
Sij
+
t
2GM
2M
p
0 = K(evol evol )
(2.44)
(2.45)
Sij =
eij =
SijN + SijO
2
N + eO
eij
ij
(2.46)
(2.47)
K,N
eij
1
t N
K,O
O
=
Beij + K Sij + Sij
A
4
(2.48)
2 - 13
where:
GK t
2K
GK t
B =1
2K
A=1+
(2.49)
After substitution of Eqs. (2.44) and (2.48) in Eq. (2.42), and solving for the new deviatoric stress
component, we find (using the mean value definitions Eqs. (2.46) and (2.47)):
SijN
1
B
p
K,O
O
eij eij + bSij ( 1)eij
=
a
A
(2.50)
where:
t
1
1
1
+
+
a=
2GM
4 M
AK
t
1
1
1
+
b=
2GM
4 M
AK
(2.51)
K,O
in Eq. (2.50). For completeness, Eq. (2.45)
and Eq. (2.48) is used as an evolution law to evaluate eij
is written in the form:
p
0N = 0O + K(evol evol )
(2.52)
N
N
In the model implementation in FLAC, new trial stress components S
ij and 0 are computed from
Eqs. (2.50) and (2.52), assuming visco-elastic increments. Trial principal stress components are
calculated and sorted, and the yield function is computed. As long as f 0, the trial stresses are
taken for new stresses. If f < 0, plastic flow is taking place, and the trial stresses must be corrected
by a component due to incremental plastic strain before their value is assigned to the new stresses
and the evolution law is updated. Expressing Eqs. (2.50) and (2.52) in principal axes, we may then
write, by definition of trial stresses:
N 1 ep
SiN = S
i
a i
N Kep
N =
0
vol
(2.53)
2 - 14
Optional Features
(2.54)
where:
2
3a
1
2 = K
3a
1 = K +
(2.55)
Except for the definitions of 1 and 2 , these formulas are similar to those obtained in the MohrCoulomb model derivation (see Section 2.4.2.3 in Theory and Background). The plasticity formulation may proceed along similar lines. In doing so, we obtain, for shear yielding:
N
1N =
1 (1 2 N )
N
2N =
2 2 (1 N )
N ( N )
N =
3
(2.56)
with
N
N
1 3 N + 2C N
=
1 2 N alpha2 1 N N
(2.57)
N
1N =
1 + 2
N
2N =
2 + 2
N +
N =
3
(2.58)
2 - 15
with
N
t
3
=
1
(2.59)
Finally, new global stress components are calculated, assuming that the principal directions have
not been affected by the occurrence of plastic flow.
The square root of the second invariant and the modulus of the first invariant of incremental plastic
strain tensor are used as incremental contributions to measure the amount of plastic strain associated
with shear and tensile failure, respectively (see Section 2.4.4 in Theory and Background).
By default, both Maxwell and Kelvin viscosity properties, M and K , are infinite (although stored
as zero in FLAC s property arrays). Note that if the default value for K is adopted, then the model
assumes that GK = 0, even if a different value has been assigned to that property. The default value
for GK is zero and the default value for GM is 1020 , irrespective of the system of units adopted.
The default value for the timestep is zero, in which case the program treats the material as elastoplastic with only the elastic part of the Maxwell cell active.
K,
If stresses are changed in a FLAC model with the INITIAL command, the internal Kelvin strains, eij
will not be compatible with them, and movement will occur until the strains adjust. To avoid this
incompatibility, the internal strains may be set to reflect the current values of stresses. The internal
K , are available for user inspection and modification, as PROPERTY variables:
Kelvin strains, eij
k exx, k eyy, k ezz and k exy. An example FISH function to perform this step is given below, in
Example 2.1. This function should be invoked immediately following initialization of stresses.
The Burger-creep viscoplastic model is also implemented as a FISH constitutive function (see
Section 2.2.7).
2 - 16
Optional Features
(2.60)
where f s = 0 at yield, = kk /3, and = J2 , where J2 is the second invariant of the deviatoric
stress tensor. Parameters q and k are material properties.
2 - 17
Because
J2 = ijd ijd /2
(2.61)
(e.g., see Malvern (1969), p. 93), may be related to the stress magnitude, , given in Eq. (2.23):
=
(2.62)
The plastic potential function in shear, g s , is similar to the yield function, with the substitution of
q for q as a material property that controls dilation (see Eq. (2.60)):
g s = + q
(2.63)
ij =
p =
g s
ijd
g s
(2.64)
(2.65)
where is a multiplier (not a material property) to be determined from the requirement that the
final stress tensor must satisfy the yield condition. Superscript p denotes plastic, and d denotes
deviatoric. By differentiating Eqs. (2.18), (2.61) and (2.65), we obtain:
dp
ij
ijd
2
p = q
(2.66)
(2.67)
In FLAC s elastic/plastic formulation, these equations are solved simultaneously with the condition
f s = 0, and the condition that the sum of elastic and plastic strain-rates must equal the applied
strain-rate.
2 - 18
Optional Features
FLAC s Drucker-Prager model also contains a tensile yield surface, with a composite decision
function used near the intersection of the shear and tensile yield functions. The tensile yield surface
is
f t = t
(2.68)
where t is the tensile yield strength. The associated plastic potential function is
g t =
(2.69)
Using a approach similar to that used for shear yield, the strain rates for tensile yield are:
dp
ij = 0
(2.70)
p =
(2.71)
where is determined from the condition that f t = 0. Note that the tensile strength cannot be
greater than the value of mean stress at which f s becomes zero (i.e., t < k /q ).
When both creep and plastic flow occur, we assume that the associated strain rates act in series
i.e.,
dp
(2.72)
where the terms represent elastic, viscous and plastic strain-rates, respectively. We first treat the
case of shear yield, f s > 0. Combining Eqs. (2.17), (2.19) and (2.66):
ijd
ijd
2G
ijd
2
3 +
3
(2.73)
In contrast to the creep-only model, the volumetric response of the viscoplastic model is not uncoupled from the deviatoric behavior unless q = 0. Combining Eqs. (2.24) and (2.65):
kk
3
kk
+ q
3K
(2.74)
2 - 19
The iteration procedure embodied in the creep solution scheme can be extended to include plastic
strain increments. Eq. (2.25) becomes
ijd
ijd
+ 2Gt
ijd
ijd
2
3 +
(2.75)
(2.76)
The value of can be adjusted in each iteration so that the solution converges to f s = 0. Using
Newtons method for roots:
=
fs
(2.77)
( f
)
Note that f s is evaluated with new stress components, ijd . The derivative in Eq. (2.77) can be
evaluated as follows:
d
f s ij
f s
f s
=
+
ijd
(2.78)
f s
= Gt Kq q t
(2.79)
Hence,
assuming that the mean stress components (ijd and ) are constant.
For tensile yield, > t . Further, if the shear stress is nonzero, the following function is used to
decide if shear or tensile yield is occurring:
h = p p ( t )
(2.80)
p = k q t
(2.81)
where:
2 - 20
Optional Features
p =
1 + q 2 q
(2.82)
Tensile yield is declared if h < 0; otherwise shear yield occurs. In the former case, the last (plastic)
term of Eq. (2.72) is zero, and the value of is such that Eq. (2.76) reduces to
= t
(2.83)
dp
:=
dp
dp dp
+ t ij ij /2
(2.84)
There is no built-in support for softening tables, but a FISH function that scans the grid every few
steps, and recomputes properties based on the current value of dp , may be written; see Example 2.5
for an illustration of this technique.
2.2.6 A Crushed-Salt Constitutive Model
A crushed-salt constitutive model is implemented in FLAC to simulate volumetric and deviatoric
creep compaction behaviors. The model is a variation of the WIPP-reference creep law and is based
on the model described by Sjaardema and Krieg (1987), with an added deviatoric component as
proposed by Callahan and DeVries (1991).
2.2.6.1 Definitions
In the crushed-salt constitutive model, the material density, , is a variable that evolves as a function
of compressive volumetric strain, v , from the initial crushed-salt emplacement value, i , to the
ultimate intact salt density, f . The relation between rate of change of volumetric strain and density
for use in the FLAC incremental Lagrangian formulation may be outlined as follows. (Remember
that, as a convention, stresses and strains are negative in compression.)
Consider a given material domain of mass, m, which at time, t, has volume, V , and density, ,
and let the volumetric strain increment, v , correspond to a change in volume, V , and in density
from to during the time interval, t. By virtue of mass conservation, we have
V = (V + V )
(2.85)
1 + v
(2.86)
2 - 21
m
V
(2.87)
m
V
V2
(2.88)
Using v = V /V together with definition Eq. (2.87), we obtain, after some manipulation:
v =
(2.89)
A measure of the crushed-salt compaction is given by the fractional density Fd , defined as the ratio
between actual and ultimate salt densities:
Fd =
(2.90)
ije
e
kk
e
ij + K kk
ij
3
(2.91)
(2.92)
2 - 22
Optional Features
G = Gf eG1 (f )
(2.93)
where f , Kf and Gf are properties of the intact salt, and K1 , G1 are two constants determined
from the condition that bulk and shear must take their initial values at the initial value of the density.
It is assumed that, for density values below that of the intact salt, the total strain rate, ij , can be
expressed as the sum of three contributions: nonlinear elastic, ije ; viscous compaction, ijc ; and
viscous shear, ijv . The elastic strain-rate takes the form
ije = ij ijc ijv
(2.94)
The viscous compaction term affects both volumetric and shear behavior. It is based on an experimental compaction-rate law of the form
c = B0 1 eB1 eB2
(2.95)
where = kk /3 is the mean stress, and B0 , B1 , B2 are constants determined experimentally from
results of isotropic compaction tests.
The volumetric compaction strain-rate vc may be derived after substitution of the expression
Eq. (2.95) for in Eq. (2.89):
vc =
1
B0 1 eB1 eB2
(2.96)
In the FLAC implementation, it is assumed that volumetric compaction can only take place if the
mean stress is compressive. Furthermore, a cap is assumed for the above expression so that no
further compaction arises once the intact salt density has been reached.
2.2.6.3 Viscous Compaction
The total compaction strain rate has the expression:
ijc = vc
d kj
ij
ik
3
(2.97)
where ijd is the deviatoric stress tensor, = 3J2 , and J2 = ijd ijd /2 (see Eq. (2.61)). In this
formula, the parameter is a constant set equal to one, so that in a uniaxial compression test, the
lateral compaction strain-rate components vanish.
2 - 23
Fd
n
e(Q/RT )
(2.98)
Fd
1
Fd = F k1 uk
(2.99)
(2.100)
2 - 24
Optional Features
(2.101)
where F and u k correspond to mean values of F and uk over the timestep, and the superscripts
and denote new and old values, respectively. Hence:
t
uk = uk + F + F k1 (uk + uk )
21
(2.102)
F
F
+
k2
2
(2.103)
which becomes
um = um +
F + F
F F
+
t
k2
22
(2.104)
when expressed in finite-difference form. Finally, the Kelvin and Maxwell displacement increments
combine to give the applied displacement increment,
u u = um um + uk uk
(2.105)
The unknowns in Eqs. (2.102), (2.104) and (2.105) are uk , um and F , and the known values are
uk and F . The response of Burgers model is dependent on past history; the state variable that
records history information is uk , which has an evolution equation derived from Eq. (2.102):
uk =
t
1
Buk + F + F
A
21
(2.106)
where:
A=1+
k1 t
21
(2.107)
2 - 25
B =1
k1 t
21
(2.108)
By combining Eqs. (2.104) and (2.105), and substituting uk from Eq. (2.106), we obtain:
F =
B
1
u u + Y F
1 uk
X
A
(2.109)
X=
t
t
1
+
+
k2
22
2A1
(2.110)
Y =
t
t
1
k2
22
2A1
(2.111)
where:
Maxwell
section
Kelvin
section
k1
k2
spring
force
F
dashpot
Fd
uK
uM
u
displacements
Figure 2.1
2 - 26
Optional Features
Eqs. (2.106) and (2.109) refer to scalar forces and displacements. Using the approach explained
in Section 2.2.1, the equations are implemented in tensor form into the FISH constitutive function m burgers stored on file BURG.FIS (see Example 2.2). The properties needed for this
constitutive model are:
m k bulk modulus (elastic volumetric response no creep)
m k1 Kelvin shear modulus
m vis1 Kelvin viscosity
m k2 Maxwell shear modulus
m vis2 Maxwell viscosity
The user must choose an appropriate timestep for the creep calculation when using the Burgers
model, since there is no check on solution stability. Either shear modulus may be set to relatively
high values, but the mechanical convergence will be slow if values are too high. The example in
Section 2.5.11 illustrates an appropriate choice of modulus to render the Maxwell section rigid.
Example 2.2 Burgers creep model FISH function (BURG.FIS)
;--- Burgers creep model --set echo off
def m_burgers
constitutive_model
f_prop m_k m_k1 m_k2 m_vis1 m_vis2
f_prop m_e11kd m_e22kd m_e33kd m_e12k
float $dev $dev3 $ev $ev3 $de11d $de22d $de33d $s0 $s11d $s22d $s33d
float $a_con $b_con $x_con $y_con $z_con $ba $ba1
float $c1d3
$c4d3
float $e11kd $e22kd $e33kd $e12k
float $s11old $s22old $s33old $s12old
float $temp
;
case_of mode
;
; ---------------------; Initialization section
; ---------------------case 1
if m_vis1 <= 0.0 then
m_vis1 = 0.0
end_if
if m_vis2 <= 0.0 then
m_vis2 = 1e-20
end_if
2 - 27
;---
;---
;---
;---
*
*
*
*
$ba1)
$ba1)
$ba1)
$ba1)
/
/
/
/
$x_con
$x_con
$x_con
$x_con
$s11old) * $z_con
$s22old) * $z_con
$s33old) * $z_con
2 - 28
Optional Features
+ $s12old) * $z_con
2 - 29
Burger-Creep Viscoplastic Model The Burger-creep viscoplastic model described in Section 2.2.4
is provided as a FISH function in file CVISC.FIS and listed below, in Example 2.3.
The properties needed for this constitutive model are:
m k bulk modulus
m gk Kelvin shear modulus
m visk Kelvin viscosity
m gm Maxwell shear modulus
m vism Maxwell viscosity
m coh cohesion
m fric internal angle of friction (degrees)
m dil dilation angle (degrees)
m ten tension limit
Additional variables available for plotting and printing are:
m ind plastic state
m epdev accumulated plastic shear strain
m epten accumulated plastic tensile strain
The FISH function m cvisc may serve as a base for the user to experiment with the model and
introduce custom made changes as appropriate.
Example 2.3 Burger-creep viscoplastic model FISH function (CVISC.FIS)
; -----------------------------------------; Burger-creep viscoplastic model
; -----------------------------------------set echo off
def m_cvisc
constitutive_model
f_prop m_k m_gk m_gm m_visk m_vism
f_prop m_e11kd m_e22kd m_e33kd m_e12k
f_prop m_coh m_fric m_dil m_ten
f_prop m_ind m_epdev m_epten
f_prop m_csnp m_nphi m_npsi
float $dev
float $s0
$dev3
$de11d
$s11d
$de22d
$s22d
$de33d
$s33d
2 - 30
Optional Features
float
float
float
float
float
$a_con
$c1d3
$e11kd
$s11old
$temp
$b_con
$c2d3
$e22kd
$s22old
$tempk
$x_con
$c4d3
$e33kd
$s33old
$tempm
$y_con $z_con
$c1dxc
$e12k
$e1
$s12old
$temp1
$ba
$bal
$e2
$x1
float
float
float
float
float
float
int
$
$sphi
$rad
$si
$cs2
$apex
$bisc
$icase
$
$spsi
$s1
$sii
$si2
$de1ps
$pdiv
$m_err
$
$s11i
$s2
$psdif
$dc2
$de3ps
$anphi
$iplas
$
$s22i
$s3
$fs
$dss
$depm
$anpsi
$
$s12i
$
$s33i
$
$sdif
$alams
$ft
$alamt
$eps
$amc
$ept
$tco
;
case_of mode
;
; ---------------------; Initialization section
; ---------------------case 1
if m_gm <= 0.0 then
m_gm = 1e-20
end_if
if m_gk <= 0.0 then
m_gk = 0.0
end_if
if m_visk <= 0.0 then
m_gk = 0.0
end_if
$m_err = 0
if m_fric > 89.0 then
$m_err = 1
end_if
if abs(m_dil) > 89.0 then
$m_err = 2
end_if
if m_coh < 0.0 then
$m_err = 3
end_if
if m_ten < 0.0 then
$m_err = 4
end_if
if $m_err # 0 then
nerr = 126
error = 1
;
;
;
2 - 31
end_if
$sphi
= sin (m_fric * degrad)
$spsi
= sin (m_dil * degrad)
m_nphi = (1.0 + $sphi) / (1.0 - $sphi)
m_npsi = (1.0 + $spsi) / (1.0 - $spsi)
m_csnp = 2.0 * m_coh * sqrt(m_nphi)
--- set tension to prism apex if larger than apex --$apex = m_ten
if m_fric # 0.0 then
$apex = m_coh / tan(m_fric * degrad)
end_if
m_ten = min($apex,m_ten)
--------------Running section
--------------case 2
zvisc = 1.0
$iplas = 0
if m_ind # 0.0 then
m_ind = 2.0
end_if
if m_visk <= 0.0 then
$tempk = 0.0
else
$tempk = 1.0 / m_visk
end_if
if m_vism <= 0.0 then
$tempm = 0.0
else
$tempm = 1.0 / m_vism
end_if
$temp = m_gk * crtdel * 0.5 * $tempk
$a_con = 1.0 + $temp
$b_con = 1.0 - $temp
$ba
= $b_con / $a_con
$bal
= $ba - 1.0
$temp = ($tempm + $tempk / $a_con) * crtdel * 0.25
$temp1 = 1.0 / (2.0 * m_gm)
$x_con = $temp1 + $temp
$y_con = $temp1 - $temp
$z_con = crtdel * $tempk / (4.0 * $a_con)
$c1dxc = 1.0 / $x_con
$c1d3 = 0.3333333
$c2d3 = 0.6666666
--- define constants locally --$anphi = m_nphi
2 - 32
Optional Features
$anpsi = m_npsi
$amc
= m_csnp
;--- partition strains --$dev
= zde11 + zde22 + zde33
$dev3 = $c1d3 * $dev
$de11d = zde11 - $dev3
$de22d = zde22 - $dev3
$de33d = zde33 - $dev3
;--- partition stresses--$s0
= $c1d3 * (zs11 + zs22 + zs33)
$s11d = zs11 - $s0
$s22d = zs22 - $s0
$s33d = zs33 - $s0
;--- remember old stresses --$s11old = $s11d
$s22old = $s22d
$s33old = $s33d
$s12old = zs12
;--- new trial deviator stresses assuming viscoelastic increments --$s11d = ($de11d + $s11d * $y_con - m_e11kd * $bal) * $c1dxc
$s22d = ($de22d + $s22d * $y_con - m_e22kd * $bal) * $c1dxc
$s33d = ($de33d + $s33d * $y_con - m_e33kd * $bal) * $c1dxc
$s12i = (zde12 + zs12 * $y_con - m_e12k * $bal) * $c1dxc
;--- new trial isotropic stress assuming elastic increment --$s0
= $s0 + m_k * $dev
;--- convert back to xy-components --$s11i = $s11d + $s0
$s22i = $s22d + $s0
$s33i = $s33d + $s0
; --- principal stresses --$sdif = $s11i - $s22i
$s0
= 0.5 * ($s11i + $s22i)
$rad
= 0.5 * sqrt ($sdif*$sdif + 4.0 * $s12i*$s12i)
$si
= $s0 - $rad
$sii
= $s0 + $rad
$psdif = $si - $sii
; --- determine case --section
if $s33i > $sii then
; --- s33 is major p.s. --$icase = 3
$s1
= $si
$s2
= $sii
$s3
= $s33i
exit section
end_if
2 - 33
2 - 34
; ---
; ---
; ---
; ---
Optional Features
2 - 35
2 - 36
;
;
;
;
;
;
Optional Features
$e11kd = 0.0
$e22kd = 0.0
$e33kd = 0.0
$e12k
= 0.0
m_epdev = m_epdev + $eps / zsub
m_epten = m_epten + $ept / zsub
$eps
= 0.0
$ept
= 0.0
end_if
---------------------return maximum modulus
---------------------case 3
$c4d3 = 1.3333333
cm_max = m_k + $c4d3*max(m_gk, m_gm)
---------------------add thermal stresses
--------------------case 4
ztsa = ztea*m_k
ztsb = zteb*m_k
ztsc = ztec*m_k
ztsd = zted*m_k
;
end_case
end
opt m_cvisc
set echo on
2 - 37
(2.112)
For the power law, the viscosity may be estimated as the ratio of the stress magnitude, , to the
creep rate, cr . Using Eq. (2.7), the maximum creep timestep is
cr
tmax
1n
=
AG
(2.113)
2 - 38
Optional Features
For the WIPP model, the viscosity may be estimated as the ratio of to the secondary creep rate,
s and, using Eq. (2.22), the maximum creep timestep is
cr
=
tmax
eQ/RT
G D n1
(2.114)
cr
tmax
K M
= min
,
GK GM
(2.115)
where the superscripts .K and .M refer to Kelvin and Maxwell properties, respectively.
The timestep limitation for creep compaction involves the volumetric response of the system, and
is estimated as the ratio of viscosity to bulk modulus. This viscosity may be expressed as the ratio
of to the volumetric creep compaction rate, vc . Using Eq. (2.96), the maximum creep timestep
for creep compaction is
cr
=
tmax
KB0
| |
1 eB2
eB1 | |
(2.116)
It is recommended that a creep analysis with FLAC begin with an initial creep timestep approxcr , as calculated from the appropriate
imately two to three orders of magnitude smaller than tmax
formula above. By invoking SET crdt auto, use can then be made of the automatic timestep adjustment, as described in Section 2.3.3. As a rule, the maximum value for the timestep (SET maxdt)
cr . See Section 2.5 for example applications.
should not exceed the value derived for tmax
cr , can be determined from the initial
The stress magnitude, , used in the calculation for tmax
stress state before the creep process begins. , also known as the Von Mises stress invariant, can
be calculated from the FISH function given in Example 2.4. The maximum in the FLAC model
cr .
should be used to calculate tmax
2 - 39
2 - 40
Optional Features
Fd = |F |sgn(u)
(2.117)
t
m
(2.118)
where F is the unbalanced force, m is the gridpoint mass and is the damping factor. The sign
of depends on the sign of velocity and the sign of F . The term (1 ) thus acts as a variable
multiplier on m, such that mass is removed at the maximum velocity and added when the velocity
passes through zero. In this way, a fraction of the kinetic energy is removed twice per cycle of
oscillation.
The scheme described above is efficient at removing kinetic energy when the velocity components
of most gridpoints pass through zero periodically, since the mass-adjustment process depends on
velocity sign-changes. In creep simulations, it is common for the steady-state solution to involve
motion of all gridpoints. The damping effect on the system is zero in these cases, due to the lack of
sign-changes in velocity components. The effect can be demonstrated even in an elastic example,
when the final state is one of uniform motion of the whole body see Example 2.5, which models
a block under gravity. However, the lower boundary is constrained to move upwards at constant
velocity, and all gridpoints are fixed in the horizontal direction. The final equilibrium state should
2 - 41
be one in which gravity-induced stresses act in the body but, in addition, all gridpoints should move
upwards at the same velocity. As seen from the velocity history in Figure 2.2, the body continues
to oscillate indefinitely and does not reach the predicted steady state.
Example 2.5 Elastic block with gravity and imposed velocity at lower boundary
grid 5 5
mod elas
prop d 1 s 1 b 2
set grav 10
fix x y j=1
fix x
ini yvel 1
his nstep 5 yvel i 3 j 6
cyc 1000
plo pen his 1
JOB TITLE : .
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y velocity ( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
10
(10
02
Figure 2.2
In order to develop a damping formulation that is insensitive to rigid-body motion, consider periodic
motion superimposed on steady motion:
2 - 42
Optional Features
u = V sin(t) + u
(2.119)
where V is the maximum periodic velocity, is the angular frequency, and u is the superimposed
steady velocity. Differentiating twice, and noting that mu = F :
F = mV 2 sin(t)
(2.120)
sgn(F ) in Eq. (2.117) to obtain the same damping force, if the motion is periodic:
Fd = |F |sgn(F )
(2.121)
This equation is insensitive to a constant offset in velocity, since F does not involve u . In practice,
Eq. (2.121) is not so efficient as Eq. (2.117) if the motion is not strictly periodic. For the creep
option of FLAC, it is found that the combination of both formulas in equal proportions gives good
results:
Fd = |F | sgn(F ) sgn(u)
/2
(2.122)
If we run Example 2.5 in creep mode (inserting CONFIG creep before the data set), the system
then converges to the steady state in which all velocities are equal to the imposed velocity (see
Figure 2.3, for the velocity history of one top-surface gridpoint), and the internal stresses exhibit
the same gravitational gradient as the static case.
2 - 43
JOB TITLE : .
13-Apr-04 13:54
step
1000
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y velocity ( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
10
(10
02
Figure 2.3
This form of damping is termed combined damping, and is also available when creep is not active,
using the SET st damp combined or INITIAL st damp combined command.
Different forms of damping can be used in creep simulations by using the SET st damp command.
On the choice of damping for a creep calculation, the following recommendations are made.
1. Local damping is more appropriate when creep or plastic flow is localized to
a small portion of the model (which is usually the case for plasticity for which
local damping is the default setting).
2. Combined damping is more effective in most creep runs in which creep flow
can affect large portions of the model.
3. When in doubt, it is recommended that displacement histories be monitored
in the region of interest to ensure that a monotonic path is followed.
2 - 44
Optional Features
then creep (if suitable models are present) will be active, and the accumulated creep time will be
incremented by 100 at each step. If the following command:
set dyn=on crdt=0
is given at a later stage, then FLAC will perform a fully dynamic analysis, and the accumulated
dynamic time will be incremented by the computed dynamic timestep. If neither creep nor dynamic
options are active, FLAC will step to equilibrium and time will not be incremented. Although it is
possible to switch repeatedly between the two modes, normally a creep run will be done first (to
establish a stress state), and then a dynamic run will be done (to compute the effects of an incident
wave, for example).
Note that velocities should be set to zero when switching between creep and dynamic modes, since
the magnitudes of the velocities are likely to be quite different in the two modes. Velocities are
automatically set to zero when the command SET crdt = 0 is given; if the velocities are needed for
a subsequent creep segment of the run, then they may be saved and restored via the FISH extra
arrays.
At present, the compatibility of the free-field arrays and creep calculations is not assured; avoid
using a creep model in the free field.
Example 2.6 is provided to demonstrate the coupling of creep and dynamic options. This example
models a tunnel created in a 3-layered system elastic, viscous and strain-softening (although the
plastic parameters are taken to be constant here).
The following 3 stages are modeled.
1. Instantaneous adjustment when the tunnel is created; the normal static mode is used to
get to equilibrium.
2. Creep movement, due to the viscous layer in the tunnel overburden. We model a large
period of time, related to the time constant given by the shear modulus and the viscosity.
3. Dynamic response to a surface load pulse. There is no creep during this event.
Example 2.6 Test of creep and dynamic calculations
;
;
;
;
- 3-layer system...
--------elastic
--------viscous
2 - 45
;
--------; tunnel excavated here ---> strain/softening
;
--------;
symmetry line ---
conf creep dyn extra=5
grid 15 15
mod ss
j=1,9
mod vis j=10,12
mod elas j=13,15
fix y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=16
gen s s 25 15 25 0 rat 1.1,1 i=6,16
prop dens 2000 bulk 2e9 shear 1e9
prop tens 1e10 fric 20 coh 0.5e5 j=1,9
prop vis 1e13 j=10,12
set grav 10
ini syy -3e5 var 0 3e5
ini sxx -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
ini szz -1.5e5 var 0 1.5e5
mod null i 1,4 j 4,6
his ydis i 1 j 7
set crdt=0 dyn=off
step 1000
;---"instantaneous" movement
save cd1.sav
;
when tunnel created
ini xv 0 yv 0 xd 0 yd 0
set crdt=200
his crtime
step 1000 ;--- now allow creep to take place
save cd2.sav
set crdt=0 dyn=on dy_damp=rayl 0.05,12
his yvel i 1 j 7
his dytime
apply pres=1e5 i=1,4 j=16
cyc 400
;--- dynamic pressure pulse on surface
apply remove i=1,4 j=16
ini xv 0 yv 0
cyc 1000
save cd3.sav
Figure 2.4 shows the displacements around the tunnel following passage of the surface load pulse.
2 - 46
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.750
13-Apr-04 13:58
step
3400
Creep Time 2.0000E+05
Dynamic Time 1.6241E-01
-1.532E+00 <x< 2.627E+01
-6.386E+00 <y< 2.141E+01
1.250
Material model
ss
viscous
elastic
Displacement vectors
max vector = 5.544E-03
0
0.750
1E -2
0.250
-0.250
Figure 2.4
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
2 - 47
CONFIG
creep
This command must be used to assign extra memory required for a creep analysis.
HISTORY
crtime
The keyword crtime allows a history of accumulated creep time to be taken. Histories
may then be plotted versus creep time by means of the vs keyword described in the
command summary (Section 1 in the Command Reference) under PLOT history.
MODEL
cvisc
cwipp
crushed-salt model
power
pwipp
viscous
classical viscosity
wipp
2 - 48
Optional Features
creep
Property Keywords
Material properties assigned to zones can be printed by specifying the creep property
keyword as given with the PROPERTY command (see below).
PROPERTY
keyword value <var vx vy> <. . . > <region i, j> <i = i1, i2 j = j1, j2>
This command assigns properties for a creep model identified by the MODEL command.
Classical Viscoelastic (Maxwell substance)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
bulk mod
density
shear mod
viscosity
Power Law
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
a1
a2
bulk mod
density
n1
n2
(7) rs1
reference stress, 1
(8) rs2
reference stress, 2
ref
2 - 49
WIPP Model
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
a wipp
act energy
b wipp
bulk mod
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
n wipp
(11) temp
zone temperature, T
bulk mod
cohesion
density
dilation
friction
k shear mod
k viscosity
shear mod
tension
viscosity
The following calculated properties can be printed, plotted, or accessed via FISH.
(11) e plastic
(12) et plastic
(13) k exx
K
Kelvin strain, exx
(14) k exy
K
Kelvin strain, exy
(15) k eyy
K
Kelvin strain, eyy
(16) k ezz
K
Kelvin strain, ezz
(17) state
plastic state
2 - 50
Optional Features
a wipp
act energy
b wipp
bulk mod
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
kshear
n wipp
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
qdil
qvol
shear mod
temp
tension
material parameter, qk
material parameter, q
elastic shear modulus, G
zone temperature, T
tension limit, t
The following calculated property can be printed, plotted, or accessed via FISH:
(16) e plastic
2 - 51
Crushed-Salt Model
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
a wipp
act energy
bf
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bulk mod
df
d wipp
density
e dot star
gas c
n wipp
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
rho
sf
shear mod
temp
(20) s g1
(21) s k1
2 - 52
SET
Optional Features
crdt
or
crdt
auto
defines the creep timestep. The timestep may be set manually to t.
Whenever the timestep is changed, the velocities are changed to accommodate the fact that FLAC velocities are defined as displacement
per timestep. The default is t = 0. (If t = 0, no creep calculation is
performed.)
By using the optional keyword auto, the timestep will be calculated
automatically. The automatic timestep calculation is controlled by
the SET keywords: maxdt, mindt, fobl, fobu, lmul, umul and latency.
The starting creep timestep is given by SET mindt.
creeptime
t
Creep time is initialized. This is useful if creep is to be started at a
time other than zero. The default is t = 0.
fobl
value
The creep timestep will be increased if the maximum unbalanced
force falls below this value. The default is value = 10,000.
fobu
value
The creep timestep will be decreased if the maximum unbalanced
force exceeds this value. The default is value = 100,000.
latency
value
value is the minimum number of creep timesteps which must elapse
before the timestep is changed. The default is value = 100.
lmul
value
The creep timestep will be multiplied by value if the unbalanced force
falls below fobl. lmul must be greater than 1. The default is value =
2.0.
maxdt
2 - 53
value
The maximum creep timestep allowed is set to value. The default is
value = 10,000.
mindt
value
The minimum creep timestep allowed is set to value. The default is
value = 100.
umul
value
The creep timestep will be multiplied by value if the unbalanced force
exceeds fobu. umul must be equal to or less than 1. The default is
value = 0.5.
NOTE: For cases of monotonic creep, it may be appropriate to set
umul = 1, so that the timestep can only increase and never decrease.
In this case, fobu is never used.
SOLVE
age
t
In CONFIG creep mode, t is the creep time limit for the mechanical
creep calculation.
noage
turns off the requested time limit previously set by the age keyword.
crtdel
timestep for creep calculation (as set by the SET crdt command).
crtime
creep time
Note that velocities in FLAC are scaled by the current value of the creep timestep, as
explained in Section 2.3.1. A user-written FISH function must do the same scaling.
For example, if a velocity is assigned, it must be multiplied by the creep timestep
before being applied to the grid. An internal grid velocity must be divided by the
timestep on printing or plotting.
2 - 54
Optional Features
Vx =
Vy
xx
3Vo x (h2 y 2 )
2h3
Vo y(y 2 3h2 )
=
2h3
3(h2 y 2 ) + x 2 l 2
= 3Vo
2h3
yy = 3Vo
xy
y 2 h2 + x 2 l 2
2h3
Vo x y
= 3
h3
(2.123)
(2.124)
(2.125)
(2.126)
(2.127)
Vo
2 - 55
Vo
x
h
Vo
Vo
l
Figure 2.5
To solve the problem with FLAC, advantage can be taken of the symmetry about the x- and y-axes.
Only the top-right quadrant needs to be modeled. For compatibility with the approximations of the
analytical solution, artificial forces have to be applied at the free right-hand edge, and small-strain
logic is used.
The material properties are:
density
1 kg/m3
shear modulus
5 108 Pa
bulk modulus
1.5 109 Pa
viscosity
1 1010 kg/ms
2 - 56
Optional Features
2 - 57
xp = 0.25*(x(i,j)+x(i+1,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1))
yp = 0.25*(y(i,j)+y(i+1,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1))
;
ex_3(i,j) = 3*((height2)-(yp2))
ex_3(i,j) = (ex_3(i,j) + ((xp2)-(length2)))/(2*(height3))
ex_3(i,j) = -ex_3(i,j)*3*visc*vel
;
ex_4(i,j) = (yp2)-(height2)+(xp2)-(length2)
ex_4(i,j) = ex_4(i,j)/(2*(height3))
ex_4(i,j) = -ex_4(i,j)*3*visc*vel
;
ex_5(i,j) = (3*vel*visc*xp*yp)/(height3)
end_loop
end_loop
end
;
set vel -1e-4 height 5 length 10 visc 1e10
anal
;
save anal1.sav
sclin 1 0 2 10 2
plot b lmag sxx int 1e5 ex_3 zone int 1e5
Figure 2.6 is a plot of FLAC s resulting xx contours, compared against contours of xx from the
analytical solution, as generated by FISH. Other variables can be plotted and compared with the
analytical solutions.
2 - 58
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
13-Apr-04 14:00
step
500
Creep Time 5.0000E+02
-5.556E-01 <x< 1.056E+01
-3.056E+00 <y< 8.056E+00
4.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
XX-stress contours
Contour interval= 1.00E+05
G: -4.000E+05
Q: 6.000E+05
EX_ 3 Contours
Contour interval= 1.00E+05
G: -4.000E+05
Q: 6.000E+05
GG
HH
II
JJ
K
K
LL
M N
O P Q
2.000
0.000
-2.000
Figure 2.6
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
2 - 59
;
;
PWIPP properties
CWIPP properties
CWIPP properties
2 - 60
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:03
step
900
Creep Time 9.0000E+06
Thermal Time 7.2000E+22
-4.889E-01 <x< 1.049E+01
-2.989E+00 <y< 7.989E+00
5.000
X-velocity contours
0.00E+00
2.50E-10
5.00E-10
7.50E-10
1.00E-09
1.25E-09
1.50E-09
1.75E-09
2.00E-09
2.25E-09
3.000
1.000
-1.000
Figure 2.7
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
(2.128)
For this problem, A = 1 107 MPa3 yr1 (or 1 1025 Pa3 yr1 ), and n = 3. The elastic
properties of the material are E = 820 MPa and = 0.3636.
2 - 61
An analytical steady-state solution to this problem has been provided by van Sambeek (1986) and
is reproduced below:
r = Pb + Pb
= Pb Pb
z = Pb Pb
(b/r)2/n 1
(b/a)2/n 1
(2.129)
u r = A (3/4)
(n+1)/2
2/n
Pb
(b/a)2/n 1
(2.130)
(2.131)
n
b2 /r
(2.132)
Pb
u r
a, b are the inner and outer radii of the cylinder, respectively; and
r
FLAC Solution One-quarter of the cylinder was modeled with FLAC, as shown in Figure 2.8. The
outer radius of the cylinder (b) = 20 times the hole radius (a). A pressure of 100 MPa was applied
at the outer boundary, the bottom was restrained in the vertical direction, and the left boundary
was restrained in the horizontal direction. The last two conditions are required to represent the
symmetry correctly.
The initial stresses, corresponding to an elastic cylinder in plane strain without a hole, were:
xx = yy = zz = Pb = 100 MPa
The cylinder was allowed to come to elastic equilibrium by setting the creep timestep to zero. Then,
the creep timestep was set to its initial value (defined by SET mindt) and allowed to increase automatically until steady state was reached. The maximum allowable timestep (maxdt) was determined
cr .
by the procedure described in Section 2.3.2, and using MISES.FIS to determine tmax
2 - 62
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:07
step
433
-1.000E+00 <x< 2.100E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 2.100E+01
1.400
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.600
0.200
Figure 2.8
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
The data file for this problem is given in Example 2.9. The analytical solution is included in this
data file as the FISH function powcyl.
Example 2.9 Cylindrical cavity power law
; power law - cylindrical cavity
;
config creep
gr 30,10
m power
;
; use FISH to generate a quarter-symmetry donut-shaped mesh
ca qdonut.fis
set rmin=1.0 rmul=20.0 ratio=1.1
qdonut
;
; properties and stresses in Pascal units (not MPa)
prop a_1=1e-25 n_1=3 bulk=1e9 shear=3e8 dens=2000
;
; boundary and initial conditions
fix x j=11
fix y j=1
2 - 63
2 - 64
Optional Features
ss = out(s)
exit section
endif
if rr <= 0.0 then
s = rr = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
endif
if cn <= 0.0 then
s = cn = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
endif
;
c2dn = 2.0 / cn
d1 = (rb/ra)c2dn - 1.0
;
if d1 = 0.0 then
s = d1 = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
endif
;
c1
pd
sr
st
sz
c2
c3
vr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(rb/rr)c2dn
pb-pa
-pb + pd * (c1 - 1.0) / d1
-pb - pd * ( (c2dn-1.0) * c1 + 1.0 ) / d1
-pb - pd * ( (1.0/cn-1.0) * c1 + 1.0 ) / d1
(0.75)(0.5*(cn+1.0))
pd * c2dn / d1
-ca * c2 * (c3cn) * ((rb/rr)2) * rr
;
s = Cylindrical cavity solution
ss = out(s)
s = ra = + string(ra)
ss = out(s)
s = rb = + string(rb)
ss = out(s)
s = A = + string(ca)
ss = out(s)
s = n = + string(cn)
ss = out(s)
s = r = + string(rr)
ss = out(s)
s = sr = + string(sr)
ss = out(s)
2 - 65
s = st = + string(st)
ss = out(s)
s = sz = + string(sz)
ss = out(s)
s = vr = + string(vr)
ss = out(s)
;
end_section
end
;
def ini_powcyl
ra = 1.0
rb = 20.0
pa = 0.0
pb = 100.0e6
ca = 1.0e-25
cn = 3.0
rr = 1.0
end
;
; store FLAC results in tables 1 - 4
; store analytical solution in tables 11 - 14
;
def compsol
;
ini_powcyl
;
; --- gp velocities --; --- WARNING! : gp velocities are based on FLAC
;
timestep = 1 and must be scaled by
;
crtdel to get creep velocities
;
loop i (1,igp)
xx = x(i,1)
table(1,xx) = xvel(i,1) / crtdel
rr = xx
powcyl
table(11,xx) = vr
endloop
;
; --- stresses --;
loop i (1,izones)
xx = (x(i,1) + x(i+1,1)) / 2.0
table(2,xx) = sxx(i,1)
2 - 66
Optional Features
table(3,xx) = syy(i,1)
table(4,xx) = szz(i,1)
;
rr = xx
powcyl
table(12,xx) = sr
table(13,xx) = st
table(14,xx) = sz
;
endloop
end
;
compsol
;
save cr_ss.sav
;
label tab 11
analytical
label table 1
FLAC
label tab 12
analytical
label table 2
FLAC
label tab 13
analytical
label table 3
FLAC
label tab 14
analytical
label table 4
FLAC
; plot hold tab
; plot hold tab
; plot hold tab
; plot hold tab
;
11
12
13
14
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
;
;
;
;
The results for this case are summarized in Figures 2.9 through 2.14. Figure 2.9 shows the
radial velocity (i.e., u r ) history of a point on the circumference of the hole. Figure 2.10 shows
the evolution of the creep timestep, from its initial value of 104 to the maximum value of 1.
Some oscillation occurs initially in the velocity, but the steady-state solution is quickly reached.
The initial high value is to be expected because the pre-creep stress state at the hole edge has a
high deviatoric component. The final steady-state velocity is slightly (1.9%) below the analytical
solution. Figure 2.11 compares the FLAC results with the analytical solution for the radial velocity
at the steady-state condition. The stress components obtained from FLAC are compared with the
2 - 67
analytical solution in Figures 2.12 through 2.14. It is obvious from these figures that the FLAC
results are virtually identical to the analytical solution.
JOB TITLE : .
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
02
Figure 2.9
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
02
2 - 68
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:08
step
5433
Creep Time 2.4059E+03
-0.400
-0.800
Table Plot
analytical
FLAC
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
-2.400
10
12
14
16
18
20
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:08
step
5433
Creep Time 2.4059E+03
-0.100
-0.200
Table Plot
analytical
-0.300
FLAC
-0.400
-0.500
-0.600
-0.700
-0.800
-0.900
10
12
14
16
18
2 - 69
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:08
step
5433
Creep Time 2.4059E+03
-0.800
-0.850
Table Plot
analytical
-0.900
FLAC
-0.950
-1.000
-1.050
-1.100
10
12
14
16
18
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:08
step
5433
Creep Time 2.4059E+03
Table Plot
analytical
-0.500
-0.600
FLAC
-0.700
-0.800
-0.900
-1.000
10
12
14
16
18
2 - 70
Optional Features
(2.133)
where A = D exp(Q/RT ).
For this problem, Q = 12,000 cal/mol, R = 1.987 cal/mol K, T = 300 K, D = 5.5299 1017 (or
A = 1 1025 Pa3 yr1 ), and n = 3. The elastic properties of the material are E = 820 MPa, and
= 0.3636.
The model uses the same FLAC grid as that shown in Figure 2.8, and the same boundary conditions
as those described in Section 2.5.3. The data file for this problem is given in Example 2.10. The
analytical solution is included in this data file as the FISH function powcyl.
Example 2.10 Cylindrical cavity WIPP model
;
WIPP model - cylindrical cavity
;
config creep thermal extra 1
gr 30,10
m wipp
;
; use FISH to generate a quarter-symmetry donut-shaped mesh
ca qdonut.fis
set rmin=1.0 rmul=20.0 ratio=1.1
qdonut
;
; properties and stresses in Pascal units (not MPa)
prop bulk=1e9 shear=3e8 dens=2000
prop gas 1.987 act 12e3 n_wipp 3 D_wipp 5.5299e-17
prop a_wip 0 b_wip 0 e_dot 5.39e-8
;
; boundary and initial conditions
fix x j=11
fix y j=1
apply press 100e6 i=31
ini sxx -100e6 syy -100e6 szz -100e6
ini temp 300
2 - 71
;
; keep some histories
hist unbal
hist xvel i=1 j=1
;
; come to elastic equilibrium
set crdt = 0
solve
save wcr_el.sav
def crstep
crstep = crtdel
end
hist reset
hist n=1
hist unbal
hist crtime
hist crstep
hist xvel i 1 j 1
;
; set creep parameters
; creep parameters based on elastic out-of-balance forces
; timestep will double when fob less than 5e3, until dt=1.0
set fobl=5e3 max=1.0 min=1e-4
set crdt=auto
step 5000
;
; --- infinitely long thick-walled cylinder
; --- analytical solution (van Sambeek 1986) --;
def powcyl
;
; ra ... inner radius
; rb ... outer radius
; pa ... inner pressure (at r=ra)
; pb ... outer pressure (at r=rb)
;
; ca ... factor A
; cn ... exponent n
;
; rr ... radius
;
section
if ra <= 0.0 then
s = ra = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
2 - 72
Optional Features
end_if
if rr <= 0.0 then
s = rr = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
end_if
if cn <= 0.0 then
s = cn = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
end_if
;
c2dn = 2.0 / cn
d1 = (rb/ra)c2dn - 1.0
;
if d1 = 0.0 then
s = d1 = 0.0
ss = out(s)
exit section
end_if
;
c1
pd
sr
st
sz
c2
c3
vr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(rb/rr)c2dn
pb-pa
-pb + pd * (c1 - 1.0) / d1
-pb - pd * ( (c2dn-1.0) * c1 + 1.0 ) / d1
-pb - pd * ( (1.0/cn-1.0) * c1 + 1.0 ) / d1
(0.75)(0.5*(cn+1.0))
pd * c2dn / d1
-ca * c2 * (c3cn) * ((rb/rr)2) * rr
;
s = Cylindrical cavity solution
ss = out(s)
s = ra = + string(ra)
ss = out(s)
s = rb = + string(rb)
ss = out(s)
s = A = + string(ca)
ss = out(s)
s = n = + string(cn)
ss = out(s)
s = r = + string(rr)
ss = out(s)
s = sr = + string(sr)
ss = out(s)
s = st = + string(st)
ss = out(s)
2 - 73
s = sz = + string(sz)
ss = out(s)
s = vr = + string(vr)
ss = out(s)
;
end_section
end
;
def ini_powcyl
ra = 1.0
rb = 20.0
pa = 0.0
pb = 100.0e6
ca = 1.0e-25
cn = 3.0
rr = 1.0
end
;
; store FLAC results in tables 1 - 5
; store analytical solution in tables 11 - 15
;
def compsol
;
ini_powcyl
;
; --- gp velocities --; --- WARNING! : gp velocities are based on timestep = 1 and
;
must be divided by crtdel to be converted to
;
creep velocities
;
loop i (1,igp)
xx = x(i,1)
table(1,xx) = xvel(i,1) / crtdel
rr = xx
powcyl
table(11,xx) = vr
end_loop
;
; --- stresses --;
loop i (1,izones)
xx = (x(i,1) + x(i+1,1)) / 2.0
table(2,xx) = sxx(i,1)
table(3,xx) = syy(i,1)
table(4,xx) = szz(i,1)
;
2 - 74
Optional Features
rr = xx
powcyl
table(12,xx) = sr
table(13,xx) = st
table(14,xx) = sz
;
end_loop
end
;
compsol
;
save wcr_ss.sav
;
plot tab 11 line 1 ; radial velocity vs dist.
plot tab 12 line 2 13 line 3 14 line 4
; radial, hoop and out-of-plane stress vs dist.
The results of this example are identical to those for the power-law test in Section 2.5.3. Figure 2.15
compares the analytical solution for radial velocity to the FLAC results, and Figure 2.16 compares
the analytical solution for radial, hoop and out-of-plane stresses to the FLAC results.
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:13
step
5433
Creep Time 2.2252E+03
Thermal Time 4.3464E+23
-0.400
-0.800
Table Plot
analytical
FLAC
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
-2.400
10
12
14
16
18
20
2 - 75
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:13
step
5433
Creep Time 2.2252E+03
Thermal Time 4.3464E+23
Table Plot
analytical - out-of-plane stress
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 2.16 Comparison of radial, hoop and out-of-plane stress at steady state
2 - 76
Optional Features
Example 2.11 Oedometer test on a Maxwell material: comparison with the analytic solution
title
Oedometer test on a Maxwell material
config creep
; --- constants --def ini_cons
c_bu = 1.
c_sh = 1.
c_vi = 2.
c_pr = 1.
;
a1 = c_bu + 4. * c_sh / 3.
c_a = 2. * c_sh / a1
c_b = c_a * c_bu / (2. * c_vi)
c_c = c_a * 2. / 3.
c_d = c_pr / c_bu
end
ini_cons
; --- model --grid 1 1
mo cvisc
prop density 1
prop bu c_bu sh c_sh viscosity c_vi
prop coh 1e20 tension 1e20
fix x
fix y j=1
apply pressure c_pr j=2
; --- fish functions --def ana_eyy
ana_eyy = -c_d * (1. - c_c * exp(-c_b * crtime))
ana_sxx = -c_pr * (1. - c_a * exp(-c_b * crtime))
ana_syy = -c_pr
end
; --- elastic equilibrium --step 1000
; --- histories --his sxx i=1 j=1
his ana_sxx
his syy i=1 j=1
his ana_syy
his ydis i=1 j=2
his ana_eyy
his crtime
; --- viscous behavior ---
2 - 77
set dt=1.e-3
step 1000
set sratio 0.0
set fobl=1.e-8 lmul=2 umul=1 max=0.1 min=1.e-3
set crdt=auto
solve age=25.
plot hold his 1 cross 2 3 cross 4 vs 7 skip 20
plot hold his 5 cross 6 cross vs 7 skip 20
ret
Example 2.12 Oedometer test on a Kelvin material: comparison with the analytic solution
title
Oedometer test on a Kelvin + spring material
config creep
; --- constants --def ini_cons
c_bu = 2.
c_sh = 2.
c_ksh = 1.
c_kvi = 1.
c_pr = 1.
;
a
= 3. * (c_bu + 4. * c_sh / 3.) / (2. * c_sh)
al = c_ksh + 3. * c_bu / (2. * a)
c_a = al / c_kvi
c_b = -3. * c_pr / (a * a * al)
c_c = - c_pr / (c_bu + 4. * c_sh / 3.)
c_d = 3. * c_bu
end
ini_cons
; --- model --grid 1 1
mo cvisc
prop density 1
prop bu c_bu sh c_sh k_sh c_ksh k_vis c_kvi
prop coh 1e20 tension 1e20
fix x
fix y j=1
apply pressure c_pr j=2
; --- fish functions --def ana_eyy
val
= c_b * (1. - exp(-c_a * crtime)) + c_c
ana_eyy = val
ana_sxx = 0.5 * (c_d * val + c_pr)
2 - 78
Optional Features
ana_syy = - c_pr
end
; --- elastic equilibrium --step 1000
; --- histories --his sxx i=1 j=1
his ana_sxx
his syy i=1 j=1
his ana_syy
his ydis i=1 j=2
his ana_eyy
his crtime
; --- viscous behavior --set dt=1.e-3
step 3000
plot hold his 1 cross 2 3 cross 4 vs 7 skip 10
plot hold his 5 cross 6 cross vs 7 skip 10
ret
Figures 2.17 to 2.20 show the agreement between analytical solutions and numerical predictions
for stresses and strains.
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
-0.200
ana_sxx
(FISH)
-0.400
Ave. SYY
( 1, 1)
ana_syy
(FISH)
-0.600
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-0.800
-1.000
12
16
20
24
2 - 79
JOB TITLE : .
-0.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 1, 2)
-0.600
ana_eyy
(FISH)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-0.700
-0.800
-0.900
12
16
20
24
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
-0.200
ana_sxx
(FISH)
-0.400
Ave. SYY
( 1, 1)
ana_syy
(FISH)
-0.600
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-0.800
-1.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
2 - 80
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:18
step
4000
Creep Time 3.0000E+00
-2.400
-2.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 1, 2)
ana_eyy
-2.800
(FISH)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-3.000
-3.200
-3.400
-3.600
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
2 - 81
where v is the applied velocity magnitude, n is the number of steps elapsed to incipient failure,
and L is the horizontal length of the sample. With the parameter values adopted in the simulation,
failure will thus occur in the mohr sample after 746 simulation steps.
The numerical results are presented in Figure 2.21. Note that the cvisc sample fails at the same
stress level but later in time, thus reflecting the effect of creep (at incipient failure, the time scale is
about 0.75, a value that is not small compared to the characteristic time K /GK = 1.0 of the creep
process). When the loading rate is increased, and the simulation is repeated for the same applied
velocity and same number of steps but smaller creep timesteps, the responses of the two models
become more similar. For a timestep of 105 , the effect of creep cannot be detected on the plot
see Figure 2.22 (at incipient failure, the creep time scale is now about 0.75 102 ).
In the second part of the test, the compressive velocity is set to zero and the models are cycled for
1500 steps. While the mohr sample stays at yield, the cvisc sample unloads as creep develops (see
Figure 2.23). The interaction between creep and plastic flow may be appreciated by comparing the
viscoplastic behavior in Figures 2.23 and 2.24: in the latest plot, more plastic flow (measured by
e plastic) is allowed to take place before the compressive velocity is set to zero and, subsequently,
the magnitude of maximum creep unloading is reduced.
In the third part of the test, the samples are reloaded by application of a FLAC velocity of 105
for a total of 500 steps. At the end of the test, both samples are yielding at the same stress level
(see Figure 2.25).
Note that no dimension is specified for the values quoted above; they may be interpreted in any
consistent system of units, but are probably not representative, and are given only for illustration
purposes.
Example 2.13 Comparison of the Burger-creep viscoplastic model and the Mohr-Coulomb
model
title
Compression test on Burger-creep viscoplastic and Mohr material
config creep
grid 3 1
gen 0 0 0 1 9 1 9 0
mo cvisc i=1
mo null i=2
mo mo
i=3
pro den 2500 bu 1.19e10 she 1.1e10
pro coh 2.72e5 fric 44 ten 2e5
pro k_she=1.1e10 k_visc=1.1e10 i=1
; --- fish function --def squez
svp = squez_vel
svm = -svp
command
ini xv svp i=1
2 - 82
Optional Features
2 - 83
rest bc_m.sav
set dt=1.e-3
step 1500
;
set squez_vel=0.
squez
step 1500
;
set squez_vel=1.e-5
squez
step 2000
;
set squez_vel=0.
squez
step 1500
;
plot hold hist -2 -3 vs 4
ret
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:22
step
1500
Creep Time 1.5000E+00
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
1.000
Rev_Ave. SXX
0.800
( 3, 1)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
(10
-01
Figure 2.21 Experiment 1: Horizontal stress versus time for slow compression
test
2 - 84
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:22
step
1500
Creep Time 1.5000E-02
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
1.000
Rev_Ave. SXX
0.800
( 3, 1)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
(10
-03
Figure 2.22 Experiment 2: Horizontal stress versus time for rapid compression test
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:22
step
3000
Creep Time 3.0000E+00
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
1.000
Rev_Ave. SXX
0.800
( 3, 1)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
2 - 85
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:22
step
4500
Creep Time 4.5000E+00
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
1.000
Rev_Ave. SXX
0.800
( 3, 1)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
13-Apr-04 14:22
step
6500
Creep Time 6.5000E+00
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
1.000
Rev_Ave. SXX
0.800
( 3, 1)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-01
Figure 2.25 Experiment 5: Horizontal stress versus time for several loading
excursions
2 - 86
Optional Features
2 - 87
n_error
= max(w_temp,er4) / s_level ; normalize
w_error
= n_error
max_error = max(max_error,n_error)
end
set s_level=0.0, max_error=0.0
set therm=off, ncw=50, crdt=0.1 ; (small dt for no creep)
hist crtime
hist sxx syy szz sxy i 1 j 1
hist sxx syy szz sxy i 2 j 1
hist sig_0_wipp
hist sig_0_dp
hist w_error
hist s_level
def qqq
oo = out( Please wait ...)
end
;---> Execute a weird strain history ...
ini yvel -1e-7 j=2
ini xvel 0 var 2e-7 0
ini xvel 0 var 0 1e-7
qqq
cyc 500
ini xvel 0 var 0 1e-7
cyc 400
ini xvel 0 var 0 -1e-7
cyc 400
ini xvel 0
ini yvel 1e-7 j=2
cyc 200
ini yvel 0 var 1e-7 0
ini xvel 0 var .2e-7 0
cyc 400
ini xvel 0 var -.2e-7 0
cyc 400
ini xvel 0 var 1e-7 0
ini yvel 0 var 0 0.5e-7
cyc 1500
def show ; show the max error
oo = out(Max normalized error = +string(max_error*100.0)+ percent)
end
show
2 - 88
Optional Features
2 - 89
end
set max_strength = 3.5e6, soft_rep=0
grid 20 60
model pwipp
fix x y j=1
fix x y j=61
prop d 2600 sh 12.4e9 bu 20.7e9
prop tension 1e15 qvol=0.75 qdil=0.0 kshear=max_strength
prop gas 1.987 act 12e3 n_wipp 4.9 D_wipp 5.79e-36
prop a_wip 4.56 b_wip 127 e_dot 5.39e-8 temp=300
; set crdt=10
; Fast test
set crdt=100
; Alternative for slow test
hist crtime
; ------------------------hist load
hist displacement
;ini yvel 7.5e-7 var 0 -15e-7
; Fast test
ini yvel 7.5e-8 var 0 -15e-8
; Alternative for slow test
step 5000
; ------------------------; save fast.sav
save slow.sav
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
13-Apr-04 14:43
step
5000
Creep Time 5.0000E+05
-3.000E+01 <x< 5.000E+01
-1.000E+01 <y< 7.000E+01
4.500
Boundary plot
3.500
2E 1
2.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 2.26 Contours of maximum shear strain increment for slow compression test
2 - 90
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
13-Apr-04 14:40
step
5000
Creep Time 5.0000E+04
-3.000E+01 <x< 5.000E+01
-1.000E+01 <y< 7.000E+01
4.500
Boundary plot
3.500
2E 1
2.500
1.500
-0.500
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 2.27 Contours of maximum shear strain increment for rapid compression test
2 - 91
-566.2 m
-585.7 m
Stratigraphic Details
-590.2 m
-606.9 m
-611.4 m
halite
argillaceous halite
-620.4 m
-626.5 m
-635.1 m
-638.0 m
-640.0 m
anhydrite
-648.4 m
-648.8 m
polyhalite
-642.2 m
Clay I
Clay H
Clay G
-646.2 m
Clay E
-656.1 m
-666.6 m
-669.3 m
-690.6 m
-693.7 m
-713.7 m
2 - 92
Optional Features
Table 2.2
bulk modulus, K
shear modulus, G
WIPP constant, A
WIPP constant, B
WIPP constant, D
WIPP exponent, n
activation energy, Q
Table 2.3
HALITE
ARGILLACEOUS-HALITE
20.7 GPa
12.4 GPa
4.56
127.
5.79 1036 Pan s1
4.90
12,000 cal/mol
5.39 108 s1
5.0 MPa
0.5
0.0
20.7 GPa
12.4 GPa
4.56
127.
1.74 35 Pan s1
4.90
12,000 cal/mol
5.39 108 s1
22.1 GPa
13.2 GPa
4.56
127.
5.21 1036 Pan s1
4.90
12,000 cal/mol
5.39 108 s1
bulk modulus, K
shear modulus, G
interface normal stiffness, kn
interface shear stiffness, ks
friction coefficient,
cohesion, c
ANHYDRITE
POLYHALITE
83.4 GPa
27.8 GPa
65.8 GPa
20.3 GPa
29
27 MPa
46.5
17.2 MPa
CLAY SEAMS
1000 GPa/m
50 GPa/m
5
0.0
The FLAC grid is formed by adjusting the i,j grid lines to correspond to the boundaries of the various
salt and non-salt materials, clay seams and room boundaries. Figure 2.29 shows the FLAC grid for
this example. The regular geometry of the excavations and stratigraphy affords planes of symmetry
vertically through the pillar center (i.e., pillar between adjacent rooms) and the center of a room.
The geometry also allows plane-strain conditions to be considered.
2 - 93
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
6.000
18-Feb-05 14:53
step
4156
-8.812E+01 <x< 1.084E+02
-9.819E+01 <y< 9.837E+01
4.000
Grid plot
2.000
5E 1
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
-0.500
-0.300
-0.100
0.100
(*10^2)
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
2 - 94
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Feb-05 14:53
step
4156
-1.147E+01 <x< 3.343E+01
-2.449E+01 <y< 2.042E+01
1.000
Material model
wipp
mohr-coulomb
pwipp
Grid plot
0
0.500
2
3
0.000
1E 1
-0.500
interface id#s
4
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
2.750
3.250
Figure 2.30 Material models and interfaces around the drift region
The analysis is done in three stages. In Stage (1) (i.e., prior to room excavation) the model is run to
initial equilibrium. This only requires one calculational step because the applied initial stress state
produces an equilibrium system. In Stage (2), the excavation takes place. This is done instantly,
and the model is subsequently run to equilibrium without creep. Since, in reality, the excavation
process is relatively fast, this is a reasonable approach. Only a minimal amount of creep can occur
during the short excavation period. In Stage (3), the effect of creep is invoked, and the model
run for a period of one year. The vertical displacements in the roof and floor, and the horizontal
displacement at the springline, are monitored during the one year period.
In the initial adjustment step (not involving creep), some plastic flow and softening occurs, but the
movement stabilizes and there is no evidence of shear band formation. See Figure 2.31, which
shows contours of the softening strength parameter kshear. After one year of creep, localization
has occurred, as seen in Figure 2.32. The shear fracture in the roof of the drift appears to be
actively failing. It may also be possible to simulate the case of a stable crack (that creeps after
formation, rather than fails) by making the softening function reduce in slope as the plastic strain
occurs. Alternatively, the softening may be arranged to depend on creep strain as well as plastic
strain.
2 - 95
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Feb-05 14:53
step
4156
-1.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+01 <y< 7.000E+00
0.300
0.100
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.100
kshear
1.50E+06
2.00E+06
2.50E+06
3.00E+06
3.50E+06
4.00E+06
4.50E+06
5.00E+06
-0.300
-0.500
-0.900
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
(*10^1)
1.000
1.200
1.400
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
28-Feb-05 12:39
step 289472
Creep Time 3.1558E+07
-1.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+01 <y< 7.000E+00
0.300
0.100
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.100
kshear
0.00E+00
1.00E+06
2.00E+06
3.00E+06
4.00E+06
5.00E+06
-0.300
-0.500
-0.900
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
(*10^1)
1.000
1.200
1.400
Figure 2.32 Contours of strength parameter kshear after one year of creep
note localized band in roof
2 - 96
Optional Features
The room closure is indicated by the convergence history plots in Figure 2.33. The slopes of these
plots suggest that the localization initiates at approximately 0.2 year.
The exact form of the localization, and the time when it occurs, are sensitive to the initial strength
parameters, the softening parameter (4.3 103 in this example), and the form of the softening
relation. Input from laboratory tests and back-analysis of field observations of fractures are necessary before plausible simulations of localization can be done. Further, it should be recognized
that the numerical simulation of localization is mesh-dependent, unless a length scale is built into
the model. Before using the softening model, the material parameters should be calibrated with a
sample having the same zone sizes as those in the boundary-value simulation, to minimize meshdependence. The grid shown in Figure 2.29 should be made finer in the area adjacent to the drift,
in order to improve the resolution of the shear band.
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
28-Feb-05 12:39
step 289472
Creep Time 3.1558E+07
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 vclo
(FISH)
3 vcloq
(FISH)
4 hclo
(FISH)
X-axis :
6 years
(FISH)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
9
(10
-01
2 - 97
2 - 98
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
Optional Features
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
69.3
67.8
66.3
64.8
63.3
61.8
60.3
58.8
57.3
55.8
54.3
52.8
51.3
49.8
48.28
46.76
45.25
43.73
42.21
40.69
39.17
37.65
36.14
34.62
33.1
31.6
30.1
28.6
27.0
25.45
23.94
22.46
21.01
19.6
18.56
17.18
15.88
14.66
13.5
12.39
11.32
10.29
9.3
8.35
7.44
6.57
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
141
140
139
138
137
136
135
134
133
132
131
130
129
128
127
126
125
124
123
122
121
120
119
118
117
116
115
114
113
112
111
110
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
y
5.74
y
4.94
y
4.94
y
4.28
y
3.67
y
3.09
y
2.55
y
2.04
y
2.04
y
1.53
y
1.02
y
0.51
y
0.0
y
0.0
y -0.31008
y -0.62016
y -0.93024
y -1.24032
y -1.5504
y -1.8552
y -2.16
y -2.55189
y -2.94377
y -3.33566
y -3.72754
y -4.11943
y -4.51131
y -4.9032
y -5.208
y -5.5128
y -5.8176
y -6.1224
y -6.4443
y -6.7662
y -7.0881
y -7.41
y -7.73
y -8.05
y -8.37
y -8.37
y -8.77
y -9.2
y -9.65
y -10.13
y -10.64
y -11.19
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
2 - 99
;clay I
;clay I
;clay H
;clay H
;clay G
;clay G
;clay E
;clay E
2 - 100
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
ini
Optional Features
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
-11.76
-12.38
-13.04
-13.73
-14.47
-15.26
-16.1
-17.07
-17.93
-18.84
-19.8
-20.8
-21.86
-22.97
-24.13
-25.36
-26.6
-27.99
-29.3
-30.7
-32.1
-33.51
-34.92
-36.33
-37.74
-39.16
-40.58
-42.0
-43.43
-44.85
-46.29
-47.72
-49.16
-50.6
-52.15
-53.7
-55.23
-56.76
-58.29
-59.82
-61.35
-62.88
-64.41
-65.94
-67.47
-69.0
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
j=
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
2 - 101
ini y -70.53
j=
3
ini y -72.06
j=
2
ini y -73.62
j=
1
;
;initialize batch variables
define dumdef
ilo=0
ihi=0
jlo=0
jhi=0
cnum=0
cbot=0
ctop=0
end
; Assign material properties to zones
; --- Halite material properties --set ilo=1
set ihi=31
; (33 wide room, 25% er)
set jlo=1
set jhi=13
prop b=20.7e9 s=12.4e9 d=2300 act=12000 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop a_w=4.56 b_w=127 e_dot=5.39e-8 gas=1.987 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop n_w=4.9 d_w=5.79e-36 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
;
; --- Polyhalite material properties --- ;
set jlo=14
set jhi=15
m m i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop b=65.8e9 s=20.3e9 d=2300 fric=46.5 coh=17.2e6 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
;
; --- Halite material properties --set jlo=16
set jhi=30
prop b=20.7e9 s=12.4e9 d=2300 act=12000 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop a_w=4.56 b_w=127 e_dot=5.39e-8 gas=1.987 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop n_w=4.9 d_w=5.79e-36 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
;
; --- Anhydrite material properties --set jlo=31
set jhi=32
m m i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
prop b=83.4e9 s=27.8e9 d=2300 fric=29 coh=27e6 i=ilo,ihi j=jlo,jhi
;
; --- Halite material properties --set jlo=33
set jhi=42
2 - 102
Optional Features
2 - 103
2 - 104
Optional Features
set cnum=4
;clay E
set cbot=56
set ctop=57
int cnum aside from ilo,cbot to ihi,cbot bside from ilo,ctop to ihi,ctop
int cnum kn=1e12 ks=5e10 fric=5 coh=0
;
; --- Set initial stresses --;
(-713.66 m)(2300kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)=-16.102311e6Pa
;
(-566.24 m)(2300kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)=-12.776073e6Pa
;
(-12.77179e6Pa)-(-16.10592e6Pa)=3.326237e6Pa
ini syy=-16.102311e6 var 0,3.326237e6
ini sxx=-16.102311e6 var 0,3.326237e6
ini szz=-16.102311e6 var 0,3.326237e6
;
; --- Apply boundary conditions --apply sxx=-12.776073e6 syy=-12.776073e6 j=144
;top pressure boundary
;
fix x i=1
; constrained displacements
fix x i=32
; (33 wide room, 25% er)
fix y j=1
;
; --- Set parameters --set grav 9.81
;gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
ini temp 300
;background temperature 300 degrees Kelvin
set thermal off
;disables thermal calculations
set large
;enable large-strain calculations
set clock 999999
;set clock and step limits high to prevent
set step 999999
;
premature solution
;
his unbal
;
; --- check initial equilibrium --solve
save bed1.sav ; Save initial elastic analysis
; --- Second elastic analysis (room excavated) --; --- Excavate the room (13x33) --m n i=1,12 j=64,74
m th_null i=1,12 j=64,74
;
; --- Step to elastic solution --solve
save bed2.sav
; Save 2nd elastic analysis
;
; --- Set creep parameters --set force 1 sratio 0.0 ;prevent premature solution
2 - 105
set thdt 0
;thermal timestep zero
set fobl 1e4
;lower unbalanced force limit 10kN
set fobu 1e6
;upper unbalanced force limit 10kN
set maxdt 21600
;maximum timestep 21600 sec (6 hr)
set mindt 108
;minimum timestep 108 seconds
set lmul 1.2
;low unbalanced force multiplier
set umul 0.5
;high unbalanced force multiplier
set crdt auto
;enable automatic timestep control
;
; FISH function to define displacement variables
; vclo, vcloq, and hclo are vertical and horizontal convergence
def vclo
vclo=(ydisp(1,64)-ydisp(1,75))*39.37
vcloq=(ydisp(7,64)-ydisp(7,75))*39.37
hclo=(-2.0*xdisp(13,70))*39.37
years=crtime/(3600*24*365.25)
end
;
; assign history variables
hist reset
hist nstep 100
his unbal
his vclo
his vcloq
his hclo
his crtime
his years
;
; --- Start creeping --title
5 Days After Initial Excavation
solve age 4.32e5
; Solve to 5 days
save bedc01.sav
title
10 Days After Initial Excavation
solve age 8.64e5
; Solve to 10 days
save bedc02.sav
title
50 Days After Initial Excavation
solve age 4.32e6
; Solve to 50 days
save bedc03.sav
title
100 Days After Initial Excavation
solve age 8.64e6
; Solve to 100 days
save bedc04.sav
title
2 - 106
Optional Features
2 - 107
(2.134)
Note that B0 eB1 1 is constant for this problem.
Using Eq. (2.90) for the fractional density, and given that = at t = 0, integration of Eq. (2.134)
yields
1
B1
B2
ln B2 B0 e
1 t +e
Fd =
B2 f
(2.135)
(2.136)
The data file for this test is listed in Example 2.18. The parameters used for the automatic adjustment
of the creep timestep were selected to produce the best fit within a reasonable computation time.
Numerical results for fractional density versus creep time are compared to the analytical calculations
in Figure 2.34 for the four stress levels. The initial density is 1350 kg/m3 , and the final density is
2300 kg/m3 . The error on fractional density is less than 0.1% for these cases.
2 - 108
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
0.900
0.800
Table Plot
anal. 0.69 MPa conf. pres.
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
12
14
16
18
(10
05
2 - 109
valrho = 1350.
valrhof= 2300.
valbf = 58.6383e9
valsf = 35.3163e9
valcons = exp(-valb2*valrho)
timeo = 0.0
end
cons
def log_it
array p_val (1500)
narr = 0
n_num = table_size(tabin)
loop ii (1,n_num)
narr = narr + 1
tabi = tabin
xval = xtable(tabi,ii)
yval = ytable(tabi,ii)
if xval > 0.0 then
p_val(narr) = table +string(tabi)+ +string(xval)+ +string(yval)
endif
endloop
stat = open(filename,1,1)
stat = write(p_val,narr)
stat = close
end
; --- constitutive model --mo cwipp
pro bulk 0.1186e9 she 0.0714e9 act 12000 a_w 4.56 b_w 127 d_w 5.79e-36
pro e_dot 5.39e-8 n_wip 4.9 temp 300 gas 1.987
pro b_f valbf s_f valsf d_f valrhof
pro b0_sk valb0 b1_sk valb1 b2_sk valb2 rho valrho
; --- fish function --def c_frd
c_frd
= frac_d(1,1)
c_rbulk = bulk_mod(1,1)/valbf
; in large-strain:
c_ev
= ln((5.+xdisp(k,k))*(5.+xdisp(k,k))*(5.+ydisp(k,k))/125.)
; in small-strain:
;
c_ev
= 2.*xdisp(k,k)/5.+ydisp(k,k)/5.
end
def c_frdsol
val = - ln(-valb2 * valterm * crtime + valcons) / valb2
c_err = 100. * (val - rho(1,1))/valrhof
c_frdsol = val/valrhof
c_evsol = ln(valrho/val)
end
2 - 110
def c_dt
while_stepping
c_dt = crtime - timeo
timeo = crtime
end
; --- boundary conditions --fix x i=1
fix y j=1
; --- histories --hist nstep 250
hist crtime
hist c_dt
hist c_frd
hist c_frdsol
hist c_err
hist c_ev
hist c_evsol
hist c_rbulk
hist xdisp i k j 1
hist xdisp i k j k
hist ydisp i 1 j k
hist ydisp i k j k
; --- test --set large
set force 0.0 sratio 0.0
set mindt 5.e-5 maxdt 5e4
fobl 4000 fobu 5000
set crdt auto
;
save base.sav
; ------------ case 1 ----------------------def val_sig
valsig = -8.94e6
valterm = valb0 * (exp(-valb1*valsig)-1.)
end
val_sig
;
apply sxx valsig i k
apply syy valsig j k
; --- initial conditions --prop density valrhof
ini sxx valsig
ini syy valsig
ini szz valsig
;
solve age 2e6
;
Optional Features
2 - 111
2 - 112
Optional Features
2 - 113
save case4.sav
pause
;
; -------- plot four cases ---------------new
call case1_3.log
call case1_4.log
;
call case2_3.log
call case2_4.log
;
call case3_3.log
call case3_4.log
;
call case4_3.log
call case4_4.log
;
label table 13
FLAC
8.94 MPa conf. pres.
label table 14
anal. 8.94 MPa conf. pres.
label table 23
FLAC
3.44 MPa conf. pres.
label table 24
anal. 3.44 MPa conf. pres.
label table 33
FLAC
1.72 MPa conf. pres.
label table 34
anal. 1.72 MPa conf. pres.
label table 43
FLAC
0.69 MPa conf. pres.
label table 44
anal. 0.69 MPa conf. pres.
;
plot hold tab 14 lin 24 lin 34 lin 44 lin 13 23 33 43 min 0 max 1
1
(1 + 23 )
3
(2.137)
2 - 114
Optional Features
and
= 3 1
(2.138)
2
d
zz
= (3 1 )
3
(2.139)
because
and
d
d
xx
= yy
=
1
(3 1 )
3
(2.140)
vc
ijd
ij
(2.141)
(2.142)
xx
= yy
=0
(2.143)
and no lateral compaction is predicted in this test for the constraints of the model.
The analytical expression for the fractional density is similar to that obtained for the hydrostatic
compression test i.e., Eq. (2.135).
Two tests are performed: an unconfined compression test and a biaxial compression test. In both
tests, 1 = -8.97 MPa. 3 = 0.0 in the unconfined compression test, and 3 = -6.90 MPa in the
biaxial compression test. Initial and final density, and shear and bulk moduli, are identical to those
adopted in the hydrostatic compression test. Example 2.19 contains the data file for these tests.
2 - 115
Example 2.19 Unconfined and biaxial compression tests using the crushed-salt model
config axis creep
title
Shear compression test on crushed salt
; --- geometry --grid 1 1
gen 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 0
; --- constants --def cons
valsig1 = -8.97e6
;
valsig3 = 0.0
; uniaxial consolidation
valsig3 = -6.90e6
; shear
consolidation
valsig = (valsig1 + 2.0 * valsig3) / 3.0
valb0 = 1.3e8
valb1 = 0.82e-6
valb2 = -1.72e-2
valrho = 1350.
valrhof= 2300.
valbf = 58.6383e9
valsf = 35.3163e9
valterm = valb0 * (exp(-valb1*valsig)-1.)
valcons = exp(-valb2*valrho)
timeo = 0.0
end
cons
; --- constitutive model --mo cwipp
pro bulk 0.1186e9 she 0.0714e9 act 12000 a_w 4.56 b_w 127 d_w 5.79e-36
pro e_dot 5.39e-8 n_wip 4.9 temp 300 gas 1.987
pro b_f valbf s_f valsf d_f valrhof
pro b0_sk valb0 b1_sk valb1 b2_sk valb2 rho valrho
; --- boundary conditions --fix x i=1
fix y j=1
apply sxx valsig3 i 2
apply syy valsig1 j 2
; --- initial conditions --prop density valrho
ini sxx valsig3
ini syy valsig1
ini szz valsig3
; --- fish function --def c_frd
c_frd = frac_d(1,1)
c_bulkr= bulk_mod(1,1)/valbf
;
large-strain:
2 - 116
Optional Features
c_ev
= ln((5.+xdisp(2,2))*(5.+xdisp(2,2))*(5.+ydisp(2,2))/125.)
;
small-strain:
;
c_ev = 2.*xdisp(2,2)/5.+ydisp(2,2)/5.
end
def c_frdsol
val = - ln(-valb2 * valterm * crtime + valcons) / valb2
c_err = 100. * (val - rho(1,1))/valrhof
c_frdsol = val/valrhof
c_evsol = ln(valrho/val)
end
def c_dt
while_stepping
c_dt = crtime - timeo
timeo = crtime
end
; --- histories --hist nstep 250
hist crtime
hist c_dt
hist c_frd
hist c_frdsol
hist c_err
hist c_ev
hist c_evsol
hist c_bulkr
hist xdisp i 2 j 1
hist xdisp i 2 j 2
hist ydisp i 1 j 2
hist ydisp i 2 j 2
; --- test --set large
set force 0.0 sratio 0.0
set mindt 5.e-6 maxdt 5e4 fobl 4000 fobu 5000
set latency 1 lmul 1.01 umul 0.99
set crdt auto
solve age 2e6
; save uniax.sav
save shear.sav
Numerical values of fractional density are compared to analytical values versus creep time for the
unconfined compression test in Figure 2.35, and for the biaxial compression test in Figure 2.36.
The error in fractional density is less than 0.1%. The histories of axial and lateral displacements
for the unconfined compression test are shown in Figure 2.37, and for the biaxial compression test
in Figure 2.38. As expected, no lateral displacement is calculated in these tests.
2 - 117
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Apr-04 10:02
step 22882
Creep Time 2.0002E+06
7.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
c_frd
(FISH)
7.200
c_frdsol
(FISH)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
6.800
6.400
6.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
05
Figure 2.35 Numerical and analytical predictions for fractional density for
uniaxial compression
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Apr-04 10:03
step 22882
Creep Time 2.0002E+06
7.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
c_frd
(FISH)
7.200
c_frdsol
(FISH)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
6.800
6.400
6.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
05
Figure 2.36 Numerical and analytical predictions for fractional density for
biaxial compression
2 - 118
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 2, 2)
-0.400
Y displacement( 1, 2)
Y displacement( 2, 2)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
10
12
14
16
18
(10
05
Figure 2.37 Histories of axial and lateral displacement for uniaxial compression
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 2, 2)
-0.400
Y displacement( 1, 2)
Y displacement( 2, 2)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
10
12
14
16
18
(10
05
Figure 2.38 Histories of axial and lateral displacement for biaxial compression
2 - 119
2 - 120
Optional Features
; ---------------------------------------------------set ncw=50
step 500
; initial "instantaneous" equilibrium
ini xv 0 yv 0
set crdt=0.001 ; minimize shock to start
step 200
set crdt=0.005 ; now go to large time
step 800
plot hold his -1 vs 2
the response resembles that of a Maxwell model alone, since the Kelvin section of the Burgers
model is made almost rigid by the use of a large viscosity (compared to the Maxwell viscosity).
Figure 2.40 shows the response. This is similar to the response that would be obtained with FLAC s
built-in viscous model, viscous, using similar properties a shear modulus of 1 unit and a viscosity
of 3 units.
If the PROPERTY command in Example 2.20 is replaced by the following line:
prop dens 1 m k 2 m k1 1 m k2 50 m vis1 1 m vis2 1e10
the response resembles that of a Kelvin model alone, since the Maxwell section of the Burgers
model is made almost rigid by the use of a large viscosity and a large modulus; however, the modulus
m k2 is not made arbitrarily large because the static convergence would be poor.
Figure 2.41 shows the response: the displacement history exhibits almost no initial jump (since
the elastic modulus of the Maxwell section is high), and there is no long-term creep, which is
characteristic of the Kelvin model.
2 - 121
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Apr-04 10:17
step
1500
Creep Time 4.2000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Apr-04 10:18
step
1500
Creep Time 4.2000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
Figure 2.40 Vertical displacement versus time, for Maxwell section only active
2 - 122
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Apr-04 10:18
step
1500
Creep Time 4.2000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 3, 6)
X-axis :
Creep-flow mech. time
1.600
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
Figure 2.41 Vertical displacement versus time, for Kelvin section only active
2 - 123
2.6 References
Callahan, G. D., and K. L. DeVries. Analysis of Backfilled Transuranic Waste Storage Rooms,
RE/SPEC, Inc., report to Sandia National Laboratories SAND91-7052, 1991.
Herrmann, W., W. R. Wawersik and H. S. Lauson. Analysis of Steady State Creep of Southeastern
New Mexico Bedded Salt, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND80-0558, 1980a.
Herrmann, W., W. R. Wawersik and H. S. Lauson. Creep Curves and Fitting Parameters for
Southeastern New Mexico Rock Salt, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND80-0087, 1980b.
Jaeger, J. C. Elasticity, Fracture and Flow, 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.
Malvern, L. E. Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Morgan, H. S., R. D. Krieg and R. V. Matalucci. Comparative Analysis of Nine Structural Codes
Used in the Second WIPP Benchmark Problem, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND81-1389,
1981.
Norton, F. H. Creep of Steel at High Temperatures. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1929.
Senseny, P. E. Determination of a Constitutive Law for Salt at Elevated Temperature and Pressure,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Reprint 869, 1985.
Sjaardema, G. D., and R. D. Krieg. A Constitutive Model for the Consolidation of WIPP Crushed
Salt and Its Use in Analyses of Backfilled Shaft and Drift Configurations, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND87-1977, 1987.
Van Sambeek, L. L. Creep of Rock Salt Under Inhomogeneous Stress Conditions. Ph.D. Thesis,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 1986.
2 - 124
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3-1
3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.1 Overview
The dynamic analysis option permits two-dimensional, plane-strain or axisymmetric, fully dynamic
analysis with FLAC. The calculation is based on the explicit finite difference scheme (as discussed
in Section 1.1.2 in Theory and Background) to solve the full equations of motion, using lumped
gridpoint masses derived from the real density of surrounding zones (rather than fictitious masses
used for static solution). This formulation can be coupled to the structural element model, thus
permitting analysis of soil-structure interaction brought about by ground shaking. The dynamic
feature can also be coupled to the groundwater flow model. This allows, for example, analyses
involving time-dependent pore pressure change associated with liquefaction (see Section 3.5.2).
The dynamic model can likewise be coupled to the optional thermal model in order to calculate the
combined effect of thermal and dynamic loading. The dynamic option expands FLAC s analysis
capability to a wide range of dynamic problems in disciplines such as earthquake engineering,
seismology and mine rockbursts.
This section discusses the various features associated with the dynamic option in FLAC. Validation and example problems illustrating the application of the dynamic model are provided in
Section 3.6*. The user is strongly encouraged to become familiar with the operation of FLAC for
simple mechanical, static problems before attempting to solve problems involving dynamic loading. Dynamic analysis is often very complicated and requires a considerable amount of insight to
interpret correctly.
* The data files in this chapter are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\Options\3-Dynamic with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this chapter,
open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting
the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the
Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots
created.
3-2
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3-3
2. The interference and mixing phenomena that occur between different frequency components in a nonlinear material are missing from an equivalentlinear analysis.
3. The method does not directly provide information on irreversible displacements and the permanent changes that accompany liquefaction, because only
oscillatory motion is modeled. These effects may be estimated empirically,
however.
4. It is commonly accepted that, during plastic flow, the strain-increment tensor
is related to some function of the stress tensor, giving rise to the flow rule in
plasticity theory. However, elasticity theory (as used by the equivalent-linear
method) relates the strain tensor (not increments) to the stress tensor. Plastic
yielding, therefore, is modeled somewhat inappropriately.
5. The material constitutive model is built into the method: it consists of a stressstrain curve in the shape of an ellipse (see Cundall 1976). Although this
pre-choice relieves the user of the need to make any decisions, the flexibility
to substitute alternative shapes is removed. However, the effects of a different
shape to the curve are partially allowed for by the iteration procedure used in the
method. It should be pointed out that a frequency-independent hysteresis curve
in the form of an ellipse is physically impossible, since the continuous change
in slope prior to reversal implies pre-knowledge (and rate information is not
available to the model because the model is defined as being rate-independent).
6. In the case where both shear and compressional waves are propagated through a
site, the equivalent-linear method typically treats these motions independently.
Therefore, no interaction is allowed between the two components of motion.
3.2.2 Characteristics of the Fully Nonlinear Method
The following characteristics of the fully nonlinear method should be compared to the corresponding
points listed in Section 3.2.1.
1. The method follows any prescribed nonlinear constitutive relation. If a hysteretic-type model is used and no extra damping is specified, then the damping
and tangent moduli are appropriate to the level of excitation at each point in
time and space, since these parameters are embodied in the constitutive model.
If Rayleigh or local damping are used, the associated damping coefficients
remain constant throughout shaking. Consult Section 3.4.2 for more details
on damping.
2. Using a nonlinear material law, interference and mixing of different frequency
components occur naturally.
3. Irreversible displacements and other permanent changes are modeled automatically.
3-4
Optional Features
(3.1)
The maximum stored energy, W , during the cycle (assuming G represents an elastic modulus) is
W = m /2
(3.2)
(3.3)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3-5
Hence,
8( m )
W
=
W
(3.4)
Denoting the damping ratio by D and noting that 4 D W/W (Kolsky 1963), for small D:
D=
2( m )
(3.5)
We plot normalized modulus (G/G ) from Eq. (3.1), and damping D from Eq. (3.5) against normalized cyclic strain /m , in Figure 3.1. It can be seen that even a simple model (where simple is
taken in the context of dynamics) exhibits an evolution of modulus and damping that can be matched
to experimental results over limited ranges of cyclic strain. Note that further damping specified in
a simulation (see Section 3.4.2) will be added to that provided by the constitutive formulation.
Figure 3.1
3-6
Optional Features
(3.6)
where Lmax is the maximum edge-length of the triangle, A is the area of the triangle and T is the
out-of-plane dimension, equal to 1.0 for a plane-strain analysis. Thus for the full quadrilateral zone,
the total contribution to each of the four gridpoints is the summation of those for the three triangles
meeting at the gridpoint. For example, for the northwest gridpoint (assuming two overlays, with
notation as illustrated in Figure 1.3 in Theory and Background):
knw
2
2
2
(K + 43 G) (Lmax
(Lmax
(Lmax
a )
c )
d )
=
+
+
T
6
Aa
Ac
Ad
(3.7)
(3.8)
where Az is the area of the rectangular zone, and Ld the length of its diagonal. Note that Eq. (3.8)
only applies in the specific case of a rectangular full-zone, and is provided for interest only; the
general form of the stiffness contribution is given by expressions similar to Eq. (3.7).
Masses are also accumulated at zone gridpoints from each triangular sub-zone. As an example, for
the northwest gridpoint (assuming two overlays):
Mnw =
ma + mc + md
6
(3.9)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3-7
where ma , mc and md are the masses of triangles a, c and d, respectively. For the case of a rectangular
full-zone (containing four triangular sub-zones), the mass contributed to each gridpoint is
Mgp = mz /4
(3.10)
M
k
(3.11)
For the case of a rectangular zone, we can substitute stiffness and mass values from Eqs. (3.8) and
(3.10):
tcrit = 2
mz Az
4(K + 43 G)L2d T
(3.12)
Substituting mz = Az T :
tcrit
Az
=
Ld
K+
4
3G
Az
Ld Cp
(3.13)
where Cp is the speed of longitudinal waves. This expression is identical to that given in Section 1.3.5
in Theory and Background. However, the more general form, based on Eq. (3.11), is used in
deriving the dynamic timestep, td , using a safety factor of 0.5 (to allow for the fact that the
calculation of timestep is an estimate only). Thus:
td = min
M
k
1
2
(3.14)
where the min() function is taken over all gridpoints and structural degrees of freedom, and is a
summation over all contributions to the gridpoint or structural degree-of-freedom. For a simple grid
consisting of only rectangular zones, the computed timestep may be verified using Eq. (3.13), noting
that td = tcrit /2. However, a more complicated model will contain unequal zones, different
3-8
Optional Features
materials connected to common gridpoints, structural elements, interfaces and the added stiffness
of coupled fluid. Each of these objects or conditions will contribute to the summations of Eq. (3.14),
so that the final timestep will be a combined function of all items. Note that stiff or small zones
may control the timestep chosen by FLAC, due to the min() function and the division by stiffness.
The above derivation is for plane strain; related expressions are obtained for axisymmetric analysis,
accounting for the effects of the varying out-of-plane thickness on masses and stiffnesses. For
zones containing only one overlay, the contribution from two sub-zones (instead of four) is summed
as above, but a divisor of 3 instead of 6 is used in Eqs. (3.6), (3.7) and (3.9).
If stiffness-proportional damping is used (see Section 3.4.2.1), the timestep must be reduced, for
stability. Belytschko (1983) provides a formula for critical timestep, t , that includes the effect
of stiffness-proportional damping:
t =
2
1 + 2
max
(3.15)
where max is the highest eigenfrequency of the system, and is the fraction of critical damping
at this frequency. Both max and are estimated in FLAC, since an eigenvalue solution is not
performed. The estimates are:
max =
2
td
0.4
td
(3.16)
(3.17)
given:
= min / min
(3.18)
where min and min are the damping fraction and angular frequency specified for Rayleigh damping
see Section 3.4.2.1. The resulting value of t is used as the dynamic timestep if stiffnessproportional damping is in operation.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3-9
Null,
attached, structure,
quiet boundary
n=0
y
2n<=D tgp/D tG<2n+1
n=n+1
n<5
n
y
Mgp=1
Figure 3.2
Mgp=2n
Mgp=32
Calculations for a zone (i.e., derivation of new stresses from surrounding gridpoint velocities and accumulation of gridpoint force sums from stress components) are only performed every Mz timesteps.
In all expressions involving a timestep, the global timestep is replaced by tG Mz .
3 - 10
Optional Features
Calculations for a gridpoint (i.e., derivation of new velocities and displacements from gridpoint
force sums) are only performed every Mgp timesteps; otherwise, the force sums are reset to zero,
which is normally done after every motion calculation. In all expressions involving a timestep, the
global timestep is replaced by tG Mgp .
The effect of the prescriptions described above is to skip calculation of selected gridpoints and
zones, thereby speeding up the overall calculation. The use of gridpoint and zone multipliers (Mgp
and Mz , respectively) ensures the following characteristics.
1. The force sum at each gridpoint is composed of component forces from each
connected zone that exist at the same point in time. The simultaneous nature
of the component forces is guaranteed by the fact that multipliers are powers
of two. Arbitrary integral multipliers would not have this characteristic.
2. Velocities seen by a zone (at the four surrounding gridpoints) are not updated
between zone updates. This is guaranteed by the fact that the zone multiplier is
the minimum of the surrounding gridpoint multipliers. Since stress increments
are derived from strain and displacement increments, the displacement contribution of a gridpoint is felt by a zone at each update, even though the gridpoint
is updated less frequently than the zone. In essence, the total displacement
increment of the gridpoint is divided into Mgp /Mz equal parts.
This scheme is accurate for dynamic simulations that represent waves with frequencies well below
the natural frequencies of individual elements. The condition is usually guaranteed by the wavelength criterion described by Eq. (3.60). For higher frequencies, it is believed that inaccuracies
arise from the fact that velocities used in computing strain increments are not defined (in time) at
the center of the time interval, t, for the case of a zone multiplier being unequal to the gridpoint
multiplier. This represents a departure from the second order accuracy of the central difference
scheme used in FLAC. However, it is always possible to assess the accuracy of the scheme for
any part of the simulation by running a short period of the simulation with and without dynamic
multi-stepping. The results may be directly compared.
Dynamic multi-stepping is invoked with the command SET multi on. The effect of dynamic multistepping on calculation speed is model dependent i.e., the more zones that have a high multiplier,
the greater the increase in speed. Although multi-stepping is not implemented within structural
elements, substantial savings can still be obtained by using multi-stepping for a system in which stiff
structures are connected to soft continuum elements. In a typical system, only a small proportion
of computer time is spent in structural calculations, so there is only a small penalty in performing
these calculations at every timestep, compared to the savings obtained by performing infrequent
grid calculations.
Example 3.1 illustrates the effect of dynamic multi-stepping. The model consists of a wall of
material with a modulus 20 times greater than the surrounding soil material. A shear wave is
applied at the base of the model for a 1 second time period. With SET multi on, the wall zones have
a multiplier of 1 and the soil zones have a multiplier of 4. (The gridpoint and zone multipliers are
stored in separate FISH extra variables for monitoring.) The calculation is 2.9 times faster with
dynamic multi-stepping. Velocity histories monitored at the base of the model and top of the wall
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 11
are identical with and without multi-stepping. Figure 3.3 plots the histories for the multi-stepping
run.
There is no direct printout of the multi-stepping multipliers, but FISH intrinsics zmsmul and gmsmul
(see Section 2.5.3 in the FISH volume) may be used to determine the multipliers used during cycling.
Dynamic multi-stepping can be used with structural elements. The grid timestep multipliers are
set to 1 for all gridpoints connected to structural nodes. Multipliers are not used in structures; their
natural timestep is used. This timestep may be small, but if the grid not attached to the structure does
have a large natural timestep, these gridpoints will have large multipliers, thus saving execution
time.
A user-defined integer multiplier can be specified with the optional max keyword.
For additional information and example applications of dynamic multi-stepping, see Unterberger,
Cundall and Zettler (1997). The application of dynamic multi-stepping in numerical predictions
of vibrations caused by rail traffic in tunnels is presented in Unterberger, Hochgatterer and Poisel
(1996) and Daller, Unterberger and Hochgatterer (1996).
Example 3.1 Shear wave applied to a stiff wall in a soft soil with dynamic multi-stepping
;-- Test multistepping option -; ... model has a stiff retaining wall
conf dyn ext=5
grid 40 20
mod elas
prop dens 2000 bulk 2e8 shea 1e8
model null i=1,10 j=11,20
prop bulk 4e9 shear 2e9 i=11,12 j=11,20 ; 20 times stiffness
fix y i=1
fix y i=41
def setup
freq = 1.0
omega = 2.0 * pi * freq
end
setup
def wave
wave = sin(omega*dytime)
end
apply xvel=1 hist=wave j=1
apply yvel=0
j=1
hist xvel i 11 j 21
hist yvel i 11 j 21
hist xvel i 11 j 1
hist dytime
set ncw=50
set multi=on ; Comment out this line, and compare times & histories
3 - 12
Optional Features
def tim
tim = 0.01 * (clock -- old_time)
end
cyc 1
def qqq ; Save multipliers in ex_1 and ex_2 -- for interest
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex_1(i,j) = zmsmul(i,j)
endLoop
endLoop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ex_2(i,j) = gmsmul(i,j)
endLoop
endLoop
old_time = clock
end
qqq
solve dytime 1.0
print tim
; plot his 1,2,3 vs 4 ; (compare with & without multistepping)
; pri ex_1 zon ; (look at multipliers)
; pri ex_2
JOB TITLE : .
1.500
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 11, 21)
Y velocity
( 11, 21)
X velocity
( 11, 1)
0.500
0.000
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
9
(10
-01
Figure 3.3
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 13
3 - 14
Optional Features
to the other two options. When using the HISTORY command to derive the history multiplier, the
values stored in the specified history are assumed to be spaced at constant intervals of dynamic
time. The interval is contained in the data file that is input with the HISTORY read command and
associated with a particular history number. If a FISH function is used to provide the multiplier,
the function must access dynamic time within the function, using the FLAC scalar variable dytime,
and compute a multiplier value that corresponds to this time. Example 3.12 provides an example
of dynamic loading derived from a FISH function.
Dynamic input can be applied either in the x- or y-directions corresponding to the xy-axes for the
model, or in the normal and shear directions to the model boundary. Certain boundary conditions
cannot be mixed at the same boundary segment (see Table 1.3 in the Command Reference for a
summary of the compatibility of boundary conditions).
One restriction when applying velocity or acceleration input to model boundaries is that these
boundary conditions cannot be applied along the same boundary as a quiet (viscous) boundary
condition (compare Figure 3.4(a) to Figure 3.4(b)), because the effect of the quiet boundary would
be nullified. See Section 3.4.1.3 for a description of quiet boundaries. To input seismic motion at
a quiet boundary, a stress boundary condition is used (i.e., a velocity record is transformed into a
stress record and applied to a quiet boundary).
A velocity wave may be converted to a stress wave using the formula
n = 2( Cp ) vn
(3.19)
s = 2( Cs ) vs
(3.20)
or
where:
n
s
Cp
Cs
vn
vs
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 15
3-D
damping
internal
dynamic
input
free field
quiet boundary
quiet boundary
free field
structure
quiet boundary
external dynamic input (stress or force only)
3-D
damping
free field
internal
dynamic
input
quiet boundary
quiet boundary
free field
structure
Figure 3.4
3 - 16
Optional Features
Cp is given by
Cp =
K + 4G/3
(3.21)
and Cs is given by
Cs =
G/
(3.22)
The formulae assume plane-wave conditions. The factor of two in Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20) accounts
for the fact that the applied stress must be double that observed in an infinite medium, since half the
input energy is absorbed by the viscous boundary. The formulation is similar to that of Joyner and
Chen (1975). To illustrate wave input at a quiet boundary, consider Example 3.2, in which a pulse is
applied as a stress history to the bottom of a vertical, 50 m high column. The bottom of the column
is declared quiet in both horizontal directions, and the top is free. The properties are chosen such
that the shear wave speed is 100 m/sec, and the product, Cs , is 105 . The amplitude of the stress
pulse is set, therefore, to 2 105 , according to Eq. (3.19), in order to generate a velocity amplitude
of 1 m/sec in the column. Figure 3.5 shows time histories of x-velocity at the base, middle and top
of the column; the amplitude of the outgoing wave is seen to be 1 m/sec, as expected. The first three
pulses in Figure 3.5 correspond, in order, to the outgoing waves at base, middle and top. The first
two pulses correspond to waves reflected from the free surface, measured at the middle and base,
respectively. The velocity-doubling effect of a free surface, as well as the lack of waves after a time
of about 1.3 seconds, can be seen, which confirms that the quiet base is working correctly. The
doubling effect associated with a free surface is described in texts on elastodynamics (e.g., Graff
1991).
Example 3.2 Shear wave propagation in a vertical column
config dyn
grid 1,50
model elas
prop dens 1000 shear 1e7 bulk 2e7
def wave
if dytime > 1.0/freq
wave = 0.0
else
wave = 0.5 * (1.0 - cos(2.0*pi*freq * dytime))
endif
end
set freq=4.0
fix y
apply xquiet j=1
apply sxy -2e5 hist wave j=1
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 17
JOB TITLE : .
1.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 1, 1)
1.200
X velocity
( 1, 26)
X velocity
( 1, 51)
0.800
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.400
0.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-01
Figure 3.5
3 - 18
Optional Features
seismic analysis, the input wave is an acceleration record. A baseline-correction procedure can
be used to force both the final velocity and displacement to be zero. Earthquake engineering texts
should be consulted for standard baseline correction procedures.
velocity
time
(a) velocity history
displacement
time
(b) displacement history
velocity
time
(c) low frequency velocity wave
displacement
time
(d) resultant displacement history
Figure 3.6
An alternative to baseline correction of the input record is to apply a displacement shift at the end
of the calculation, if there is a residual displacement of the entire model. This can be done by
applying a fixed velocity to the mesh to reduce the residual displacement to zero. This action will
not affect the mechanics of the deformation of the model. Computer codes to perform baseline
corrections are available from several Internet sites: e.g., http://nsmp.wr.usgs.gov/processing.html
provides such a code.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 19
(3.23)
ts = Cs vs
where:vn and vs are the normal and shear components of the velocity at the boundary;
3 - 20
Optional Features
tn and ts are calculated and applied at every timestep in the same way that boundary loads are applied.
This is more convenient than the former approach, and tests have shown that the implementation
is equally effective. The only potential problem concerns numerical stability, because the viscous
forces are calculated from velocities lagging by half a timestep. In practical analyses to date, no
reduction of timestep has been required by the use of the non-reflecting boundaries. Timestep
restrictions demanded by small zones are usually more important.
Dynamic analysis starts from some in-situ condition. If a velocity boundary is used to provide
the static stress state, this boundary condition can be replaced by a quiet boundary; the boundary
reaction forces will be automatically calculated and maintained throughout the dynamic loading
phase. Note that the boundaries must not be freed before applying the quiet boundary condition,
otherwise the reaction forces will be lost.
Care should be taken to avoid changes in static loading during the dynamic phase. For example, if
a tunnel is excavated after quiet boundaries have been specified on the bottom boundary, the whole
model will start to move upward. This is because the total gravity force no longer balances the
total reaction force at the bottom that was calculated when the boundary was changed to a quiet
one. If a stress boundary condition is applied for the static solution, a stress boundary condition of
opposite sign must also be applied over the same boundary when the quiet boundary is applied for
the dynamic phase. This will allow the correct reaction forces to be in place at the boundary for the
dynamic calculation.
Quiet boundary conditions can be applied in the x- and y-directions, or along inclined boundaries,
in the normal and shear directions, using the APPLY command with appropriate keywords (xquiet,
yquiet, nquiet or squiet). When applying quiet boundary conditions in the normal and shear directions, nquiet and squiet should always be specified together. These conditions individually do
not account for the coupling between x- and y-directions for inclined boundaries. When using
the APPLY command to install a quiet boundary condition, it must be appreciated that the material
properties used in Eq. (3.23) are obtained from the zones immediately adjacent to the boundary.
Thus, appropriate material properties for boundary zones must be in place at the time the APPLY
command is given in order for the correct properties of the quiet boundary to be stored.
Quiet boundaries are best-suited when the dynamic source is within a grid. Quiet boundaries should
not be used alongside boundaries of a grid when the dynamic source is applied as a boundary
condition at the top or base, because the wave energy will leak out of the sides. In this situation,
free-field boundaries, described below, should be applied to the sides.
3.4.1.4 Free-Field Boundaries
Numerical analysis of the seismic response of surface structures such as dams requires the discretization of a region of the material adjacent to the foundation. The seismic input is normally
represented by plane waves propagating upward through the underlying material. The boundary
conditions at the sides of the model must account for the free-field motion which would exist in
the absence of the structure. In some cases, elementary lateral boundaries may be sufficient. For
example, if only a shear wave were applied on the horizontal boundary, AC, shown in Figure 3.7, it
would be possible to fix the boundary along AB and CD in the vertical direction only (see the example in Section 3.6.3). These boundaries should be placed at sufficient distances to minimize wave
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 21
reflections and achieve free-field conditions. For soils with high material damping, this condition
can be obtained with a relatively small distance (Seed et al., 1975). However, when the material
damping is low, the required distance may lead to an impractical model. An alternative procedure
is to enforce the free-field motion in such a way that boundaries retain their non-reflecting properties i.e., outward waves originating from the structure are properly absorbed. This approach
was used in the continuum finite-difference code NESSI (Cundall et al., 1980). A technique of this
type was developed for FLAC, involving the execution of a one-dimensional free-field calculation
in parallel with the main-grid analysis.
free field
free field
seismic wave
Figure 3.7
The lateral boundaries of the main grid are coupled to the free-field grid by viscous dashpots to
simulate a quiet boundary (see Figure 3.7), and the unbalanced forces from the free-field grid are
applied to the main-grid boundary. Both conditions are expressed in Eqs. (3.24) and (3.25), which
apply to the left-hand boundary. Similar expressions may be written for the right-hand boundary:
ff
Fx = [Cp (vxm vxff ) xx
]Sy
(3.24)
ff
]Sy
Fy = [Cs (vym vyff ) xy
(3.25)
3 - 22
Optional Features
where:
Cp
Cs
Sy
vxm
vym
vxff
vyff
ff
xx
ff
xy
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
In this way, plane waves propagating upward suffer no distortion at the boundary because the freefield grid supplies conditions that are identical to those in an infinite model. If the main grid is
uniform, and there is no surface structure, the lateral dashpots are not exercised because the freefield grid executes the same motion as the main grid. However, if the main-grid motion differs
from that of the free field (due, say, to a surface structure that radiates secondary waves), then the
dashpots act to absorb energy in a manner similar to the action of quiet boundaries.
The free-field model consists of a one-dimensional column of unit width, simulating the behavior
of the extended medium. An explicit finite-difference method was selected for the model. The
height of the free field equals the length of the lateral boundaries. It is discretized into n elements
corresponding to the zones along the lateral boundaries of the FLAC mesh. Element masses are
lumped at the n+1 gridpoints. A linear variation of the displacement field is assumed within each
element; the elements are, therefore, in a state of uniform strain (and stress).
The following conditions are required in order to apply the free-field boundary condition.
1. The lateral boundaries of the grid must be vertical and straight.
2. The free field boundaries may be applied to the whole grid or to a sub-grid,
starting at (1,1), with the left-hand boundary being i = 1. The right-hand
boundary corresponds to the last-encountered non-null zone, scanning along
j = 1 with increasing i numbers. Any other disconnected sub-grids are not
considered when the free-field boundaries are created. Therefore, if sub-grids
are used in a simulation that requires free-field boundaries to the main grid,
this grid must be the first one i.e., its left and bottom sides must be lines i
= 1 and j = 1, respectively. The optional keyword ilimits forces the free field to
be applied on the outer i limits of the grid (as specified in the GRID command).
This keyword should be used if null zones exist on the j = 1 row of zones. It is
advisable to perform PLOT apply to verify that the free field is applied to the
correct boundary before starting a dynamic simulation.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 23
3 - 24
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 25
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:12
step
1058
Dynamic Time 2.0016E-02
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 5, 11)
0.800
X velocity
( 18, 11)
0.600
X velocity
( 19, 11)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-03
Figure 3.8
2 Csff
W
(3.26)
= coefficient of 3D damping;
= free-field shear wave velocity; and
3 - 26
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 27
with the equivalent-linear method and a fully nonlinear method, without making any compromises
in the choice of constitutive model.
For routine engineering design, we must use an approximate representation of cyclic energy dissipation. In FLAC, the choice is between Rayleigh damping and hysteretic damping. Here, we make
some general comparisons between the two approaches, to enable a choice to be made. In general,
hysteretic damping is the more realistic of the two, and it entails no reduction in timestep.
For low levels of cyclic strain, and fairly uniform conditions, Rayleigh damping and hysteretic
damping give similar results, provided that the levels of damping set for both are consistent with
the levels of cyclic strain experienced. The results will differ in the following two circumstances.
1. When the system is non-uniform (e.g., layers of quite different properties), then cyclic
strain levels may be different in different locations and at different times. Using hysteretic
damping, these different strain levels produce realistically different damping levels in time
and space, while constant and uniform Rayleigh damping parameters can only reproduce
the average response. It would be possible to adjust the Rayleigh damping parameters to
account for spatial variations in damping, using an iterative (strain-compatible) scheme,
as used in the equivalent linear method (see Section 3.2.1). It may also be possible
to adjust the Rayleigh damping parameters in time as well, although some practical
difficulties may be encountered.
2. As yield is approached, both Rayleigh damping and hysteretic damping do not account for
the energy dissipation of extensive yielding. Thus, irreversible strain occurs externally to
both schemes, and dissipation is represented by the yield model (e.g., Mohr-Coulomb).
Under this condition, the mass-proportional term of Rayleigh damping may inhibit yielding because rigid-body motions that occur during failure modes are erroneously resisted.
Hysteretic damping may give rise to larger permanent strains in such a situation, but
this condition is usually believed to be more realistic compared to that using Rayleigh
damping.
We note that hysteretic damping provides almost no energy dissipation at very low cyclic strain
levels, which may be unrealistic. To avoid low-level oscillation, it is recommended to add a small
amount (e.g., 0.5%) of stiffness-proportional Rayleigh damping when hysteretic damping is used
in a dynamic simulation.
3 - 28
Optional Features
(3.27)
(3.28)
1
+ i
2 i
(3.29)
or
i =
The critical damping ratio, i , is also known as the fraction of critical damping for mode i with
angular frequency i .
Figure 3.9 shows the variation of the normalized critical damping ratio with angular frequency, i .
Three curves are given: mass and stiffness components only; and the sum of both components. As
shown, mass-proportional damping is dominant at lower angular-frequency ranges, while stiffnessproportional damping dominates at higher angular frequencies. The curve representing the sum of
both components reaches a minimum at:
min = ( )1/2
(3.30)
min = ( / )1/2
or:
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 29
= min min
(3.31)
= min / min
The center frequency is then defined as
fmin = min / 2
(3.32)
It may be noted that at frequency min (or fmin ) (and only at that frequency), mass damping and
stiffness damping each supply half of the total damping force.
6
=0
5
= 0
i / min
4
total
3
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 3.9
Rayleigh damping is specified in FLAC with the parameters fmin in Hertz (cycles per second) and
min , both specified with the command SET dy damp rayleigh.
Stiffness-proportional damping causes a reduction in the critical timestep for the explicit solution
scheme (see Belytschko 1983). In FLAC, the internal timestep calculation takes account of stiffnessproportional damping, but it is still possible for instability to occur if the large-strain calculation
is in effect (SET large) and very large mesh deformation occurs. If this happens, it is necessary to
reduce the timestep manually (via the SET dydt command).
3 - 30
Optional Features
For the case shown in Figure 3.9, min = 10 radians per second. It is evident that the damping
ratio is almost constant over at least a 3:1 frequency range (e.g., from 5 to 15). Since damping
in geologic media is commonly independent of frequency, as discussed in Section 3.4.2, min is
usually chosen to lie in the center of the range of frequencies present in the numerical simulation
either natural frequencies of the model or predominant input frequencies. Hysteretic damping
is thereby simulated in an approximate fashion.
3.4.2.2 Example Application of Rayleigh Damping
In order to demonstrate how Rayleigh damping works in FLAC, the results of the following four
damping cases can be compared; the example consists of a square grid in which gravity is suddenly
applied. The conditions are:
(a) undamped;
(b) Rayleigh damping (both mass and stiffness damping);
(c) mass damping only; and
(d) stiffness damping only.
Example 3.4 provides data corresponding to each case in turn. The Rayleigh parameters are adjusted
to give critical damping in cases (b), (c), and (d).
Example 3.4 Block under gravity undamped and 3 critically damped cases
conf dy
gr 3 3
m e
prop den 1000 bu 1e8 sh .3e8
fix y j=1
set grav 10.0
hist n 1
hist ydisp i=3 j=4
hist dytime
save damp.sav
step 200
title
vertical displacement versus time (undamped)
plot pen his 1 vs 2
;
rest damp.sav
set dy_damp=rayl 1 25.0
step 445
title
vertical displacement versus time (mass & stiffness damped; damp 1 25)
plot pen his 1 vs 2
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 31
;
rest damp.sav
set dy_damp=rayl 2 25.0 mass
step 80
title
vertical displacement versus time(mass damped;damp 2 25 mass)
plot pen his 1 vs 2
;
rest damp.sav
set dy_damp=rayl 2 25.0 stiff
step 870
title
vertical displacement versus time(stiffness damped;damp 2 25 stiff)
plot pen his 1 vs 2
ret
In the first case, with no damping, a natural frequency of oscillation of approximately 25 Hertz is
observed (see Figure 3.10). The problem should be critically damped if: (1) a fraction of critical
damping, min , of 1 is specified; (2) the natural frequency of oscillation, fmin , of 25 Hertz is
specified; and (3) both mass and stiffness damping are used.
The results in Figure 3.11 show that the problem is critically damped. If only mass or stiffness
damping is used, then min must be doubled to obtain critical damping (since each component
contributes one-half to the overall damping). Figures 3.12 and 3.13 again show that the system is
critically damped.
Note that the timestep is different for the three damped simulations. This is a result of the influence
of stiffness-proportional damping, as discussed above.
3 - 32
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:13
step
200
Dynamic Time 1.8898E-01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
10
12
14
16
18
(10
-02
Figure 3.10 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly
applied to a square grid (no damping)
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:17
step
445
Dynamic Time 7.5499E-02
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
-4.500
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
-03
Figure 3.11 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly
applied to a square grid (mass and stiffness damping)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 33
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:19
step
80
Dynamic Time 7.5593E-02
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
-4.500
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
-03
Figure 3.12 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly
applied to a square grid (mass damping only)
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:20
step
870
Dynamic Time 7.5616E-02
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
-4.500
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
-03
Figure 3.13 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly
applied to a square grid (stiffness damping only)
3 - 34
Optional Features
Frequency
* A spectral analysis based on a Fast Fourier Transform is supplied as a FISH function in the FISH
library in Section 3 in the FISH volume see FFT.FIS.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 35
For many problems, the important frequencies are related to the natural mode of oscillation of the
system. Examples of this type of problem include seismic analysis of surface structures, such as
dams or dynamic analysis of underground excavations. The fundamental frequency, f , associated
with the natural mode of oscillation of a system, is
f =
(3.33)
3 - 36
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 37
removed, W , is proportional to the maximum, transient strain energy, W , and the ratio W/W
is independent of rate and frequency. Since W/W may be related to fraction of critical damping,
D (Kolsky 1963), we obtain the expression:
L = D
(3.34)
where L is the local damping coefficient. Thus, the use of local damping is simpler than Rayleigh
damping, because we do not need to specify a frequency. To compare the two types of damping,
we repeat Example 3.4 with 5% damping, which is a typical value used for dynamic analyses.
Example 3.5 provides the data file; we also set fmin to 24.1, which is a more accurate estimate of
the natural frequency of the block. A similar run is done with local damping, with the coefficient set
to 0.1571 (= 0.05) see Example 3.6. In both runs, we specify the timestep at 5104 , so that
we can execute the same number of steps in each to obtain the same elapsed time. Displacement
histories from the two runs are given in Figures 3.16 and 3.17, respectively. The results are quite
similar.
Example 3.5 Continuation of Example 3.4 with 5% Rayleigh damping
rest damp.sav
set dydt=5e-4
set dy_damp=rayleigh 0.05 24.1
step 1000
plot pen his 1 vs 2
A modified form of local damping combined damping may also be used in dynamic mode,
but its performance is unknown. The formulation for combined damping is given in Section 1.3.4
in Theory and Background, and the command to invoke it is SET dy damp combined value.
3 - 38
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:21
step
1000
Dynamic Time 5.0000E-01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
-8.000
-9.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
JOB TITLE : .
-04
LEGEND
18-May-04 9:22
step
1000
Dynamic Time 5.0000E-01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y displacement( 3, 4)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-6.000
-7.000
-8.000
-9.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 39
CAUTION: Local damping appears to give good results for a simple case because it is frequencyindependent and needs no estimate of the natural frequency of the system being modeled. However,
this type of damping should be treated with caution, and the results compared to those with Rayleigh
damping for each application. There is some evidence to suggest that, for complicated waveforms,
local damping underdamps the high frequency components, and may introduce high frequency
noise.
3.4.2.5 Spatial Variation in Damping
Rayleigh damping and local damping are both assigned as global parameters by the SET command in
FLAC. A spatial variation in the damping parameters (and the damping type) can also be prescribed
via the INITIAL dy damp command. For example, if different materials are known to have different
fractions of critical damping, a different value for min can be assigned to each material. This can
be demonstrated by modifying the example of a wave propagating in a column (Example 3.2). In
Example 3.7, two separate identical grids are constructed, to enable a direct comparison to be made.
Both grids contain two layers a stiff layer in the lower half, and a soft layer in the upper half. The
left-hand grid has uniform Rayleigh stiffness damping, while the right-hand grid has two values
for the damping coefficient, corresponding to the two materials, although the average damping
coefficient is the same as that of the left-hand grid. The velocity histories at the free surface are
plotted in Figure 3.18 for both grids. Differences in response can be observed particularly in the
second pulse (reflected from the material discontinuity).
Example 3.7 Spatial variation in damping
config dyn ext=5
grid 3,50
mod elas i=1 ; Create 2 grids, for comparison
mod elas i=3
prop dens 2500 bulk 2e7 shear 1e7 j=1,25
; Two layers in
prop dens 2000 bulk 0.5e7 shear 0.25e7 j=26,50 ;
each grid
def wave
if dytime > 1.0/freq
wave = 0.0
else
wave = (1.0 - cos(2.0*pi*freq*dytime)) / 2.0
endif
end
set freq=2.0 ncw=50
ini dy_damp=rayl .1 freq stiff i=1,2
; Uniform .. l.h. grid
ini dy_damp=rayl .02 freq stiff i=3,4 j=1,26 ; Nonuniform ..
ini dy_damp=rayl .18 freq stiff i=3,4 j=27,51 ;
r.h. grid
fix y
apply xquiet j=1 i=1,2
apply xquiet j=1 i=3,4
apply sxy=-2e5 hist wave j=1 i=1,2
apply sxy=-2e5 hist wave j=1 i=3,4
3 - 40
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
18-May-04 9:25
step
4565
Dynamic Time 3.5005E+00
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 1, 51)
0.800
X velocity
0.600
( 3, 51)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-01
Figure 3.18 Velocity histories at a free surface for spatial variation in damping
The specification of nonuniform damping with the INITIAL command follows the syntax of both
the SET dy damp command and the INITIAL command. For example, variations, additions and
multipliers can be prescribed for all parameters. In its simplest form, the INITIAL dy damp command
resembles that of the SET dy damp command (e.g., the following two commands produce identical
results):
set dy damp rayl
0.05
25.0
0.05
25.0
Note that a SET dy damp command implicitly sets damping for all grid elements (and overrides
any previous INITIAL dy damp specifications). By using range parameters, several INITIAL dy damp
commands can be used to install different damping values (and even different damping types) in
various locations. The var keyword can also be used. For example, we can modify the previous
example of uniform damping:
ini dy damp rayl
0.05
var
0.1,0.2
25.0
var -5,0
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 41
In this case, there are spatial variations in both the damping coefficient and the center frequency. The
syntax follows the general rule for the INITIAL command in that any parameter value may be followed
by the keywords var, add or mul, with appropriate parameters for those keywords. Note that all
damping parameters pertain to gridpoints. In particular, the Rayleigh stiffness-proportional term,
which acts on zone strain rates, is derived by averaging, from values specified at the neighboring
gridpoints.
The command PRINT dy damp produces a normal grid printout, consisting of two or more blocks
of data: the first block denotes the damping type (L, C or R, for local, combined or Rayleigh,
respectively, with modifiers m and s for mass and stiffness), and the second block records the
damping coefficient. In the case of Rayleigh damping, there is a third block of output that records
the center frequency.
There is no direct plot of damping information, but the FISH grid intrinsic damp can be used to
transfer appropriate data to the extra arrays for plotting. See Section 2 in the FISH volume, for a
description of the intrinsic damp.
If damping parameters are modified with the FISH intrinsic damp, the change will not necessarily
take effect immediately, because the code uses derived coefficients. In small-strain mode, derived
coefficients are computed from user-given parameters when a CYCLE or STEP command is given;
in large-strain mode, the derivation is done every 10 steps. A user-written FISH function may force
the derived coefficients to be computed by executing the intrinsic do update. Note that the timestep
may change as a result (if the Rayleigh stiffness term is changed).
3.4.2.6 Structural Element Damping
Rayleigh, local or combined damping can also be specified independently for structural elements
by giving the struct keyword immediately following SET dy damp. Damping is then applied specifically for all structural elements in the model. See, for example, Example 3.15.
Note that stiffness damping is included by default for pile coupling springs. This damping can be
turned off by using the SET dy damp pile sd off command.
3.4.2.7 Artificial Viscosity
Von Neumann and Landshoff artificial viscosity terms are implemented in FLAC to control damping
involving sharp fronts in dynamic analysis. These viscous damping terms are a generalization of the
one-dimensional equations (1) and (3) in Wilkins (1980), and correspond to the original viscosity
formulation of von Neumann and Richtmyer (see Wilkins 1980).
The artificial viscosity method was initially developed for numerical calculation of shock propagation in fluid dynamics. The method may not apply to elastic or plastic waves when shear stress
components are significant when compared to mean pressure, because shear waves are not damped
by the method. The purpose of the quadratic von Neumann term q1 is to spread the shock over
a number of grid spacings, and damp the oscillations behind the front. The effect of the linear
Landshoff term q2 is to diffuse the shock front over an increased number of zones as the shock
progresses.
3 - 42
Optional Features
In the FLAC implementation, a linear combination, q, of the scalar viscosity terms q1 and q2 is
used on a zone basis:
q = an q1 + al q2
(3.35)
where an and al are two constants. The viscous terms have the form:
q1 = b c0 2 L2
2
(3.36)
q2 = b c1 L a
(3.37)
c0
c1
where K and G are bulk and shear moduli for the zone;
is a constant set = 2; and
is a constant set = 1.
= sgn( )
The isotropic viscous stress contribution is added to the out-of-balance force for the nodes before
resolution of the equations of motion.
The following command is provided to activate artificial damping for a FLAC model:
SET dy damp avisc an al
where an and al are the two constants defined above, which should, in most instances, be assigned
the value of 1.
Note that the presence of damping terms results in a slightly more stringent stability condition that
has not been taken into consideration in the implementation. Hence, in some cases, it may be
necessary to reduce the timestep to achieve satisfactory stability.
The data file in Example 3.8 corresponds to a model with a sharp velocity wave, of the form shown
in Figure 3.19, applied to the left boundary. The data file is run in both plane-strain and axisymmetry
mode using the artificial viscosity model. (Replace the CONFIG dyn command with CONFIG dyn
axi for the axisymmetry analysis.) The effect on wave transmission through the grid is illustrated
by the x-velocity plots in Figure 3.20 for the plane-strain model without artificial viscosity (SET
dy damp avisc command removed), compared to Figure 3.21 for the model with artificial viscosity.
Figure 3.22 shows the results for the axisymmetry model with artificial viscosity.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 43
0
0
i=1,2
j=1,301
i=2,151 j=1,301
3 - 44
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
(10
-04
JOB TITLE : .
1.200
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 10, 150)
0.800
X velocity
( 20, 150)
0.600
X velocity
( 30, 150)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
(10
-04
Figure 3.20 x-velocity histories for plane-strain model without artificial viscosity
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 45
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 10, 150)
0.800
X velocity
( 20, 150)
0.600
X velocity
( 30, 150)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
(10
-04
Figure 3.21 x-velocity histories for plane-strain model with artificial viscosity
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
18-May-04 12:35
step
259
Dynamic Time 1.0018E-03
5.000
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X velocity ( 10, 150)
3.000
X velocity
( 20, 150)
2.000
X velocity
( 30, 150)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
10
(10
-04
Figure 3.22 x-velocity histories for axisymmetry model with artificial viscosity
3 - 46
Optional Features
Figure 3.23 Modulus reduction curve for sand (Seed & Idriss 1970 upper
range). The data set was taken from the input file supplied with
the SHAKE91 code download. (See
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/software/shake91/ )
A further motivation for incorporating such cyclic data into a hysteretic damping model for FLAC
and FLAC 3D is that the need for additional damping, such as Rayleigh damping, would be eliminated.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 47
Rayleigh damping is unpopular with code users because it often involves a drastic reduction in
timestep, and a consequent increase in solution time.
Optional hysteretic damping is described here; it may be used on its own, or in conjunction with the
other damping schemes, such as Rayleigh damping or local damping. (It may also be used with any
of the built-in constitutive models, except for the transversely isotropic elastic, modified Cam-clay,
and creep material models.)
Formulation
Modulus degradation curves, as illustrated in Figure 3.23, imply a nonlinear stress/strain curve. If
we assume an ideal soil, in which the stress depends only on the strain (not on the number of cycles,
or time), we can derive an incremental constitutive relation from the degradation curve, described
by / = Ms , where is the normalized shear stress, the shear strain and Ms the normalized
secant modulus.
= Ms
Mt =
d
dMs
= Ms +
d
d
(3.38)
(3.39)
where Mt is the normalized tangent modulus. The incremental shear modulus in a nonlinear
simulation is then given by GMt , where G is the small-strain shear modulus of the material.
In order to handle two- and three-dimensional strain paths, a similar approach to that described for
the Finn model (e.g., see Section 3.4.4.1) is used, whereby the shear strain is decomposed into
components in strain space, and strain reversals are detected by changes in signs of the dot product
of the current increment and the previous mean path. Following the formulation of the Finn model
(replacing with ; otherwise using the same notation):
1 := 1 + e11 e22
(3.40)
2 := 2 + 2e12
(3.41)
i = io ioo
(3.42)
z=
i i
(3.43)
i
z
(3.44)
noi =
3 - 48
Optional Features
d = (i io )ni
(3.45)
A reversal is detected when |d| passes through a maximum, and the previous-reversal strain values
are updated as given by Eqs. (3.46) and (3.47). Note that there is no latency period, as used in the
Finn model (see Section 3.4.4.1); there is no minimum number of timesteps that must occur before
a reversal is detected.
ioo = io
(3.46)
io = i
(3.47)
Between reversals, the shear modulus is multiplied by Mt , using = |d| in Eq. (3.39). The
multiplier is applied to the shear modulus used in all built-in constitutive models, except for the
transversely isotropic elastic, modified Cam-clay, and creep material models. Note that the Masing
rule is used when applying the formulation presented above. For the first loading cycle, both stress
and strain axes are scaled by one half compared to those for subsequent cycles.
Implementation
The formulation described above is implemented in FLAC, by modifying the strain-rate calculation,
so that the mean strain-rate tensor (averaged over all sub-zones) is calculated before any calls are
made to constitutive model functions. At this stage, the hysteretic logic is invoked, returning
a modulus multiplier, which is passed to any called constitutive model. The model then uses the
multiplier Mt to adjust the apparent value of tangent shear modulus of the full zone being processed.
The hysteretic logic also contains push-down FILO* stacks that record all state information (e.g., d,
ni and io ) at the point of reversal, for both positive- and negative-going strain directions. If the strain
level returns to and exceeds a previous value recorded in the stack (of the appropriate sign),
the state information is popped from the stack, so that the behavior (and, hence, tangent multiplier)
reverts back to that which applied at the time before the reversal. For example, Figure 3.24 shows
the stress/strain response of a one-zone sample loaded in shear at constant strain rate. After 1000
steps, the strain rate is reversed for 250 steps, and then reversed again for 500 steps. The miniloop exhibits a high average stiffness, but the slope reverts back to the virgin loading curve when
the strain reaches the level at which the first reversal occurred. In this case, both the positive and
negative stacks are popped upon closure of the mini-loop (i.e., the entire loop is forgotten), but
only the information from the positive stack is used to restore state information; the negative-stack
information is discarded.
The degradation curves used in earthquake engineering are usually given as tables of values, with
cyclic strains spaced logarithmically. Since the derivative of the modulus-reduction curve is required
here (i.e., for Eq. (3.39)), the coarse spacing (e.g., 11 points in the curve shown in Figure 3.23) leads
* First In, Last Out
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 49
to unacceptable errors if numerical derivatives are calculated. Thus, the implemented hysteretic
model uses only continuous functions to represent the modulus-reduction curve, so that analytical
derivatives may be calculated. The various implemented functions are described in the following
section. If degradation curves are available only in table form, they must be fitted to one of the
built-in functional forms before simulations can be performed.
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:53
step
1750
Dynamic Time 1.7500E-01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 1)
X-axis :
X displacement( 1, 2)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
12
(10
-04
Figure 3.24 Shear stress vs shear strain, with one reversal to show the effect
of memory (Example 3.9)
Example 3.9 One-zone sample loaded in shear with strain rate reversal
conf dyn ext 5
grid 1 1
model elas
prop dens 1000 shear 5e8 bulk 10e8
fix x y
set dydt 1e-4
ini dy_damp hyst default -3.5 1.3
his sxy i 1 j 1
his xdis i 1 j 2
his nstep 1
ini xvel 1e-2 j=2
cyc 1000
ini xvel mul -1
3 - 50
Optional Features
cyc 250
ini xvel mul -1
cyc 500
<range>
Where name is the name of the fitting function (chosen from the list: default, sig3, sig4 and hardin
see below), and v1, v2, v3 . . . are numerical values for function parameters. The optional range
may be any acceptable range phrase for zones. Hysteretic damping may be removed from any range
of zones with the command
initial dy damp hyst
off
<range>
Note that the INITIAL dy damp hyst command only applies where the CONFIG dyn mode of operation
has been selected, and when SET dyn=on applies. Hysteretic damping operates independent of
all other forms of damping, which may be also specified to operate in parallel with hysteretic
damping.
Tangent-Modulus Functions
Various built-in functions are available to represent the variation of G/Gmax with cyclic strain
(given in percent), according to the keyword specified on the INITIAL dy damp hyst command.
Default model default
The default hysteresis model is developed by noting that the S-shaped curve of modulus versus
logarithm of cyclic strain can be represented by a cubic equation, with zero slope at both low strain
and high strain. Thus, the secant modulus, Ms , is
Ms = s 2 (3 2s)
(3.48)
where
L2 L
L2 L1
(3.49)
L = log10 ( )
(3.50)
s=
and L is the logarithmic strain,
The parameters L1 and L2 are the extreme values of logarithmic strain i.e., the values at which
the tangent slope becomes zero. Thus, giving L1 = 3 and L2 = 1 means that the S-shaped curve
will extend from a lower cyclic strain of 0.001% (103 ) to an upper cyclic strain of 10% (101 ).
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 51
Since the slopes are zero at these limits, it is not meaningful to operate the damping model with
strains outside the limits. (Note that Eq. (3.48) is only assumed to apply for 0 s 1, and that
the tangent modulus will be set to zero otherwise). The tangent modulus is given by
Mt = Ms +
dMs
d
(3.51)
d
ds dL d
(3.52)
we obtain
Mt = s 2 (3 2s)
6s(1 s)
log10 e
L2 L1
(3.53)
There is a further limit, s > smin , such that the tangent modulus is always positive (no strain
softening). Thus,
2
(3 2smin ) =
smin
6smin (1 smin )
log10 e
L2 L1
(3.54)
or
2
2smin
smin (A + 3) + A = 0
(3.55)
A+3
(A + 3)2 8A
4
(3.56)
3 - 52
Optional Features
a
1 + exp((L xo )/b)
(3.57)
sig4 model:
Ms = yo +
a
1 + exp((L xo )/b)
(3.58)
The command line for invoking these models requires that 3 symbols, a, b and xo , are defined by the
parameters v1, v2, and v3, respectively, for model sig3 (Eq. (3.57)). For model sig4, the 4 symbols,
a, b, xo and yo , are entered by means of the parameters v1, v2, v3 and v4, respectively. Numerical
fits for the two models to the curve of Figure 3.23 are provided in Table 3.1.
Default
Sig3
Sig4
Hardin
Sand
L1 = -3.325
a = 1.014
a = 0.9762
ref = 0.06
upper range
L2 = 0.823
b = -0.4792
b = -0.4393
xo = -1.249
xo = -1.285
(Seed &
Idriss, 1970)
yo = 0.03154
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 53
1
1 + /ref
(3.59)
It has the useful property that the modulus reduction factor is 0.5 when = ref , so that the sole
parameter, ref , may be determined by inspection from the strain at which the modulusreduction curve crosses the G/Gmax = 0.5 line. Choosing a value of ref = 0.06 produces a
match to the curve of Figure 3.23 that is similar to that shown in Figure 3.25, below, although the
high-strain damping is higher.
Results of Matching
Using the sig3 model fit mentioned above, the data file Example 3.10 was used to exercise a one-zone
FLAC model at several cyclic strain levels. The following command was used to invoke hysteretic
damping.
ini dy damp hyst sig3 1.014 -0.4792 -1.249
The results are summarized in Figure 3.25, which presents the tangent modulus results from FLAC
together with the Seed & Idriss results. Although the modulus results match the target data well
over five orders of magnitude, the measured damping does not conform well with the published
damping curves for the same material. Figure 3.26 compares the FLAC results with the Seed &
Idriss data.
Example 3.10 One-zone sample exercised at several cyclic strain levels
conf dy
def setup
givenShear = 1e8
CycStrain = 0.1 ; (percent cyclic strain)
;---- derived ..
setVel
= 0.01 * min(1.0,CycStrain/0.1)
givenBulk = 2.0 * givenShear
timestep
= min(1e-4,1e-5 / CycStrain)
nstep1
= int(0.5 + 1.0 / (timestep * 10.0))
nstep2
= nstep1 * 2
nstep3
= nstep1 + nstep2
nstep5
= nstep1 + 2 * nstep2
end
setup
;
grid 1 1
m e
3 - 54
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 55
Figure 3.25 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for sig3 model
secant modulus values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed &
Idriss data also shown.
Figure 3.26 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for sig3 model
damping values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss
data also shown.
3 - 56
Optional Features
Clearly, the published data for modulus and damping are inconsistent with a conceptual model of
strain- and time-independent material response. It is unclear whether the two sets of published data
came from different tests, or if the nature of the test led to the inconsistencies. For example, the
steady-state response (after many cycles of applied strain) may be different from the initial single
cycle response. If this is true, then it is not evident that the steady-state response (presumably
encompassed by the published results) is a better representation in typical earthquake simulations
than the single-cycle response, because many earthquakes contain only one or two large-amplitude
cycles. Thus, the single-cycle response may more correctly represent material behavior under
earthquake loading. In this case, the damping and modulus curves are consistent.
In the absence of consistent laboratory data, it is suggested that a compromise approach is taken,
in which both the damping and modulus curves are fitted over a reasonable range of strains (corresponding to the strains being modeled). As an example of this strategy, the default model is
used (with data file Example 3.11), giving the FLAC results shown in Figures 3.27 and 3.28. The
hysteretic damping in this case was invoked with the following command:
ini dy damp hyst default -3.325 0.823
The results show that over a middle range of strain (say, 0.001% to 0.3% strain) there is an
approximate fit to both the modulus and damping curves of Seed & Idriss.
Example 3.11 One-zone sample exercised at several cyclic strain levels with approximate fit
over selected strain range
conf dy
def setup
givenShear = 1e8
end
setup
gri 1 1
m e
prop den 1000 sh givenShear bu 2e8
fix x y
ini xvel 1e-2 j=2
set dydt 1e-4
ini dy_damp hyst default -3.325 0.823
his sxy i 1 j 1
his xdis i 1 j 2
his nstep 1
cyc 1000
ini xv mul -1
cyc 2000
ini xv mul -1
cyc 2000
his write 1 vs 2 tab 1
def HLoop
emax = 0.0
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 57
emin = 0.0
tmax = 0.0
tmin = 0.0
loop n (1,5000)
emax = max(xtable(1,n),emax)
emin = min(xtable(1,n),emin)
tmax = max(ytable(1,n),tmax)
tmin = min(ytable(1,n),tmin)
endLoop
slope = ((tmax - tmin) / (emax - emin)) / givenShear
oo = out( strain = +string(emax*100.0)+% G/Gmax = +string(slope))
Tbase = ytable(1,3000)
Lsum = 0.0
loop n (1000,2999)
meanT = (ytable(1,n) + ytable(1,n+1)) / 2.0
Lsum = Lsum + (xtable(1,n)-xtable(1,n+1)) * (meanT - Tbase)
endLoop
Usum = 0.0
loop n (3000,4999)
meanT = (ytable(1,n) + ytable(1,n+1)) / 2.0
Usum = Usum + (xtable(1,n+1)-xtable(1,n)) * (meanT - Tbase)
endLoop
Wdiff = Usum - Lsum
Senergy = 0.5 * xtable(1,1000) * yTable(1,1000)
Drat = Wdiff / (Senergy * 4.0 * pi)
oo = out( damping ratio = +string(Drat*100.0)+%)
end
HLoop
save cyclefit.sav
3 - 58
Optional Features
Figure 3.27 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model
secant modulus values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed &
Idriss data also shown.
Figure 3.28 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model
damping values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss
data also shown.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 59
An example of a 20m layer excited by a digitized earthquake is provided to show that plausible
behavior occurs for a case involving wave propagation, multiple and nested loops, and reasonably
large cyclic strain. The data file Example 3.12 is listed below.
Example 3.12 One-dimensional earthquake excitation of uniform layer
conf dyn ext 5
grid 1 20
model elas
prop dens 1000 shear 5e8
fix y
his read 100 gilroy1.acc
apply xacc -0.02 his 100
def strain1
strain1 = xdisp(1,2) strain10 = xdisp(1,11)
end
his dytime
his sxy i 1 j 1
his strain1
his sxy i 1 j 10
his strain10
his xacc i=1 j=1
his xacc i 1 j 11
his xacc i 1 j 21
ini dy_damp hyst default
solve dytime 25
save mdac.sav
bulk 10e8
yvel 0 j=1
xdisp(1,1)
- xdisp(1,10)
-3.325 0.823
The digitized earthquake record is described as LOMA PRIETA GILROY. The stress/strain loops
for the bottom and middle of the layer are shown in Figures 3.29 and 3.30, respectively, and the
acceleration histories for 3 positions are shown in Figure 3.31. The simulation is in one dimension,
for excitation in the shear directly only.
The hysteretic model seems to handle multiple nested loops in a reasonable manner. There is clearly
more energy dissipation at the base of the model than at the middle. The maximum cyclic strain is
about 0.15%. The magnitude of timestep is unaffected by the hysteretic damping.
3 - 60
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:55
step 91288
Dynamic Time 2.5000E+01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 1)
X-axis :
strain1
(FISH)
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-10
-5
10
15
(10
-04
Figure 3.29 Shear stress vs shear strain for base of the layer; default FLAC
hysteretic model
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:55
step 91288
Dynamic Time 2.5000E+01
1.500
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 10)
X-axis :
strain10
(FISH)
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
(10
-05
Figure 3.30 Shear stress vs shear strain for middle of the layer; default FLAC
hysteretic model
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 61
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:55
step 91288
Dynamic Time 2.5000E+01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X acceleration( 1, 1)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
12
16
20
24
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:55
step 91288
Dynamic Time 2.5000E+01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X acceleration( 1, 11)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
12
16
20
24
3 - 62
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 15:55
step 91288
Dynamic Time 2.5000E+01
1.500
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X acceleration( 1, 21)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
12
16
20
24
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 63
10
(3.60)
where is the wavelength associated with the highest frequency component that contains appreciable
energy.
For dynamic input with a high peak velocity and short rise-time, the Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer
requirement may necessitate a very fine spatial mesh and a corresponding small timestep. The
consequence is that reasonable analyses may be prohibitively time- and memory-consuming. In
such cases, it may be possible to adjust the input by recognizing that most of the power for the input
history is contained in lower frequency components (e.g., use FFT.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH
volume). By filtering the history and removing high frequency components, a coarser mesh may
be used without significantly affecting the results.
The filtering procedure can be accomplished with a low-pass filter routine such as the Fast Fourier
Transform technique (see, e.g., FILTER.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH volume). The unfiltered
velocity record shown in Figure 3.34 represents a typical waveform containing a very high frequency
spike. The highest frequency of this input exceeds 50 Hz but, as shown by the power spectral density
plot of Fourier amplitude versus frequency (Figure 3.35), most of the power (approximately 99%) is
made up of components of frequency 15 Hz or lower. It can be inferred, therefore, that by filtering
this velocity history with a 15 Hz low-pass filter, less than 1% of the power is lost. The input
filtered at 15 Hz is shown in Figure 3.36, and the Fourier amplitudes are plotted in Figure 3.37. The
difference in power between unfiltered and filtered input is less than 1%, while the peak velocity is
reduced 38%, and the rise time is shifted from 0.035 to 0.09 seconds. Analyses should be performed
with input at different levels of filtering to evaluate the influence of the filter on model results.
If a simulation is run with an input history that violates Eq. (3.60), the output will contain spurious
ringing (superimposed oscillations) that are nonphysical. The input spectrum must be filtered
before being applied to a FLAC grid. This limitation applies to all numerical models in which a
continuum is discretized; it is not just a characteristic of FLAC. Any discretized medium has an
upper limit to the frequencies that it can transmit, and this limit must be respected if the results
are to be meaningful. Users of FLAC commonly apply sharp pulses or step waveforms to a FLAC
grid; this is not acceptable under most circumstances because these waveforms have spectra that
extend to infinity. It is a simple matter to apply, instead, a smooth pulse that has a limited spectrum,
as discussed above. Alternatively, artificial viscosity may be used to spread sharp wave-fronts
over several zones (see Section 3.4.2.7), but this method strictly only applies to isotropic strain
components.
3 - 64
Optional Features
Velocity (cm/sec)
(Thousands)
-1
0
0.4
0.2
Time (sec)
130
120
110
Fourier Amplitude
(Times 10E9)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
Frequency
14
16
18
20
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 65
3
2.8
2.6
Velocity (cm/sec)
(Thousands)
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.4
0.2
Time (sec)
130
120
110
Fourier Amplitude
(Times 10E9)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Frequency
3 - 66
Optional Features
2
C3
vd
+ C4
vd
(3.61)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 67
(3.62)
where C1 and C2 are constants with different interpretations from those of Eq. (3.61). In many
cases, C2 = 0.4
C1 , so Eq. (3.62) involves only one independent constant; however, both C1 and C2
have been retained for generality. In addition, a third parameter, C3 , sets the threshold shear strain
(i.e., the limiting shear strain amplitude below which volumetric strain is not produced).
FLAC contains a built-in constitutive model (named the Finn model)* that incorporates both
Eq. (3.61) and Eq. (3.62) into the standard Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model it can be modified
by the user as required. The use of Eq. (3.61) or Eq. (3.62) can be selected by setting parameter
ff switch = 0 or 1, respectively. As it stands, the model captures the basic mechanisms that can
lead to liquefaction in sand. In addition to the usual parameters (friction, moduli, etc.), the model
needs the four constants for Eq. (3.61), or three constants for Eq. (3.62). For Eq. (3.61), Martin et
al. (1975) describe how these may be determined from a drained cyclic test. Alternatively, one may
imagine using some trial values to model an undrained test with FLAC, and compare the results
with a corresponding laboratory test. The constants could then be adjusted to obtain a better match.
(See Section 3.4.4.2 for an example.) For Eq. (3.62), Byrne (1991) notes that the constant, C1 , can
be derived from relative densities, Dr , as follows:
C1 = 7600(Dr )2.5
(3.63)
Further, using an empirical relation between Dr and normalized standard penetration test values,
(N1 )60 :
1
2
Dr = 15(N1 )60
(3.64)
C1 = 8.7(N1 )1.25
60
(3.65)
then,
0.4
C1
In the Finn model there is logic to detect a strain reversal in the general case. In Martin et al.
(1975) (and most other papers on this topic), the notion of a strain reversal is clear, because they
* A FISH constitutive model is also provided for the Finn model (see FINN.FIS in Section 3 in the
FISH volume).
3 - 68
Optional Features
(3.66)
2 := 2 + 2e12
(3.67)
We use the following scheme to locate extreme points in strain space. Denoting the previous point
by superscript ( ), and the one before that with ( ), the previous unit vector, ni , in strain space is
computed:
vi =
i
i
z=
vi vi
(3.69)
vi
z
(3.70)
ni =
where subscript i takes the values 1,2, and repeated indices imply summation.
(3.68)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 69
-03
LEGEND
23-Mar-04 16:21
step 3334
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
we12plt
(FISH)
X-axis :
wedplt
(FISH)
2.000
1.000
.000
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
(10
-04
(3.71)
We use the rule that d must be negative (so that the new strain segment corresponds to a reversal
compared to the previous segment). We then monitor the absolute value of d and do the following
calculation when it passes through a maximum, dmax , provided that a minimum number of timesteps
has elapsed (to prevent the reversal logic being triggered again on transients that immediately follow
a reversal). This threshold number of timesteps is controlled by the property named ff latency,
which is set to 50.0 in the runs reported here.
= dmax
(3.72)
i = i
(3.73)
i = i
(3.74)
3 - 70
Optional Features
Note that there are two factors of 2 implied in Eq. (3.72) that cancel out: the shear strain is half the
excursion dmax , but is the engineering strain, which is twice FLAC s strain. Having obtained ,
we insert it into Eq. (3.61) and obtain
vd . We then update
vd , as follows, and save it for use in
Eq. (3.61):
vd :=
vd +
vd
(3.75)
We also save one-third of
vd and revise the direct strain increments input to the model at the next
cycle:
e11 := e11 +
vd
3
(3.76)
e22 := e22 +
vd
3
(3.77)
e33 := e33 +
vd
3
(3.78)
Note that FLAC s compressive strain increments are negative and
vd is positive. Hence, the
mean effective stress decreases.
The logic described above is certainly not perfect, but it seems to work in simple cases. However, the
user must verify that the algorithm is appropriate before applying it to real cases. In particular, the
number of cycles detected depends strongly on the relative magnitude of horizontal and vertical
motion. Hence, the rate of build-up of pore pressure will also be sensitive to this ratio. It may be
more practical to consider just the e12 component of strain for something like a dam, which is wide
compared to its height. Ultimately, we need better experimental data for volume changes during
complicated loading paths; the model should then be revised accordingly. One effect that has been
shown to be very important (see, for example, Arthur et al., 1980) is the effect of rotation of principal
axes: volume compaction may occur even though the magnitude of deviatoric strain (or stress) is
kept constant. Such rotations of axes occur frequently in earthquake situations. Another effect that
is not incorporated into the Finn model is that of modulus increase induced by compaction it is
known that sand becomes stiffer elastically when compaction occurs by cyclic loading. It would
be easy for the user to add this modification to the FINN.FIS model.
The Finn model is implemented in FLAC with the MODEL command i.e., MODEL nn. The code
must be configured for dynamic analysis (CONFIG dynamic) to apply the model. As with the other
built-in models, the property names are assigned with the PROPERTY command. The following
keywords are used to assign properties for the Finn model.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 71
bulk
bulk modulus
cohesion
cohesion
dilation
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
Eq. (3.61) constant C3 , and threshold shear strain for Eq. (3.62)
ff c4
ff latency
ff switch
friction
shear
shear modulus
tension
tension cutoff
ff evd
3 - 72
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 73
The results based on Eq. (3.61) are shown in Figure 3.39, and those based on Eq. (3.62) are shown
in Figure 3.40. The figures indicate similar behavior using either formula. Both show how the
pore pressure in zone (1,2) builds up with time. The history of effective stress in the same zone is
also shown. It can be seen that the effective stress reaches zero after about 20 cycles of shaking
(4 seconds, at 5 Hz). At this point, liquefaction can be said to occur. This test is strain-controlled
in the shear direction. For a stress-controlled test, collapse would occur earlier, since strain cycles
would start to increase in amplitude, thus generating more pore pressure.
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
18-May-04 12:35
step 41067
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 1, 2)
eff_stress
0.400
(FISH)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 3.39 Pore pressure (top) and effective stress (bottom) for shaking table,
using Eq. (3.61)
3 - 74
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
18-May-04 12:41
step 41067
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 1, 2)
eff_stress
0.400
(FISH)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.200
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
Figure 3.40 Pore pressure (top) and effective stress (bottom) for shaking table,
using Eq. (3.62)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 75
3 - 76
Optional Features
table 1 0 1e5 2.0e-3 1e5 2.0e-3 0.0 3.0e-3 0.0 5.0e-3 0.0 1e-2 0.0
his nste=1
his ydis i=10 j=10
his unbal
his yvel i=10 j=10
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
fix x y j=1
set grav=9.81
set dyn off
solve
save stage1.sav ; equilibrium before structure is built
struct prop=1 e=18e9 i=0.0104 a=.5 den = 2000.0
struct prop=2 e=200e9 i=2.3e-5 a=4.8e-3 den = 2000.0
struct beam beg gr 11,11 end gr 12,11 seg=1 pr=1
struct beam beg gr 12,11 end gr 13,11 seg=1 pr=1
struct beam beg gr 13,11 end gr 14,11 seg=1 pr=1
struct beam beg node 1 end 10,13 seg=2 pr 2
struct beam beg 10,13 end 13,13 seg=2 pr=2
struct beam beg 13,13 end node 4 seg=2 pr=2
struct node=6 load 0 -1e6 0
struct node=8 load 0 -1e6 0
solve
save stage2.sav ; equilibrium with structure
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 77
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-May-04 14:43
step
1416
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-4.611E+00 <y< 1.761E+01
1.000
Grid plot
0
5E 0
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 6.013E+04
Min. Value = -7.364E+05
0
0.600
2E 6
Beam Plot
Beam materials
Material 1
Material
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Cs
Cs
=
48 Hz
10 l
3 - 78
Optional Features
Therefore, the zone size is small enough to allow velocity waves at the input frequency
to propagate accurately.
2. Specify Damping The plastic flow associated with the strain-softening model can
dissipate most of the energy and, hence, tends to make the selection of damping parameters less critical to the outcome of the analysis. This model was run with no damping
and with a small amount of Rayleigh damping (5%, at the natural frequency) to evaluate
the influence of damping.
To estimate the lowest natural frequency for this model (used as a Rayleigh damping
parameter), Example 3.11 is run with SET dyn on and with no damping. A plot of velocity
history (Figure 3.42) indicates that the dominant natural frequency of the system is
approximately 25 Hz. This is unrealistically high, but the value reflects the simplifications
made for this example.
3. Apply Dynamic Loading and Boundary Conditions The APPLY command is used
with the hist keyword to specify the dynamic input. The FISH function wave supplies the
history (a sinusoidal wave of 1 m/sec amplitude, 10 Hz frequency and 0.25 sec. duration).
Free-field boundaries are invoked along the left and right boundaries to absorb energy.
4. Monitor Dynamic Response Three velocity histories are located in the model: the
first at the position of the applied input wave; the second along the slope face; and the
third within the grid.
The data file for the dynamic stage is reproduced in Example 3.12.
Example 3.15 Dynamic excitation of the slope problem
rest stage2.sav
def wave
; sinusoidal wave : ampl = 1 m/sec, freq = 10 Hz, duration = .25 sec
freq = 10
wave = 1.0 * sin(2.0*pi*freq*dytime)
if dytime > 0.25 then
wave = 0.0
end_if
end
;set dy_damp struct rayl 0.05 25
;set dy_damp rayl 0.05 25
apply ff
apply xvel=1.0 hist=wave j=1
apply yvel=0.0 j=1
set large
set dyn on
set dytime=0.0
ini xvel=0 yvel=0 xdis=0 ydis=0
hist reset
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 79
hist dytime
hist xvel i=8 j=7
hist xvel i=8 j=1
hist xvel i=18 j=10
solve dytime = 0.5
save stage3.sav ; state at 0.5 sec
ret
The response of the slope at 0.5 sec. (0.25 sec. after the dynamic wave is stopped) is shown in
Figure 3.43. A rotational failure mechanism develops beneath the structure, resulting from the loss
of cohesive strength. The velocity histories in Figure 3.44 illustrate the input history (at i = 8, j = 1),
the continuous movement at the slope face (at i = 8, j = 7), and the gradual return to equilibrium at
a position remote from the slope (at i = 18, j = 10). The response is similar for both no damping
and for 5% damping, although velocities are lower for the damped case. To see this, Example 3.12
may be rerun with the SET dy damp rayl and SET dy damp struct rayl commands enabled (i.e., with
the comment characters removed).
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
6-Apr-04 16:04
step 10000
Dynamic Time 5.3033E-01
3.000
2.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Y velocity ( 10, 10)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
(10
-02
3 - 80
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-May-04 14:48
step 10844
Dynamic Time 5.0003E-01
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-4.611E+00 <y< 1.761E+01
1.000
Grid plot
0
5E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 4.944E+00
0
0.600
1E 1
Beam plot
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
( 8, 1)
X velocity
( 18, 10)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 3.44 Velocity histories at base, slope face and remote from slope
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 81
(*10^2)
LEGEND
19-May-04 9:44
step
181
-1.667E+01 <x< 3.167E+02
-1.167E+02 <y< 2.167E+02
1.250
Grid plot
0
0.750
1E 2
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^2)
5
300 50 300 0 i=1,9 j=1,3
300 100 300 50 i=1,9 j=3,7
160 100 same
i=3,7 j=3,7
poros 0.3
j=1,2
3 - 82
Optional Features
1. Gravity Compaction of the Dam We create the dam in a single placement of material,
which is saturated (see Example 3.14 for the data file). If we are not interested in the
time of settlement, we can set the bulk modulus of water to zero for this stage, so that
numerical convergence is rapid.
Example 3.17 Gravity compaction of dam
rest step0.sav
set
flow=off dyn=off
model mohr i=3,6 j=3,6
prop dens=0.0017 poros=0.3
i=3,6 j=3,6
prop bulk=333.33 shear=200.0 i=3,6 j=3,6
prop cohes=0.1 fric=35
i=3,6 j=3,6
water bulk 0 dens 0.001 tens 1e10
prop perm 1e-8
hist xdisp ydisp i=5 j=6
solve
save step1.sav
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 83
3. Allow Phreatic Surface to Develop Again, assume that we are only interested in the
final flow pattern, not in the time it takes to occur. (If consolidation time is important,
then consult Section 1.8.6 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.) To allow rapid adjustment
of the phreatic surface, we set the fluid modulus to a low value (1 MPa, compared with
the real value of 2 103 MPa). We also do the fluid calculation and the mechanical
adjustment separately (since the fully coupled solution takes much longer) i.e., for this
stage, ow=on and mech=off. The tensile limit for water is set to zero so that a phreatic
surface develops. Pore pressure is applied to the upstream face, with fixed saturation of
1.0; on the other surfaces, pore pressure is fixed at its default value of zero.
Example 3.19 Develop phreatic surface in dam
rest step2.sav
water tens=0 bulk=1.0
app pp 0.5 var 0 -0.5 from 1,3 to 3,7
fix sat i=1,3 j=3
fix sat i=3 j=3,7
fix pp i=4,7 j=7
fix pp i=7
j=3,7
fix pp i=7,9 j=3
fix pp i=9
set flow=on mech=off ncwrite=50
his pp i 4 j 3
his pp i 4 j 2
his pp i 4 j 1
solve
save step3.sav
4. Mechanical Adjustment to New Flow Field Once the equilibrium flow field is
established, we need to do a final mechanical adjustment, because: (a) some of the
material is now partially saturated so the gravity loading is less; and (b) the effective
stress has changed, which may cause plastic flow to occur. During this stage, we prevent
fluid flow and pore pressure changes (setting fluid modulus temporarily to zero), since
we are not concerned with the consolidation process here.
Example 3.20 Mechanical adjustment to new flow field
rest step3.sav
set flow=off mech=on ncwrite=10
water bulk=0
his reset
hist unbal
hist xdisp i=5 j=6
hist ydisp i=5 j=6
3 - 84
Optional Features
solve
water bulk=2e3
save step4.sav
We now have a system that is in mechanical and fluid equilibrium, ready for dynamic
excitation; the fluid modulus is at the value for pure water (no entrained air). Note
that the separation into several stages (just fluid or just mechanical) was done to reduce
calculation time. The fully coupled simulation could be done if required.
5. Apply Dynamic Excitation to Dam The dynamic simulation may now be done. What
is being modeled is the response of the dam and its trapped groundwater. It is assumed
here that no fluid flow occurs and that no pore pressure generation occurs due to particle
rearrangement. However, pore pressure changes do occur because of the dynamic volume
changes induced by the seismic excitation. The excitation is by rigid sinusoidal shaking
at the base of the foundation.
Example 3.21 Apply dynamic excitation to dam
rest step4.sav
set large, dyn=on ncwrite=20
def sine_wave
sine_wave = 10.0*sin(2.0*pi*freq*dytime)
end
set dy_damp=rayleigh 0.05 1.5
set dytime 0.0 freq=0.5
ini xvel=0.0 yvel=0.0 xdisp=0.0 ydisp=0.0
prop tens=1e10
apply ff
apply yvel=0 xvel 1.0 hist sine_wave j=1
his reset
his dytime
his pp i 4 j 3
win 75 250 0 175
solve dyt 10
save step5.sav
Figure 3.46 shows the deformed grid, and Figure 3.47 shows the pore pressure history in
zone (4,3). The dotted lines represent the original shape.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 85
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
1.700
1.500
19-May-04 9:44
step 44297
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
7.500E+01 <x< 2.500E+02
0.000E+00 <y< 1.750E+02
1.300
1.100
Grid plot
0
0.900
5E 1
0.700
0.500
0.300
0.100
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
1.900
2.100
2.300
(*10^2)
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
19-May-04 9:44
step 44297
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 4, 3)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
5.000
5.500
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
3 - 86
Optional Features
j=3,6
j=3,6
j=3,6
j=3,6
The same quantities as before are plotted see Figures 3.48 and 3.49. We now have considerable
pore pressure build-up, and there is much larger horizontal movement in the dam; undoubtedly,
liquefaction is occurring.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 87
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
1.700
1.500
19-May-04 9:45
step 44272
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
7.500E+01 <x< 2.500E+02
0.000E+00 <y< 1.750E+02
1.300
1.100
Grid plot
0
0.900
5E 1
0.700
0.500
0.300
0.100
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
1.900
2.100
2.300
(*10^2)
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
19-May-04 9:45
step 44272
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
8.000
7.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 4, 3)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
3 - 88
Optional Features
The permeability is unrealistically high, for demonstration purposes. The resulting plot of pore
pressure in zone (4,3) is shown in Figure 3.50. There is clear evidence of pore pressures dropping
off in the later stages of the simulation, but the situation is complicated because pressures generated
in other zones appear to flow into zone (4,3) initially. Note that it is possible in principle for
the pore pressure in a particular zone to increase when dissipation is allowed, if the surrounding
zones contribute excess fluid.
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
19-May-04 11:53
step 44194
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 4, 3)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
Figure 3.50 Pore pressure history at zone (4,3) finn model, with dissipation
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 89
(3.79)
Table 3.2
Confined Compression
K + (4/3) G
Unconfined Compression
(1/3) G+K
4G K+(4/3) G
Shear
G
1.4286 104
1.0 104
3 - 90
Optional Features
FLAC data files for the three cases are given in Examples 3.20, 3.21 and 3.22. Material properties
are given below.
Table 3.3
Material properties
Properties
Symbol
Value
Comment
bulk modulus
shear modulus
Poissons ratio
K
G
2.0
0.428562 104
0.4
bulk modulus
shear modulus
Poissons ratio
K
G
1.0 104
1.0 104
0.125
density
1.0
applied gravity
gy
gx
- 1.0
0.1
column height
column width
L
W
800
100
104
The theoretical periods and calculated (FLAC) natural periods of oscillation averaged over several
periods by the FISH function crossings are compared in Table 3.4 (see Example 3.23).
Unconfined
Compression
Shear
Theoretical
19.96
26.77
32.00
FLAC
19.95
26.77
31.99
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 91
3 - 92
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 93
et t sin(2f t)
(3.80)
= 2.2;
= 0.375;
= 8.0; and
= 3 Hz.
This input acceleration wave, plotted in Figure 3.51, shows a maximum horizontal acceleration of
0.2 g reached after 3.75 seconds. The wave form selected for this comparison test does not require
a baseline correction (see Section 3.4.1); the final velocity and displacement are both zero. Also,
this form does not contain high-frequency components that could cause numerical distortion of the
wave (see Section 3.4.3).
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
0
10
12
14
Time (s)
FLAC
SHAKE
3 - 94
Optional Features
The version of SHAKE used in the comparison is SHAKE91 (Idriss and Sun 1992). SHAKE91
is a modified version of SHAKE (originally published in 1971 by the Earthquake Engineering
Research Center at the University of California in Berkeley, California). SHAKE91 computes the
response of a semi-infinite horizontally layered soil deposit overlying a uniform half-space subjected
to vertically propagating shear waves. The program performs a linear analysis in the frequency
domain; an iterative procedure accounts for some of the nonlinear effects in the soil. We assume,
for the purposes of comparison, that the soil is linear. The data file for the analysis with SHAKE91
is shown in Example 3.24.
FLAC is compared to SHAKE91 for the following problem conditions. A layered soil deposit is
160 feet thick and contains two materials, as shown in Figure 3.52. The stiffer layer (material 2) is
40 feet thick, starts at a depth of 40 feet, and is sandwiched between the softer layers (material 1).
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.500
LEGEND
19-May-04 9:56
step 29649
Dynamic Time 2.0000E+01
-2.530E+01 <x< 2.835E+01
-2.438E+00 <y< 5.121E+01
3
5
4
6
3.500
shear_mod
1.500E+08
3.000E+08
History Locations
2.500
1.500
0.500
8
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
Figure 3.52 One-dimensional model containing two materials (history locations are also shown)
The soil is treated as a linear elastic material, with the following properties:
material
shear modulus (MPa)
density (kg/m3 )
fraction of critical damping
1
150
1800
10%
2
300
2000
10%
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 95
By assuming that shear modulus and damping are strain-independent, the same properties are used
in FLAC and SHAKE91. The file for the FLAC analysis is given in Example 3.25.
The FLAC model consists of 16 square zones, each with a length of 10 feet (3.05 m); the zone
length is well within 1/10 of the longest wave length, to provide accurate wave transmission.
Vertical movement is prevented at the sides of the model. Rayleigh damping is specified at 10%,
operating at a center frequency of 3 Hz.
Figure 3.53 shows the horizontal acceleration at the top of the model (gridpoint 17 in FLAC, and
sub-layer 1 in SHAKE91) as a function of time. Both records are very similar: the maximum
acceleration calculated by FLAC is 0.160 g; the maximum acceleration calculated by SHAKE91 is
0.156 g (a 2.6% difference).
Figures 3.54 and 3.55 show the evolution of shear stress and shear strain at a depth of 35 feet (within
material 1). The FLAC results have been obtained through a history of xy at zone 13 and the FISH
function shrstr13. The SHAKE91 results have been obtained at the top of sub-layer 5, using
analysis option 7 in the code. The results from both codes are again very similar, with a difference
of less than 4%. Note that the stress histories do not contain the viscous component contributed by
Rayleigh damping.
Figure 3.56 shows two shear stress vs strain curves calculated by SHAKE91, one at a depth of 35
feet (in material 1), and the other at a depth of 45 feet (in material 2). They have been obtained
through option 7 at the top of sub-layers 5 and 7. In both cases, the relation between stress and
strain is linear, with a slope equal to the shear modulus.
v ) vs strain plot, calculated by FLAC at the same
Figure 3.57 shows a viscous shear stress (xy
locations as in the previous figure. While the average slope is again equal to the shear modulus,
this plot shows hysteresis loops due to the viscous damping. If we were to plot FLAC shear stress
(xy ) versus shear strain, we would obtain a linear relation.
3 - 96
Optional Features
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
0
10
12
14
Time (s)
FLAC
SHAKE
2.0E-02
1.5E-02
1.0E-02
5.0E-03
0.0E+00
-5.0E-03
-1.0E-02
-1.5E-02
-2.0E-02
0
10
Time (s)
FLAC
SHAKE
12
14
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 97
40
30
20
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
0
10
12
14
Time (s)
FLAC
SHAKE
Figure 3.56 Shear stress versus shear strain in material 1 and material 2
(SHAKE91 results)
3 - 98
Optional Features
Figure 3.57 Viscous shear stress versus shear strain in material 1 and material
2 (FLAC results)
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 99
1.
3.
10.
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
8
material #3 modulus
.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
1.0
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
5
damping for material #3
.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
3
1
2
3
Option 2 -- Soil Profile
2
1
19
Example -- 160-ft layer with 2 materials
1
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
2
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
3
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
4
2
5.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
5
2
5.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
6
1
5.00 6260.173
.100
.12473
7
1
5.00 6260.173
.100
.12473
8
1
10.00 6260.173
.100
.12473
9
1
10.00 6260.173
.100
.12473
10
1
10.00 6260.173
.100
.12473
11
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
12
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
13
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
14
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
15
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
16
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
17
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
18
2
10.00 3130.086
.100
.11225
19
3
.100
.140
4000.
Option 3 -- input motion:
3
2048 2048
.01
inp3.acc
(8f10.6)
1.0
100. 0
8
Option 4 -- sub-layer for input motion (1):
4
19
1
Option 5 -- number of iterations & ratio of avg strain to max strain
5
1
2
1.00
Option 6 --sub-layers for which accn time histories are computed and saved:
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3 - 100
Optional Features
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Option 6 --sub-layers for which accn time histories are computed and saved:
6
16
17
17
19
19
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
opt 7--sub-layer for which shear stress or strain are computed and saved:
7
5
1
1
0 2048
-- stress in level 5
5
0
1
0 2048
-- strain in level 5
opt 7--sub-layer for which shear stress or strain are computed and saved:
7
7
1
1
0 2048
-- stress in level 7
7
0
1
0 2048
-- strain in level 7
execution will stop when program encounters 0
0
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 101
3 - 102
Optional Features
gamma=8.0
acc_p=sqrt(beta*exp(-alfa*dytime)*dytimegamma)*sin(omega*dytime)
end
;---------------------------;Application of acceleration
;---------------------------apply xacc 1.0 his acc_p j=1
apply yacc 0.0 j=1 ; this command prevents rocking along gridpoint j=1
set dy_damp=rayleigh 0.1 3.0
set clock 100000000 step 100000000
set dynamic on
solve dytime 20.0
save shake.sav
set hisfile visc_m1.his
hist write 5 vs 10
set hisfile visc_m2.his
his write 6 vs 9
ret
UI
UR
A
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 103
The coefficients of reflection (R), transmission (T ) and absorption (A) given by Miller (1978) are:
R=
ER
EI
(3.81)
ET
EI
(3.82)
T =
A=
1 R2 T 2
(3.83)
where EI , ET and ER represent the energy flux per unit area per cycle of oscillation associated
with the incident, transmitted and reflected waves, respectively. The coefficient A is a measure of
the energy absorbed at the discontinuity. The energy flux EI is given by
EI =
t1 +T
s vs dt
(3.84)
t1
(3.85)
Hence,
EI = c
t1 +T
t1
vs2 dt
(3.86)
3 - 104
Optional Features
Figure 3.59 shows the numerical model, which consists of a 4 31 grid and an interface, EF, which
has high stiffness and is used to simulate the discontinuity. The conditions used are as follows.
Boundary Conditions:
Non-reflecting viscous boundaries are located at GH and CD.
Vertical motion is prevented along lateral boundaries GC and DH.
Loading Conditions:
Shear stresses corresponding to the incident wave are applied along CD.
The maximum stress of the incident wave is 1 MPa and the frequency is 1 Hz.
Material Conditions:
elastic media
= 2.65 103 kg/m3
K = 16,667 MPa
G = 10,000 MPa
interface
Kn = Ks = 10,000 MPa/m
C = cohesion = 2.5 MPa for no-slip = 0.5, 0.1, 0.02 MPa for slip case
Note that the magnitude of the incident wave must be doubled in the numerical model to account
for the simultaneous presence of the non-reflecting boundary (see Section 3.4.1.1).
Example 3.26 provides a data file that makes four complete simulations of the problem: the first
simulation is for a fully elastic case; and the remaining simulations correspond to the various values
of cohesion. Computed values for R, T , and A are written to the log file FLAC.LOG if the model
is run in command-driven mode. If run in GIIC mode, the computed values are displayed in the
Console resource pane.
Example 3.29 Verification of dynamic slip four complete simulations
config dyna
tit
Slip induced by harmonic wave
g 4 31
model elastic
model null j=16
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
gen
gen
int
def
3 - 105
end
def fsin
if dytime <= tload
fsin = sin(w*dytime)
else
fsin = 0.0
end_if
end
def common
command
hist reset
set dytime = 0.0
ini xvel = 0.0 yvel = 0.0 xdis = 0.0 ydis = 0.0
ini sxx = 0.0 syy =0.0 szz = 0.0 sxy = 0.0
apply remove i 1,5 j 1,16
apply remove i 1,5 j 17,32
apply xquiet yquiet j=1
apply xquiet yquiet j=32
apply sxy 2 his fsin j=1
his nstep 10
his unbal
his dytime
his xvel i=2 j=1
his xvel i=2 j=32
his xdisp i=2 j=1
his xdisp i=2 j=32
his sxy i=1 j=1
his sxy i=1 j=31
his fsin
solve dytime 5
end_command
end
def energy ;-- compute energy coefficients for slipping-joint example -;
; table 1 -- x-velocity at point A for elastic joint case
; table 2 -- x-velocity at point A for slipping joint case
; table 3 -- x-velocity at point B for slipping joint case
3 - 106
;
;
;
;
;
;
Optional Features
end
setup
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 107
3 - 108
Optional Features
viscous boundary
G
point B
interface
fixed in y
point A
C
applied
sine
wave
D
viscous boundary
Figure 3.59 Problem geometry and boundary conditions for the problem of
slip induced by harmonic shear wave
The initial assumption of an elastic discontinuity is achieved by assigning a high cohesion (2.5 MPa,
in this case) to the interface. Figure 3.60 shows the time variation of shear stress near points A and
B. From the amplitude of the stress history at A and B, it is clear that there was perfect transmission
of the wave across the discontinuity. It is also clear from Figure 3.60 that the viscous boundary
condition provides perfect absorption of normally incident waves. Following the execution of the
elastic case, the velocity history at point A is saved in table 1, to be used later for calculating EI ,
used in the equations for energy coefficients.
The cohesion of the discontinuity is then set, successively, to 0.5, 0.1 and 0.02 MPa to permit slip to
occur. The recorded shear stresses at points A and B for the three cases are shown in Figures 3.61,
3.62 and 3.63, respectively. The peak stress at point A is the superposition of the incident wave and
the wave reflected from the slipping discontinuity. It can be seen in Figures 3.61 through 3.63 that
the shear stress of point B is limited by the discontinuity strength.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 109
After each inelastic simulation, the velocity histories at points A and B are saved in tables 2 and
3, and the energy flux and coefficients R, T and A are computed by the FISH function energy,
and written to the log file. All conditions are then reset to zero and requested histories are deleted,
in preparation for the next simulation: this is done in function common. It was determined that at
least five cycles of the input wave were necessary before the computed coefficients settled down
to steady-state values. Even then, there is a periodic fluctuation in the values. In order to obtain
mean values, the coefficient values were averaged over the final 100 timesteps: the FISH variable
i mean controls the step number at which this averaging process starts. Figure 3.64 compares the
numerical results with the exact solution for the coefficients for three values of the dimensionless
parameter
U
s
where:s = discontinuity cohesion;
U = displacement amplitude of the incident wave;
= G; and
= frequency of incident wave (1 Hz).
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
( 1, 31)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 3.60 Time variation of shear stress at points A and B for elastic discontinuity (cohesion = 2.5 MPa)
3 - 110
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
( 1, 31)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 3.61 Time variation of shear stress at points A and B for slipping
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.5 MPa)
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 1)
0.400
Ave. SXY
( 1, 31)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.000
-0.400
-0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 3.62 Time variation of shear stress at points A and B for slipping
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.1 MPa)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 111
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave. SXY
( 1, 1)
0.400
Ave. SXY
( 1, 31)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.000
-0.400
-0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 3.63 Time variation of shear stress at points A and B for slipping
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.02 MPa)
A
R
T
0.8
Coefficients
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.1
10
50
100
1000
Figure 3.64 Comparison of transmission, reflection and absorption coefficients (analytical solution from Miller, 1978)
3 - 112
Optional Features
The displacement amplitude for the incident wave (U ) was obtained by monitoring the horizontal
displacement at point A for non-slipping discontinuities. As can be seen, the FLAC results agree
well with the analytical solution.
3.6.4 Hollow Sphere Subject to an Internal Blast
This problem concerns the propagation of a spherical wave due to an impulsive pressure (explosion)
in a sphere. In unbounded (i.e., infinite) media, two types of waves can exist: compression and
shear waves. In this problem, the axisymmetric nature of the problem eliminates the shear wave.
Therefore, only the solution for the compression wave needs to be sought. The problem provides
a test of the dynamic capabilities of FLAC and is applicable to impact and explosion modeling.
The analytical solution, assuming that the material is elastic and isotropic, for this problem was
derived by Blake (1952). The solution is based on the following governing equation:
2
= Cp2 2
2
t
where:Cp
t
2
(3.87)
Let p(t) be an impulse which jumps from zero to p0 at t = 0 and then decays exponentially with
time constant 1 . Thus, the pressure function can be defined by:
p(t) = p0 et
for t 0
(3.88)
p(t) = 0
for t < 0
A step function of the pressure ( = 0), will be used for this problem. For such a pressure function,
the potential function which satisfies the governing equation is
=0
p0 a 3 K
=
Cp2 r
1 +
4K
1
1
exp(0 ) cos 0 tan
4K 1
4K 1
(3.89)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 113
1
2(12) ;
= Poissons ratio;
r = radial coordinate;
0 =
Cp
2aK
=t
0 =
c
2aK
and
4K 1 = natural frequency.
The radial displacement can be found by differentiating the potential function with respect to radial
distance:
p0 a 3 K
ur =
=
r
Cp2 r 2
p0 a 3 K
+
Cp2 r
1
1
1 + 2 2 exp(0 ) cos 0 tan
4K 1
0
1
1
2 2 exp(0 ) cos 0 tan
Cp
4K 1
0
1
1
+
2 2 exp(0 ) sin 0 tan
Cp
4K 1
(3.90)
1675 kg/m3
A pressure equal to 1000 Pa is applied at the inner boundary to simulate the blasting.
3 - 114
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
19-May-04 10:03
step
1773
Dynamic Time 1.0004E-01
-8.333E+01 <x< 1.833E+02
-1.333E+02 <y< 1.333E+02
0.500
Grid plot
0
5E 1
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
0.500
(*10^2)
1.000
1.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
19-May-04 10:05
step
1773
Dynamic Time 1.0001E-01
-8.333E+01 <x< 1.833E+02
-1.333E+02 <y< 1.333E+02
0.500
Grid plot
0
5E 1
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
0.500
(*10^2)
1.000
1.500
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 115
The radial displacement histories recorded up to 0.1 second at r = 2.051a, 3.424a and 4.867a are
given in Figures 3.67 and 3.68 for circular and rectangular outer boundaries, respectively. The
delay of the response at locations far from the sphere can be noted in both cases. In both cases,
FLAC is able to capture the response at peak and steady states. The fluctuation at late time is due
to the fact that the radiated wave is not absorbed completely by the viscous boundary.
JOB TITLE : .
-07
LEGEND
19-May-04 10:03
step
1773
Dynamic Time 1.0004E-01
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 5, 31)
0.800
(FISH)
ur10
(FISH)
ur15
(FISH)
0.600
0.400
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.200
9
(10
-02
3 - 116
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
-07
LEGEND
19-May-04 10:05
step
1773
Dynamic Time 1.0001E-01
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 5, 31)
0.800
(FISH)
ur10
(FISH)
ur15
(FISH)
0.600
0.400
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.200
9
(10
-02
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 117
hdonut
; hhole
; --------------------; Boundary Condition
; --------------------apply pressure 1000 i=1
apply xquiet yquiet i=31
fix x j=1
fix x j=61
; ----------; Histories
; ----------his nstep 10
his unbal
his dytime
his xdisp i=5 j=31
his xdisp i=10 j=31
his xdisp i=15 j=31
his xvel
his xvel
his xvel
i=5 j=31
i=10 j=31
i=15 j=31
3 - 118
Optional Features
Cp=sqrt(bulk_mod(1,1)+4.0*shear_mod(1,1)/3.0)/sqrt(zou)
W0=(Cp/rmin)*sqrt(1.0-2.0*mu)/(1.0-mu)
alpha0=(Cp/rmin)*(1.0-2.0*mu)/(1.0-mu)
cap_k = (1.0-mu)/(2.*(1.-2.*mu))
c1 = p0*rmin*rmin*rmin*cap_k/(zou*Cp*Cp)
c2 = atan(1./sqrt(4.0*cap_k-1.0))
c3 = sqrt(2.0-2.0*mu)
c4 = alpha0/Cp
c5 = W0/Cp
end
const
def ur
r = sqrt(x(ip,jp)*x(ip,jp)+y(ip,jp)*y(ip,jp))
tau = dytime - (r-rmin)/Cp
if tau >= 0.0 then
temp1 = -(c1/(r*r))*( -1.0+c3*exp(-alpha0*tau)*cos(W0*tau-c2) )
temp2 = (c1/r)
*(
c4*c3*exp(-alpha0*tau)*cos(W0*tau-c2) )
temp3 = (c1/r)
*(
c5*c3*exp(-alpha0*tau)*sin(W0*tau-c2) )
ur
= temp1 + temp2 + temp3
else
ur = 0.0
end_if
end
his
his
his
his
Anal
ur5
ur10
ur15
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 119
def hdonut
figp=igp
fjgp=jgp
loop j (1,jgp)
alfa= -pi/2.0 + (j-1)*pi/(jgp-1)
rmaxit=rmin*rmul
loop i (1,igp)
ro=rmin+(rmaxit-rmin)*(ratio(i-1)-1)/(ratio(igp-1)-1)
x(i,j)=ro*cos(alfa)
y(i,j)=ro*sin(alfa)
end_loop
end_loop
end
3 - 120
Optional Features
ro=rmin+(rmaxit-rmin)*(ratio(i-1)-1)/(ratio(igp-1)-1)
x(i,j)=ro*cos(alfa)
y(i,j)=ro*sin(alfa)
end_loop
end_loop
end
(3.91)
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 121
The analytical solution to this problem, assuming an elastic soil behavior, is provided by Gazetas
and Roesset (1979). Their solution is for the case of a sinusoidal vertical loading of the form:
P = Po sin t
(3.92)
in which Po is the force amplitude and is the operational frequency of the machine in radians per
second.
For a harmonic exciting force, P , a dimensionless displacement (compliance) function, Fv , is
defined to relate the soil reaction force, R, to the soil displacement, :
=
R
Fv sin(t + )
G
(3.93)
G is the shear modulus of the soil, and Fv is the compliance function of the operational frequency
and phase angle .
Fv is a complex number and can be written:
Fv = f1,v + if2,v
(3.94)
in which f1,v is the real part representing the recoverable component of deformation, and f2,v is
the imaginary part expressing the energy dissipated by the propagating waves and soil hysteresis.
The amplitude of motion, o , can be expressed in terms of the amplitude of the machine force, Po .
The expression is given by Gazetas and Roesset in dimensionless form to be:
1/2
2 + f2
f1,v
o G
2,v
o =
2 )2 + (ba 2 f 2 )2
Po (1 bao2 f1,v
o 2,v
(3.95)
in which the dimensionless mass b and frequency ratio ao are defined as:
b=
B
M
; ao =
2
Vs
B
(3.96)
where = density; Vs = s-wave velocity of the soil; B = half-width of the strip foundation; and
M = total foundation mass per unit length.
Gazetas and Roesset use a semi-analytical approach to obtain the compliance function Fv for
a homogeneous half-space as a function of the frequency ratio ao . The result is presented in
Figure 3.70. The response of the foundation can then be evaluated for a set of operational frequencies
from Eq. (3.95).
3 - 122
Optional Features
The results presented in Figure 3.70 are for an elastic material with a Poissons ratio, , of 0.4 and
a critical damping ratio, , of 0.05. For this example, we assume that the s-wave velocity of the
material is 1000 ft/sec, and the unit weight is 128.8 pcf (mass density is 4 slugs/ft3 ). For = 0.4,
the shear modulus G is 4.0 106 psf. The half-width of the footing foundation is 10 ft.
0.5
FLAC
0.4
Gazetas
& Roesset
f1,v
f2,v
0.3
0.2
fv
0.1
0.0
-0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
ao
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 123
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
19-May-04 15:57
step
0
-9.369E+00 <x< 1.694E+02
-1.294E+02 <y< 4.937E+01
Grid plot
0
5E 1
0.100
X
XXXXX
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-0.100
-0.300
-0.500
-0.700
-0.900
-1.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^2)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
3 - 124
Optional Features
The foundation could also be simulated without structural elements. An oscillating velocity could
be applied to a line of fixed gridpoints, and the cyclic reaction force measured. The same information
(compliance) could be determined from the ratio between displacement and force, and their phase
angle.
Example 3.33 Vertical vibration of a machine foundation
def setup
a0
= 0.5
; a0
= 1.0
; a0
= 1.5
; a0
= 2.0
; a0
= 2.5
frq_cent = a0 * 100.0 * 0.5 / pi
; Forcing frequency
per
= 1.0 / frq_cent
; Period
omega
= 2.0 * pi * frq_cent
count
= 0
final_t = per * 10.0
sh_mod
= 4e6
po_rat
= 0.4
bu_mod
= sh_mod*(2.0*(1.0+po_rat))/(3.0*(1.0-2.0*po_rat))
end
setup ; set constants
conf dy
g 80 40
gen 0,-80 0,0 160,0 160,-80
m e
pro den=4 shear=sh_mod bulk=bu_mod
struct prop=1 e=1 i=1 a=1 den=1e-3
struct beam beg grid 1 41 end grid 2 41
struct beam beg grid 2 41 end grid 3 41
struct beam beg grid 3 41 end grid 4 41
struct beam beg grid 4 41 end grid 5 41
struct beam beg grid 5 41 end grid 6 41
def ggg ;-- collapse structure to 1 dof in y -loop nn (1,6)
command
struct node nn fix x r
end_command
nn1 = nn - 1
if nn > 1 then
command
struct node nn slave y nn1
end_command
end_if
end_loop
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 125
end
ggg
def s_wave
s_wave = sin(omega * dytime)
end
def dummy ; ... count number of history points
count = count + 1
end
set dy_damp rayl 0.05 frq_cent
fix x i=1
app xquiet yquiet i=81
app xquiet yquiet j=1
app syy=0.05 hist=s_wave i=1,6 j=41 ; pressure of amplitude 0.05 (F=1.0)
hist dytime
hist syy i 1 j 40
hist syy i 5 j 40
hist ydis i 1 j 41
hist dummy
set ncw=50 clock=10000000 step=10000000
solve dytime=final_t
save mach.sav
call compl.fis
3 - 126
Optional Features
rat
= old_time / per
frac
= frac + rat - int(rat) - 0.25
num_phase = num_phase + 1
upper_val = old_value
end_if
exit section
end_if
if sense = down then
if new_value > old_value then
sense
= up
rat
= old_time / per
rmi
= rat - int(rat)
if rmi < 0.5 then
rmi = 1.0 + rmi ; (overflowed one period)
end_if
frac
= frac + rmi - 0.75
num_phase = num_phase + 1
pk_to_pk = pk_to_pk + upper_val - old_value
num_ptp
= num_ptp + 1
end_if
exit section
end_if
if new_value > old_value then
sense = up
else
sense = down
end_if
end_section
old_value = new_value
old_time = xtable(1,n)
end_loop
degr
= frac * 360.0 / num_phase
u_tot
= pk_to_pk * 0.5 / num_ptp
re_part = u_tot * cos(degr * degrad)
im_part = u_tot * sin(degr * degrad)
ii = out( Average phase angle = +string(degr)+ degrees)
ii = out( Displ. amplitude
= +string(u_tot))
ii = out( Real part
= +string(re_part * sh_mod)+xxx)
ii = out( Imaginary part
= +string(im_part * sh_mod)+xxx)
end
get_extremes
set echo=on
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 127
Table 3.5
Soil
10
Shear
186
150
168
186
225
327
379
435
495
627
Density
(kg/m3 )
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2082
2082
2082
2082
2082
Dynamic
1-5
5-
20-
30-
50-
70-
90-
110-
130-
140-
20
30
50
70
90
110
130
140
150
Modulus
(MPa)
Property
(set)
Location
(feet)
It should be noted that, to simulate a rigid base (Figure 3.4), we increase the stiffness (shear modulus)
of the bedrock from 3.33 GPa to 2080 GPa in the SHAKE91 data file, for the purpose of comparison.
The base acceleration input is a set of seismic data recorded in the Loma Prieta Earthquake, which is
also downloadable (see http://nisee.berkeley.edu/software/shake91/) with the SHAKE91 code (i.e.,
DIAM.ACC). The input accelerogram is shown in Figure 3.72.
3 - 128
Optional Features
Default
Sig3
Sig4
Hardin
Clay
L1 = -3.156
a = 1.017
a = 0.922
ref = 0.234
upper range
L2 = 1.904
b = -0.587
b = -0.481
xo = -0.633
xo = -0.745
(Seed &
Sun, 1989)
yo = 0.0823
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 129
Figure 3.73 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model
secant modulus values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed &
Sun data (clay upper range) also shown.
Figure 3.74 Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model
damping values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Sun data
(clay upper range) also shown.
3 - 130
Optional Features
Figure 3.75 Accelerograms at the top of the model with small input
Figures 3.76 through 3.79 provide pseudo-acceleration and pseudo-velocity spectra calibrated in
SHAKE91 and FLAC when the maximum input acceleration amplitude is small (0.0001 g). In
SHAKE91, the response spectra are calculated using OPTION 9. In FLAC, response spectra are
computed using a FISH function, SPEC.FIS. Here the damping ratio, minimum period and maximum period of interest are 5%, 0.01 and 10, respectively. From these plots it can be seen clearly
that the FLAC and SHAKE91 results correspond quite closely for small-amplitude input motion.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 131
-02
LEGEND
26-Oct-04 10:18
step 68602
Dynamic Time 4.0480E+01
Table Plot
Pseudo Acceleration Spectrum
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
Figure 3.76 Pseudo-acceleration spectrum at the top of the model (FLAC default) m/s2
3 - 132
Optional Features
-03
LEGEND
26-Oct-04 10:18
step 68602
Dynamic Time 4.0480E+01
Table Plot
Pseudo Velocity Spectrum
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
Figure 3.78 Pseudo-velocity spectrum at the top of the model (FLAC default)
m/s
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 133
Table 3.7
LAYER TYPE
THICKNESS
DEPTH
MAX STRAIN
MAX STRESS
TIME
FT
FT
PRCNT
PSF
SEC
5.0
2.5
0.00005
1.78
12.98
5.0
7.5
0.00017
5.30
12.98
10.0
15.0
0.00033
10.41
12.98
10.0
25.0
0.00049
17.13
12.76
10.0
35.0
0.00061
23.67
12.78
10.0
45.0
0.00077
29.90
12.78
10.0
55.0
0.00075
35.31
12.78
10.0
65.0
0.00085
39.70
12.78
10.0
75.0
0.00063
43.01
12.78
10
10.0
85.0
0.00067
45.48
12.78
11
10.0
95.0
0.00060
47.13
12.78
12
10.0
105.0
0.00061
48.13
12.78
13
10.0
115.0
0.00055
49.62
12.34
14
10.0
125.0
0.00056
51.10
12.34
15
10.0
135.0
0.00050
51.94
12.34
16
10.0
145.0
0.00040
52.17
12.34
3 - 134
Optional Features
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
1.
0.24
21.
3.
10.
0.42
0.8
1.4
2.8
25.
28.
#3 ATTENUATION OF ROCK AVERAGE
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
1.000
0.9875
0.9525
0.900
DAMPING IN ROCK
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.
0.8
1.5
3.0
1
2
3
2 -- Soil Profile
3 - 135
5.1
9.8
15.5
8
.0001
0.03
0.1
1.0
1.000
0.810
0.725
0.550
5
.0001
0.4
4.6
3
Option
2
1
17
Example -- 150-ft layer; input:Diam @ .1g
1
2
5.00
.050
.125
1000.
2
2
5.00
.050
.125
900.
3
2
10.00
.050
.125
900.
4
2
10.00
.050
.125
950.
5
1
10.00
.050
.125
1000.
6
1
10.00
.050
.125
1000.
7
1
10.00
.050
.125
1100.
8
1
10.00
.050
.125
1100.
9
2
10.00
.050
.130
1300.
10
2
10.00
.050
.130
1300.
11
2
10.00
.050
.130
1400.
12
2
10.00
.050
.130
1400.
13
2
10.00
.050
.130
1500.
14
2
10.00
.050
.130
1500.
15
2
10.00
.050
.130
1600.
16
2
10.00
.050
.130
1800.
17
3
.010
.140
100000.
Option 3 -- input motion:
3
1900 4096
.02
diam.acc
(8f10.6)
.0001
25.
3
8
Option 4 -- sublayer for input motion within (1) or outcropping (0):
4
17
0
Option 5 -- number of iterations & ratio of avg strain to max strain
5
0
8
0.50
Option 6 -- sublayers for which accn time histories are computed & saved:
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
Option 6 -- sublayers for which accn time histories are computed & saved:
3 - 136
Optional Features
6
16
17
17
1
1
0
0
1
0
option 7 -- sublayer for which shear stress or strain are computed & saved:
7
4
1
1
0 1800
-- stress in level 4
4
0
1
0 1800
-- strain in level 4
option 7 -- sublayer for which shear stress or strain are computed & saved:
7
8
1
1
0 1800
-- stress in level 8
8
0
1
0 1800
-- strain in level 8
option 9 -- compute & save response spectrum:
9
1
0
1
0
981.0
0.05
option 10 -- compute & save amplification spectrum:
10
17
0
1
0
0.125
-- surface/rock outcrop
execution will stop when program encounters 0
0
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 137
; Histories
;-----------hist 1 unbal
his 2 dytime
his 231 xacc i 1 j 31 ;top accn 0
his 224 xacc i 1 j 23 ;accn at 40
his 201 xacc i=1 j=1 ;btm accn at 150
;-------------------;Boundary Conditions
;-------------------fix y
;---------------------------;Application of acceleration
;---------------------------his read 100 Diam-flac-0001.acc
apply xacc 9.81 his 100 j=1 ; convert to actual accn value
apply yacc 0.0 j=1 ; this command prevents rocking along gridpoint j=1
ini dy_damp hyst default -3.325 0.823 j 1 16
ini dy_damp hyst default -3.156 1.904 j 17 24
ini dy_damp hyst default -3.325 0.823 j 25 30
set dynamic on
;hist nstep 100
solve dytime 40.48
his write 231 vs 2 table 231 ; top accn hist to table, to gen. res spectra
call spec.fis
def compuspec
; setup values for fish function spectra
dmp=0.05
; damping ratio
pmin=0.01 ; minimum period
pmax=10.0 ; maximum period
acc_in=231 ; input acc table
sd_out = 501 ; relative displacement table
sv_out = 502 ; pseudo-velocity table
sa_out = 503 ; pseudo-acc table
n_point = 500 ; # of computation points
spectra
end
compuspec
set hisfile inp-flac-0001.his
his write 231, 224, 201 vs 2 ;accn
save inp-flac-0001.sav
3 - 138
Optional Features
3.7 References
Arthur, J. R. F., K. S. Chua and T. Dunstan. Principal Stress Rotation: A Missing Parameter,
J. Geotech., Div. ASCE, 106(GT4), 419-433 (1980).
Bathe, K.-J., and E. L. Wilson. Numerical Methods in Finite Element Analysis. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976.
Belytschko, T. An Overview of Semidiscretization and Time Integration Procedures, in Computational Methods for Transient Analysis, Ch. 1, pp. 1-65. T. Belytschko and T. J. R. Hughes, Eds.
New York: Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V., 1983.
Biggs, J. M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Blake, F. G. Spherical Wave Propagation in Solid Media, J. Acous. Soc. Am., 24(2), 211-215
(1952).
Byrne, P. A Cyclic Shear-Volume Coupling and Pore-Pressure Model for Sand, in Proceedings:
Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
and Soil Dynamics (St. Louis, Missouri, March, 1991), Paper No. 1.24, 47-55.
Cundall, P. A. Explicit Finite Difference Methods in Geomechanics, in Numerical Methods
in Engineering (Proceedings of the EF Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics,
Blacksburg, Virginia, June, 1976), Vol. 1, pp. 132-150 (1976).
Cundall, P. A., H. Hansteen, S. Lacasse and P. B. Selnes. NESSI Soil Structure Interaction
Program for Dynamic and Static Problems, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Report 51508-9,
December, 1980.
Daller, J., W. Unterberger and B. Hochgatterer. Vibration Control in Railway Tunnels, in Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Tunnel Construction and Underground Structures (Ljubljana,
September, 1996).
Dames and Moore (San Francisco, California) and Science Applications, Incorporated (Oakland,
California). Study of Nonlinear Effects on One-Dimensional Earthquake Response, Final Report
NP-865 to Electric Power Research Institute (Palo Alto, California), August, 1978.
Gazetas, G., and J. M. Roesset. Vertical Vibration of Machine Foundations, J. Geotech., Div.
ASCE, 105(GT12), 1435-1454 (December, 1979).
Gemant, A., and W. Jackson. The Measurement of Internal Friction in Some Solid Dielectric
Materials, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine & Journal of Science,
XXII, 960-983 (1937).
Gazetas, G., and J. M. Roesset. Vertical Vibration of Machine Foundations, J. Geotech., Div.
ASCE, 105(GT12), 1435-1454 (December, 1979).
Graff, K. G. Wave Motion in Elastic Solids. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1991.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3 - 139
Hardin, B. O., and V. P. Drnevich. Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: I. Measurement and
Parameter Effects, II. Design Equations and Curves, Technical Reports UKY 27-70-CE 2 and 3,
College of Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, July. [These reports were
later published in the Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. 6,
pp. 603-624 and No. 7, pp. 667-691, in June and July, 1972].
Idriss, I. M., and Joseph I. Sun. Users Manual for SHAKE91. University of California, Davis,
Center for Geotechnical Modeling, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, November
1992.
Joyner, W. B., and A. T. F. Chen. Calculation of Nonlinear Ground Response in Earthquakes,
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 65(5), 1315-1336 (October, 1975).
Kolsky, H. Stress Waves in Solids. New York: Dover Publications, 1963.
Kuhlemeyer, R. L., and J. Lysmer. Finite Element Method Accuracy for Wave Propagation Problems, J. Soil Mech. & Foundations, Div. ASCE, 99(SM5), 421-427 (May, 1973).
Kunar, R. R., P. J. Beresford and P. A. Cundall. A Tested Soil-Structure Model for Surface
Structures, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Soil-Structure Interaction (Roorkee University,
India, January, 1977), Vol. 1, pp. 137-144. Meerut, India: Sarita Prakashan, 1977.
Lysmer, J., and R. L. Kuhlemeyer. Finite Dynamic Model for Infinite Media, J. Eng. Mech.,
95(EM4), 859-877 (1969).
Lysmer, J., T. Udaka, C. F. Tsai and H. B. Seed. FLUSH A Computer Program for Approximate 3-D Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction Problems, University of California, Berkeley,
Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Report No. EERC 75-30, 1975.
Lysmer, J., and G. Waas. Shear Waves in Plane Infinite Structures, ASCE J. Eng. Mech., 98(EM1),
85-105 (1972).
Martin, G. R., W. D. L. Finn and H. B. Seed. Fundamentals of Liquefaction under Cyclic Loading,
J. Geotech., Div. ASCE, 101(GT5), 423-438 (1975).
Miller, R. K. The Effects of Boundary Friction on the Propagation of Elastic Waves, Bull. Seismic.
Assoc. America, 68, 987-998 (1978).
Roesset, J. M., and M. M. Ettouney. Transmitting Boundaries: A Comparison, Int. J. Num. &
Analy. Methods Geomech., 1, 151-176 (1977).
Schnabel, P. B., J. Lysmer and H. Bolton Seed. SHAKE: A Computer Program for Earthquake
Response Analysis of Horizontally Layered Sites, University of California, Berkeley, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, Report No. UCB/EERC-71/12, 1972.
Seed, H. B., and I. Idriss. Influence of Soil Conditions on Ground Motion During Earthquakes,
J. Soil Mech. Found., Div. ASCE, 95, 99-137 (1969).
3 - 140
Optional Features
Seed, H. Bolton, and I. M. Idriss. Soil Moduli and Damping Factors for Dynamic Response
Analysis, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Report
No. UCB/EERC-70/10, p. 48, Dec. 1970.
Seed, H. B., P. P. Martin and J. Lysmer. The Generation and Dissipation of Pore Water Pressures
during Soil Liquefaction, University of California, Berkeley, Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, NSF Report PB-252 648, August, 1975.
Seed, H. Bolton, R. T. Wong, I. M. Idriss and K. Tokimatsu. Moduli and Damping Factors
for Dynamic Analyses of Cohesionless Soils, Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, Vol. 112, No. GT11, Nov. 1986, pp. 1016-1032.
Sun, J. I., R. Golesorkhi and H. Bolton Seed. Dynamic Moduli and Damping Ratios for Cohesive
Soils, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Report No.
UCB/EERC-88/15, p. 42, 1988.
Unterberger, W., P. A. Cundall and A. H. Zettler. Dynamic Substepping Increasing the Power of
Explicit Finite Difference Methods, in Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Wuhan, China, 2-7 November, 1997. Rotterdam:
A. A. Balkema, 1997.
Unterberger, W., R. Poisel and C. Honeger. Numerical Prediction of Surface Vibrations Caused
by High-Speed Rail Traffic in Tunnels, presented at the World Tunnel Congress (ITA), Vienna,
(May, 1977).
Vucetic, M., and R. Dobry. Effect of Soil Plasticity on Cyclic Response, in J. Geotech. Eng.
Div., ASCE, Vol. 111, No. 1, Jan. 1991, pp. 89-107.
Wang, Z.-L., J. Egan, L. Scheibel and F. I. Makdisi. Simulation of Earthquake Performance of
a Waterfront Slope Using Fully Coupled Effective Stress Approach, in FLAC and Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International FLAC Symposium
on Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics, Ecully-Lyon, France, October 2001), pp. 101-108.
D. Billaux, X. Rachez, C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 2001.
Wegel, R. L., and H. Walther. Internal Dissipation in Solids for Small Cyclic Strains, Physics, 6,
141-157 (1935).
White, W., S. Valliappan and I. K. Lee. Unified Boundary for Finite Dynamic Models, J. Eng.
Mech., 103, 949-964 (1977).
Wilkins, M. L. Use of Artificial Viscosity in Multidimensional Fluid Dynamic Calculations, in
Journal of Computational Physics, 36, 281-303 (1980).
Wolf, J. P. Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1985.
Verification Problems
PRECIS
This volume contains documentation on a series of verification problems that have been solved
using FLAC. The verification problems are tests in which the FLAC solution is compared directly
to an analytical (i.e., closed-form) solution.*
Table 1 presents a summary of the FLAC verification problems contained in this volume. The table
also identifies the specific FLAC feature that is examined in each problem.
* The data files in this volume are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\VerificationProblems with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this volume,
open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting
the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the
Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots
created. All problems in this volume were run on a 2.4 GHz computer.
Verification problems for the optional features thermal analysis, creep material models and
dynamic analysis are provided in Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3 in Optional Features,
respectively.
Verification Problems
1-1
HOLE.DAT
2-1
TIHOLE.DAT
3-1
MHOLE.DAT
4-1
HOEKHOLE.DAT
5-1
SPHERE.DAT
6-1
FOOTING.DAT
Structure Beam
Interface Elements
plane stress
groundwater
axisymmetry
ubiquitous joint
CONFIG
strain-softening
Mohr-Coulomb
Hoek-Brown
elastic, anisotropic
elastic, isotropic
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
Drucker-Prager
Cam-clay
DESCRIPTION
double-yield
Table 1
x
x
x
x
x
Mohr-Coulomb Medium
4 Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite
Hoek-Brown Medium
5 Spherical Cavity in an Infinite
Elastic Medium
6 Strip and Circular Footings on a
Mohr-Coulomb Material
7 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
7-1
JROCK.DAT
JROCKB.DAT
8-1
LTUNNEL.DAT
9 One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-1
1DCONS.DAT
10-1
FREESURFACE.DAT
11-1
RIVERBANK.DAT
12-1
WELL.DAT
a Free Surface
11 Unconfined Flow Toward a
Riverbank
12 Transient Fluid Flow to a Well in a
13-1
PUNCH.DAT
14 Poroelastic Response
14-1
BH.DAT
15-1
CAM.DAT
16-1
CFOOT.DAT
17 Brazilian Test
17-1
BRAZIL.DAT
18-1
MANDEL.DAT
19-1
LIMITS.DAT
20-1
SURCHARGE.DAT
in Weightless Material
21 Undrained Embankment Loading
21-1
EBANK.DAT
x
x
of a Borehole
15 Drained and Undrained Triaxial
Elastic Medium
x
x
Mandel's Problem
19 Estimating Limit Loads in High-
Friction Materials
x
x
1-1
= 2.8 GPa
= 3.9 GPa
= 2500 kg/m3
It is assumed that the problem is symmetric about both the horizontal and vertical axes. Further, it is
assumed that the radius of the hole is small compared to the length of the cylinder. This assumption
permits the 3D problem to be reduced to a 2D plane-strain problem.
1.2 Closed-Form Solution
For a cylindrical hole in an infinite, isotropic, elastic medium under plane-strain conditions, the
radial and tangential stress distributions are given by the classical Kirsch solution (e.g., see Jaeger
and Cook 1976).
A point located at polar coordinate (r, ) near an opening with radius a (Figure 1.1) has stresses
r , , r , given by:
p1 + p2
3a 4
p1 p2
4a 2
2 2
r =
1 a /r
+
1 2 + 4 cos 2
2
2
r
r
p1 + p2
p1 p2
3a 4
2 2
1 + a /r
1 + 4 cos 2
=
2
2
r
p1 p2
=
2
3a 4
2a 2
1+ 2 4
r
r
sin 2
1-2
Verification Problems
P1
P2
Figure 1.1
1-3
as the figure indicates, a radial mesh is produced with increasing zone size away from the hole. The
uniform zoning around the hole provides a more accurate solution than would a nonuniform grid.
P
r
a
Figure 1.2
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 1.3
1-4
Verification Problems
A total of 900 zones are used in this grid. The location of the boundary was varied to evaluate its
effect on solution accuracy. The boundary was selected at 10 m (i.e., five hole diameters) from the
hole center.
The axisymmetric model for this problem is shown in Figure 1.4, and the FLAC grid in Figure 1.5.
The axis of symmetry is along the axis of the hole. By using the axisymmetry option in FLAC, the
total number of zones is greatly reduced: now, 62 zones are used. The model boundary is at 10 m,
which is the same as for the first test. The grid contains two rows of elements for plotting purposes,
since the zone contour plotting requires a width of at least two elements. The commands for this
model are listed in HOLE.DAT at STATE:M1B see Section 1.6.
Axis of Symmetry
Cylindrical Hole
Figure 1.4
1-5
5.000
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:24
step
2189
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 5.500E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
2E 0
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
Figure 1.5
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
The FLAC model for the off-center hole is shown in Figure 1.6. The commands for this model are
listed in HOLE.DAT at STATE:M1C see Section 1.6. The boundary for this model is less than
one hole diameter from the hole. The infinite elastic boundary condition is applied to the circular
outer boundary.
1-6
Verification Problems
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:29
step
1627
-2.667E+00 <x< 2.667E+00
-2.667E+00 <y< 2.667E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
1E 0
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
Figure 1.6
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
All three models are assigned the same material properties. The first two models are subjected to
an isotropic compressive stress of 30 MPa. For the off-center hole model, a biaxial stress state is
applied with p1 = -15 MPa and p2 = -30 MPa. The initial stress state is applied throughout each
model first; then the hole is removed.
1.4 Results and Discussion
Figure 1.7 shows the radial and tangential stresses calculated by FLAC compared to the analytical
solution for r and . Figure 1.8 shows the comparison for radial displacement. These two plots
indicate the agreement along a line through the model, taken along either the x- or y-axis.
1-7
07
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
5.000
Table Plot
Table 21
4.000
Table 20
Table 11
Table 10
3.000
2.000
1.000
Figure 1.7
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
5.000
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
4.500
Table Plot
Table 31
4.000
Table 30
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 1.8
1-8
Verification Problems
The error distribution throughout the entire FLAC model is illustrated in Figures 1.9 through 1.11
for radial stress, tangential stress and radial displacement, respectively. As these figures show, the
error in stresses is less than 2%, and the error in displacements is less than 1% immediately around
the hole, and less than 6% at the model boundaries. The average error in the model is 0.75% for
r , 1.075% for , and 2.358% for ur .
The calculation of error distribution is made with the FISH functions in file HOLE.DAT at
STATE:M1A V see Section 1.6. The theoretical solution is first solved in the FISH function
theor; then, the FLAC values for stress and displacement are compared to the solution values.
The error distributions in radial and tangential stresses are calculated in function evals, and the
error distribution in radial displacement is calculated in evald.
JOB TITLE : CYLINDRICAL HOLE IN AN INFINITE ELASTIC MEDIUM
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 7 Contours
-1.00E+00
-8.00E-01
-6.00E-01
-4.00E-01
-2.00E-01
0.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^1)
Figure 1.9
0.800
1.000
1-9
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 6 Contours
-1.75E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.25E+00
-1.00E+00
-7.50E-01
-5.00E-01
-2.50E-01
0.00E+00
2.50E-01
5.00E-01
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:23
step
3049
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 8 Contours
1.00E+00
2.00E+00
3.00E+00
4.00E+00
5.00E+00
6.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
1 - 10
Verification Problems
In a similar fashion, the error distribution for the axisymmetric model is calculated; the results are
presented in Figures 1.12 through 1.14. The calculations are made from the FISH functions in file
HOLE.DAT at STATE:M1B V see Section 1.6. The average error in the model is 0.927% for
r , 1.026% for , and 2.548% for ur .
The solution for the off-center hole is illustrated by the displacement plots in Figures 1.15 and 1.16.
These plots show the symmetry in results when using the infinite elastic boundary even with the
hole located off the center of the model.
JOB TITLE : CYLINDRICAL HOLE IN AN INFINITE ELASTIC MEDIUM
5.000
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:25
step
2189
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 5.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
1.000
EX_ 7 Contours
0.00E+00
2.00E-01
4.00E-01
6.00E-01
8.00E-01
1.00E+00
-1.000
-3.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1 - 11
5.000
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:25
step
2189
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 5.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
1.000
EX_ 6 Contours
1.01E+00
1.02E+00
1.02E+00
1.02E+00
1.03E+00
1.03E+00
-1.000
-3.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
5.000
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:25
step
2189
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 5.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
1.000
EX_ 8 Contours
1.50E+00
2.00E+00
2.50E+00
3.00E+00
3.50E+00
4.00E+00
4.50E+00
5.00E+00
-1.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1 - 12
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:29
step
1627
-2.667E+00 <x< 2.667E+00
-2.667E+00 <y< 2.667E+00
1.000
Grid plot
0
1E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 6.936E-03
0
0.000
2E -2
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 15:29
step
1627
-2.667E+00 <x< 2.667E+00
-2.667E+00 <y< 2.667E+00
1.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
Y-displacement contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-04
Minimum: -6.50E-03
Maximum: 6.50E-03
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
1 - 13
A comparison of displacements at different points around the hole is provided in Table 1.1. All
displacements are inward.
Table 1.1
Hole Boundary
top
bottom
left side
right side
FLAC
0.00687
0.00692
0.00108
0.00103
Radial Displacement
Analytical
Percent Error
0.00691
0.00691
0.00113
0.00113
0.58
0.14
4.42
8.85
The third model shows the benefit of using the infinite elastic boundary to reduce the model size.
It should be noted, however, that the use of the infinite elastic boundary slows the calculation rate
somewhat. The third model runs at approximately the same calculation speed as the first model,
even though the first contains more than twice as many elements.
1.5 Reference
Jaeger, J. C., and N. G. W. Cook. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 3rd Ed. London: Chapman
and Hall, 1976.
1 - 14
Verification Problems
1 - 15
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)
dd=-15e6/(2.8e9*ro)
ex 3(i,j)=dd*x(i,j)/ro
ex 4(i,j)=dd*y(i,j)/ro
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
ex 6(i,j)=100*(stm-ex 1(i,j))/30e6
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
srm=temp1+temp2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(srm-ex 2(i,j))/30e6
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
def evald
1 - 16
Verification Problems
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;****************** create plots *******************************
; the plots will be saved in a file called m1a.plt
; the user must define the plotting device
; using the SET PLOT command.
def p0
p0=1.
end
ca tabm1.fis
set out m1a.plt
save m1a v.sav
;*** BRANCH: AXISYMMERTRIC ****
new
;... STATE: M1B ....
config ax extra=8
g 31 2
mo el
gen 1 0 1 1 10 1 10 0 rat 1.1 1
prop shear=2.8e9 bulk=3.9e9 dens=2500
ini sxx=-30e6 szz=-30e6
fix y j 1
fix y j 3
app sxx -30e6 i 32
hist unbal
hist xd i 1 j 1
hist xv i 1 j 1
hist sxx i 1 j 1
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist szz i 1 j 1
hist sig1 i 1 j 1
hist sig2 i 1 j 1
solve
1 - 17
save m1b.sav
;... STATE: M1B V ....
;call M1b v.dat
;
;*********** calculate the theoretical results **************
; the theoretical results are stored in the following arrays
; tangential stress .......... EX 1
; radial stress .............. EX 2
; radial displacements ....... EX 3
;
def theor
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
rz=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
ex 1(i,j)=-30e6*(1+1/rz2)
ex 2(i,j)=-30e6*(1-1/rz2)
end loop
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=x(i,j)
ex 3(i,j)=-15e6/(2.8e9*ro)
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 6(i,j)=100*(szz(i,j)-ex 1(i,j))/ex 1(i,j)
ert=ert+abs(ex 6(i,j))
ex 7(i,j)=100*(sxx(i,j)-ex 2(i,j))/ex 2(i,j)
err=err+abs(ex 7(i,j))
end loop
end loop
ert=ert/(izones*jzones)
1 - 18
Verification Problems
err=err/(izones*jzones)
end
;
evals
;
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ex 8(i,j)=100*(xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))/ex 3(1,1)
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;****************** create plots *******************************
; the plots will be saved in a file called m3b.plt
; the user must define the plotting device
; using the SET PLOT command.
;set out m1b.plt
save m1b v.sav
;*** BRANCH: PLAIN STRAIN-IEB ****
new
;... STATE: M1C ....
config
g 20 20
m e
gen -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 -2.0
gen circ 0,0,2.0
m n
m e reg 10,10
gen circ -.3,-.2,1.
m n reg 9,9
pro d 2500 bu 3.9e9 sh 2.8e9
ini syy -30e6 sxx -15e6
1 - 19
1 - 20
Verification Problems
2-1
40 GPa
20 GPa
0.2
0.25
4 GPa
1m
10 MPa
2-2
Verification Problems
Po
Figure 2.1
2-3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 17:23
step
8871
-3.333E+00 <x< 2.333E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 2.2
0.500
1.000
(*10^1)
1.500
2.000
2-4
Verification Problems
-01
LEGEND
8.000
17-Mar-04 16:21
step
8871
7.000
Table Plot
Table 11
6.000
Table 1
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
9
(10
01
Figure 2.3
Comparison of FLAC radial displacements (Table 11) to the analytical solution (Table 1) plane stress
-01
LEGEND
1.600
17-Mar-04 16:21
step
8871
1.400
Table Plot
Table 12
1.200
Table 2
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
9
(10
01
Figure 2.4
2-5
01
LEGEND
3.000
17-Mar-04 16:21
step
8871
2.800
Table Plot
Table 13
2.600
Table 3
2.400
2.200
2.000
1.800
1.600
1.400
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 2.5
-01
LEGEND
8.000
17-Mar-04 16:25
step
8104
7.000
Table Plot
Table 11
6.000
Table 1
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
9
(10
01
Figure 2.6
2-6
Verification Problems
-01
LEGEND
1.600
17-Mar-04 16:25
step
8104
1.400
Table Plot
Table 12
1.200
Table 2
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
9
(10
01
Figure 2.7
01
LEGEND
3.000
17-Mar-04 16:25
step
8104
2.800
Table Plot
Table 13
2.600
Table 3
2.400
2.200
2.000
1.800
1.600
1.400
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 2.8
2-7
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
17-Mar-04 17:23
step
8871
-2.500E-01 <x< 1.500E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 1.500E+00
1.100
0.900
Displacement vectors
max vector = 9.746E-04
0
0.700
2E -3
Boundary plot
0
0.500
5E -1
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.9
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
JOB TITLE : .
2.500
17-Mar-04 17:23
step
8871
-2.500E-01 <x< 3.000E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 3.000E+00
2.000
Displacement Magnitude
1.00E-04
2.00E-04
3.00E-04
4.00E-04
5.00E-04
6.00E-04
7.00E-04
8.00E-04
9.00E-04
1.500
1.000
0.500
1E 0
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.500
2-8
Verification Problems
;
;
;
;
;
2-9
transverse isotropy:
plane of isotropy is the xz plane with angle an=(0x,0x)
anti-clockwise from x-axis.
em3 = em1
g23 = g12
p23 = p21
p13 = p31
g13 = em1/(2.0*(1.0+p31))
stress coefficients in global axes
(components of matrix A in e = A*sig, global axes)
cs11 = ca4/em1 + (1.0/g12 - 2.0*(p12/em1))*sa2*ca2 +sa4/em2
cs12 = (1.0/em1+1.0/em2+2.0*(p12/em1)-1.0/g12)*sa2*ca2-p12/em1
cs13 = -( sa2*p23/em2 + ca2*p13/em1 )
cs22 = sa4/em1 + (1.0/g12 - 2.0*(p12/em1))*sa2*ca2 + ca4/em2
cs23 = -(ca2*p23/em2 + sa2*p13/em1)
cs33 = 1.0/em3
cs45 = (1.0/g23 - 1.0/g13)*ca1*sa1
cs16 =-(2.0*(sa2/em2-ca2/em1)+(1.0/g12-2.0*p12/em1)*(ca2-sa2))*sa1*ca1
cs26 =-(2.0*(ca2/em2-sa2/em1)-(1.0/g12-2.0*p12/em1)*(ca2-sa2))*sa1*ca1
cs36 = - 2.0*(p13/em1-p23/em2)*sa1*ca1
cs66 = 4.0*(1.0/em1+1.0/em2+2.0*(p12/em1)-1.0/g12)*sa2*ca2+1.0/g12
calculation of some constants
val = sqrt((2.*cs12+cs66)*(2.*cs12+cs66)-4.*cs11*cs22)
beta1 = sqrt(0.5*(2.*cs12+cs66-val)/cs11)
beta2 = sqrt(0.5*(2.*cs12+cs66+val)/cs11)
radh = x(1,1)
coe
= radh*0.5/(beta2-beta1)
sx0
= -10.
sy0
= -10.
c1r
= coe*(-beta2*sy0+sx0)
c1i
= coe*(beta2*sy0-sx0)
c2r
= -coe*(-beta1*sy0+sx0)
c2i
= -coe*(beta1*sy0-sx0)
p1
= cs12-cs11*beta1*beta1
p2
= cs12-cs11*beta2*beta2
q1i
= cs12*beta1-cs22/beta1
q2i
= cs12*beta2-cs22/beta2
end
ini m2
def ana u
; analytical and numerical value of
; -(radial and tangential displacement)*1e3 at the hole
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = x(1,jj)/radh
yval = y(1,jj)/radh
phi1r = c1r * xval
2 - 10
Verification Problems
2 - 11
nssxy
= sxy(1,jj)
xtable(3,jj) = theta
ytable(3,jj) = -(vssxx*yval*yval+vssyy*xval*xval-vssxy*xval*yval*2.)
xtable(13,jj) = theta
ytable(13,jj) = -(nssxx*yval*yval+nssyy*xval*xval-nssxy*xval*yval*2.)
end loop
end
ana sig
call dispmag.fis
disp mag
save M2a v.sav
;*** Branch: Plane strain ****
new
;... State: m2b.sav ....
config extra=1
g 50 40
mo anis
cal hole.fis
set rmin=1 rmul=20 gratio=1.1
hole
prop shear=4e3 den 2.5e-3
prop angle=0 xm=4e4 ym=2e4 nuy=.2 nuz=.25
ini sxx=-10 syy=-10 szz=-10
fix y j 1
fix x j 41
app sxx=-10 syy=-10 i 51
hist unbal
hist xd i 1 j 1
hist xv i 1 j 1
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist sxx i 1 j 1
solve
save m2b.sav
;... State: m2b v.sav ....
; rest m2a.sav
def ini m2
; angle of anisotropy
an = angle(1,1)
an = an * degrad
ca1 = cos(an)
sa1 = sin(an)
ca2 = ca1*ca1
ca4 = ca2*ca2
2 - 12
Verification Problems
sa2 = sa1*sa1
sa4 = sa2*sa2
g12 = shear mod(1,1)
em1 = xmod(1,1)
em2 = ymod(1,1)
p21 = nuyx(1,1)
p12 = p21*em1/em2
p31 = nuzx(1,1)
;
transverse isotropy:
;
plane of isotropy is the xz plane with angle an=(0x,0x)
;
anti-clockwise from x-axis.
em3 = em1
g23 = g12
p23 = p21
p13 = p31
g13 = em1/(2.0*(1.0+p31))
;
stress coefficients in global axes
;
(components of matrix A in e = A*sig, global axes)
cs11 = ca4/em1 + (1.0/g12 - 2.0*(p12/em1))*sa2*ca2 +sa4/em2
cs12 = (1.0/em1+1.0/em2+2.0*(p12/em1)-1.0/g12)*sa2*ca2-p12/em1
cs13 = -( sa2*p23/em2 + ca2*p13/em1 )
cs22 = sa4/em1 + (1.0/g12 - 2.0*(p12/em1))*sa2*ca2 + ca4/em2
cs23 = -(ca2*p23/em2 + sa2*p13/em1)
cs33 = 1.0/em3
cs45 = (1.0/g23 - 1.0/g13)*ca1*sa1
cs16 =-(2.0*(sa2/em2-ca2/em1)+(1.0/g12-2.0*p12/em1)*(ca2-sa2))*sa1*ca1
cs26 =-(2.0*(ca2/em2-sa2/em1)-(1.0/g12-2.0*p12/em1)*(ca2-sa2))*sa1*ca1
cs36 = - 2.0*(p13/em1-p23/em2)*sa1*ca1
cs66 = 4.0*(1.0/em1+1.0/em2+2.0*(p12/em1)-1.0/g12)*sa2*ca2+1.0/g12
; calculation of some constants
val = sqrt((2.*cs12+cs66)*(2.*cs12+cs66)-4.*cs11*cs22)
beta1 = sqrt(0.5*(2.*cs12+cs66-val)/cs11)
beta2 = sqrt(0.5*(2.*cs12+cs66+val)/cs11)
radh = x(1,1)
coe
= radh*0.5/(beta2-beta1)
sx0
= -10.
sy0
= -10.
c1r
= coe*(-beta2*sy0+sx0)
c1i
= coe*(beta2*sy0-sx0)
c2r
= -coe*(-beta1*sy0+sx0)
c2i
= -coe*(beta1*sy0-sx0)
p1
= cs12-cs11*beta1*beta1
p2
= cs12-cs11*beta2*beta2
q1i
= cs12*beta1-cs22/beta1
q2i
= cs12*beta2-cs22/beta2
end
2 - 13
ini m2
def ana u
; analytical and numerical value of
; -(radial and tangential displacement)*1e3 at the hole
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = x(1,jj)/radh
yval = y(1,jj)/radh
phi1r = c1r * xval
phi1i = c1i * yval
phi2r = c2r * xval
phi2i = c2i * yval
ux
= 2.*(p1*phi1r+p2*phi2r)
uy
= 2.*(-q1i*phi1i-q2i*phi2i)
ur
= ux*xval+uy*xval
ut
= -ux*yval+uy*xval
theta = atan2(yval,xval)/degrad
xtable(1,jj) = theta
ytable(1,jj) = -ur*1000.
xtable(2,jj) = theta
ytable(2,jj) = -ut*1000.
ux
= xdisp(1,jj)
uy
= ydisp(1,jj)
ur
= ux*xval+uy*xval
ut
= -ux*yval+uy*xval
xtable(11,jj) = theta
ytable(11,jj) = -ur*1000.
xtable(12,jj) = theta
ytable(12,jj) = -ut*1000.
end loop
end
ana u
def ana sig
; analytical and numerical values of
; -(tangential stress) at the hole
loop jj (1,jzones)
theta = 0.5*(atan2(y(1,jj),x(1,jj))+atan2(y(1,jj+1),x(1,jj+1)))
xval
= cos(theta)
yval
= sin(theta)
phi1r = c1r * xval
phi1i = c1i * yval
val
= -1./(radh*(beta1*xval*beta1*xval+yval*yval))
phi1pr = (phi1r*beta1*xval+phi1i*yval)*val
phi1pi = (phi1i*beta1*xval-phi1r*yval)*val
phi2r = c2r * xval
phi2i = c2i * yval
val
= -1./(radh*(beta2*xval*beta2*xval+yval*yval))
2 - 14
Verification Problems
phi2pr = (phi2r*beta2*xval+phi2i*yval)*val
phi2pi = (phi2i*beta2*xval-phi2r*yval)*val
vssxx
= 2.*(-beta1*beta1*phi1pr-beta2*beta2*phi2pr)+sx0
vssyy
= 2.*(phi1pr+phi2pr)+sy0
vssxy
= -2.*(-beta1*phi1pi-beta2*phi2pi)
theta = theta/degrad
nssxx
= sxx(1,jj)
nssyy
= syy(1,jj)
nssxy
= sxy(1,jj)
xtable(3,jj) = theta
ytable(3,jj) = -(vssxx*yval*yval+vssyy*xval*xval-vssxy*xval*yval*2.)
xtable(13,jj) = theta
ytable(13,jj) = -(nssxx*yval*yval+nssyy*xval*xval-nssxy*xval*yval*2.)
end loop
end
ana sig
save m2b v.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
;plot name: Comp. of rad. disp.
plot hold table 11 cross 1 line
;plot name: Comp. of tang. disp.
plot hold table 12 cross 2 line
;plot name: Comp. of tang. stress
plot hold table 13 cross 3 line
;plot name: Displacement Vectors
plot hold displacement bound lmagenta
;plot name: Dislacement Magnitude
plot hold ex 1 alias Displacement Magnitude fill bound lmagenta
2 - 15
2 - 16
Verification Problems
coe
sx0
sy0
c1r
c1i
c2r
c2i
p1
p2
q1i
q2i
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
radh*0.5/(beta2-beta1)
-10.
-10.
coe*(-beta2*sy0+sx0)
coe*(beta2*sy0-sx0)
-coe*(-beta1*sy0+sx0)
-coe*(beta1*sy0-sx0)
cs12-cs11*beta1*beta1
cs12-cs11*beta2*beta2
cs12*beta1-cs22/beta1
cs12*beta2-cs22/beta2
end
ini m2
def ana u
; analytical and numerical value of
; -(radial and tangential displacement)*1e3 at the hole
loop jj (1,jgp)
xval = x(1,jj)/radh
yval = y(1,jj)/radh
phi1r = c1r * xval
phi1i = c1i * yval
phi2r = c2r * xval
phi2i = c2i * yval
ux
= 2.*(p1*phi1r+p2*phi2r)
uy
= 2.*(-q1i*phi1i-q2i*phi2i)
ur
= ux*xval+uy*xval
ut
= -ux*yval+uy*xval
theta = atan2(yval,xval)/degrad
xtable(1,jj) = theta
ytable(1,jj) = -ur*1000.
xtable(2,jj) = theta
ytable(2,jj) = -ut*1000.
ux
= xdisp(1,jj)
uy
= ydisp(1,jj)
ur
= ux*xval+uy*xval
ut
= -ux*yval+uy*xval
xtable(11,jj) = theta
ytable(11,jj) = -ur*1000.
xtable(12,jj) = theta
ytable(12,jj) = -ut*1000.
end loop
end
ana u
def ana sig
; analytical and numerical values of
; -(tangential stress) at the hole
2 - 17
loop jj (1,jzones)
theta = 0.5*(atan2(y(1,jj),x(1,jj))+atan2(y(1,jj+1),x(1,jj+1)))
xval
= cos(theta)
yval
= sin(theta)
phi1r = c1r * xval
phi1i = c1i * yval
val
= -1./(radh*(beta1*xval*beta1*xval+yval*yval))
phi1pr = (phi1r*beta1*xval+phi1i*yval)*val
phi1pi = (phi1i*beta1*xval-phi1r*yval)*val
phi2r = c2r * xval
phi2i = c2i * yval
val
= -1./(radh*(beta2*xval*beta2*xval+yval*yval))
phi2pr = (phi2r*beta2*xval+phi2i*yval)*val
phi2pi = (phi2i*beta2*xval-phi2r*yval)*val
vssxx
= 2.*(-beta1*beta1*phi1pr-beta2*beta2*phi2pr)+sx0
vssyy
= 2.*(phi1pr+phi2pr)+sy0
vssxy
= -2.*(-beta1*phi1pi-beta2*phi2pi)
theta = theta/degrad
nssxx
= sxx(1,jj)
nssyy
= syy(1,jj)
nssxy
= sxy(1,jj)
xtable(3,jj) = theta
ytable(3,jj) = -(vssxx*yval*yval+vssyy*xval*xval-vssxy*xval*yval*2.)
xtable(13,jj) = theta
ytable(13,jj) = -(nssxx*yval*yval+nssyy*xval*xval-nssxy*xval*yval*2.)
end loop
end
ana sig
call dispmag.fis
disp mag
save m2a v.sav
;save m2b v.sav
2 - 18
Verification Problems
3-1
2500 kg/m3
2.8 GPa
3.9 GPa
3.45 MPa
30
0 and 30
An isotropic in-situ stress state exists with stresses equal to -30 MPa (tension positive). It is assumed
that the problem is symmetric about both the horizontal and vertical axes. The radius of the hole is
1 m and is assumed to be small compared to the length of the cylinder. This permits the use of the
plane-strain condition.
3-2
Verification Problems
Po + Kpq1
2
Kp + 1 Pi + Kpq1
1/(Kp 1)
(3.1)
1+sin
1sin ;
1
(2Po q)
Kp + 1
(3.2)
r =
q
q
r
(Pi +
) ( )Kp 1
Kp 1
Kp 1
a
q
q
r
=
Kp (Pi +
) ( )Kp 1
Kp 1
Kp 1
a
(3.3)
r = Po + (Po re ) (
= Po (Po re ) (
Ro 2
)
r
Ro 2
)
r
(3.4)
3-3
The displacements in the elastic and plastic regions are given by Salencon (1969). For the elastic
region:
2Po q Ro Ro
ur = Po
Kp + 1
2G
r
(3.5)
q
= (2 ) Po +
Kp 1
(Kp 1) (Kps +1)
(1 )(Kp2 1)
q
Ro
Ro
+
Pi +
Kp + Kps
Kp 1
a
r
(Kp Kps + 1)
q
r (Kp 1)
Pi +
+ (1 )
(Kp + Kps )
Kp 1
a
(3.6)
ur =
where Kps =
2G
1+sin
1sin ;
= dilation angle;
= Poissons ratio; and
= shear modulus.
3-4
Verification Problems
Po
Po
Figure 3.1
3-5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:37
step
3156
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 3.2
JOB TITLE : .
23-Apr-04 15:37
step
3156
-2.500E-01 <x< 2.000E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 2.000E+00
1.200
Grid plot
0
5E -1
0.800
0.400
0.000
Figure 3.3
0.400
0.800
1.200
1.600
3-6
Verification Problems
The problem is also modeled using axisymmetric geometry. Figure 3.4 shows the boundary
conditions, and Figure 3.5 shows the zone geometry created for this calculation. A height of two
zones is used to facilitate stress contour plots.
Both models are subjected to an isotropic compressive stress of -30 MPa. The initial stress state is
applied throughout each model first; then the hole is removed.
Axis of Symmetry
Data file MHOLE.DAT in Section 3.6 contains the FLAC commands for the quarter-symmetry grid
model, and for the axisymmetric model. The comparison of FLAC results to the analytical solution
is performed using FISH functions also contained in this data file. The theoretical relations are
solved in FISH function theor; then, the FLAC values for stress and displacement are compared
to the solution values. The error distribution in radial and tangential stress is calculated in the
function evals, and the error distribution in displacement is calculated in the function evald.
Po
Figure 3.4
3-7
JOB TITLE : .
5.000
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 11:47
step
2082
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 5.500E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
2E 0
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
Figure 3.5
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3-8
Verification Problems
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
Table 21
Table 20
1.000
Table 11
Table 10
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
Figure 3.6
-02
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 11:47
step
3156
2.500
Table Plot
Table 31
2.000
Table 30
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
Figure 3.7
Radial displacement solution comparison associated flow: analytical (Table 30) vs FLAC (Table 31)
3-9
-02
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 11:42
step
3614
1.200
Table Plot
Table 31
1.000
Table 30
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
Figure 3.8
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
3614
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 6 Contours
-4.00E+00
-3.00E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.00E+00
0.00E+00
1.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 3.9
3 - 10
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
3614
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 7 Contours
-2.00E+00
-1.75E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.25E+00
-1.00E+00
-7.50E-01
-5.00E-01
-2.50E-01
0.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
3614
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 8 Contours
-5.00E+00
-4.50E+00
-4.00E+00
-3.50E+00
-3.00E+00
-2.50E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^1)
0.800
1.000
3 - 11
For the axisymmetric geometry, Figures 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14 show a direct comparison between
FLAC results and the analytical solution. Figures 3.15, 3.16 and 3.17 show the error distributions
for tangential stress, radial stress and radial displacement.
JOB TITLE : HOLE IN MOHR-COULOMB MEDIUM, STRESS SOLUTION COMPARISON
1.600
1.400
1.200
Table 11
Table 10
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
3 - 12
Verification Problems
-02
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 11:47
step
2082
2.500
Table Plot
Table 31
2.000
Table 30
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
-02
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 11:45
step
2253
Table Plot
Table 31
1.200
1.000
Table 30
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
3 - 13
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
2082
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 6.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
EX_ 6 Contours
-3.00E+00
-2.50E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.00E+00
-5.00E-01
0.00E+00
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
2082
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 6.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
EX_ 7 Contours
-1.75E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.25E+00
-1.00E+00
-7.50E-01
-5.00E-01
-2.50E-01
0.00E+00
1.000
-1.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 14
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:36
step
2082
5.000E-01 <x< 1.050E+01
-4.500E+00 <y< 6.500E+00
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
EX_ 8 Contours
0.00E+00
2.50E-02
5.00E-02
7.50E-02
1.00E-01
1.25E-01
1.50E-01
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
3 - 15
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:37
step
3156
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:37
step
3156
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
-1.500
-2.000
Linear Profile
Y-axis :
YY-stress
X-axis :
Distance
From ( 0.00E+00, 0.00E+00)
To ( 1.00E+01, 0.00E+00)
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
10
3 - 16
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
08
LEGEND
23-Apr-04 15:37
step
3156
Failure Surface Plot
Major Prin. Stress vs.
Minor Prin. Stress
Zone Stress States
Mohr-Coulomb Fail. Surf.
Friction = 3.0000E+01
Cohesion = 3.4500E+06
Tension = 0.0000E+00
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
(10
06
3.5 Reference
Salencon, J. Contraction Quasi-Statique Dune Cavit a Symtrie Sphrique Ou Cylindrique Dans
Un Milieu Elastoplastique, Annales Des Ponts Et Chausses, 4, 231-236 (1969).
3 - 17
3 - 18
Verification Problems
kp=(1.0+sin(fi))/(1.0-sin(fi))
kps=(1.0+sin(dil))/(1.0-sin(dil))
q=2*s*cos(fi)/(1.0-sin(fi))
rp=rmin*(2.0/(kp+1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))/(p1+q/(kp-1.0)))(1.0/(kp-1))
sre=(2.0*p0-q)/(kp+1.0)
end
;
parm
;
;*********** calculate the theoretical results **************
; the theoretical results are stored in the following arrays
; tangential stress .......... EX 1
; radial stress .............. EX 2
; x displacements ............ EX 3
; y displacements ............ EX 4
; displacements magnitude .... EX 5
;
def theor
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
xc=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
yc=.25*(y(i,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)+y(i+1,j))
rz=sqrt(xc2+yc2)
if rz<=rp then
ex 1(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-kp*(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
ex 2(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
else
if rz=0.0 then
ex 1(i,j) = 0
ex 2(i,j) = 0
else
ex 1(i,j)=-p0-(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
ex 2(i,j)=-p0+(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
end if
end if
end loop
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)
if ro#0 then
if ro<=rp then
d1=(2.0*nu-1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))
d2a=(1.0-nu)*(kp2-1.0)/(kp+kps)
d2b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rp/rmin)(kp-1.0)*(rp/ro)(kps+1.0)
d3a=(1.0-nu)*(kp*kps+1.0)/(kp+kps)-nu
3 - 19
d3b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(ro/rmin)(kp-1.0)
dd=ro*(d1+d2a*d2b+d3a*d3b)/(2.0*sm)
else
dd=(p0-sre)*rp/(2.0*sm)*(rp/ro)
end if
ex 3(i,j)=-dd*x(i,j)/ro
ex 4(i,j)=-dd*y(i,j)/ro
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end if
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
ex 6(i,j)=100*(stm-ex 1(i,j))/p0
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
srm=temp1+temp2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(srm-ex 2(i,j))/p0
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
3 - 20
Verification Problems
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
if ex 5(1,1)#0 then
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
else
ex 8(i,j)=0.0
end if
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;************** compare results in tables ****************
def tabm
; The theoretical and numerical results are stored in terms of
; normalized radius in the following tables:
; table 10: tangential stress
theoretical
; table 11: tangential stress
numerical
; table 20: radial
stress
theoretical
; table 21: radial
stress
numerical
; table 30: radial displacement theoretical
; table 31: radial displacement numerical
loop i(1,izones)
j = 1
xc=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
yc=.25*(y(i,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)+y(i+1,j))
rz=sqrt(xc2+yc2)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
srm=temp1+temp2
xtable(10,i) = rz
ytable(10,i) = -ex 1(i,1)/p0
xtable(11,i) = rz
ytable(11,i) = -stm/p0
xtable(20,i) = rz
ytable(20,i) = -ex 2(i,1)/p0
xtable(21,i) = rz
ytable(21,i) = -srm/p0
end loop
3 - 21
loop i (1,igp)
j = 1
rg = sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)/rmin
temp1=sqrt(xdisp(i,j)2+ydisp(i,j)2)/rmin
xtable(30,i) = rg
ytable(30,i) = -ex 5(i,j) / rmin
xtable(31,i) = rg
ytable(31,i) = temp1
end loop
end
tabm
;****************** create plots *******************************
scline 1 1 .1 10 .1
scline 2 1 1 15 15
save m3a v.sav
;*** Branch: Plane strain-non ****
new
;... State: m3a-non.sav ....
; title
; HOLE IN MOHR-COULOMB MEDIUM (ASSOCIATED FLOW)
config extra=8
g 30 30
mo mo
call hole.fis
;
set rmin=1 rmul=10 gratio=1.1
hole
prop shear=2.8e9 bulk=3.9e9 dens=2500 coh=3.45e6 fric=30 ten=1e10
prop dil 0.0
; non-associated flow
;prop dil 30.0
; associated flow
ini sxx=-30e6 syy=-30e6 szz=-30e6
fix y j 1
fix x j 31
app sxx=-30e6 syy=-30e6 i 31
hist unbal
hist xd i 1 j 1
hist xv i 1 j 1
hist sxx i 1 j 1
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist szz i 1 j 1
solve
save m3a-non.sav
;... State: m3a-non v.sav ....
3 - 22
Verification Problems
; rest m3aa.sav
;****************** define the constants *********************
def parm
p0=30e6
p1=0.0
rmin=1.0
s=cohesion(1,1)
fi=friction(1,1)*degrad
dil=dilation(1,1)*degrad
bm=bulk mod(1,1)
sm=shear mod(1,1)
nu=(3.0*bm-2.0*sm)/(6.0*bm+2.0*sm)
kp=(1.0+sin(fi))/(1.0-sin(fi))
kps=(1.0+sin(dil))/(1.0-sin(dil))
q=2*s*cos(fi)/(1.0-sin(fi))
rp=rmin*(2.0/(kp+1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))/(p1+q/(kp-1.0)))(1.0/(kp-1))
sre=(2.0*p0-q)/(kp+1.0)
end
;
parm
;
;*********** calculate the theoretical results **************
; the theoretical results are stored in the following arrays
; tangential stress .......... EX 1
; radial stress .............. EX 2
; x displacements ............ EX 3
; y displacements ............ EX 4
; displacements magnitude .... EX 5
;
def theor
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
xc=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
yc=.25*(y(i,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)+y(i+1,j))
rz=sqrt(xc2+yc2)
if rz<=rp then
ex 1(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-kp*(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
ex 2(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
else
if rz=0.0 then
ex 1(i,j) = 0
ex 2(i,j) = 0
else
ex 1(i,j)=-p0-(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
ex 2(i,j)=-p0+(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
end if
3 - 23
end if
end loop
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)
if ro#0 then
if ro<=rp then
d1=(2.0*nu-1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))
d2a=(1.0-nu)*(kp2-1.0)/(kp+kps)
d2b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rp/rmin)(kp-1.0)*(rp/ro)(kps+1.0)
d3a=(1.0-nu)*(kp*kps+1.0)/(kp+kps)-nu
d3b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(ro/rmin)(kp-1.0)
dd=ro*(d1+d2a*d2b+d3a*d3b)/(2.0*sm)
else
dd=(p0-sre)*rp/(2.0*sm)*(rp/ro)
end if
ex 3(i,j)=-dd*x(i,j)/ro
ex 4(i,j)=-dd*y(i,j)/ro
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end if
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
ex 6(i,j)=100*(stm-ex 1(i,j))/p0
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
srm=temp1+temp2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(srm-ex 2(i,j))/p0
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
3 - 24
Verification Problems
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
if ex 5(1,1)#0 then
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
else
ex 8(i,j)=0.0
end if
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;************** compare results in tables ****************
def tabm
; The theoretical and numerical results are stored in terms of
; normalized radius in the following tables:
; table 10: tangential stress
theoretical
; table 11: tangential stress
numerical
; table 20: radial
stress
theoretical
; table 21: radial
stress
numerical
; table 30: radial displacement theoretical
; table 31: radial displacement numerical
loop i(1,izones)
j = 1
xc=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
yc=.25*(y(i,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)+y(i+1,j))
rz=sqrt(xc2+yc2)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
3 - 25
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
srm=temp1+temp2
xtable(10,i) = rz
ytable(10,i) = -ex 1(i,1)/p0
xtable(11,i) = rz
ytable(11,i) = -stm/p0
xtable(20,i) = rz
ytable(20,i) = -ex 2(i,1)/p0
xtable(21,i) = rz
ytable(21,i) = -srm/p0
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
j = 1
rg = sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)/rmin
temp1=sqrt(xdisp(i,j)2+ydisp(i,j)2)/rmin
xtable(30,i) = rg
ytable(30,i) = -ex 5(i,j) / rmin
xtable(31,i) = rg
ytable(31,i) = temp1
end loop
end
tabm
;****************** create plots *******************************
scline 1 1 .1 10 .1
scline 2 1 1 15 15
save m3a-non v.sav
;*** Branch: axisymmetric ****
new
;... State: m3b.sav ....
; title
; HOLE IN MOHR-COULOMB MEDIUM (AXISYMMETRY, ASSOCIATED FLOW RULE)
config ax extra=8
g 31 2
mo mo
gen 1 0 1 1 10 1 10 0 rat 1.1 1
prop shear=2.8e9 bulk=3.9e9 dens=2500 coh=3.45e6 fric=30 ten=6e6
;prop dil 0.0
; non-associated flow
prop dil 30.0 ; associated flow
ini sxx=-30e6 syy=-30e6 szz=-30e6
fix y j 1
fix y j 3
app press 30e6 i 32
hist unbal
3 - 26
Verification Problems
hist xd i 1 j 1
hist xv i 1 j 1
hist sxx i 1 j 1
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist sig1 i 1 j 1
hist sig2 i 1 j 1
hist szz i 1 j 1
solve
save m3b.sav
;... State: m3b v.sav ....
; rest m3bb.sav
;****************** define the constants *********************
def parm
p0=30e6
p1=0.0
rmin=1.0
s=cohesion(1,1)
fi=friction(1,1)*degrad
dil=dilation(1,1)*degrad
bm=bulk mod(1,1)
sm=shear mod(1,1)
nu=(3.0*bm-2.0*sm)/(6.0*bm+2.0*sm)
kp=(1.0+sin(fi))/(1.0-sin(fi))
kps=(1.0+sin(dil))/(1.0-sin(dil))
q=2*s*cos(fi)/(1.0-sin(fi))
rp=rmin*(2.0/(kp+1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))/(p1+q/(kp-1.0)))(1.0/(kp-1))
sre=(2.0*p0-q)/(kp+1.0)
end
;
parm
;
;*********** calculate the theoretical results **************
; the theoretical results are stored in the following arrays
; tangential stress .......... EX 1
; radial stress .............. EX 2
; x displacements ............ EX 3
; y displacements ............ EX 4
; displacements magnitude .... EX 5
;
def theor
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
rz=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
if rz<=rp then
ex 1(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-kp*(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
3 - 27
ex 2(i,j)=q/(kp-1)-(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rz/rmin)(kp-1.0)
else
ex 1(i,j)=-p0-(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
ex 2(i,j)=-p0+(p0-sre)*(rp/rz)2
end if
end loop
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=x(i,j)
if ro<=rp then
d1=(2.0*nu-1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))
d2a=(1.0-nu)*(kp2-1.0)/(kp+kps)
d2b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rp/rmin)(kp-1.0)*(rp/ro)(kps+1.0)
d3a=(1.0-nu)*(kp*kps+1.0)/(kp+kps)-nu
d3b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(ro/rmin)(kp-1.0)
dd=ro*(d1+d2a*d2b+d3a*d3b)/(2.0*sm)
else
dd=(p0-sre)*rp/(2.0*sm)*(rp/ro)
end if
ex 3(i,j)=-dd
ex 4(i,j)=0.0
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 6(i,j)=100*(szz(i,j)-ex 1(i,j))/p0
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(sxx(i,j)-ex 2(i,j))/p0
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
3 - 28
Verification Problems
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
if ex 8(i,j)#0.0 then
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
else
ex 8(i,j)=temp3
end if
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;************** compare results in tables ****************
def tabm
; The theoretical and numerical results are stored in terms of
; normalized radius in the following tables:
; table 10: tangential stress
theoretical
; table 11: tangential stress
numerical
; table 20: radial
stress
theoretical
; table 21: radial
stress
numerical
; table 30: radial displacement theoretical
; table 31: radial displacement numerical
loop i(1,izones)
j = 1
rz=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
xtable(10,i) = rz
ytable(10,i) = -ex 1(i,1)/p0
xtable(11,i) = rz
ytable(11,i) = -szz(i,j)/p0
xtable(20,i) = rz
3 - 29
3 - 30
Verification Problems
3 - 31
ro=x(i,j)
if ro<=rp then
d1=(2.0*nu-1.0)*(p0+q/(kp-1.0))
d2a=(1.0-nu)*(kp2-1.0)/(kp+kps)
d2b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(rp/rmin)(kp-1.0)*(rp/ro)(kps+1.0)
d3a=(1.0-nu)*(kp*kps+1.0)/(kp+kps)-nu
d3b=(p1+q/(kp-1.0))*(ro/rmin)(kp-1.0)
dd=ro*(d1+d2a*d2b+d3a*d3b)/(2.0*sm)
else
dd=(p0-sre)*rp/(2.0*sm)*(rp/ro)
end if
ex 3(i,j)=-dd
ex 4(i,j)=0.0
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 6(i,j)=100*(szz(i,j)-ex 1(i,j))/p0
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(sxx(i,j)-ex 2(i,j))/p0
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
3 - 32
Verification Problems
;
average ;
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
if ex 8(i,j)#0.0 then
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
else
ex 8(i,j)=temp3
end if
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;************** compare results in tables ****************
def tabm
; The theoretical and numerical results are stored in terms of
; normalized radius in the following tables:
; table 10: tangential stress
theoretical
; table 11: tangential stress
numerical
; table 20: radial
stress
theoretical
; table 21: radial
stress
numerical
; table 30: radial displacement theoretical
; table 31: radial displacement numerical
loop i(1,izones)
j = 1
rz=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
xtable(10,i) = rz
ytable(10,i) = -ex 1(i,1)/p0
xtable(11,i) = rz
ytable(11,i) = -szz(i,j)/p0
xtable(20,i) = rz
ytable(20,i) = -ex 2(i,1)/p0
xtable(21,i) = rz
ytable(21,i) = -sxx(i,j)/p0
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
j = 1
rg = sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)/rmin
temp1=sqrt(xdisp(i,j)2+ydisp(i,j)2)/rmin
xtable(30,i) = rg
3 - 33
3 - 34
Verification Problems
4-1
2.20 GPa
3.667 GPa
2000 kg/m3
1.7
0.0039
0.5
30 MPa
o
s
+ 2 = 0.590
mb ci
mb
(4.1)
Pi =
pi
s
+ 2 = 0.099
mb ci
mb
(4.2)
The scaled critical internal pressure, Picr , at which the elastic limit of the stress state is reached, is
calculated as
4-2
Verification Problems
Picr =
2
1
= 0.311
1 1 + 16So
16
(4.3)
s
2 mb ci = 15.8 MPa
mb
(4.4)
A plastic region develops uniformly around the hole because pi < picr . The extent of the failure
zone is
bpl
cr
= b exp 2
Pi Pi
= 1.62b = 3.2 m
(4.5)
The solution for the radial stress, r , and tangential stress, , in the plastic region, r bpl , is as
follows:
2
r
1
cr
Sr (r) =
Pi + ln
2
bpl
S (r) = Sr (r) +
Sr (r)
(4.6)
(4.7)
s
r (r) = Sr (r) 2 mb ci
mb
(4.8)
s
(r) = S (r) 2 mb ci
mb
(4.9)
The solution for the stress state in the elastic region, r > bpl , is:
r (r) =
o (o picr )
(r) =
o + (o picr )
bpl
r
bpl
r
2
(4.10)
2
(4.11)
4-3
For the case of non-associated flow with zero dilation, the radial displacement in the plastic region
is
A1
picr bpl A1 + 1 r
D
r
ur 2G
= 1
+
cr
3
b o
b A1 1 bpl
bpl
ci
2(So Pi )(1 A1 )
A1
2
2
C
r
r
r
+
ln
cr
A1 1 bpl
4(So Pi )(1 A1 ) bpl
bpl
r
r
D
1
(1 A1 ) ln
+
cr
3
bpl
2(So Pi )(1 A1 ) bpl
(4.12)
where A1 = K ;
A2
A3
C
D
= 1 K ;
= (1 )K ;
= A2 A3 ;
= A2 2(1 A1 ) Picr 1 A3 2(1 A1 ) Picr A1 ; and
K =
1+sin
1sin .
4-4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1E 1
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
Y Y-direction
Net Applied Forces
max vector = 3.141E+07
0
1E 8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
Y
Y
Y
YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
YYY
0.000
Figure 4.1
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
6-May-04 16:03
step
5910
-6.373E+00 <x< 4.637E+01
-6.373E+00 <y< 4.637E+01
3.000
Grid plot
0
1E 1
2.000
1.000
0.000
Figure 4.2
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
4-5
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4 shows the radial and tangential stresses calculated by FLAC, compared to the analytical
solution for r , and . Figure 4.5 compares radial displacement, ur . The agreement is very good
in both comparisons.
A plot of the Hoek-Brown failure envelope is shown in Figure 4.6. Zone stresses are shown on this
plot and indicate the extent of the failed zone. Figure 4.7 displays the zone plasticity indicators,
which also indicate the extent of the failure region. This corresponds to the analytical solution of
3.2 m (Eq. (4.5)).
4-6
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
sigT/sigci (FLAC)
sigR/sigci (FLAC)
1.000
sigT/sigci (anal)
sigR/sigci (anal)
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
Figure 4.4
JOB TITLE : .
6-May-04 16:03
step
5910
0.900
Table Plot
ur/R [%] (FLAC)
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
Figure 4.5
4-7
JOB TITLE : .
07
LEGEND
4.000
6-May-04 16:03
step
5910
Failure Surface Plot
Major Prin. Stress vs.
Minor Prin. Stress
Zone Stress States
Hoek-Brown Failure Surf.
s = 3.9000E-03
UCS = 3.0000E+07
m = 1.7000E+00
Tension = 0.0000E+00
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
(10
06
Figure 4.6
JOB TITLE : .
5.000
LEGEND
4.000
6-May-04 16:03
step
5910
-1.475E+00 <x< 5.769E+00
-1.791E+00 <y< 5.453E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
2E 0
2.000
Plasticity Indicator
shear-p
shear-n shear-p
1.000
0.000
-1.000
Figure 4.7
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
4-8
Verification Problems
4.5 References
Carranza-Torres, C., and C. Fairhurst. The Elasto-plastic Response of Underground Excavations
in Rock Masses that Satisfy the Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 36,
777-809 (1999).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Empirical Strength Criterion for Rock Masses, J. Geotech. Engng.
Div. ASCE, 106, 1013-1035 (1980).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM, 1982.
Hoek E., and E. T. Brown. The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion A 1988 Update, in Rock
Engineering For Underground Excavations (Proceedings of the 15th Canadian Rock Mechanics
Symposium, October 1988), pp. 31-38. Toronto: University of Toronto, Department of Civil
Engineering, 1988.
4-9
4 - 10
label table 20
sigT/sigci (FLAC)
label table 12
ur/R [label table 22
ur/R [plot hold table 21 cross 20 cross 11 line 10 line
;plot name: radial displacment
label table 22
ur/R [label table 12
ur/R [plot hold table 22 cross 12 line
;plot name: fail Hoek
set hbm 1.7 hbs 0.0039 ucs 3.0E7
plot hold fail hoek principal
;plot name: plasticity plot
plot hold plasticity bound
Verification Problems
4 - 11
4 - 12
Verification Problems
4 - 13
sigR = smin
rad = sqrt( xcoord* xcoord+ ycoord* ycoord)
if rad <= rad max
xtable(20, counter) = rad/ radius tunnel
ytable(20, counter) = - sigR/ sigci
xtable(21, counter) = rad/ radius tunnel
ytable(21, counter) = - sigT/ sigci
counter = counter + 1
end if
end loop
;
; Displacements
counter = 1
loop i (1,igp)
xcoord = x(i, jh)
ycoord = y(i, jh)
ux = xdisp(i, jh)
uy = ydisp(i, jh)
ur = sqrt( ux* ux+ uy* uy)
rad = sqrt( xcoord* xcoord+ ycoord* ycoord)
if rad <= rad max
xtable(22, counter) = rad/ radius tunnel
ytable(22, counter) = ur/ radius tunnel*100
counter = counter + 1
end if
end loop
END
;
def hb solution
compute analytical solution
extract flac results
end
4 - 14
Verification Problems
5-1
2500 kg/m3
2.9 GPa
3.9 GPa
The cavity has a radius of 1 m. The in-situ stress state is -30 MPa (tension positive).
5.2 Closed-Form Solution
The radial displacement around a spherical cavity in an infinite elastic body under an isotropic stress
field is given by Goodman (1980, p. 220):
Po a 3
ur = 2
4r G
(5.1)
where Po is the external pressure, a is the spherical hole radius, and G is the shear modulus of the
body.
Timoshenko and Goodier (1970, p. 395) provide a solution for the stress field in a hollow spherical
container subjected to internal and external pressure:
r =
Pi a 3 (b3 r 3 )
Po b3 (r 3 a 3 )
+
r 3 (a 3 b3 )
r 3 (a 3 b3 )
Po
2r 3 (a 3 b3 )
b3 (2r 3
+ a3)
(5.2)
Pi
2r 3 (a 3 b3 )
a 3 (2r 3
+ b3 )
where Pi is the internal pressure, and b is the outside radius of the container.
5-2
Verification Problems
The solution to the problem of a spherical cavity in an infinite medium is determined by setting
Pi = 0 and finding the limit as b approaches infinity. Normalizing with the in-situ stress value
(Po ), the final solution is:
r
r 3 a3
=
Po
r3
=
Po
a3
(5.3)
+ 2r 3
2r 3
Line of Symmetry
Figure 5.1 shows the model used for the FLAC analysis. The model grid is identical to that used
for the model of the cylindrical hole in Section 1. The FISH function HOLE.FIS is again used to
generate the grid (see the FISH Library in Section 3 in the FISH volume). By specifying CONFIG
ax (i.e., stipulating axisymmetric geometry) with this grid, the model represents a spherical top-half
section of the cavity. The grid is shown in Figures 5.2 and 5.3. The in-situ stress state is applied to
the model first; then the cavity is made.
Po
Po
Figure 5.1
5-3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 14:51
step
1959
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.2
JOB TITLE : .
18-Mar-04 14:25
step
1959
-2.500E-01 <x< 2.000E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 2.000E+00
1.200
Grid plot
0
5E -1
0.800
0.400
0.000
Figure 5.3
0.400
0.800
1.200
1.600
5-4
Verification Problems
1.400
Table Plot
radial stress (FLAC)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
Figure 5.4
5-5
-03
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 14:51
step
1959
2.500
Table Plot
radial disp. (FLAC)
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
Figure 5.5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 14:51
step
1959
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 6 Contours
-2.50E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.50E+00
-1.00E+00
-5.00E-01
0.00E+00
5.00E-01
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.6
5-6
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 14:51
step
1959
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 7 Contours
-5.00E-01
0.00E+00
5.00E-01
1.00E+00
1.50E+00
2.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 14:51
step
1959
-1.667E+00 <x< 1.167E+01
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
EX_ 8 Contours
-7.00E+00
-6.00E+00
-5.00E+00
-4.00E+00
-3.00E+00
-2.00E+00
-1.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.400
0.200
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
(*10^1)
Figure 5.8
1.000
5-7
5.5 References
Goodman, R. E. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
Timoshenko, S. P., and J. N. Goodier. Theory of Elasticity. New York: McGraw Hill, 1970.
5-8
Verification Problems
5-9
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
xc=.25*(x(i,j)+x(i,j+1)+x(i+1,j+1)+x(i+1,j))
yc=.25*(y(i,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1)+y(i+1,j))
rz=sqrt(xc2+yc2)
if rz#0 then
ex 1(i,j)=-((rmin3)+(2*(rz3)))*p0/(2*(rz3))
ex 2(i,j)=-((rz3)-(rmin3))*p0/(rz3)
else
ex 1(i,j)=0
ex 2(i,j)=0
end if
end loop
end loop
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
ro=sqrt(x(i,j)2+y(i,j)2)
if ro#0 then
dd = (p0*(rmin3))/(4*(ro2)*sm)
ex 3(i,j)=-dd*x(i,j)/ro
ex 4(i,j)=-dd*y(i,j)/ro
ex 5(i,j)=-dd
end if
end loop
end loop
end
;
theor
;
;************** evaluate the error in stresses **********************
; the errors in stress calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following arrays:
;
;
; the total average errors are calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
average ;
def evals
ert=0
err=0
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
temp1=.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j)2+.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j))2)
stm=temp1-temp2
ex 6(i,j)=100*(stm-ex 1(i,j))/p0
ert=ert+ex 6(i,j)2
srm=temp1+temp2
ex 7(i,j)=100*(srm-ex 2(i,j))/p0
5 - 10
Verification Problems
err=err+ex 7(i,j)2
end loop
end loop
ert=sqrt(ert/(izones*jzones))
err=sqrt(err/(izones*jzones))
end
;
evals
;
;************** evaluate the error in displacements ****************
; the errors in displacement calculations are evaluated
; for each zone and are stored in the following array:
;
; the total average error is calculated and stored in:
;
average ;
def evald
erd=0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
temp3=100*sqrt((xdisp(i,j)-ex 3(i,j))2+(ydisp(i,j)-ex 4(i,j))2)
if ex 5(1,1)#0 then
ex 8(i,j)=temp3/ex 5(1,1)
else
ex 8(i,j)=0.0
end if
erd=erd+ex 8(i,j)
end loop
end loop
erd=erd/(igp*jgp)
end
;
evald
;
;****************** create plots *******************************
scline 1 1 .1 10 .1
scline 2 1 1 15 15
ca tabm5.fis
save m5 v.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid blue
;plot name: Stress comparison
label table 10
tangential stress (anal)
label table 11
tangential stress (FLAC)
5 - 11
label table 20
radial stress (anal)
label table 21
radial stress (FLAC)
plot hold table 21 cross 20 line 11 cross 10 line
;plot name: Displacement comparison
label table 30
radial disp. (anal)
label table 31
radial disp. (FLAC)
plot hold table 31 cross 30 line label 30 red label 31 red
;plot name: Error distribution for tangential stress
plot hold bound ex 6 zone fill
;plot name: Error distribution for radial stress
plot hold bound ex 7 zone fill
;plot name: Error distributions for radial displacement
plot hold bound ex 8 fill
5 - 12
Verification Problems
6-1
1000 kg/m3
100 MPa
200 MPa
100 kPa
0
0
The circular footing is smooth and is located on a cohesive and frictional soil (an associated MohrCoulomb material) with the following properties:
density ()
shear modulus (G)
bulk modulus (K)
cohesion (c)
friction angle ()
dilation angle ()
2500 kg/m3
100 MPa
200 MPa
100 kPa
20
20
Note that the mass density is not required by the analytical solution, but some value must be provided
in FLAC. The solution is independent of the choice of density.
6-2
Verification Problems
q = 5.14c
(6.1)
where c is the cohesion of the material, and q is the bearing capacity stress at failure. The solution
is based on the mode of failure, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Collapse Load
Figure 6.1
Circular-Footing Problem Cox et al. (1961) have numerically solved the slip-line equations for
an axisymmetrical-footing problem. The semi-analytical value of the average pressure over the
footing at failure for a friction angle of 20 is found to be
q = 20.1c
(6.2)
where q and c are as defined in Eq. (6.1). The corresponding slip-line net, as referenced in Chen
(1975), is sketched in Figure 6.2.
6-3
q=20.1c
c
d
Figure 6.2
6-4
Verification Problems
Applied
Velocity
Footing
Figure 6.3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-Mar-04 15:22
step
5000
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
5E 0
0.400
0.000
-0.400
Figure 6.4
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
6-5
A downward velocity was applied to the area representing the footing. The value of the velocity
applied to the footing area was 2.5 105 m/step for both analyses. This value is sufficiently small
to minimize any inertial effects.
A rough strip footing was simulated by fixing the x-velocity to zero for the gridpoints representing
the footing. A smooth circular footing was simulated by leaving these gridpoints free to move in
the x-direction.
6.4 Results and Discussion
Strip-Footing Problem Figures 6.5 through 6.7 show the model conditions at the end of the
analysis for the strip-footing problem. The behavior shown is very close to that expected from
Figure 6.1. Figure 6.8 shows a history of the bearing capacity* versus vertical displacement of the
footing.
The final value of the bearing capacity for the strip footing was 514.6 kPa, giving an error of 0.082%
when compared to the expected value of 514.2 kPa.
Note that the error in the bearing capacity is related to the indeterminacy in the apparent width
of the footing. The mechanism illustrated in Figure 6.1 implies a velocity singularity at the ends
of the footing. In a numerical simulation, this singularity is spread over the width of one zone.
The apparent position of the velocity jump within that zone depends on the exact geometry of the
velocity field that develops. In deriving q, it is assumed that the jump occurs half a zone width
from the end of the controlled boundary segment (as indicated by Eq. (6.3)).
* When a velocity is applied to gridpoints to simulate a footing load, the bearing area is found by
assuming that the velocity varies linearly from the value at the last applied gridpoint, to zero at the
next gridpoint. The half-width area is then
A = 0.5(xl + xl+1 )
(6.3)
where xl is the x-location of the last applied gridpoint velocity, and xl+1 is the x-location of the
gridpoint adjacent to xl .
6-6
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-Mar-04 15:22
step
5000
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
X-velocity contours
2.50E-06
5.00E-06
7.50E-06
1.00E-05
1.25E-05
1.50E-05
1.75E-05
2.00E-05
0.400
0.000
Figure 6.5
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-Mar-04 15:22
step
5000
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.250E-01
0.400
2E -1
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 1.00E-02
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 7.00E-02
0.000
-0.400
Figure 6.6
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
6-7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
18-Mar-04 15:22
step
5000
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.400
0.000
-0.400
Figure 6.7
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
05
LEGEND
5.000
18-Mar-04 15:22
step
5000
4.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
4.000
sol
(FISH)
3.500
X-axis :
disp
(FISH)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
10
12
(10
-02
Figure 6.8
6-8
Verification Problems
Circular-Footing Problem The load-displacement curve for the circular-footing problem is shown
in Figure 6.9. The FISH function n pres is used to calculate the footing pressure from the FLAC
analysis. The footing pressure, qf lac , is found using the following expression:
qf lac =
(y)
where fi
ri
R
(y)
fi ri
R2
(6.4)
For gridpoints not on the axis of symmetry, the associated radius is the radial distance to each
gridpoint that has an applied velocity. At gridpoint (i = 1, j = 11), the associated radius is 0.25 times
the radius to gridpoint (i = 2, j = 11). This scaling factor applies to gridpoints located on the axis
of symmetry, provided the distances to all gridpoints at i = 2 are the same. The effective radius of
the footing is the radius to the point midway between the last gridpoint with an applied velocity (i
= 5, j = 11) and the adjacent gridpoint (i = 6, j = 11).
The value for qf lac at steady state is 2020 kPa, and the relative error is 0.50% when compared to
the analytical value of 2010 kPa.
Velocity contours and displacement vectors at the end of the run are presented in Figure 6.10,
showing a good agreement with the mechanism in Figure 6.2.
JOB TITLE : CIRCULAR SLAB ON MOHR-COULOMB MATERIAL
06
LEGEND
2.000
18-Mar-04 15:04
step 10000
1.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
n_pres
(FISH)
a_pres
1.600
1.400
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 11)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
12
16
20
24
(10
-02
Figure 6.9
6-9
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
1.000
18-Mar-04 15:04
step 10000
-8.333E-01 <x< 1.583E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 1.333E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.600
Displacement vectors
max vector = 7.491E-01
0
0.400
2E 0
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 5.00E-02
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 4.00E-01
0.200
0.000
-0.200
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
6.5 References
Cox, A. D., G. Eason and H. G. Hopkins. Axially Symmetric Plastic Deformation in Soils, Trans.
R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 254:1 (1961).
Chen, W.-F. Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, in Developments in Geotechnical Engineering
7. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1975.
Sloan, S. W., and M. F. Randolph. Numerical Prediction of Collapse Loads Using Finite Element
Methods, Int. J. Num. & Analy. Methods in Geomech., 6, 47-76 (1982).
Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd Ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1967.
6 - 10
Verification Problems
6 - 11
6 - 12
Verification Problems
7-1
2000 kg/m3
70 MPa
100 MPa
2 kPa
40
0
1 GPa/m
1 GPa/m
1 kPa
30
0
The calculations are performed under plane-strain conditions, so the test sample is equivalent to
a long pillar. It is also assumed that the rock matrix and the joints have elastic-perfectly plastic
behavior, with no strain-softening.
7-2
Verification Problems
2 (cj + |3 | tan j )
(1 tan j tan ) sin 2
(7.1)
where is the angle formed by 1 and the joint (see Figure 7.1).
1
10
1
5
Figure 7.1
Problem geometry
For those combinations of cj , j , 3 and for which Eq. (7.1) is not satisfied, slip in the joint
cannot occur, and the only alternative is the failure of the rock matrix which, according to the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, will occur for
1 = N 3 2c N
where
N =
1+sin
1sin ;
(7.2)
7-3
In the uniaxial compression test, 3 = 0, so Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2) can be rewritten as
1 =
2 cj
(1 tan j tan ) sin 2
(7.3)
and
1 = 2c N
(7.4)
The maximum pressure for a uniaxial compressive test (c ) of a jointed sample will then be
c =
min{2c N , (1 tan
2cN
2cj
j tan ) sin 2 }
(7.5)
7-4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 15:59
step 57000
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
Figure 7.2
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
Interface model When the interface logic is used, a different approach must be followed. In
this case, the joint is explicitly modeled, which requires that a different grid be generated for each
value of . The input file for each value of is JROCKB.DAT (see Section 7.7). The mesh is
now created using two GENERATE commands, keeping a strip of null zones (j = 6) between the
two sides of the joint. In order to make the grid generation a parametric process, the coordinates
of the corners and the ranges of the GENERATE commands are calculated by FISH. As shown in
Figure 7.3, the order in which the corners are numbered depends on . When tan < 0.5, the joint
will intersect the top and the bottom of the sample; the numbers used in the GENERATE commands
appear in Figure 7.3(a). For tan > 0.5, the joint will intersect the sides of the sample; the numbers
used appear in Figure 7.3(b). Figure 7.4 shows the grid obtained using this method for = 45 .
The MODEL null command will not reset the stresses in the interface for this case, so a NEW
command must be issued after each analysis. The NEW command will reset the histories and the
FISH functions, so each case must be saved in a separate file. In order to make the interpretation of
the results simple, the values of beta and sigmav for each case are written to a file M7RES.BIN
using FISH I/O routines (see Section 2.8.4 in the FISH volume), and retrieved at the completion
of all cases.
For each value of , the file JROCK.DAT calls the file JROCKB.DAT, sets the appropriate value
of , calls hsol, saves the results, and issues a NEW command. hsol performs 8000 calculational
steps to reach the failure state in both the solid material and on the interface, and then executes a
SOLVE command to ensure that steady-state flow is obtained. On completion of all of the cases, the
values from the file JROCKRES.BIN are written to tables for comparison of results.
7-5
2
4
3
Figure 7.3
(a)
(b)
Corner numbers for the interface model: (a) for tan < 0.5; (b)
for tan > 0.5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:02
step
8028
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
0.400
0.200
0.000
Figure 7.4
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
7-6
Verification Problems
A record of numerical data can also be written in ASCII form to the file FLAC.HIS by issuing
the command
hist write 2 3 vs 4 begin 3000 skip 30
The match is excellent, with the error below 1% for all values of .
JOB TITLE : COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF A JOINTED SAMPLE (UBI)
03
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 15:59
step 57000
8.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sigmav
(FISH)
7.000
anal
(FISH)
X-axis :
beta
(FISH)
6.000
5.000
4.000
9
(10
01
Figure 7.5
7-7
Figure 7.6 presents the results obtained using the interface model. Three different modes of failure
are observed:
1. No slip ( = 0 , 5 , and from 55 to 90 ) This mode involves plastic failure
of the rock matrix and no slip in the interface. In this case, results closely
match those predicted by Eq. (7.4), with a maximum error of less than 0.5%.
2. Slip at tan > 0.5 ( = 30 to 50 ) Figure 7.7 shows the deformed sample
for = 50 using a magnification factor of 200. The stress-strain curve for this
value of appears in Figure 7.8. The compressive strength oscillates about
the value predicted from Eq. (7.5). (Note that this oscillation can be reduced
by decreasing the magnitude of the applied velocity.) No failure of the rock
matrix is involved in this mode.
3. Slip at tan < 0.5( = 10 to 25 ) For these values of , the interface
touches the platens, and both slipping and rock matrix failure occur, as shown
in Figures 7.9 and 7.10 for = 20 . The compressive strength obtained for this
range of lies between that predicted by Eqs. (7.3) and (7.4) (see Figure 7.11).
While the ubiquitous-joint model precisely reproduces the analytical model, the interface model
appears to produce a more representative behavior for the applied test conditions.
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:04
step
8002
8.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
9
(10
01
Figure 7.6
7-8
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:03
step
8002
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.200
0.000
Figure 7.7
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
03
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:03
step
8002
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sigmav
(FISH)
5.000
anal
(FISH)
4.000
X-axis :
ve
(FISH)
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
(10
Figure 7.8
-05
7-9
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:01
step
8002
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
0.200
0.000
Figure 7.9
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:01
step
8002
-4.167E+00 <x< 9.167E+00
-1.667E+00 <y< 1.167E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
0.600
2E 0
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.400
0.200
0.000
-1.000
1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
7 - 10
Verification Problems
03
LEGEND
18-Mar-04 16:01
step
8002
5.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sigmav
(FISH)
4.000
anal
(FISH)
X-axis :
ve
(FISH)
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
16
(10
-05
7.5 Reference
Jaeger, J. C., and N. G. W. Cook. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 3rd Ed. New York: Chapman
and Hall, 1979.
7 - 11
7 - 12
Verification Problems
jfi=jfriction(1,1)*degrad
sm=2.0*mc*cos(mfi)/(1.0-sin(mfi))
if beta=90*int(beta/90) then
sj=-1
else
divsj=((1.0-tan(jfi)*tan(beta*degrad))*sin(2.0*beta*degrad))
if divsj=0.0 then
sj=-1
else
sj=2.0*jc/divsj
end if
end if
if sj<0 then
anal=sm
else
anal=min(sj,sm)
end if
end
hist nstep 100
hist unbal
hist sigmav
hist anal
hist beta
hist ve
hist yv i 1 j 1
hsol
save jrocka.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 0 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB00 ....
config
;--- Run several cases, and save results in a binary file --def startup ; Initialize the results-file with a zero
array zero(1)
stat
= open(jrockres.bin,1,0)
zero(1) = 0
stat
= write(zero,1)
stat
= close
end
startup
call jrockb.dat
set beta 00
hsol
save jrockb00.sav
7 - 13
7 - 14
call jrockb.dat
set beta 25
hsol
save jrockb25.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 30 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB30 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 30
hsol
save jrockb30.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 35 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB35 ....
config
ca jrockb.dat
set beta 35
hsol
save jrockb35.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 40 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB40 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 40
hsol
save jrockb40.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 45 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB45 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 45
hsol
save jrockb45.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 50 ****
Verification Problems
7 - 15
new
;... STATE: JROCKB50 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 50
hsol
save jrockb50.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 55 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB55 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 55
hsol
save jrockb55.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 60 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB60 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 60
hsol
save jrockb60.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 65 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB65 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 65
hsol
save jrockb65.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 70 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB70 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 70
7 - 16
Verification Problems
hsol
save jrockb70.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 75 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB75 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 75
hsol
save jrockb75.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 80 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB80 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 80
hsol
save jrockb80.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 85 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB85 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 85
hsol
save jrockb85.sav
;*** BRANCH: INTERFACE - 90 ****
new
;... STATE: JROCKB90 ....
config
call jrockb.dat
set beta 90
hsol
save jrockb90.sav
;... STATE: JROCKBFINAL ....
def put to table ; Put results & analytical solutions in tables
loop n (1,narr)
7 - 17
beta
= beta values(n)
xtable(10,n) = beta
ytable(10,n) = load values(n)
xtable(11,n) = beta
ytable(11,n) = anal
endLoop
end
put to table
save jrockbfinal.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid bound white
;plot name: Uniaxial Strength - UBI
plot hold history 2 line 3 cross begin 3000 skip 30 vs 4
;plot name: Deformed sample
plot hold bound bound magnify 200.0 green
;plot name: Stress-strain
plot hold history 2 line 3 line vs 5
;plot name: Failed zones
plot hold bound plasticity
;plot name: Comparison of uniaxial strength
label table 10
FLAC - interface model
label table 11
analytical solution
plot hold table 11 both 10 both
7 - 18
Verification Problems
7 - 19
anal = sm
else
anal = min(sj,sm)
end if
end
def hsol
i1 = 1
i2 = igp
i3 = 1
i4 = igp
j1 = 1
j2 = jgp / 2
j3 = jgp / 2 + 1
j4 = jgp
if beta = 90.0 then
tb = 1e10
else
tb = tan(beta*degrad)
end if
if tb > 0.5 then
x1 = 0.0
y1 = 0.0
x2 = 0.0
y2 = 5.0 - 2.5 / tb
x3 = 5.0
y3 = 5.0 + 2.5 / tb
x4 = 5.0
y4 = 0.0
x5 = 0.0
y5 = 10.0
x6 = 5.0
y6 = 10.0
fi1 = 1
fi2 = igp
fi3 = 1
fi4 = igp
fj1 = 1
fj2 = 1
fj3 = jgp
fj4 = jgp
else
x1 = 0.0
y1 = 10.0
x2 = 2.5 + 5.0 * tb
y2 = 10.0
x3 = 2.5 - 5.0 * tb
7 - 20
Verification Problems
y3 = 0.0
x4 = 0.0
y4 = 0.0
x5 = 5.0
y5 = 10.0
x6 = 5.0
y6 = 0.0
fi1 = igp
fi2 = igp
fi3 = 1
fi4 = 1
fj1 = 1
fj2 = jgp
fj3 = 1
fj4 = jgp
end if
command
mo mo j 1 5
mo mo j 7 11
gen x1 y1 x2 y2 x3 y3 x4 y4 i i1 i2 j j1 j2
gen x2 y2 x5 y5 x6 y6 x3 y3 i i3 i4 j j3 j4
fix y i fi1 fi2 j fj1 fj2
fix y i fi3 fi4 j fj3 fj4
ini yvel 1e-7 i fi1 fi2 j fj1 fj2
ini yvel -1e-7 i fi3 fi4 j fj3 fj4
pro den 2000 bulk 1e8 she 7e7 fric 40 co 2e3 ten 2400 j 1 5
pro den 2000 bulk 1e8 she 7e7 fric 40 co 2e3 ten 2400 j 7 11
int 1 aside from 1 6 to 11 6 bside from 1 7 to 11 7
int 1 kn 1e9 ks 1e9 fric 30 co 1e3
set ncw=50 st damp comb step=4000
step 8000
solve force=0.5
end command
s1 = string(beta)
s2 = string(sigmav)
s3 = string(anal)
oo = out(beta = +s1+ sigmav = +s2+ anal = +s3)
update the file
end
def sigmav
sum = 0.0
loop i (fi1,fi2)
loop j (fj1,fj2)
sum = sum - yforce(i,j)
end loop
end loop
7 - 21
7 - 22
Verification Problems
8-1
2.5 m
Material Properties
shear modulus (G)
bulk modulus (K)
density ()
2.5 GPa
3.333 GPa
1800 kg/m3
In-Situ Stresses
horizontal stress (xx )
vertical stress (yy )
30 MPa
15 MPa
0.5 m
20 GPa
0.01042 m4
Note that the density is not required by the analytical solution, but some value must be provided in
FLAC. The solution is independent of the choice of density.
This verification problem provides a test of the structural beam element logic in FLAC. The problem
tests the calculation of displacement, axial forces and moments at beam element nodes.
8-2
Verification Problems
2Gu
Po a
2Gv
Po a
N
Po a
M
Po a 2
1
1
= (1 + K)a0 + (1 K)[4(1 )b2 2a2 ] cos 2
2
2
(8.1)
(8.2)
1
1
(1 + K)(1 a0 ) + (1 K)(1 + 2a2 ) cos 2
2
2
1
= (1 K)(1 2a2 + 2b2 ) cos 2
4
(8.3)
C F (1)
C +F +C F (1) ;
a2 = b2 ;
=
(6+F ) C (1) + 2F
3F + 3C + 2C F (1) ;
b2 =
C (1)
2 [C (1) + 4 6 3 C (1)] ;
(8.4)
C =
E r (1s2 )
;
Es A (1 2 )
F =
E r 3 (1s2 )
.
Es I (1 2 )
8-3
and
FLAC structural elements do not require a Poissons ratio to be specified. In order for the planestress analytical solution to comply with the FLAC solution, a plane-strain correction of (1 s2 ) is
applied to the Youngs modulus of the liner.
8.3 FLAC Model
The problem is symmetrical about both the horizontal and vertical axes, allowing a quarter-symmetry
geometry to be used. Figure 8.1 shows the boundary conditions, while Figure 8.2 shows the zoning
of the model. The liner consists of 30 beam elements that are input via the FISH function supp.
The data file for this model is LTUNNEL.DAT (see Section 8.6).
Po
KP o
Structural
Fixed
Rotation
Condition
Figure 8.1
8-4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 10:06
step
2284
-8.333E+00 <x< 5.833E+01
-8.333E+00 <y< 5.833E+01
4.000
Grid plot
0
3.000
2E 1
2.000
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
(*10^1)
Figure 8.2
8-5
8.5 Reference
Einstein, H. H., and C. W. Schwartz. Simplified Analysis for Tunnel Supports, J. Geotech. Engr.
Div., 105(GT4): 499-518 (1979).
JOB TITLE : LINED ELASTIC TUNNEL
0.400
Table Plot
Table 41
0.000
Table 40
Table 31
-0.400
Table 30
-0.800
-1.200
-1.600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 8.3
Comparison of displacements from FLAC (radial: Table 31, tangential: Table 41) to analytical solution (radial: Table 30, tangential: Table 40)
8-6
Verification Problems
0.900
Table Plot
Table 10
0.800
Table 11
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 8.4
-03
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 10:06
step
2284
6.000
4.000
Table Plot
Table 20
Table 21
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 8.5
8-7
JOB TITLE : .
30 29 28
27 26
25
19-Mar-04 10:06
step
2284
-2.500E-01 <x< 3.000E+00
-2.500E-01 <y< 3.000E+00
2.500
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
16
Grid plot
0
2.000
17
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
1E 0
Beam Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
3.579E+07
Beam Plot
Structural Element Numbers
1.500
1.000
8
7
6
5
4
0.500
3
2
1
0.000
Figure 8.6
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.500
8-8
Verification Problems
8-9
br = bulk mod(1,1)
sr = shear mod(1,1)
E = 9.*br*sr/(3.*br+sr)
;6.e9
nu = (3.*br - 2.*sr)*0.5 / (3.*br + sr)
;0.2
Es = 20e9
Ar = 0.5
II = Ar * Ar * Ar / 12.
cs = E * r / (Ar * Es * (1. - nu*nu))
fs = E * r*r*r / (Es * II * (1. - nu*nu))
a0 = cs * fs * (1. - nu) / (cs + fs + cs * fs * (1.-nu))
be = ((6.+fs)*cs*(1.-nu)+2.*fs*nu)/(3.*fs+3.*cs+2.*cs*fs*(1.-nu))
b2 = cs*(1.-nu)*0.5/(cs*(1.-nu)+4.*nu-6.*be-3.*be*cs*(1.-nu))
a2 = be*b2
c1 = 0.5*(1.+bk)*(1.-a0)
c2 = 0.5*(1.-bk)*(1.+2.*a2)
c3 = 0.25*(1.-bk)*(1.-2.*a2+2.*b2)
n0 = p0 * r
m0 = n0 * r
u0 = n0/(2.*sr)
u1 = 0.5*(1.+bk)*a0
u2 = 0.5*(1.-bk)*(4.*(1.-nu)*b2-2.*a2)
v1 = (1.-bk)*(a2+(1.-2.*nu)*b2)
end
cons
; --- Compare numerical and theoretical results --;
the results are stored in the following tables:
;
table 10 y: theoretical normalized axial force
;
x: angle teta of element mid point
;
table 11 y: numerical
normalized axial force
;
x: angle teta of element mid point
;
table 20 y: theoretical normalized moment
;
x: angle teta of node
;
table 21 y: numerical
normalized moment
;
x: angle teta of node
;
table 30 y: theoretical radial displacement
;
x: angle teta of node
;
table 31 y: numerical
radial displacement
;
x: angle teta of node
;
table 40 y: theoretical tangential displacement
;
x: angle teta of node
;
table 41 y: numerical
tangential displacement
;
x: angle teta of node
ca str.fin
def compare
nin = imem(str pnt + $ksels)
i = 0
8 - 10
Verification Problems
ern = 0.0
erm = 0.0
loop while nin # 0
i = i + 1
p1 = imem(nin + $keln1)
p2 = imem(nin + $keln2)
tanteta = (fmem(p2+$kndy)+fmem(p1+$kndy))
tanteta = tanteta/(fmem(p2+$kndx)+fmem(p1+$kndx))
teta = atan(tanteta)
tetad = teta / degrad
temp1 = c1 + c2 * cos(2.*teta)
temp2 = fmem(nin+$kelfax) / n0
xtable(10,i) = tetad
ytable(10,i) = temp1
xtable(11,i) = tetad
ytable(11,i) = temp2
temp3 = 100. * abs(temp1 - temp2)
ern = max(temp3,ern)
tanteta = fmem(p1+$kndy) / fmem(p1+$kndx)
teta = atan(tanteta)
tetad = teta / degrad
temp1 = c3 * cos(2.*teta)
temp2 = -fmem(nin+$kelm1) / m0
xtable(20,i) = tetad
ytable(20,i) = temp1
xtable(21,i) = tetad
ytable(21,i) = temp2
if abs(tetad - 45.) > 45.e-3 then
temp3 = 100. * abs(temp1 - temp2)
else
temp3 = 0.0
end if
erm = max(temp3,erm)
nin = imem(nin)
end loop
ern = ern / ytable(10,1)
erm = erm / ytable(20,1)
eru = 0.0
erv = 0.0
uref = 0.0
vref = 0.0
loop jj (1,30)
xval
= x(1,jj)
yval
= y(1,jj)
theta = atan2(yval,xval)
thetad = theta/degrad
8 - 11
sint
= sin(theta)
cost
= cos(theta)
anau
= -(u1+u2*cos(2.*theta))
numu
= (xdisp(1,jj)*cost+ydisp(1,jj)*sint)/u0
anav
= v1*sin(2.*theta)
numv
= (-xdisp(1,jj)*sint+ydisp(1,jj)*cost)/u0
xtable(30,jj)= thetad
ytable(30,jj)= anau
xtable(31,jj)= thetad
ytable(31,jj)= numu
xtable(40,jj)= thetad
ytable(40,jj)= anav
xtable(41,jj)= thetad
ytable(41,jj)= numv
eru
= max(eru,abs(anau - numu))
uref = max(uref,abs(anau))
erv
= max(erv,abs(anav - numv))
vref = max(vref,abs(anav))
end loop
eru = 100. * eru / uref
erv = 100. * erv / vref
end
compare
; --- Plot results --;pause
;ret
save m8 v.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
;plot name: Displacement comparison
plot hold table 41 cross 40 line 31 cross 30 line
;plot name: Axial force comparison
plot hold table 10 line 11 cross
;plot name: Struct moment comparison
plot hold table 20 line 21 cross
;plot name: Location, number and axial force of struct elements
plot hold grid struct beam axial fill max 7.2E8 white struct beam element
8 - 12
Verification Problems
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-1
9 One-Dimensional Consolidation
9.1 Problem Statement
A saturated layer of soil of thickness H = 20 m and large horizontal extent rests on a rigid, impervious
base (see Figure 9.1). A constant surface load, py = 105 Pa, is applied on the layer, and the initial
state of the problem corresponds to undrained equilibrium with a uniform pore pressure, p0 = 105
Pa. The soil matrix is homogeneous and behaves elastically, and the isotropic Darcys transport law
applies. With time, the fluid drains through the layer surface, transferring the load from the fluid
to the soil matrix. The problem is one-dimensional (uniaxial strain conditions), and a slice of unit
width is considered in the numerical simulation.
py
Figure 9.1
One-dimensional consolidation
This problem provides a check of FLAC s ability to model the coupled process of fluid flow and
mechanical response. The problem is run using the basic fluid-flow scheme (see Section 1.3 in
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction) and the saturated fast-flow scheme (see Section 1.4.1 in FluidMechanical Interaction) in order to verify both fluid flow formulations. This problem also demonstrates the difference in calculation speeds between the two schemes.
9-2
Verification Problems
(9.1)
k
S
1
n
+
S=
Kw
1
c=
(9.2)
where k is the permeability (e.g., [(m/s)/(Pa/m)]), Kw is the water bulk modulus, n is the porosity
and, by definition, 1 = K + 4/3G in which K and G are the drained bulk and shear moduli of the
soil matrix.
Because the total stress yy is a constant, Eq. (9.1) reduces to
p
2p
c 2 =0
t
y
(9.3)
p0 sin(am y)
am2 t
p = 2
e
py
am
m=0
where:
(9.4)
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-3
p
py
am = (2m + 1)
2
H y
y =
H
ct
t = 2
H
p =
(9.5)
cos(am y)
p0
am2 t
e
(y 1)
+
2
py
am
(9.6)
m=0
where
u y =
1 uy
Hpy
(9.7)
The closed-form solution is programed as a FISH function for direct comparison to the FLAC
numerical solution. See Section 9.7.
9.3 FLAC Model
The FLAC model grid for this problem is a column of 20 zones aligned with the y-axis (see
Figure 9.2). The base of the column is fixed, and lateral displacements are restricted. A mechanical
pressure, py , is applied at the top of the column. The vertical stress is initialized to py , and
the pore pressure to a uniform value p0 throughout the model. Drainage is allowed by fixing and
initializing the pore pressure at zero at the top of the model.
9-4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 13:44
step
0
-1.283E+01 <x< 1.383E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 9.2
-0.500
0.000
(*10^1)
0.500
1.000
5 108 Pa
2 108 Pa
2 109 Pa
0.3
permeability, k
1010
m2
P asec
The FLAC model is stepped to a flow time of 5000 seconds, which is in the order of magnitude of
the characteristic time tc = H 2 /c for this problem (with the given properties, tc is approximately
5800 seconds). The FLAC data file is listed in Section 9.6.
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-5
05
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 14:14
step
6604
Flow Time
5.0031E+03
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
10 npp5
(FISH)
0.800
11 app5
(FISH)
14 npp10
(FISH)
15 app10
(FISH)
18 npp15
(FISH)
19 app15
(FISH)
22 npp20
(FISH)
23 app20
(FISH)
0.600
0.400
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.3
9-6
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 14:14
step
6604
Flow Time
5.0031E+03
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
12 nu5
(FISH)
13 au5
(FISH)
16 nu10
(FISH)
17 au10
(FISH)
20 nu15
(FISH)
21 au15
(FISH)
24 nu20
(FISH)
25 au20
(FISH)
0.000
-0.800
-1.200
-1.600
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.4
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 14:14
step
6604
Flow Time
5.0031E+03
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev 3 Effective SYY ( 1, 10)
4 Pore pressure ( 1, 10)
Rev
5 Ave. SYY
1.000
0.800
0.600
( 1, 10)
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.5
Histories of pore pressure, effective stress and total stress at midheight of the soil layer
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-7
Note that for values of Kw /n much larger than K + 4/3G, the convergence of the FLAC basic
algorithm for coupled fluid flow will be very slow (i.e., numerous mechanical steps will be necessary
to bring the system to mechanical equilibrium after each flow step). In such cases of fully saturated
coupled flow, the saturated fast-flow algorithm should be selected by using the SET fast ow on
command. This scheme can significantly reduce the calculation time when the stiffness ratio, Rk =
(Kw /n)/(K + 4/3G), is large. This is illustrated by repeating this problem for two different values
of the stiffness ratio (Rk = 8.7 and 52.2), to demonstrate the effect on calculation time. Table 9.1
summarizes the results. (Note that these runs are on a 2.4 GHz Pentium computer). The commands
for these runs are included in Section 9.6.
Table 9.1
Calculation times
scheme
saturated fast-flow
basic flow
saturated fast-flow
basic flow
Rk
time
(sec)
8.7
8.7
52.2
52.2
9.0
9.0
10.0
53.0
Figures 9.6 through 9.8 compare the results for the Rk = 52.2 case using the saturated fast-flow
scheme. The agreement between numerical and analytical results is very good.
These runs indicate that the calculation time increases as Rk increases. However, the increase is
much greater for the basic-flow solution method than for the saturated fast-flow method. Note that
using the basic flow scheme for values of Rk greater than approximately 20 is not recommended
(see Section 1.8.1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction). Runtimes for models using the basic flow
scheme, and with Rk greater than 20, can become excessive.
9-8
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 15:39
step 13117
Flow Time
5.0003E+03
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
10 npp5
(FISH)
11 app5
(FISH)
14 npp10
(FISH)
15 app10
(FISH)
18 npp15
(FISH)
19 app15
(FISH)
22 npp20
(FISH)
23 app20
(FISH)
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
0.200
0.100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.6
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 15:39
step 13117
Flow Time
5.0003E+03
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
12 nu5
(FISH)
13 au5
(FISH)
16 nu10
(FISH)
17 au10
(FISH)
20 nu15
(FISH)
21 au15
(FISH)
24 nu20
(FISH)
25 au20
(FISH)
0.000
-0.800
-1.200
-1.600
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.7
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9-9
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 15:39
step 13117
Flow Time
5.0003E+03
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev 3 Effective SYY ( 1, 10)
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
5 Ave. SYY
( 1, 10)
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
Figure 9.8
Histories of pore pressure, effective stress and total stress at midheight of the soil layer Rk = 52.2 (saturated fast flow)
The one-dimensional consolidation problem was also run using a model composed of two attached
grids. The attached-grid model is shown in Figure 9.9. The commands for this model are also
included in the data file listed in Section 9.6. Figure 9.10 displays the pore pressure histories for
this case. The agreement is identical to that for the single-grid model.
9 - 10
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 15:39
step
5925
Flow Time
5.0003E+03
-1.283E+01 <x< 1.383E+01
-3.333E+00 <y< 2.333E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
5E 0
1.000
Attached Gridpoints
0.500
0.000
Figure 9.9
-0.500
0.000
(*10^1)
0.500
1.000
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 15:39
step
5925
Flow Time
5.0003E+03
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
10 npp5
(FISH)
11 app5
(FISH)
14 npp10
(FISH)
15 app10
(FISH)
18 npp15
(FISH)
19 app15
(FISH)
22 npp20
(FISH)
23 app20
(FISH)
X-axis :
2 Groundwater flow time
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9 - 11
9.5 References
Atkinson, J. H., and P. L. Bransby. The Mechanics of Soils: An Introduction to Critical State
Soil Mechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
Detournay, E., and A. H.-D. Cheng. Comprehensive Rock Engineering. Pergamon Press Ltd.,
1993.
Lambe, T. W., and R. V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1969.
9 - 12
Verification Problems
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9 - 13
9 - 14
Verification Problems
save 1dcons4.sav
;*** BRANCH: RK= 52.2 ****
restore 1dcons1.sav
;... STATE: 1DCONS5 ....
prop porosity 0.05
set echo off
call 1dcons.fis
set c bu=5e8 c sh=2e8 c pe=1e-10 c po=0.05 c wb=2e9 c h=20.0 c ip=1e5
erp
history nstep 200
history 2 gwtime
history 3 esyy i=1, j=10
history 4 pp i=1, j=10
history 5 syy i=1, j=10
history 6 ydisp i=1, j=21
history 7 yvel i=1, j=21
history 8 erp
history 9 eru
history 10 npp5
history 11 app5
history 12 nu5
history 13 au5
history 14 npp10
history 15 app10
history 16 nu10
history 17 au10
history 18 npp15
history 19 app15
history 20 nu15
history 21 au15
history 22 npp20
history 23 app20
history 24 nu20
history 25 au20
save 1dcons5.sav
;*** BRANCH: BASIC FLOW ****
;... STATE: 1DCONS6 ....
time0
history 999 unbalanced
solve auto on age 5000.0
time1
print runtime
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9 - 15
save 1dcons6.sav
;*** BRANCH: FAST FLOW ****
restore 1dcons5.sav
;... STATE: 1DCONS7 ....
water tension 1e10
set fastflow on
time0
history 999 unbalanced
solve auto on age 5000.0
time1
print runtime
save 1dcons7.sav
;*** BRANCH: ATTACHED GRID ****
new
;... STATE: 1DCONS8 ....
config gwflow extra 2
grid 1,21
model elastic
model null j 12
group null j 12
group delete null
ini x add 0.0 y add -1.0 nmregion 1 13
attach aside from 1,12 to 2,12 bside from 1,13 to 2,13
group elastic material notnull
model elastic notnull group elastic material
prop density=2000.0 bulk=5E8 shear=2E8 notnull group elastic material
prop por=0.3 perm=1.0E-10 notnull
water bulk=2.0E9
initial pp 100000.0
initial syy -100000.0
fix x
fix y j 1
apply pressure 100000.0 from 1,22 to 2,22
initial pp 0.0 j 22
fix pp j 22
set nmech=100
save 1dcons8.sav
;... STATE: 1DCONS9 ....
set echo off
call 1dcons.fis
set c bu=5e8 c sh=2e8 c pe=1e-10 c po=0.3 c wb=2e9 c h=20.0 c ip=1e5
9 - 16
erp
history nstep 200
history 2 gwtime
history 3 esyy i=1, j=10
history 4 pp i=1, j=10
history 5 syy i=1, j=10
history 6 ydisp i=1, j=21
history 7 yvel i=1, j=21
history 8 erp
history 9 eru
history 10 npp5
history 11 app5
history 12 nu5
history 13 au5
history 14 npp10
history 15 app10
history 16 nu10
history 17 au10
history 18 npp15
history 19 app15
history 20 nu15
history 21 au15
history 22 npp20
history 23 app20
history 24 nu20
history 25 au20
save 1dcons9.sav
;*** BRANCH: BASIC FLOW ****
;... STATE: 1DCONS10 ....
history 999 unbalanced
solve auto on age 5000.0
save 1dcons10.sav
;*** BRANCH: FAST FLOW ****
restore 1dcons9.sav
;... STATE: 1DCONS11 ....
set fastflow on
history 999 unbalanced
solve auto on age 5000.0
save 1dcons11.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pore pressure histories
Verification Problems
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9 - 17
9 - 18
Verification Problems
One-Dimensional Consolidation
9 - 19
exit section
end if
end loop
end section
ex 2(i,j)=(sumuo*2.0+zz-1.0)*c h*c ip/(c bu+4.*c sh/3.)
if j # jgp then
tempp=tempp+abs(ex 1(i,j)-gpp(i,j))/ex 1(i,j)
end if
if j # 1 then
tempu=tempu+abs(ex 2(i,j)-ydisp(i,j))
end if
end loop
end loop
erp=100.*tempp/float(igp*(jgp-1))
eru=100.*tempu/float(igp*(jgp-1))
npp5=gpp(1,5)
app5=ex 1(1,5)
nu5=ydisp(1,5)
au5=ex 2(1,5)
npp10=gpp(1,10)
app10=ex 1(1,10)
nu10=ydisp(1,10)
au10=ex 2(1,10)
npp15=gpp(1,15)
app15=ex 1(1,15)
nu15=ydisp(1,15)
au15=ex 2(1,15)
npp20=gpp(1,20)
app20=ex 1(1,20)
nu20=ydisp(1,20)
au20=ex 2(1,20)
end
9 - 20
Verification Problems
10 - 1
h
s
h
impermeable base
L
Figure 10.1 Problem geometry and boundary conditions
The dimension and elevations are:
L =9m
h1 = 6 m
h2 = 1.2 m
10 - 2
Verification Problems
1010 (m/sec)/(Pa/m)
0.3
1000 kg/m3
1000 Pa
2000 kg/m3
10 m/sec2
h21 h22
2L
(10.1)
For this particular case, the value for Q is 1.92 106 m3 /s.
The length, s, of the seepage face as a function of the characteristic dimensions of the section was
obtained by Polubarinova-Kochina and is given in Figure 10.2 (see, e.g., Harr (1991), pp. 206-207).
For this particular problem: h2 / h1 = 0.2, L/ h1 = 1.5, and the value of s/ h1 is evaluated from
the graphs at 0.1, which gives an elevation s = 0.6m.
10.3 FLAC Model
Two cases have been studied, corresponding to two different initial conditions:
CASE 1: The embankment is initially dry (saturation = 0), and the sides are suddenly
exposed to the water.
CASE 2: The water level at both sides is initially the same (h1 = h2 = 6 m), followed by
a sudden drawdown at the right side (h2 = 1.2 m).
The grid and boundary conditions are the same for both cases (see Figure 10.3). The only difference
is the initial pore pressure distribution. In Case 1, saturation and pore pressure are zero inside the
mesh; in Case 2, saturation is 1 for all gridpoints, and the pore pressure inside the mesh follows a
gravitational gradient.
The material properties are assigned as described above. Since only the steady-state fluid-flow
solution is of interest in this problem, the mechanical behavior of the soil and its interaction with
the groundwater flow are not addressed (SET mech off). The absolute values of soil density, homogeneous permeability and porosity are not relevant to the final solution, and the water bulk
modulus is given a small value, compatible with free surface numerical stability, to speed up the
10 - 3
calculation to steady state. (The criterion used for numerical stability is Kw > 0.3 w gLx , where
Lx is the maximum horizontal zone dimension in the vicinity of the free surface, as discussed in
Section 1.4.2.1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.5
1.
0.2
0
2.5
3.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
h /h
10 - 4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 11:21
step
500
Flow Time
2.7000E+07
-5.000E-01 <x< 9.500E+00
-2.000E+00 <y< 8.000E+00
Grid plot
0
2E 0
Fixed Gridpoints
P Pore-pressure
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
5.000
3.000
1.000
-1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
Lc 2
c
(10.2)
where Lc is the characteristic length of the problem, and c is the diffusivity. For a flow-only
problem:
c=
kKw
n
(10.3)
Using L = Lc and the above property values, we obtain for this problem: tc = 2.43 108 s.
Division of tc by the explicit fluid flow timestep of 5.4 104 s (type PRINT limits for the timestep)
gives a prediction of approximately 4500 steps to reach steady state.
The flow simulation for the two cases is carried out using the SOLVE command. The evolution
towards steady state is monitored using the FISH function flow, which calculates inflow and
10 - 5
outflow at the left and right model boundary, respectively. Inflow is positive if water flows into the
model, while outflow is positive if water flows out; at steady state, the free surface is a streamline
and inflow is equal to outflow.
The evolutions of the inflow and outflow rates are plotted and compared to the analytical steady-state
solution (shown as a solid line) in Figures 10.4 and 10.5. It may be observed that steady state is
certainly reached at the estimate of 5000 steps obtained earlier. The difference in the flow patterns
leading to steady-flow is seen by comparing Figures 10.6 and 10.7, which show the flow vectors
after 500 steps for Case 1 and 2, respectively.
In both cases, the final flow pattern is similar (see Figures 10.8 and 10.9). The calculated length
of seepage extends in those figures from the tail water elevation up to the point on the downstream
embankment slope where the magnitude of the flow vector becomes zero. As may be seen, the
numerical seepage length compares well with the sketched analytical solution.
10.5 References
Davis, S. N., and R. J. DeWiest. Hydrogeology. J. Wiley, 1966.
Harr, M. E. Groundwater and Seepage. Dover, 1991.
10 - 6
Verification Problems
-05
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 11:21
step
3881
Cons. Time 2.0957E+08
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
flow
(FISH)
0.800
inflow
0.600
outflow
(FISH)
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.400
0.200
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
02
-05
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 11:24
step
3843
Cons. Time 2.0752E+08
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
flow
(FISH)
0.800
inflow
outflow
(FISH)
(FISH)
0.600
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
02
10 - 7
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 11:21
step
500
Flow Time
2.7000E+07
-5.000E-01 <x< 9.500E+00
-2.000E+00 <y< 8.000E+00
5.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
3.000
Flow vectors
max vector =
7.287E-07
2E -6
1.000
-1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 11:24
step
500
Flow Time
2.7000E+07
-5.000E-01 <x< 9.500E+00
-2.000E+00 <y< 8.000E+00
5.000
Boundary plot
0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
2E 0
3.000
1.729E-06
5E -6
1.000
-1.000
3.000
5.000
7.000
9.000
10 - 8
Verification Problems
LEGEND
20-Sep-04 15:04
step
3881
Flow Time
2.0957E+08
5.000E+00 <x< 1.150E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 5.000E+00
3.500
Boundary plot
2.500
2E 0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
1.367E-06
seepage face
(analytical)
2E -6
1.500
0.500
-0.500
0.650
0.750
0.850
0.950
1.050
(*10^1)
Figure 10.8 Steady-state flow vectors and seepage face solution (Case 1)
LEGEND
20-Sep-04 15:04
step
3843
Flow Time
2.0752E+08
5.000E+00 <x< 1.150E+01
-1.000E+00 <y< 5.000E+00
3.500
Boundary plot
2.500
2E 0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
1.368E-06
seepage face
(analytical)
2E -6
1.500
0.500
-0.500
0.650
0.750
0.850
0.950
1.050
(*10^1)
Figure 10.9 Steady-state flow vectors and seepage face solution (Case 2)
10 - 9
10 - 10
end
; --- Histories --hist nstep 50
hist pp i 15 j 1
hist flow
hist inflow
hist outflow
; --- Step --step 500
; --- Generate plots --save h2aa.sav
;... State: h2a.sav ....
; --- Step to steady-state --solve
save h2a.sav
;*** Branch: Initial Saturated ****
new
;... State: h2bb.sav ....
config gw
g 30 20
def ini h2
h1 = 6.
h2 = 1.2
bl = 9.
ck = 1e-10
rw = 1e3
gr = 10.
qt = ck*rw*gr*(h1*h1 - h2*h2)/(2.0*bl)
end
ini h2
gen 0 0 0 h1 bl h1 bl 0
mo el
; --- Properties --prop por .3 perm=ck den 2000
water den=rw bulk 1e3
; --- Initial conditions --ini sat 1
; --- Boundary conditions --ini pp 6e4 var 0 -6e4
ini pp 1.2e4 var 0 -1.2e4 i 31 j 1 5
ini pp 0 i 31 j 6 21
fix pp i 1
fix pp i 31
Verification Problems
10 - 11
10 - 12
Verification Problems
11 - 1
urfac
atic s
phre
water table
x
L
11 - 2
Verification Problems
l/H = [(H/L)2+1]
1.3
1.2
1.1
= 27 o
=3 o
1.5
=3 o
6
=
40.5 o
=
45 o
=
49. o
6
=
54 o
.8
.7
= 18 o
.9
= 22.5 o
1.0
= 9o
= 13.5 o
l/L
.6
.5
.4
H
x=L
.3
.2
.1
.0
.0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
H/L
Figure 11.2 The seepage length, l, as a function of the phreatic surface elevation, H, at a point, P, at a horizontal distance, L, from the
riverbank (adapted from Strack and Asgian 1978)
11 - 3
Figure 11.3 Flow net near the seepage face for = 45 (Strack and Asgian
1978)
11 - 4
Verification Problems
criterion used is Kw > 0.3 w gLx , where Lx is the maximum horizontal zone dimension in the
vicinity of the free surface, as discussed in Section 1.4.2.1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.)
The data file for this problem is given in Section 11.6. For the second case, using the unsaturated
fast-flow logic, the command SET funsat on is added. For the third case, both the unsaturated
fast-flow logic and fluid bulk modulus scaling logic are used because only the steady state solution
is required. In this case, both the SET funsat on command and the SET fastwb on command are
added to the data file.
The SOLVE sratio command with a value of sratio equal to 5 103 is used to cycle the model to
steady state for all three cases. The evolution of the model is monitored using the FISH function
QRATIO. FIS (see Section 1.10.3 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction), which calculates inflow
and outflow at the fixed pore pressure boundaries. At steady state, the free surface is a streamline
and inflow is equal to outflow.
JOB TITLE : UNCONFINED FLOW TOWARDS A RIVERBANK
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 12:11
step 52940
Cons. Time 8.3290E+08
-5.733E+01 <x< 1.073E+02
-8.233E+01 <y< 8.233E+01
Grid plot
0
5E 1
Fixed Gridpoints
P Pore-pressure
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
PP
P
PP
PP
PP
P
PP
PP
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
5.000
3.000
1.000
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
-7.000
-0.200
0.000
0.200
(*10^2)
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
11 - 5
-05
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 12:11
step 52940
Cons. Time 8.3290E+08
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
inflow
(FISH)
outflow
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
20
30
40
50
(10
03
11 - 6
Verification Problems
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 12:11
step 52940
Cons. Time 8.3290E+08
-9.893E+00 <x< 5.816E+01
-1.909E+01 <y< 4.897E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
2.000
2E 1
Flow vectors
max vector =
1.204E-06
1.000
Seepage Face
2E -6
0.000
-1.000
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
5.000
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 12:11
step 52940
Cons. Time 8.3290E+08
-1.217E+01 <x< 5.490E+01
-1.824E+01 <y< 4.882E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
2.000
2E 1
Head
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 3.10E+01
Flow streamlines
1.000
Seepage Face
0.000
-1.000
0.500
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
3.500
4.500
11 - 7
11.5 Reference
Strack, O. D. L., and M. I. Asgian. A New Function for Use in the Hodograph Method, Water
Resources Research, 14(6), 1045-1058 (1978).
11 - 8
Verification Problems
11 - 9
gpp(ii,jj) = rhog * th
sat(ii,jj) = 1.0
end if
end loop
end loop
end
ini pp
; --- Settings --set g 10 mech off
; --- Fish functions --ca qratio.fis
; --- Histories --hist nstep 100
hist qratio
hist inflow
hist outflow
save rb1.sav
;*** BRANCH: BASIC FLOW ****
;... STATE: RB1A ....
; --- Solve --time0
solve sratio 5.e-3
time1
save rb1a.sav
;*** BRANCH: SET FUNSAT ****
restore rb1.sav
;... STATE: RB1B ....
set funsat=on
; --- Solve --time0
solve sratio 5.e-3
time1
save rb1b.sav
;*** BRANCH: SET FASTWB ****
restore rb1.sav
;... STATE: RB1C ....
set fastwb=on
set funsat=on
; --- Solve --time0
11 - 10
Verification Problems
12 - 1
12 - 2
Verification Problems
118 MPa
71 MPa
2 GPa
0.4
permeability, k
2.98 108
m2
P asec
The initial pore pressure is 220 kPa, and the initial isotropic stress is -147 kPa. The well pumping
rate per unit aquifer thickness, q, is 2.21 103 m2 /s, and the well radius, rw , is selected as 1 m.
12.2 Analytical Solution
A cylindrical system of coordinates is considered with the y-axis pointing upward and aligned
with the well axis. Substitution of the transport law in the fluid mass-balance equation gives, for
incompressible grains, and taking into consideration that rr = = 0:
yy
Kw
p
=
(k 2 p
)
t
n
t
(12.1)
where k is the permeability coefficient, Kw is the water bulk modulus, and n is the porosity.
Partial differentiation with respect to time of the elastic constitutive relation (yy 0 )+(p p0 ) =
1 yy yields, for constant yy :
yy
p
= 1
t
t
(12.2)
where 1 = K + 4/3G.
Using this last equation to express yy in terms of p in Eq. (12.1), we obtain, after some manipulation:
p
= c 2 p
t
(12.3)
where c = k/S is the diffusion coefficient, and S = n/Kw +1/1 is the storage coefficient. Because
the problem is axisymmetric and not dependent on y, the Laplacian of p may be expressed as
2p =
2 p 1 p
+
r r
r 2
(12.4)
12 - 3
lim 2 r
r0
q
p
=
r
k
1
E1 (u) + p0
4
(12.5)
r2
4c(t t0 )
(12.6)
e
d
(12.7)
y
E1 (u)
4
(12.8)
1
E1 (u) + 0
2
(12.9)
yy = 0
where = k1 /(qG).
12 - 4
Verification Problems
(*10^1)
4.000
3-Feb-05 13:20
step
0
-4.500E+00 <x< 1.055E+02
-5.450E+01 <y< 5.550E+01
2.000
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
12 - 5
1.000
0.800
Table Plot
pp (anal) at 4 sec
0.600
pp (FLAC) at 4 sec
0.400
pp (anal) at 8 sec
pp (FLAC) at 8 sec
0.200
pp (anal) at 16 sec
pp (FLAC) at 16 sec
pp (anal) at 32 sec
pp (FLAC) at 32 sec
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
10
(10
01
12 - 6
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
3-Feb-05 13:22
step 16951
Flow Time
3.2006E+01
Table Plot
radial stress (anal)
radial stress (FLAC)
hoop stress (anal)
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
9
(10
01
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
3-Feb-05 13:22
step 16951
Flow Time
3.2006E+01
Table Plot
vert. disp. (anal)
vert. disp. (FLAC)
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
-3.500
-4.000
-4.500
10
(10
01
12 - 7
12 - 8
Verification Problems
fix x
apply nstress
cs0 j=fjgp
apply discharge c q i=1
; --- Fish functions --ca exp int.fis
def pp tab
loop i(1,igp)
rval = x(i,1)
; radius
e val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anap = pcoe * exp int + cp0
nump = gpp(i,1)
xtable(ntab,i)
= rval
ytable(ntab,i)
= anap/cp0
; pore pressure -analytical
xtable(ntab+1,i) = rval
ytable(ntab+1,i) = nump/cp0
; pore pressure -numerical
end loop
end
def erp
erpv = 0.
loop i(1,igp)
rval = x(i,1)
; radius
e val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anap = pcoe * exp int + cp0
nump = gpp(i,1)
erpv
= erpv + ((anap - nump)/cp0) 2
end loop
erpv = erpv/float(igp)
erp = 100. * sqrt(erpv)
; mean relative error
end
def stress tab
srcoe = 1./(2.*pi)
sdim = ck * al1 / (c lq * csh)
sr0
= cs0 * sdim
sv0
= sr0
ntab1 = ntab + 1
ntab2 = ntab + 2
ntab3 = ntab + 3
loop i(1,izones)
rval = (x(i,1)+x(i+1,1))*0.5
; radius
e val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anasr = srcoe * exp int + sr0
numsr = sxx(i,1) * sdim
numsv = syy(i,1) * sdim
xtable(ntab,i)
= rval
ytable(ntab,i)
= anasr
; radial stress -analytical
xtable(ntab1,i) = rval
ytable(ntab1,i) = numsr
xtable(ntab2,i) = rval
ytable(ntab2,i) = sv0
xtable(ntab3,i) = rval
ytable(ntab3,i) = numsv
end loop
end
def u tab
ucoe
= 1./(4.*pi*hh)
udim
= ck * al1 / (c lq * hh)
loop i(1,igp)
rval = x(i,jgp)
e val = rval*rval/(4.*diff*gwtime)
anau = -ucoe * y(i,jgp) * exp int
numu = ydisp(i,jgp) * udim
xtable(ntab,i)
= rval
ytable(ntab,i)
= anau
xtable(ntab+1,i) = rval
ytable(ntab+1,i) = numu
end loop
end
; --- Histories --set ii=10
his gwtime
his erp
; --- Settings --set flow on mech on
set nmech 100 clock 1000000 step 1000000
save well-0.sav
12 - 9
; radius
; age 4
; age 8
12 - 10
Verification Problems
; age 16
; age 32
; age 4
; age 8
; age 16
12 - 11
; age 32
12 - 12
Verification Problems
16 - 1
2 a a 2 r 2
(16.1)
in which P is the total load on the footing, a is the radius of the footing, and r is the distance from
the center of the footing. The smallest value of q is at the footing center (r = 0):
qmin =
P
2 a 2
(16.2)
and at the edge of the footing (r = a), the pressure is infinite. The displacement of the footing is
given by the equation
u=
P (1 2 )
2aE
(16.3)
in which E and are the elastic modulus and Poissons ratio for the elastic medium.
16 - 2
Verification Problems
Applied
Velocity
Footing
16 - 3
The boundary velocities are calculated using the formulae for a point load on a half-space as given
by Timoshenko and Goodier 1970, p. 402. The resulting equations are:
a(1 2)Vapp
y
x2y
u x =
1+
(1 )x
(1 2)(x 2 + y 2 )3/2
x2 + y2
(16.4)
a Vapp
2 (1 )
y2
+
u y =
(1 ) (x 2 + y 2 )3/2
x2 + y2
(16.5)
in which Vapp is the applied footing velocity, and x and y specify the distances from the point load
(i.e., the center of the footing) to the boundary gridpoints.
The data file for this model is listed in Section 16.6. A FISH function, startup, is used to initialize
the grid zoning and footing size so that several runs can easily be made to evaluate the influence
of these conditions on the model results. A FISH function, bou vel, prescribes the boundary
conditions as specified in Eqs. (16.4) and (16.5).
16.4 Results and Discussion
The total footing load, P , that develops for the applied footing displacement of 0.05 m is calculated
in a FISH function, fy. The total load is given by the following equation:
P = 2
(y)
fi ri
(16.6)
(y)
in which fi is the y-reaction force (yforce) at footing gridpoint i, and ri is the associated radius
for gridpoint i. For gridpoints not on the axis of symmetry (x = 0), the associated radius is the
x-distance from the center of the footing to each gridpoint that has an applied velocity. At the
footing center gridpoint (i = 1, j = 81), the associated radius is 0.25 times the x-distance to the
adjacent gridpoint (i = 2, j = 81). This scaling factor applies to gridpoints located on the axis of
symmetry, provided the distances to all gridpoints at i = 2 are the same.
The footing stiffness, P /u, is calculated in the FISH function num stiff for comparison to the
analytical solution given by Eq. (16.3). A history of the evolution of P /u is shown in Figure 16.2.
The value for P /u at the equilibrium state for an applied footing displacement of 0.05 m is within
0.65% of the analytical value.
16 - 4
Verification Problems
The distribution of pressures beneath the footing is calculated in the FISH function num press.
The pressure qi , associated with footing gridpoint i, located at a radial distance ri from the footing
(y)
center, is calculated from the y-reaction force at the gridpoint, fi , and the scaled area, Asc
i ,
associated with the gridpoint (see Eq. (3.5) in Section 3.3.5 in the Users Guide):
y
qi =
2 ri fi
f
= isc
sc
2 ri Ai
Ai
(16.7)
in which ri is the radial distance as defined for Eq. (16.6). The FLAC footing pressure is compared
to the analytical solution Eq. (16.1) in Figure 16.3. Note that the effective radius of the footing, a,
is the radius to the point midway between the last gridpoint with an applied velocity (i = 9, j = 81)
and the adjacent gridpoint (i = 10, j = 81). Eq. (16.7) assumes that the pressure is constant over
area, Asc
i . This accounts for the difference between the results in Figure 16.3; if more zones are
placed beneath the footing, the agreement between analytical and FLAC results improves.
JOB TITLE : Circular footing on an elastic halfspace
10
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 12:54
step
6250
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_num_stiff
(FISH)
Rev_ana_stiff
-0.400
-0.800
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 81)
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
-2.400
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-03
16 - 5
06
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 12:54
step
6250
3.500
Table Plot
Analytical solution
FLAC solution
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
16.5 Reference
Timoshenko, S. P., and J. N. Goodier. Theory of Elasticity. New York: McGraw Hill, 1970.
16 - 6
Verification Problems
16 - 7
fix x y i nigp
fix x y i islab1 islab2 j jslab
ini yvel -2.5e-5 i islab1 islab2 j jslab
; --- velocity b. c. based on point load on a halfspace --def bou vel
while stepping
c av = -c a*yvel(1,jslab)
c cv = -c c*yvel(1,jslab)
c z = y(1,jslab)-y(1,1)
loop iind (1,nigp)
c x = x(iind,1)
bou vel val
xvel(iind,1)=c vx
yvel(iind,1)=c vy
end loop
c x = x(nigp,1)
loop jind (1,njgp)
c z = y(nigp,jslab)-y(nigp,jind)
bou vel val
xvel(nigp,jind)=c vx
yvel(nigp,jind)=c vy
end loop
end
def bou vel val
c r2 = c x2+c z2
c r = sqrt(c r2)
if c x > 0. then
c vx = c av*(c z/c r-1.+c b*c x2*c z/(c r*c r2))/c x
else
c vx = 0.
end if
c vy = -c cv*(c z2/(c r*c r2)+c d/c r)
end
; --- total load on footing --def fy
val = yforce(1,jslab) * x(2,jslab) * 0.25
loop i (islab1+1,islab2)
val = val + yforce(i,jslab) * x(i,jslab)
end loop
fy = val * 2. * pi
end
; --- footing stiffness (total load / displacement) --def num stiff
valstiff = -(fy / ydisp(islab1,jslab))
num stiff = valstiff
ana stiff = c stiff
16 - 8
Verification Problems
16 - 9
end loop
end
num press
save CFoot2.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Stiffness comparison
plot hold history -4 line -5 line vs -2
;plot name: Pressures comparison
label table 1
Analytical solution
label table 2
FLAC solution
plot hold table 2 both 1 both label 1 red label 2 red
16 - 10
Verification Problems
12 - 1
12 - 2
Example Applications
24. 3 m
Rock Properties
Unit weight
Bulk Modulus
Shear Modulus
Cohesion
Internal
Friction Angle
Tensile
Strength
:
:
:
:
2700 kg/m
0.555 GPa
0.417 GPa
10 kPa
: 33
R=
17.0
: 1 kPa
m
6.5
: 0.5
2
: 9.81 m/sec
Shotcrete
Youngs Modulus : 5.56 GPa
10.35 m
R=
R=
=9
.63
Initial Conditions
Ko
Gravity
3. 5
m
Rock Bolt
Diameter
: 25 mm
Youngs Modulus : 205 GPa
8.12 m
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
Initial
Ko State
Percent
Relaxation
50%
Step
Ia
0
CL
75%
CL
100%
Ib
CL
50%
Ic
CL
IIa
CL
100%
IIb
CL
50%
IIc
CL
75%
IIIa
CL
100%
IIIb
CL
IIIc
CL
Construction
State
12 - 3
An alternative approach to model the relaxation is based on the relation of the closure of the
unsupported tunnel to the distance to the face. Panet (1979) published such an expression. (Also
see Section 8.) Tunnel closure can also be related to traction forces acting on the tunnel periphery
via a ground reaction curve. Thus, the tunnel relaxation as a function of the distance to the face
can be specified in terms of tractions defined by a ground reaction curve and an expression relating
closure to distance to the face.
In order to simulate the relaxation, tractions are first applied to the tunnel boundary to provide
an equilibrium condition at zero relaxation; then the tractions are gradually decreased to a value
corresponding to a tunnel closure value that is related to a specified distance to the face. The
support is then installed at this relaxation state. In this example, the rockbolt support is installed at
an excavation stage corresponding to 50% relaxation of the tunnel load, and the shotcrete is installed
at a stage corresponding to 75% relaxation, as illustrated in Figure 12.1.
12.2 Modeling Procedure
12.2.1 Model Setup
FLAC is well-suited to model sequential excavation and construction problems. In this example,
the three excavation stages and three construction steps within each stage are simulated as nine
sequential solutions. The data file for this analysis begins at Branch: Multi-Stage Tunnel in
MSTUNNEL.DAT, listed in Section 12.5. The data file at Branch: Ground Reaction Curve in
MSTUNNEL.DAT is included to demonstrate the process to develop a ground reaction curve for
this model. In addition, several FISH functions, listed in Section 12.6, are provided to control the
tunnel load relaxation process.
The FLAC mesh is defined with the grid distorted to align with the boundaries of the three segments
of the tunnel excavation. The Build / Radial tool is used to create a fine mesh in the vicinity of the
tunnel, and a radially graded mesh extending to the model boundaries. The model dimensions and
zoning selected for the grid are shown in the Edit Radial Grid dialog, in Figure 12.2. The Arc mode
in the Alter / Shape tool is then used to create the tunnel periphery based on the arc radii shown in
Figure 12.1, and the Alter / Mark tool is used to mark the boundaries between the three excavation
segments.
The initial grid and marked gridpoints indicating the tunnel segment boundaries are shown in
Figure 12.3. Note that because of the symmetry in the tunnel conditions, only half of the tunnel
is modeled. The symmetry condition implies that the left- and right-side drifts are excavated
simultaneously. If the effect of excavation sequence is considered an issue, then it may be necessary
to model the entire tunnel.
12 - 4
Example Applications
Figure 12.2
dialog
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
8-Dec-03 13:16
step
0
-1.891E+01 <x< 6.891E+01
-7.391E+01 <y< 1.391E+01
-0.500
-1.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
-2.500
Marked Gridpoints
-3.500
-4.500
-5.500
-6.500
0.000
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
12 - 5
The rock behavior is represented by the Mohr-Coulomb model assigned the properties listed in
Figure 12.1. The rockbolts are modeled using rockbolt elements, and the shotcrete is simulated
with elastic liner elements. Note that structural element logic is a plane-stress formulation, so the
value specified for the Youngs modulus, E, is divided by (1 2 ) to correspond to the plane-strain
model (see Section 1.2.2 in Structural Elements).
The model is brought to an initial force-equilibrium state under gravitational loading, with the top
boundary of the mesh representing the ground surface. This initial stage is identified as Step 0 in
Figure 12.1.
12.2.2 Ground Reaction Curve
Before conducting the sequential excavation/support analysis, unsupported-tunnel calculations are
performed, in order to develop ground reaction curves for this model. This procedure is demonstrated for the excavation of the entire tunnel in one stage. Separate ground reaction curves can also
be developed for each tunnel segment. Branch: Ground Reaction Curve, in MSTUNNEL.DAT,
lists the data file for this analysis.
The ground reaction curve is developed by measuring the force on the tunnel boundary at zero
relaxation, and applying an incrementally decreasing amount of this force as a traction while
measuring the corresponding tunnel closure.
The FISH function apply rf, in RELAX TRACTIONS.FIS (Section 12.6.1), is used to apply
tractions along the tunnel boundary. This function first recovers the x- and y-reaction forces at
selected tunnel-boundary gridpoints, and then assigns these forces as tractions (with an opposite
sign) at the same boundary gridpoints, using the APPLY xforce and APPLY yforce commands. The
history keyword is used to reduce the tractions linearly between user-selected traction-multiplier
limits over a specified step interval, defined in relax hist.
Before applying apply rf, the tunnel-boundary gridpoints are identified by using the command
APPLY xvel 0 yvel 0 to assign x- and y-fixity conditions to the selected boundary gridpoints. The
x- and y-fixity conditions identify the selected tunnel-boundary gridpoints to receive tractions.
apply rf applies the traction forces to only those fixed gridpoints. Note that the APPLY remove
command is first used to remove previous fixity conditions before assigning the new fixity conditions.
In order to create the ground reaction curve in this example, the tractions along the entire tunnel
boundary are reduced in 20% increments from the zero relaxation state. At each increment, the
calculated vertical displacement at the tunnel crown is stored in a table versus the relaxation factor
(i.e., the ratio of the current tunnel traction to the initial tunnel traction). FISH function grc is
used to store the results (see Section 12.6.2). Figure 12.4 displays the result for load relaxation of
the entire tunnel boundary from a relaxation factor of 1.0 to 0.2. (Note that at a relaxation factor of
approximately 0.2, the tunnel collapses. Figure 12.5 illustrates the collapse.)
By also relating the tunnel closure to the distance to the tunnel face (e.g., see Figure 8.4 in Section 8),
relaxation factors can be selected to correspond to selected distances to the tunnel face.
12 - 6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
8-Dec-03 15:51
step 16213
Ground Reaction Curve
Relax Factor vs Vert. Disp.
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
(10
-03
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
8-Dec-03 15:51
step 16213
-1.359E+01 <x< 6.359E+01
-6.859E+01 <y< 8.589E+00
-1.000
Y-displacement contours
-8.00E-02
-7.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-5.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-2.00E-02
-1.00E-02
0.00E+00
1.00E-02
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
2E -1
-6.000
Boundary plot
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
0
2E 1
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
3.500
4.500
5.500
12 - 7
For this example, we do not relate the relaxation factors to specific distances to the tunnel face.
We arbitrarily choose a relaxation factor of 0.5 (50% relaxation) to define the tunnel loading state
at which the rockbolt support is installed. The factor is then reduced to 0.25 (75% relaxation) to
develop loads in the rockbolts. The relaxation factor of 0.25 corresponds to the state at which the
shotcrete is installed, and then complete relaxation (100% relaxation) is allowed to develop loads
in the shotcrete.
12.2.3 Construction Simulation
The construction steps of the excavation/support analysis follow the same sequence for each excavation stage. First, the excavation segment is nulled, and tractions are applied and relaxed by 50%.
The tractions are reduced gradually over an interval of 1000 steps and then the model is brought
to a force-equilibrium state. At this state, indicated as Ia, IIa and IIIa in Figure 12.1, the rockbolt
elements are added, representing the rockbolt support. The tunnel tractions are then reduced to 25%
over a 1000 step interval, and the model is brought to equilibrium again. At this state, indicated as
Ib, IIb and IIIb in Figure 12.1, the liner elements are added to represent installation of the shotcrete
lining. The tunnel tractions are then reduced to zero over a 1000 step interval and the model is
brought to equilibrium. The loads that develop in the rockbolts result from tunnel-load relaxation
from 50% to zero, and the loads that develop in the shotcrete result from relaxation from 25% to
zero.
By applying the relaxation over a 1000 step interval, the effects of transient waves are minimized,
and a gradual excavation of the tunnel is simulated. This is demonstrated by Figure 12.6, which
displays radial stress histories at the crown, floor and springline of the tunnel. The histories show
gradual changes in the stresses; if the relaxation loads were applied suddenly (i.e., in one step),
sudden changes would be observed in these histories and a different final state could result. (See
Section 3.10.3 in the Users Guide for further discussion on path-dependency effects of loading.)
The FISH function apply rf is used to apply tractions along the tunnel boundary in the same
manner as discussed previously in Section 12.2.2. For the side excavation, tractions are applied
along the entire boundary of this tunnel segment. For the top-heading excavation, tractions are
applied along the crown and the floor of this tunnel segment; for the bench excavation, tractions
are applied along the floor. The model should remain in equilibrium after each tunnel segment is
nulled and the tractions are applied, before they are relaxed.
12 - 8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 13:40
step 22865
-0.100
-0.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 Ave. SYY
( 1, 52)
3 Ave. SYY
( 1, 31)
4 Ave. SXX
( 17, 40)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-0.300
-0.400
-0.500
-0.600
-0.700
-0.800
-0.900
12
16
20
(10
03
Figure 12.6 Stress histories at the crown (1,52), floor (1,31) and springline
(17,40)
12.3 Results
Typical results for this analysis are shown in Figures 12.7, 12.9 and 12.10. The settlement profile
of the ground surface at the end of the analysis is shown in Figure 12.7. The profile is created with
FISH function settle: y-displacements at the gridpoints along the top of the model are stored in
table 2. See Section 12.6.3.
The axial forces in the rockbolts at the end of each excavation stage are shown in Figure 12.9, and
the axial forces in the shotcrete are shown in Figure 12.10. Note that the sense of the axial force
plot depends on the order in which the structural elements are created. The sense can be changed
by assigning a maximum value with opposite sign following the max keyword when issuing PLOT
struct axial. Figure 12.8 shows the Plot Item Switches dialog, in which the maximum value is set
to -200000 to change the sense of the liner axial force plot.
12 - 9
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 13:40
step 22865
Table Plot
Vert. Dist. vs Dist.
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
-1.600
-1.800
-2.000
10
20
30
40
50
Maximum
switch to change
12 - 10
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 13:32
step
7524
-4.432E+00 <x< 1.655E+01
-4.072E+01 <y< -1.974E+01
-2.600
Rockbolt Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Rockb) -2.383E+04
# 2 (Rockb) -6.366E+04
# 3 (Rockb) -9.091E+04
# 4 (Rockb) -1.103E+05
# 5 (Rockb) -1.031E+05
# 6 (Rockb) -1.016E+05
# 7 (Rockb) -1.048E+05
# 8 (Rockb) -8.041E+04
# 9 (Rockb) -3.259E+04
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.400
-3.800
0.200
0.600
(*10^1)
1.000
1.400
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 13:37
step 15580
-4.432E+00 <x< 1.655E+01
-4.072E+01 <y< -1.974E+01
-2.600
Rockbolt Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Rockb) -1.114E+05
# 2 (Rockb) -1.026E+05
# 3 (Rockb) -1.089E+05
# 4 (Rockb) -1.188E+05
# 5 (Rockb) -1.044E+05
# 6 (Rockb) -1.279E+05
# 7 (Rockb) -1.955E+05
# 8 (Rockb) -1.653E+05
# 9 (Rockb) -1.678E+05
#11 (Rockb) -1.630E+05
#12 (Rockb) -8.910E+04
#13 (Rockb) -8.433E+04
#14 (Rockb) -8.641E+04
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.400
-3.800
0.200
0.600
(*10^1)
1.000
1.400
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 13:40
step 22865
-4.432E+00 <x< 1.655E+01
-4.072E+01 <y< -1.974E+01
-2.600
Rockbolt Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Rockb) -1.375E+05
# 2 (Rockb) -1.464E+05
# 3 (Rockb) -1.220E+05
# 4 (Rockb) -1.850E+05
# 5 (Rockb) -1.335E+05
# 6 (Rockb) -1.626E+05
# 7 (Rockb) -1.966E+05
# 8 (Rockb) -1.665E+05
# 9 (Rockb) -1.691E+05
#11 (Rockb) -1.646E+05
#12 (Rockb) -8.967E+04
#13 (Rockb) -8.655E+04
#14 (Rockb) -8.653E+04
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.400
-3.800
0.200
0.600
(*10^1)
1.000
1.400
12 - 11
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
-2.400
14-Jan-05 13:32
step
7524
-3.201E+00 <x< 1.198E+01
-3.705E+01 <y< -2.187E+01
-2.600
Liner Plot
-2.800
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
#10 (Liner)
6.002E+05
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.200
-3.400
-3.600
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
-2.400
14-Jan-05 13:37
step 15580
-3.201E+00 <x< 1.198E+01
-3.705E+01 <y< -2.187E+01
-2.600
Liner Plot
-2.800
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
#10 (Liner)
9.710E+05
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.200
-3.400
-3.600
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^1)
-2.400
14-Jan-05 13:40
step 22865
-3.201E+00 <x< 1.198E+01
-3.705E+01 <y< -2.187E+01
-2.600
Liner Plot
-2.800
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
#10 (Liner)
9.198E+05
Marked Gridpoints
-3.000
-3.200
-3.400
-3.600
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^1)
0.600
0.800
1.000
12 - 12
Example Applications
12.4 References
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. FLAC 3D (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in 3 Dimensions),
Version 2.1. Minneapolis: ICG, 2002.
Panet, M. Time-Dependent Deformations in Underground Works, in Proceedings of the 4th
ISRM Congress (Montreux), Vol. 3, pp. 279-289. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema and the Swiss
Society for Soil and Rock Mechanics, 1979.
12 - 13
12 - 14
Example Applications
12 - 15
call grc.fis
set relax value=0.8 isn=2
grc
save ms gr1.sav
;... State: ms gr2.sav ....
apply remove mech from 1,32 to 1,52
apply xvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
cycle 1
set echo off
call relax tractions.fis
set ninc=1000 rstart=1.0 rstop=0.8 ib ap=1 ie ap=17 jb ap=32 je ap=52
relax tractions
fix x i 1 j 52
fix x i 1 j 32
solve
set echo off
call grc.fis
set relax value=0.64 isn=3
grc
save ms gr2.sav
;... State: ms gr3.sav ....
apply remove mech from 1,32 to 1,52
apply xvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
cycle 1
set echo off
call relax tractions.fis
set ninc=1000 rstart=1.0 rstop=0.8 ib ap=1 ie ap=17 jb ap=32 je ap=52
relax tractions
fix x i 1 j 52
fix x i 1 j 32
solve
set echo off
call grc.fis
set relax value=0.512 isn=4
grc
save ms gr3.sav
;... State: ms gr4.sav ....
apply remove mech from 1,32 to 1,52
apply xvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
cycle 1
12 - 16
Example Applications
12 - 17
grc
save ms gr6.sav
;... State: ms gr7.sav ....
apply remove mech from 1,32 to 1,52
apply xvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,32 to 1,52
cycle 1
set echo off
call relax tractions.fis
set ninc=1000 rstart=1.0 rstop=0.8 ib ap=1 ie ap=17 jb ap=32 je ap=52
relax tractions
fix x i 1 j 52
fix x i 1 j 32
cycle 5000
set echo off
call grc.fis
set relax value=0.21 isn=8
grc
save ms gr7.sav
;*** Branch: Multi-Stage Tunnel ****
new
;... State: ms 0.sav ....
config
grid 44,80
gen (0.0,-40.0) (0.0,-20.0) (12.0,-20.0) (12.0,-40.0) i 1 25 j 21 61
gen (0.0,-20.0) (0.0,0.0) (50.0,0.0) (12.0,-20.0) ratio 1.0,1.1 &
i 1 25 j 61 81
gen (0.0,-60.0) (0.0,-40.0) (12.0,-40.0) (50.0,-60.0) &
ratio 1.0,0.9090909 i 1 25 j 1 21
gen (12.0,-40.0) (12.0,-20.0) (50.0,0.0) (50.0,-60.0) &
ratio 1.1,1.0 i 25 45 j 21 61
model elastic i=1,24 j=21,60
model elastic i=1,24 j=61,80
model elastic i=1,24 j=1,20
model elastic i=25,44 j=21,60
attach aside from 25 1 to 25 21 bside from 45 21 to 25 21
attach aside from 25 81 to 25 61 bside from 45 61 to 25 61
gen arc 0.0,-33.93 5.5,-26.0 35
gen arc 0.0,-17.65 0.0,-34.65 20
ini x 7.9 y -28.9 i 17 j 44
gen arc 2.0,-31.2 7.9,-28.9 35
gen arc 4.6,-30.2 5.8,-33.55 90
gen arc 12.0,-30.0 5.5,-26.0 60
12 - 18
Example Applications
&
&
&
&
&
&
12 - 19
12 - 20
Example Applications
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
12 - 21
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
12 - 22
Example Applications
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
55
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
12 - 23
12 - 24
Example Applications
12 - 25
12 - 26
Example Applications
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
12 - 27
12 - 28
12.6.2 GRC.FIS
;Name:grc
;Diagram:
;Input:relax value/float/1.0/relaxation factor
;Input:isn/int/1/step number
def grc
xtable(1,isn) = -ydisp(1,52)
ytable(1,isn) = relax value
end
12.6.3 SETTLE.FIS
;Name:settle
;Diagram:
; generate a settlement profile plot
def settle
loop i1 (1,25)
xtable(2,i1) = x(i1,jgp)
ytable(2,i1) = ydisp(i1,jgp)
end loop
end
Example Applications
FISH REFERENCE
2-1
2 FISH REFERENCE
2.1 Introduction and Overview
This section contains a detailed reference to the FISH language. Following the introduction, Section 2.2 describes the rules of the language and how variables and functions are used. Section 2.3
explains FISH statements, and Section 2.4 describes how the FISH language links with FLAC.
Pre-defined FISH variables, functions and arrays are described in Section 2.5.
FISH is a programming language embedded within FLAC that enables the user to define new
variables and functions. These functions may be used to extend FLAC s usefulness or add userdefined features. For example, new variables may be plotted or printed, special grid generators
may be implemented, servo-control may be applied to a numerical test, unusual distributions of
properties may be specified, and parameter studies may be automated.
FISH is a compiler (rather than an interpreter). Programs entered via a FLAC data file are
translated into a list of instructions (in pseudo-code) stored in FLAC s memory space; the original
source program is not retained by FLAC. Whenever a FISH function is invoked, its compiled
pseudo-code is executed. The use of compiled code rather than interpreted source code
enables programs to run much faster. However, unlike a compiler, variable names and values
are available for printing at any time; values may be modified by the user by using FLAC s SET
command.
FISH programs are simply embedded in a normal FLAC data file lines following the word DEFINE
are processed as a FISH function; the function terminates when the word END is encountered.
Functions may invoke other functions, which may invoke others, and so on. The order in which
functions are defined does not matter as long as they are all defined before they are used (e.g.,
invoked by a FLAC command). Since the compiled form of a FISH function is stored in FLAC s
memory space, the SAVE command saves the function and the current values of associated variables.
Section 2.6 discusses extensions to FISH for file manipulation, and Section 2.7 describes the use
of socket communication to transfer data between FLAC and another Itasca code. The use of these
functions requires a reasonable understanding of programming techniques and constructs; FISH
can be used without reference to these extensions.
FISH can also be used to implement user-written constitutive models; the procedure is described in
Section 2.8. Finally, in Section 2.9, an execution-speed optimizer which can be applied to certain
FISH functions is discussed.
A summary of FISH language and intrinsic names is provided in Section 2 in the Command and
FISH Reference Summary.
2-2
FISH in FLAC
fun 2
fun 3
where the names correspond to functions written by the user; these functions
are executed in order. The functions need not be defined prior to their reference
on a line of FISH code (i.e., forward references are allowed).
3. The line consists of an assignment statement (i.e., the expression on the right
of the = sign is evaluated and the value given to the variable or function name
on the left of the = sign).
4. The line consists of a FLAC command, provided that the line is embedded in a
section of FISH code delimited by the COMMAND ENDCOMMAND statements
(see Section 2.3.3).
5. The line is blank or starts with a semicolon.
FISH variables, function names and statements must be spelled out in full; they cannot be truncated,
as in FLAC commands. No continuation lines are allowed; intermediate variables may be used to
split complex expressions. FISH is case-insensitive by default i.e., it makes no distinction
between uppercase and lowercase letters; all names are converted to lowercase letters. Spaces
are significant (unlike in FORTRAN) and serve to separate variables, keywords, and so on; no
embedded blanks are allowed in variable or function names. Extra spaces may be used to improve
readability for example, by indenting loops and conditional clauses. Any characters following
a semicolon ( ; ) are ignored; comments may be embedded in a FISH program by preceding them
with a semicolon. Blank lines may be embedded in a FISH program.
FISH REFERENCE
2-3
2-4
FISH in FLAC
Table 2.1
List of words in FLAC and FISH that may conflict with chosen names
abs
clock
elastic
gpp
mat inverse
power
acos
close
else
grand
mat transpose
pp
and
cm max
end
grid
max
preparse
angle
columns
end command
gwdt
maxdt
anisotropic
command
end if
gwtdel
mechanical
prop
apply
config
end loop
gwtime
mem
pslow
app pnt
constitutive model
end section
g2flow
memory
p stress
appgw pnt
cos
error
hbm
message
quit
appth pnt
cparse
exit
hbs
min
area
crdt
exp
help
mindt
range
array
creep
ex 1, ex 2, etc.
his
mode
rayleigh
asin
crtdel
ep
hisfile
model
read
aspect
crtime
ev p
ieb
mohr-coulomb
reset
asxx
csc
ev tot
ieb pnt
monchrome
restore
asxy
csxx
f prop
ierr
movie
return
asyy
csxy
f2mod
if
ncontours
rff pnt
aszz
csyy
filcolor
iface
ncwrite
rsat
atan
cszz
fish
igp
nerr
r integrate
atan2
cycle
fish msg
imem
nerr fish
s 3dd
attach
damp
fix
implicit
new
s dyn
att pnt
damping
flags
in
ngrwater
s echo
a3
datum
float
information
nmechanical
s flow
a4
define
flow
initial
not
s mech
back
degrad
flprop
int
nstep
s mess
baud
density
fmem
interface
nthermal
s movie
bicoe
do update
fmod
int pnt
null
s tens
bsxx
dsxx
fobl
itasca
nwgpp
s therm
bsxy
dsxy
fobu
izones
open
sat
bsyy
dsyy
force
jerr
or
save
bszz
dszz
fos
jgp
out
sclin
call
dt
fos f
jzones
output
sclose
case
dump
free
large
pac
section
case of
dy
friend
legend
palette
set
cf axi
dy state
fsi
lff pnt
parse
sgn
cf creep
dydt
fsr
limits
pfast
sig1
cf dyn
dydt gpi
fstring
list
pi
sig2
cf ext
dydt gpj
ftens
lmul
plot
sin
cf gw
dynamic
gen
ln
pltangle
small
cf ps
dytdel
get mem
log
pltcohesion
sm max
cf therm
dytime
gflow
loop
pltfriction
solve
cga
echo
gmsmul
lose mem
plttension
sopen
char
ega
gp copy
mark
poro2
sqrt
FISH REFERENCE
2-5
Table 2.1 List of words in FLAC and FISH that may conflict with chosen names (cont.)
sread
v nmech
yacc
ss
v ntherm
ybody
ssi
vector
ydisp
ssr
vga
yflow
state
vgpcnw
yforce
step
vgpcw
ygrav
stop
vgp0
ynwflow
string
viscous
yreaction
structure
visrat
ytable
str pnt
vol strain
yvel
swrite
vs
z copy
sxx
vsi
z model
sxy
vsr
z prop
sys
vsxx
zart
syy
vsxy
zde11
szz
vsyy
zde12
table
vszz
zde22
table size
water
zde33
tab pnt
wbiot
zdpp
tan
wbulk
zdrot
temperature
wdens
zmsmul
tenflg
while stepping
zporos
tension
window
zsub
tflow
wipp
zs11
thdt
wk11
zs12
thermal
wk12
zs22
theta
wk22
zs33
thtdel
write
ztea
thtime
zteb
title
xacc
ztec
tolerance
xbody
zted
track
xdisp
ztsa
trac pnt
xflow
ztsb
type
xforce
ztsc
ubiquitous
xform
ztsd
ucs
xgrav
zvisc
zxbar
udm pnt
xnwflow
umul
xreaction
unbal
xtable
unmark
xvel
urand
xywrite
v ngw
2-6
FISH in FLAC
msg = +string(m)
loop n (1,3)
hed = hed +
+string(n)
msg = msg + +string(var(m,n))
end_loop
if m = 1
dum = out(hed)
end_if
dum = out(msg)
end_loop
end
afill
ashow
1
5.7713E-001
8.3807E-001
6.3214E-001
8.5974E-001
2
6.2307E-001
3.3640E-001
5.4165E-002
9.2797E-001
3
7.6974E-001
8.5697E-001
1.8227E-001
9.6332E-001
FISH REFERENCE
2-7
The value of xxx is changed when the function is executed. The variable aa is computed locally,
but the existing value of bb is used in the computation of xxx. If values are not explicitly given
to variables, they default to zero (integer). It is not necessary for a function to assign a value to
the variable corresponding to its name. The function xxx may be invoked in one of the following
ways:
(1) as a single word xxx on a FISH input line;
(2) as the variable xxx in a FISH formula e.g.,
new var = (sqrt(xxx)/5.6)4;
2-8
FISH in FLAC
A function may be referred to in another function before it is defined; the FISH compiler simply
creates a symbol at the time of first mention and then links all references to the function when it is
defined by a DEFINE command. A function can be deleted or redefined.
Function calls may be nested to any level i.e., functions may refer to other functions, which may
refer to others, ad infinitum. However, recursive function calls are not allowed (i.e., execution of a
function must not invoke that same function). Example 2.3 shows a recursive function call, which
is not allowed, because the name of the defining function is used in such a way that the function
will try to call itself. The example will produce an error on execution.
Example 2.3 A recursive function call
new
def stress_sum
stress_sum = 0.0
loop i (1,izones)
stress_sum = stress_sum + sxx(i,1)
end_loop
end
The difference between variables and functions is that functions are always executed whenever
their name is mentioned; variables simply convey their current values. However, the execution of a
function may cause other variables (as opposed to functions) to be evaluated. This effect is useful,
for example, when several histories of FISH variables are required only one function is necessary
in order to evaluate several quantities, as in Example 2.5.
FISH REFERENCE
2-9
The function h var 1 would be executed by FLAC s history logic every few steps but, as a side
effect, the values of h var 2 and h var 3 would also be computed and used as history variables.
2.2.5 Data Types
There are three data types used for FISH variables or function values:
1. Integer (exact numbers in the range -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647);
2. Floating-point (approximate numbers with about six decimal digits of precision, with
a range of approximately 1035 to 1035 ); and
3. String (packed sequence of any printable characters; the sequence may be any length,
but it will be truncated on the printout. Strings are denoted in FISH and FLAC by a
sequence of characters enclosed by single quotes e.g., Have a nice day note
that the use of strings in FLAC is restricted to titles and file names. See Section 2.4.1.)
A variable in FISH can change its type dynamically, depending on the type of the expression to
which it is set. To make this clear, consider the assignment statement
var1 = var2
If var1 and var2 are of different types, then two things are done: first, var1s type is converted to
var2s type; second, var2s data are transferred to var1. In other languages, such as FORTRAN
or C, the type of var1 is not changed, although data conversion is done. By default, all variables
in FISH start their life as integers; however, a statement such as
var1 = 3.4
causes var1 to become a floating-point variable when it is executed. The current type of all
variables may be determined by giving the FLAC command PRINT sh the types are denoted in
the printout.
2 - 10
FISH in FLAC
The dynamic typing mechanism in FISH was devised to make programming easier for nonprogrammers. In languages such as BASIC, numbers are stored in floating-point format, which can
cause difficulties when integers are needed for, say, loop counters. In FISH, the type of the variable
adjusts naturally to the context in which it is used. For example, in the following code fragment:
n = n + 2
xx = xx + 3.5
the variable n will be an integer and will be incremented by exactly 2, and the variable xx will
be a floating-point number, subject to the usual truncation error but capable of handling a much
bigger dynamic range. The rules governing type conversion in arithmetic operations are explained
in Section 2.2.6. The type of a variable is determined by the type of the object on the right-hand
side of an assignment statement; this applies both to FISH statements and to assignments done with
the FLAC SET command. Both types of assignment may be used to change the type of a variable
according to the value specified, as follows.
1. An integer assignment (digits 0-9 only) will cause the variable to become an
integer (e.g., var1 = 334).
2. If the assigned number has a decimal point or an exponent denoted by e
or E, then the variable will become a floating-point number (e.g., var1 =
3e5; var2 = -1.2).
3. If the assignment is delimited by single quotes, the variable becomes a string,
with the value taken to be the list of characters inside the quotes (e.g., var1
= Have a nice day).
Type conversion is also done in assignments involving pre-defined variables or functions; these
rules are presented in Section 2.5.
A variables type can be pre-assigned during the compilation phase if required: the FISH statements
INT, FLOAT and STRING cause the associated variable to be initialized to the given type. This is
discussed in Section 2.3.1. Normally, it is unnecessary to do pre-assignment, except for variables
used in constitutive models that will be optimized (see Sections 2.8 and 2.9).
2.2.6 Arithmetic: Expressions and Type Conversions
Arithmetic follows the conventions used in most languages. The symbols
/ * - +
denote exponentiation, division, multiplication, subtraction and addition, respectively, and are applied in the order of precedence given. Arbitrary numbers of parentheses may be used to render
explicit the order of evaluation; expressions within parentheses are evaluated before anything else.
Inner parentheses are evaluated first. As an example, FISH evaluates the following variable xx as
133:
xx = 6/3*43+5
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 11
If there is any doubt about the order in which arithmetic operators are applied, then parentheses
should be used for clarification.
If either of the two arguments in an arithmetic operation are of floating-point type, then the result
will be floating-point. If both of the arguments are integers, then the result will be integer. It is
important to note that the division of one integer by another causes truncation of the result for
example, 5/2 produces the result 2, and 5/6 produces the result 0.
2.2.7 Strings
There are three main FISH intrinsic functions that are available to manipulate strings.
in(var)
out(s)
prints out the message contained in s to the screen (and to the log file,
if it is open). The variable s must be of type string. The returned
value of the function is zero if no error is detected, and 1 if there is
an error in the argument (e.g., if s is not a string).
string(var)
converts var to type string. If var is already of type string, then the
function simply returns var as its value. If var is int or float, then a
character string will be returned that corresponds to the number as it
would be printed out. However, no blanks are included in the string.
One use of these functions is to control interactive input and output. Example 2.6 demonstrates
this for user-supplied input parameters for Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio.
2 - 12
FISH in FLAC
The only arithmetic operation that is valid for string variables is addition; as demonstrated in
Example 2.6, this causes two strings to be concatenated.
It is invalid for only one argument in an arithmetic operation to be a string variable. The intrinsic
function string( ) must be used if a number is to be included as part of a string variable (see variable
xx in Example 2.6). Also, note the use of intrinsic function type( ), which identifies the type of
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 13
argument (see Section 2.5.5). Further string manipulation may be performed with the intrinsic
functions parse, pre parse and cparse, as described in Section 2.6.
2.2.8 Deleting and Redefining FISH Functions
A FISH function can be deleted or redefined. If the same name as an existing function is given on a
DEFINE line, the code corresponding to the old function is first deleted (and a warning printed), and
the new code substituted. If an END immediately follows the DEFINE line, then no new function
is created: i.e., the old function is just deleted. Such a null function is also assumed to be
nonexistent, even if some declarative statements come between the DEFINE and END (e.g., float,
int, etc.). The following are some notes of caution.
1. A constitutive model function cannot be deleted or redefined (since existing
grid variables would be left as orphans).
2. The variables that are used in a function still exist even if the function is deleted;
only the code is deleted. Since variables are global, it is likely that they are
used elsewhere. The name of a deleted function will still exist as a variable.
3. If a function is replaced by another of the same name, all calls to the old function
will be replaced automatically by calls to the new one, as demonstrated in
Example 2.7.
Example 2.7 Replacing FISH functions with the same name
def joe
ii = out( a function)
end
def fred
joe
end
fred
; ... old message will appear
def joe
ii = out( a new function)
end
fred
; ... new message will appear
2 - 14
FISH in FLAC
ARRAY
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 15
b) An array name may be given the type int or float prior to the
ARRAY statement, in order to initialize all elements to the given
type: e.g.,
float abc
array abc(3,3)
CONSTITUTIVEMODEL <n>
If this statement appears at the beginning of a user-defined function, then the function
is taken to be a new constitutive model. It will be executed in exactly the same way
as a built-in constitutive model i.e., called four times (once for each sub-zone)
for each FLAC zone at each calculation step. There are some precise rules that
apply to the structure of a constitutive function and the variables that are available at
execution time. Section 2.8 consists of a users guide to the writing of constitutive
models.
Synonym: CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
2 - 16
FISH in FLAC
INT
FLOAT
STRING
FRIEND
func1 func2 . . .
The FRIEND statement should only appear in a constitutive model function. It indicates that all variables and code within the named function(s) are to be treated as if
they were embedded within the body of the constitutive function. In particular, state
variables are recognized within friend functions. See Section 2.8.7 for more details.
WHILESTEPPING
If this statement appears anywhere within a user-defined function, then the function is
always executed automatically at the start of every FLAC step. The WHILESTEPPING
attribute can later be disabled with the use of the SET shcall 0 remove command
(see Section 2.4.4).
The shcall (see the command SET shcall) statement provides more flexibility and
control than the WHILESTEPPING command, and its use is preferred.
Synonym: WHILE STEPPING
2.3.2 Control Statements
The following statements serve to direct the flow of control during execution of a FISH function.
Their position in the function is of critical importance, unlike the specification statements described
above.
DEFINE
function-name
END
The FISH program between the DEFINE and END commands is compiled and stored in
FLAC s memory space. The compiled version of the function is executed whenever
its name is mentioned, as explained in Section 2.2.4. The function name (which
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 17
should be chosen according to the rules in Section 2.2.2) does not need to be assigned
a value in the program section that follows.
CASEOF
expr
CASE
ENDCASE
The object expr following CASEOF can be any valid algebraic expression; when
evaluated, it will be converted to an integer. The items i1, i2, i3, . . . must be integers
(not symbols) in the range 0 to 255. If the value of expr equals i1, then control jumps
to the statements following the CASE i1 statement; execution then continues until
the next CASE statement is encountered. Control then jumps to the code following
the ENDCASE statement; there is no fall-through as in the C language. Similar
jumps are executed if the value of expr equals i2, i3, and so on. If the value of
expr does not equal the numbers associated with any of the CASE statements, then
any code immediately following the CASEOF statement is executed, with a jump
to ENDCASE when the first CASE is encountered. If the value of expr is less than
zero or greater than the greatest number associated with any of the CASEs, then an
execution error is signaled, and processing stops. The numbers n (e.g., i1, i2, i3)
need not be sequential or contiguous, but no duplicate numbers may exist.
CASEOF . . . ENDCASE sections may be nested to any degree; there will be no conflict
between CASE numbers in the different levels of nesting e.g., several instances of
CASE 5 may appear, provided that they are all associated with different nesting levels.
The use of CASE statements allows rapid decisions to be made (much more quickly
than for a series of IF . . . ENDIF statements). However, the penalty is that some
memory is consumed; the amount of memory depends on the maximum numerical
2 - 18
FISH in FLAC
value associated with the CASE statements. The memory consumed is one plus the
maximum CASE number in double-words (four-byte units).
IF
ELSE
ENDIF
These statements allow conditional execution of FISH code segments; ELSE is optional and the word THEN may be omitted if desired. The item test consists of one
of the following symbols, or symbol pairs:
= # > < >= <=
The meanings are standard, except for #, which means not equal. The items
expr1 and expr2 are any valid algebraic expressions (which can involve functions,
FLAC variables, and so on). If the test is true, then the statements immediately
following IF are executed until ELSE or ENDIF is encountered. If the test is false,
the statements between ELSE and ENDIF are executed if the ELSE statement exists;
otherwise, control jumps to the first line after ENDIF. All the given test symbols may
be applied when expressions expr1 and expr2 evaluate to integers or floating-point
values (or a mixture). If both expressions evaluate to strings, then only two tests
are valid: = and #; all other operations are invalid for strings. Strings must match
exactly for equality.
IF . . . ELSE . . . ENDIF clauses can be nested to any depth.
Synonym: END IF
EXIT
This statement causes an unconditional jump to the end of the current function.
EXIT SECTION
This statement causes an unconditional jump to the end of a SECTION; FISH program
sections are explained below.
LOOP
ENDLOOP
or
LOOP
ENDLOOP
The FISH program lines between LOOP and ENDLOOP are executed repeatedly until
certain conditions are met. In the first form, which uses an integer counter, var is
given the value of expr1 initially, and is incremented by 1 at the end of each loop
execution until it obtains the value of expr2. Note that expr1 and expr2 (which may
be arbitrary algebraic expressions) are evaluated at the start of the loop; redefinition
of their component variables within the loop has no effect on the number of loop
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 19
executions. var is a single integer variable; it may be used in expressions within the
loop (even in functions called from within the loop) and may even be redefined.
In the second form of the LOOP structure, the loop body is executed while the
test condition is true; otherwise, control passes to the next line after the ENDLOOP
statement. The form of test is identical to that described for the IF statement. The
expressions may involve floating-point variables as well as integers; the use of strings
and pointers is also permitted under the same conditions that apply to the IF statement.
The two forms of the LOOP structure may be contrasted. In the first, the test is done
at the end of the loop (so there will be at least one pass through the loop); in the
second, the test is done at the start of the loop (so the loop will be bypassed if the
test is false initially). Loops may be nested to any depth.
Synonym: END LOOP
SECTION
ENDSECTION
The FISH language does not have a GO TO statement. The SECTION construct
allows control to jump forward in a controlled manner. The statements SECTION
. . . ENDSECTION may enclose any number of lines of FISH code; they do not affect
the operation in any way. However, an EXIT SECTION statement within the scope of
the section so defined will cause control to jump directly to the end of the section.
Any number of these jumps may be embedded within the section. The ENDSECTION
statement acts as a label, similar to the target of a GO TO statement in C or FORTRAN. The logic is cleaner, however, because control may not pass to anywhere
outside the defined section, and flow is always downward. Sections may not be
nested; there may be many sections in a function, but they must not overlap or be
contained within each other.
Synonym: END SECTION
2.3.3 FLAC Command Execution
COMMAND
ENDCOMMAND
FLAC commands may be inserted between this pair of FISH statements; the commands will be interpreted when the FISH function is executed. There are a number of
restrictions concerning the embedding of FLAC commands within a FISH function.
The NEW and RESTORE commands are not permitted to be invoked from within a
FISH function. The lines found between a COMMAND ENDCOMMAND pair are
simply stored by FISH as a list of symbols; they are not checked at all, and the
function must be executed before any errors can be detected.
2 - 20
FISH in FLAC
A FISH function may appear within a COMMAND ENDCOMMAND pair, and may
not contain the COMMAND ENDCOMMAND statements. A function that contains
the WHILESTEPPING statement, or a function that is the subject of a shcall, may not
contain the COMMAND statement.
Comment lines (starting with ;) are taken as FLAC comments, rather than FISH
comments it may be useful to embed an explanatory message within a function,
to be printed out when the function is invoked. If the echo mode is off (SET echo =
off), then any FLAC commands coming from the function are not displayed to the
screen or recorded to the log file.
Synonym: END COMMAND
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 21
CONFIG
extra n
The extra keyword, given in the CONFIG command, causes space for extra grid
variables to be allocated the value n specifies the number of extra variables. Such
variables may be used as scratch-pad space by a FISH function, or may be used
to store some grid-related quantities that are later printed or plotted. The extra grid
arrays are referred to in a FISH function as ex 1(i,j) . . . ex n(i,j), where
n is the number given in the CONFIG command. The extra grid variables are always
of the floating-point type.
HISTORY
var
causes a history of the FISH variable or function to be taken during stepping. If var is
a function, then it will be evaluated every time that histories are stored (controlled by
HISTORY nstep command); it is not necessary to register the function with a shcall.
If var is a FISH variable, then its current value will be taken. Hence, caution should
be exercised when using variables (rather than functions) for histories. var may also
be a material property name; either of a built-in model or a user-defined model. In
both cases, the property name must be given in full, followed by the zone indices
(i, j). The history may be plotted in the usual way.
HISTORY
ex n (i,j)
causes a history of the extra grid variable ex n (i, j) to be taken during stepping. n is
the numerical identifier for the extra grid variable, and i, j correspond to grid indices.
INITIAL
ex n value
initializes the values of the extra grid variable, number n. The var keyword may also
be used, as explained in Section 1.2 in the Command Reference, under the INITIAL
command.
MODEL
var
sets the model (in a particular range of zones) to the user-defined constitutive model
var, written as a FISH function. If the model defines new properties, then the names
of these may be given as parameters to the PROPERTY, PRINT and PLOT commands.
2 - 22
PLOT
FISH in FLAC
ex n <zone>
plots contours of the extra grid variable n, treating it as a scalar quantity. FLAC will
assume the variable is associated with gridpoints unless the keyword zone is given,
which indicates that the extra grid variable is associated with zone centroids.
PLOT
ex n,m <zone>
plots vectors of the extra grid variables n and m, where n corresponds to the xcomponent of the vector and m corresponds to the y-component. FLAC will assume
the variables are associated with gridpoints unless the keyword zone is given, which
indicates that the extra grid variables are associated with zone centroids.
PLOT
ex n,m,l <zone>
plots tensors constructed from the extra grid variables n, m and l, where n corresponds
to the xx-component of the tensor, m corresponds to the yy-component, and l to
the xy-component. (The tensor is assumed to be symmetric.) FLAC assumes the
variables are associated with gridpoints unless the keyword zone is given, which
indicates that the extra grid variables are associated with zone centroids.
var
prints out the value of the FISH variable var. var is also executed (and everything
else that it calls) if it is a FISH function.
ex n <zone>
prints out the values of the extra grid variable, number n. The usual range limits may
be used, as with any other FLAC grid variable. The keyword zone inhibits printing
of the last row and column (which are only used for gridpoints).
sh
prints out a list of FISH symbols and either their current values or an indication of
their type. c m indicates a constitutive model function. Variables with names that
start with a dollar sign ($) are not printed with the above command, but they may be
printed with the command PRINT $sh.
shcall
prints the current associations between shcall ID numbers and FISH functions (see
Section 2.4.4).
SET
FISH REFERENCE
SET
2 - 23
var value
sets the value of a FISH variable var to the given value. The given number also
determines the type given to var, as explained in Section 2.2.5. Note that value
may itself be a FISH variable or function name; in this case, its value and type are
transferred to var. Neither var nor value may be a FISH array name.
TITLE
@str
changes the stored title (used on plots, for example) to the value of the FISH string
variable str. Note that the variable name must be preceded by the @ sign.
Similarly, @str may appear anywhere that a file name is expected for example,
in commands SAVE, RESTORE, LOG and HISTORY. The FISH string stored in str is
used as the file name.
2 - 24
FISH in FLAC
The primary way of executing a FISH function from FLAC is to give its name as FLAC input. In
this way, FISH function names act just like regular commands in FLAC. However, no parameters
may follow the function name so given. If parameters are to be passed to the function, then they
must be set beforehand with the SET command (explained later).
There is another important link between FISH and FLAC: a FISH symbol (variable or function
name) may be substituted anywhere in a FLAC command that a number is expected. This is a very
powerful feature, because data files can be set up with symbols rather than with actual numbers.
Example 2.9 shows how a data file that is independent of the mesh density can be constructed
the same geometry (a hole in the center of a block) can be set up for any number of elements in the
mesh simply by changing two numbers on the SET command.
Example 2.9 FISH function with generic mesh handling capability
new
def make_hole
right = 20.0 ; physical size of block & hole
top
= 20.0
xcen = 12.0
ycen = 10.0
rad
= 6.0
ihole = int(iright * xcen / right)
jhole = int(jtop * ycen / top)
end
; --- FLAC input --set iright=10 jtop=15
; number of zones
make_hole
; for this example
grid iright, jtop
gen 0,0 0,top right,top right,0
model elas
gen circ xcen, ycen rad
model null reg=ihole,jhole
Example 2.9 illustrates several of the points made above: the function make hole is invoked by
giving its name on a line; the parameters controlling the function are given beforehand with the SET
command; there are no numerical values in the FLAC input they are all replaced by symbols.
String variables may be used in a similar way, but their use is much more restricted compared to the
use of numerical variables. A FISH string variable may be substituted (a) wherever a file name is
required, or (b) as a parameter to the TITLE command. In these cases, the @ sign must be attached to
the FISH name of the variable, so that FLAC can distinguish between a literal name and a variable
standing for a name. Example 2.10 illustrates the syntax.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 25
The intrinsic function string( ) is described in Sections 2.2.7 and 2.5.5; it converts a number to a
string.
Another important method of using a FISH function is to control a FLAC run or a series of FLAC
operations. FLAC commands are placed within a COMMAND . . . ENDCOMMAND section in the
function. The whole section may be within a loop, and parameters may be passed to FLAC commands.
This approach is illustrated in Example 2.11, in which 14 complete runs are done, each with a
different value of Poissons ratio. The results are summarized by a movie which displays the
exaggerated grid distortion for each case in sequence.
Example 2.11 Controlling a series of FLAC runs
def series
p_rat = -0.9
loop nn (1,14)
s_mod = youngs / (2.0 * (1.0 + p_rat))
b_mod = youngs / (3.0 * (1.0 - 2.0 * p_rat))
t_var = Poissons ratio = + string(p_rat)
command
ini sxx = 0.0 syy = 0.0 sxy = 0.0
ini xvel = 0.0 yvel 0.0 xdis = 0.0 ydis = 0.0
prop shear=s_mod bulk=b_mod
step 200
title @t_var
plot hold grid mag 800
end_command
p_rat = p_rat + 0.1
end_loop
2 - 26
FISH in FLAC
end
grid 5 5
mod elas
prop dens=2000
set grav 10
fix x y j=1
set youngs 1e8
movie file s.mov on
window -2 7 -2 7
series
For each run (i.e., execution of the loop), all grid variables are reset and properties redefined.
The title is also redefined, so that the current value of Poissons ratio is displayed on each plotted
screen. For successful movies, it is usually necessary to specify a fixed window and fixed scales (e.g.,
magnification, vector scales or contour intervals) so that comparison between frames is meaningful.
2.4.3 Error Handling
FLAC has a built-in error-handling facility that is invoked when some part of the program detects an
error. There is a scheme for returning control to the user in an orderly fashion, no matter where the
error may have been detected. The same logic may be accessed by a user-written FISH function,
by using the pre-defined scalars error, nerr, ierr and jerr (see Section 2.5.1 for a complete list of
scalars).
If a FISH function sets error to a nonzero value (e.g., 1), then the error-handling facility of FLAC
is invoked immediately, and a message is printed. For example, stepping and FISH processing stop
as soon as error is set. The message that is printed depends on the value of nerr that is set:
nerr
0
no message
>0
<0
The value of the FISH variable fish msg is displayed if it contains a string;
otherwise, nothing is printed. The FISH function that sets nerr should assign
a string to fish msg, which should not be a function name. If fish msg
does not exist as a FISH variable, then a generic message is signaled.
The value of nerr may also be tested. It will contain the last error number to be processed by FLAC.
The variables ierr and jerr correspond to the grid (i, j) numbers that are displayed by some messages.
If nerr is tested in an optimized function, the value of zero will always be returned.
It is important to note that execution of a FISH function is terminated immediately after the statement
error = 1 is encountered; all required assignments (e.g., setting nerr and sh msg) should be
done before setting error. Note that error can also be tested, but it always returns a value of zero.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 27
The error-handling mechanism may also be used in situations that do not involve errors. For
example, stepping may be halted when a certain condition is detected, as illustrated in Example 2.12.
Example 2.12 Using the Error Handler to control a run
new
def ww
while_stepping
if unbal < 1e2 then
if step > 5 then
nerr = -1
fish_msg= Unbalanced force is now:
error=1
end_if
end_if
end
grid 5 5
m e
pro d 1000 sh 1e8 bu 2e8
fix x y j=1
set grav 10
step 1000
+string(unbal)
The run will stop when the unbalanced force is less than the set value. Note that, in this example,
the test of step is necessary because the unbalanced force is zero at the start of stepping.
2.4.4 FISHCALL
FISH functions may be called from several places in the FLAC program. The form of the command
is
SET
Setting a shcall causes the FISH function name to be called from FLAC from a location determined
by the value of ID number n. Currently, the ID numbers shown in Table 2.2 are assigned (at present,
they are all in the calculation cycle). The numbers indicate the position where shcall is located in
the program. Note that ID numbers (in Table 2.2) are placed between specific components of the
calculation cycle. This indicates the stage at which the corresponding FISH function is called. For
example, a function associated with ID 1 would be called just before the stress calculation (stresses
from velocities); ID 4 functions would be called just after.
The ID number 0 also corresponds to functions that contain the WHILE STEPPING statement i.e.,
these functions are automatically mapped to ID 0. Any number of functions may be associated
with the same ID number (although the order in which they are called is undefined; if the order is
important, then one master function should be called, which then calls a series of sub-functions).
2 - 28
FISH in FLAC
Also, any number of ID numbers may be associated with one FISH function. In this case, the same
function will be invoked from several places in the host code.
Parameters may be passed to FISH functions called by using the intrinsic function FC ARG(n),
where n is an argument number. The meanings of the parameters (if any) are listed in Table 2.2.
In addition to the shcall ID numbers shown in Table 2.2, there is also a shcall 20 which can be
called before the calculation cycle. This shcall provides control over the convergence criterion
used in the SOLVE fos command. Arguments available for this shcall are:
fc arg(1) input: lower FOS bracket
fc arg(2) input: upper FOS bracket
fc arg(3) output: set 0 to continue, or 1 to stop solve process
There is a printout keyword shcall (the abbreviation is shc) that lists the current associations
between ID numbers and FISH functions i.e., PRINT shcall.
The SET shcall command normally adds the given name to the list already associated with the
given ID number. However, the keyword remove, placed before the FISH name, causes the FISH
function to be removed from the list. For example,
set fishcall 2 remove xxx
will remove the association between function xxx and ID number 2. Note that a FISH function
may be associated twice (or more) with the same ID number. In this case, it will be called twice
(or more). The remove keyword will remove only one instance of the function name.
FISH REFERENCE
Table 2.2
2 - 29
CONFIG Mode
all modes
(SET ngw = n)
only for ow on
only for ow on
only for ow on
(SET nmech = n)
only for CONFIG thermal
only for CONFIG thermal
all modes
all modes
only for CONFIG gw
only for CONFIG gw
all modes
all modes
only if structures exist
only if structures exist
all modes
all modes
all modes
all modes
2 - 30
FISH in FLAC
The data file in Example 2.13 illustrates the use of a shcall. Function rotation is called just before
the motion calculation in FLAC (ID = 14) in order to apply x- and y-velocity components to rotate
a grid. This example tests the stress calculation in the large-strain mode; the xx and yy stress
components return to their initial values following a cyclic rotation of 30 degrees.
Example 2.13 Illustration of shcall use
;--- test of stress rotation --config extra 4
g 1 1
mo el
def ini_coord
loop i (1,igp)
loop j(1,jgp)
ex_1(i,j)=x(i,j)
ex_2(i,j)=y(i,j)
ex_3(i,j)=sqrt((ex_1(i,j)-xc)2+(ex_2(i,j)-yc)2)
ex_4(i,j)=atan2((x(i,j)-xc),(yc-y(i,j)))
end_loop
end_loop
end
set xc=0 yc=0
ini_coord
def rotation
tt=tt+delta_t
theta=0.5*amplitude*(1.0-cos(2*pi*freq*tt))
z_area=area(1,1)-1.0
loop i (1,igp)
loop j (1,jgp)
xt=xc+ex_3(i,j)*sin(ex_4(i,j)+theta*degrad)
yt=yc-ex_3(i,j)*cos(ex_4(i,j)+theta*degrad)
xvel(i,j)=xt-x(i,j)
yvel(i,j)=yt-y(i,j)
end_loop
end_loop
end
set fishcall 14 rotation ; ... just before MOTION
fix x y
ini sxx 1
set freq=1 delta_t=1e-3 amplitude=30
set large
pro den 1 she 300 bu 300
hist nstep 2
hist tt
hist theta
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 31
hist sxx i 1 j 1
hist syy i 1 j 1
hist z_area
def series
loop nn (1,10)
command
step 100
plot grid vel stres
end_command
end_loop
end
movie file rotate.mov on
window -1 2 -1 2
series
movie off
plot hold his 3 4 vs 1
2 - 32
FISH in FLAC
app pnt
appgw pnt
pointer to the data structure representing applied groundwater items (integer); see Section 2.5.7
appth pnt
att pnt
cf axi
cf creep
cf dyn
cf ext
cf gw
cf ps
cf therm
cm max
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 33
crtdel
timestep for creep calculation (as set by the SET crdt command)
crtime
creep time
dag
dydt gpi
dydt gpj
dytdel
dytime
error
fos
fos f
current value of multiplier, F , used in SOLVE fos; see Section 2.5.1.1 for more details
gwtdel
gwtime
ieb pnt
ierr
* zone or gridpoint number printed out in some error messages (integer). It can be set or tested; see Section 2.4.3 for
details.
igp
int pnt
izones
jerr
* zone or gridpoint number printed out in some error messages (integer). It can be set or tested; see Section 2.4.3 for
details.
2 - 34
FISH in FLAC
jgp
jzones
large
mech ratio
mode
nerr
nerr sh
s 3dd
s dyn
s echo
s ow
s imp
s log
s mech
s mess
s movie
sm max
step
str pnt
tab pnt
teng
thtdel
timestep for thermal calculation (as set by the SET thdt command)
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 35
thtime
thermal time
trac pnt
udm pnt
unbal
unbow
v ngw
v nmech
v ntherm
wbiot
wbulk
wdens
* density of water
xgrav
ygrav
There is also a group of scalar variables, not listed above, that are only for use in a user-defined
constitutive model (see Section 2.8).
2 - 36
FISH in FLAC
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 37
if nlines > 0
loop n (1,nlines)
oo = read(arr,1)
arrsav(n) = arr(1)
endLoop
endif
nlines = nlines + 1
oo = close
oo = open(result.out,1,1) ; Write out old results + new one
arr(1) = string(nlines)
oo = write(arr,1)
if nlines > 1
loop n (1,nlines-1)
arr(1) = arrsav(n)
oo = write(arr,1)
endLoop
endif
arr(1) = string(fos_f)
oo = write(arr,1)
oo = close
endif
end
set fflag=0
solve fos
The contents of RESULT.OUT are ...
11
1.0000E+20
1.0000E+00
2.0000E+00
1.5000E+00
1.2500E+00
1.3750E+00
1.4375E+00
1.4063E+00
1.3906E+00
1.3984E+00
1.3945E+00
2 - 38
FISH in FLAC
clock
cycle
degrad
do update
grand
pi
step
unbal
urand
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 39
damp
Description
value
static damping
type (integer)
value
dynamic damping
type (integer)
local
combined
Rayleigh
1
2
3
dynamic damping
constant (float)
local and
combined
value
value
value
dynamic Rayleigh
switch (integer)
0
1
2
local
combined
full
mass term only
stiffness only
1
2
ex n
f2mod
2 - 40
FISH in FLAC
ags
2
4
8
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
16384
65536
131072
262144
fmod
* gridpoint fluid modulus. Care should be taken if this variable is changed, since critical fluid timesteps will be altered,
and numerical instability may occur. If in doubt, issue a
STEP command, which causes the timestep to be recomputed.
ftens
g2ow
gow
gmsmul
gpp
nwgpp
rsat
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 41
sat
temp
tow
vga
vgp0
vgpcnw
vgpcw
* x-coordinate
xacc
* x-acceleration
xbody
xdisp
* x-displacement
xforce
xvel
* x-velocity
* y-coordinate
yacc
* y-acceleration
ybody
ydisp
* y-displacement
yforce
2 - 42
FISH in FLAC
yvel
* y-velocity
area
zone area
Area is computed every time it is used. If it is required
frequently, then it should be stored locally, either as a scalar
(inside a loop) or in an ex n array.
density
* zone density
dy state
* special indicator codes for double-yield model (see Section 2 in Theory and Background):
(1) currently at yield in shear
(2) currently at yield in volume
(4) shear yield criterion involves out-of-plane stress (does
not mean at yield)
(8) currently at yield in tension
NOTE: The codes may be added together in the case of multiple yielding; for example, both shear and volumetric yield
would produce an indicator of (3), obtained by adding (1)
for shear yield, and (2) for volumetric yield.
e plastic
et plastic
* accumulated plastic tensile strain (only for strain-softening, double-yield and bilinear models)
ev plastic
* accumulated plastic volumetric strain (only for doubleyield and Cam-clay models)
ev tot
ex n
ags
16
32
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 43
inimodel
model
null model
elastic, isotropic
Mohr-Coulomb
elastic, anisotropic
ubiquitous-joint
strain-hardening/softening
elastic/viscous
WIPP creep
10
double-yield
11
modified Cam-clay
12
Drucker-Prager
13
crushed-salt viscoplastic
14
WIPP-creep viscoplastic
15
Burger-creep viscoplastic
16
bilinear strain-hardening/softening
ubiquitous-joint
-121
-120
poro2
2 - 44
FISH in FLAC
pp
state
plastic state, (for all plasticity models, except Finn and HoekBrown models) as follows:
0
elastic
sxx
* xx-stress
sxy
* xy-stress
syy
* yy-stress
szz
* zz-stress
udcoe
visrat
vol strain
vsxx
vsxy
vsyy
vszz
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 45
wk11
wk12
wk22
xow
xnwow
yow
ynwow
2 - 46
FISH in FLAC
z group
z model
z prop
when i,j are the zone indices, and pname is a string denoting
the property name. Refer to the model description for a list of
property names. Note that the Finn and Hoek-Brown models
* If the zone is not associated with a group name, then var will contain the integer zero. Thus, before
printing out a string, var should be tested, using the type () function: e.g.,
loop i (1, izones)
loop j (1, jzones)
var = z group(i,j)
if type(var) = 3
oo = out(string(i) +,+string(j)+ Group = +var)
else
oo = out(string(i)+,+string(j)+ No group)
endif
endLoop
endLoop
When z group(i,j) is used as the destination in an expression, the source variable is used as the group
name to be associated with the zone (i,j). If the zone already is associated with a group name, the
association is replaced with the new one. If the group name does not already exist, it is created. If
the source variable is not a valid string, nothing is done, and no error is signalled. For example:
grid 10 10
model elas
def qqq
z group(2,2) = fred
z group(3,3) = 33
end
qqq
In this case, zone (2,2) receives the group name fred, but zone (3,3) receives nothing. The
command PRINT group lists fred as a valid group name. A group name can be associated with a
zone even if the zone contains the null model.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 47
zmsmul
ssi(i, j)
ssr(i, j)
ssi3d(i, j)
ssr3d(i, j)
vsi(i, j)
vsr(i, j)
The following two functions provide all the tensor components, rather than invariants, providing
four components in the array arr, which the user must declare beforehand, and which must have at
least four elements (the function itself returns a zero).
fsi(i, j, arr)
fsr(i, j, arr)
2 - 48
FISH in FLAC
The components in arr are ordered in the following way, according to the array index (given as the
first number in the following table).
index 1 xx
index 2 yy
index 3 zz
index 4 xy
The computation of strain rate is identical to that performed by FLAC when it applies constitutive
relations to a zone (see Section 1.3.3.1 in Theory and Background) i.e., strain rates are based on
gridpoint velocities and the current coordinates. Strain increments are computed with the same
equations, but with displacements substituted for velocities. There are two potential problems with
the latter calculation. First, gridpoint displacements may be reset or changed at any time by the
user; they are not used in the calculation process. It is the users responsibility to ensure that
displacements are accumulated over a meaningful interval. Second, the strain increments are based
on the geometry at the time of measurement. If the geometry changes significantly during a largestrain simulation, the measured strain will depend on the assumption made about the reference state
for geometry; there are many different formulations for strain to be found in the literature when
large displacements are involved. The conscientious user may wish to use only the function fsr,
and derive strain increments by accumulation, using some formula of choice.
Note that the functions described take a long time to execute. It is rather inefficient to compute the
values for each zone at each timestep, if strains are only needed for certain zones (e.g., for histories);
the recording logic should be done only for the zones of interest. Further, since each function takes
about the same time to execute, it is better to use fsr or fsi if more than one strain component is
needed for a zone.
Example 2.15 illustrates the application of these functions to calculate strain components. Note
that the arrays must be defined first. The strain increment and strain rate tensors are then calculated
and the arrays are filled with the statements
dum = fsr(i,j,ar)
dum = fsi(i,j,ai)
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 49
def qqq
array ar(4) ai(4)
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
dum
= fsr(i,j,ar)
dum
= fsi(i,j,ai)
ex_1(i,j) = sqrt((ar(1)-ar(2)) 2 + 4.0 * ar(4) 2) / 2.0
ex_2(i,j) = sqrt((ai(1)-ai(2)) 2 + 4.0 * ai(4) 2) / 2.0
ex_3(i,j) = ar(1) + ar(2) + ar(3)
ex_4(i,j) = ai(1) + ai(2) + ai(3)
ex_5(i,j) = ai(1)
ex_6(i,j) = ai(2)
endLoop
endLoop
end
qqq
;--- to test, give the following commands, line by line, & compare
print ssr ex_1 zon
print ssi ex_2 zon
print vsr ex_3 zon
print vsi ex_4 zon
pause
plot hold ex_6 zone fil bou
If you write a function that tries to change a property variable, but the associated model does not exist
at the specified grid location (i,j), then no error will be given; however, no change will be made
to the grid. Similarly, if you try to obtain the value of a property for which no corresponding model
exists at the specified grid location, the value will be returned as zero; no error will be detected.
Consult Section 1.2 in the Command Reference and Section 2 in Theory and Background for
further information on the meanings and usage of the following variables:
2 - 50
FISH in FLAC
a wipp
a 1
a 2
act energy
angle
atable
b f
b wipp
b0
b1
b2
bijoint
bimatrix
biot c
bulk current
bulk mod
cam p
cam q
cap pressure
citable
cjtable
cj2table
cohesion
conductivity
con1
con2
co2
cptable
ctable
c2table
d f
d wipp
density
dilation
di2
djtable
dj2table
dtable
d2table
dy state
econduct
e dot star
e plastic
e primary
ej plastic
especc heat
et plastic
etj plastic
ev plastic
ev tot
f qx
f qy
f t0
f thexp
ff c1
ff c2
ff c3
ff c4
ff count
ff evd
ff latency
ff switch
fjtable
fj2table
frac d
friction
fr2
ftable
f2table
g thexp
gas c
hba
hbs
hbmb
hbsigci
hbs3cv
hb e3plas
hb ind
jangle
jcohesion
jc2
jdilation
jd2
jfriction
jf2
jtension
k exx
k eyy
k ezz
k exy
k shear mod
k viscosity
kappa
kshear
k11
k12
k22
lambda
lconduct
lspec heat
mm
mpc
mp1
mtable
mutable
multiplier
mv0
mv 1
n cond
n wipp
n 1
n 2
nuyx
nuzx
per table
poiss
por table
porosity
qdil
qvol
rho
rs1
rs2
s f
s g1
s k1
shear mod
spec heat
stable
state
sv
temp
tension
thexp
tjtable
ttable
viscosity
vol strain
xconduct
xmod
xyconduct
yconduct
ymod
available
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 51
is a valid way to use the out function. In this case, ii is not used.
abs(a)
absolute value of a
acos(a)
and(a,b)
asin(a)
atan(a)
atan2(a,b)
cos(a)
cosine of a (a is in radians)
error
string
This function causes an error condition. FISH function processing (and command processing) stops immediately. The
message reported is string. This function can be used for
assignment only. (string = error is not allowed.)
exp(a)
exponential of a
fc arg(n)
oat(a)
converts a to a floating-point number. If it cannot be converted (e.g., if a is a string), then 0.0 is returned.
2 - 52
FISH in FLAC
fstring(a, isig)
get mem(nw)
grand
in(s)
int(a)
ln(a)
natural logarithm of a
log(a)
base-ten logarithm of a
lose mem(nw,ia)
returns nw previously allocated variables to FLAC. The parameter ia is the pointer of the start of the array of objects;
there is no checking done to ensure that ia is a valid address.
The return value is undefined. See Section 2.5.6.3 for more
details.
max(a,b)
returns maximum of a, b
min(a,b)
returns minimum of a, b
not(a)
or(a,b)
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 53
out(s)
parse(s, i)
pre parse(s, i)
sgn(a)
sin(a)
sine of a (a is in radians)
sqrt(a)
square root of a
string(a)
tan(a)
tangent of a (a is in radians)
type(e)
urand
2 - 54
FISH in FLAC
2.5.6.1 Tables
The functions table, xtable, ytable and table size allow FISH functions to create and manipulate
FLAC tables, which are indexed arrays of number pairs used in several of FLAC s commands and
operations. However, tables are different from arrays in other programming languages. Tables are
dynamic data structures; items may be inserted and appended, and interpolation between values may
be done automatically. Consequently, the manipulation of tables by FISH is time-consuming. Use
them with caution! The action of each function depends on whether it is the source or destination
for a given data item; hence, each function is described twice.
A table is a list of pairs of floating-point numbers, denoted for convenience as x and y, although the
numbers may stand for any variables, not necessarily coordinates. Each table entry (or (x,y) pair)
also has a sequence number in the table. However, the sequence number of a given (x,y) pair may
change if a new item is inserted in the table. Sequence numbers are integers that start from 1 and
go up to the number of items in the table. Each table has a unique identification number, which
may be any integer except zero.
There are two distinct ways that tables may be used in a FISH function. The table function behaves
in the same way as the regular FLAC TABLE command (i.e., insertion and interpolation is done
automatically). The other functions, xtable and ytable, allow items to be added or updated by
reference to the sequence numbers; no interpolation or insertion is done.
y = table(n,x)
table(n,x) = y
x = xtable(n,s)
The x-value of the pair of numbers that have sequence number s in table n is returned. An error is signaled if table n
does not exist, or if sequence number s does not exist.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 55
xtable(n,s) = x
y = ytable(n,s)
ytable(n,s) = y
i = table size(n)
Since the xtable and ytable functions can create tables of arbitrary length, they should be used with
caution. It is suggested that the table function be used in constitutive models where interpolated
values are needed from tables. The xtable and ytable functions are more useful when generating
tables.
The following notes may be of use for the FISH table functions.
1. In large tables, for efficiency, sequence numbers should be scanned in the direction of ascending numbers. FLAC keeps track of the last-accessed sequence
number for each table; this is used to start the search for the next requested
number. If the requested number is less than the previous one, the whole table
may need to be searched.
2. The functions xtable and ytable, rather than table, should be used to update
values in an existing table. Although table will update an (x,y) pair if the given
x is identical to the stored x, there may be slight numerical errors, which can
result in insertion rather than updating.
3. In a FISH function that replaces old table values with new values, it is necessary
to create the table first, since the action of retrieving old values will produce
an error. A complete table may be created and its entries all set to zero
by a single statement, as illustrated in the following example:
xtable(4,100) = 0.0
If table 4 does not exist, then it is created. 100 entries are also created, each
containing (0.0,0.0). Subsequent statements, such as:
xtable(4,32) = xtable(4,32) + 1.0
ytable(4,32) = ytable(4,32) + 4.5
2 - 56
FISH in FLAC
will update table values, but will not alter the length of the table. If the latter
statements are executed before table 4 exists, then an error will be detected.
4. Stored values (both x and y) in tables are always floating-point numbers. Given
integers are converted to floating-point type before storing. Be careful about
precision!
As an example in the use of table functions, the input sequence in Example 2.16 produces a smoothpointed, star-shaped hole in a FLAC grid.
Example 2.16 Use of table functions
g 50 50
m e
def star
ntab
= 1
npts
= 100
d_theta = 2.0 * pi / npts
loop n (1,npts)
z = sin(3.0*theta)4 + 1.2
xtable(ntab,n) = z * cos(theta)
ytable(ntab,n) = z * sin(theta)
theta = theta + d_theta
end_loop
end
star
gen -3 -3 -3 3 3 3 3 -3
plot hold grid
gen table 1
plot hold grid
mod null reg 20 20
plot hold grid
mat transpose
(A, B)
returns matrix B as the transpose of matrix A. Both A and B
must be 2D, user-defined arrays with opposite dimensions
e.g., A(5,3) and B(3,5). The same matrix must not be used
for both source and destination. The matrices can contain
any variable types. The function returns 0 or 1, denoting
success or failure, respectively.
FISH REFERENCE
mat inverse
2 - 57
(A, B)
returns matrix B as the inverse of matrix A, where A and
B are square matrices of equal size. The operation causes
the (internal) allocation of 8*N*(N+1) bytes of memory, but
if called more than once, the same memory is reused. The
arithmetic is single-precision (unless the double-precision
version of FLAC is used) and it is assumed that all elements
of A are floating-point numbers. (No checking is done!) The
function returns 0 or 1, denoting success or failure, respectively.
Example 2.18 contains an example and validation of the matrix inversion function, mat inverse().
Example 2.18 Using the matrix inversion function
def size
nn = 20
end
size
def gg
float abc xyz xx bb tot
2 - 58
FISH in FLAC
int i j nn
array abc(nn,nn) xyz(nn,nn) xx(nn) bb(nn)
loop j (1,nn)
loop i (1,nn)
abc(i,j) = urand ; random A coefficients
endLoop
xx(j) = float(j)
; X values
endLoop
loop i (1,nn)
; pre-compute b = A.x
bb(i) = 0.0
loop j (1,nn)
bb(i) = bb(i) + abc(i,j) * xx(j)
endLoop
endLoop
if mat_inverse(abc,xyz) = 1
oo = out( Inversion failed!)
exit
endif
loop i (1,nn)
; now "solve" ... x = inv(A) . b
tot = 0.0
loop j (1,nn)
tot = tot + xyz(i,j) * bb(j)
endLoop
printout
endLoop
end
def printout
if i > 9
oo = out( i = +string(i)+
x = +string(tot))
else
oo = out( i = +string(i)+
x = +string(tot))
endif
end
opt gg
gg
;--- Note - x value should be (approximately) integers from 1 to nn
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 59
The arguments n and m can be any FISH variable or expression that evaluates to an integer in the range
1 to 20, inclusive i.e., there are 20 separate parameters that can be used to pass information. The
parameters may be integers or floating-point values (but not strings). For an example application
of fc arg, see the user-defined normal coupling-spring function, cs nfunction, described in
Section 1.10.4 in Structural Elements.
2 - 60
FISH in FLAC
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 61
ip = int_pnt
loop while ip # o
;scan interfaces
ii = imem(ip+1)
loop nside (2,3)
;scan 2 sides
ispt = imem(ip+nside)
loop while ispt # 0 ; scan nodes on one side
if abs(fmem(ispt+5)) > fmem(ii) then
fmem(ii)
= abs(fmem(ispt+5))
imem(ii+1) = ispt
imem(ii+2) = step
end_if
ispt = imem(ispt)
end_loop
end_loop
ip = imem(ip)
end_loop
end
def sho_data
ip = int_pnt
loop while ip # 0
ii
= imem(ip+1)
s1
= max-Fn = +string(fmem(ii))+,
ig
= imem(imem(ii+1)+2)
jg
= imem(imem(ii+1)+3)
s2
=
g.p.(+string(ig)+,+string(jg)+)
s3
= at step +string(imem(ii+2))
xx
= out(s1+s2+s3)
ip
= imem(ip)
end_loop
end
step 500
sho_data
2 - 62
FISH in FLAC
close
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 63
read(ar, n)
reads n records into the array ar. Each record is either a line of ASCII
data or a single FISH variable. The array ar must be an array of at least n
elements. The returned value is:
0
requested number of lines were input without error
-1
error on read (except end-of-file)
n
positive value indicates that end-of-file was encountered after
reading n lines
In FISH mode, the number and type of records must match exactly the
number and type of records written. It is up to the user to control this. If
an arbitrary number of variables is to be written, the first record could be
made to contain this number, so that the correct number could subsequently
be read.
write(ar, n)
writes n records from the first n elements of the array ar. Each record is
either a line of ASCII data, or a single FISH variable. For ASCII mode,
each element written must be of type string. The array ar must be an array
of at least n elements. The returned value is:
0
requested number of lines were output without error
-1
error on write
n
positive value (in ASCII mode) indicates that the nth element
was not a string (hence only n1 lines were written). An error
message is also displayed on the screen.
The following intrinsic functions do not perform file operations, but can be used to extract items
from ASCII data that is derived from a file.
parse(s, i)
This function scans the string s and decodes the ith item, which it returns.
Integers, floats and strings are recognized. Delimiters are the same as for
general commands (i.e., spaces, commas, parentheses, tabs and equal signs).
If the ith item is missing, zero is returned. An error message is displayed
and zero is returned if the variable s is not a string.
2 - 64
FISH in FLAC
pre parse(s, i)
This function scans the string s and returns an integer value according to
the type of the ith item, as follows:
0
missing item
1
integer
2
float
3
string missing (unable to interpret as int or float)
Example 2.20 illustrates the use of the FISH I/O functions.
Example 2.20 Using the FISH I/O functions
def setup
a_size = 20
IO_READ = 0
IO_WRITE = 1
IO_FISH = 0
IO_ASCII = 1
filename = junk.dat
end
setup
;
def io
array aa(a_size) bb(a_size)
;
; ASCII I/O TEST -----------------status = open(filename, IO_WRITE, IO_ASCII)
aa(1) = Line 1 ... Fred
aa(2) = Line 2 ... Joe
aa(3) = Line 3 ... Roger
status = write(aa,3)
status = close
status = open(filename, IO_READ, IO_ASCII)
status = read(bb, a_size)
if status # 3 then
oo = out( Bad number of lines)
endif
status = close
;
; now check results...
loop n (1,3)
if parse(bb(n), 2) # n then
oo = out( Bad 2nd item in loop + string(n))
exit
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 65
endif
endloop
;
if pre_parse(bb(3), 4) # 3 then
oo = out( Not a string)
exit
endif
;
; FISH I/O TEST ----------------status = open(filename, IO_WRITE, IO_FISH)
funny_int
= 1234567
funny_float = 1.2345e6
aa(1) = ---> All tests passed OK
aa(2) = funny_int
aa(3) = funny_float
;
status
status
status
status
status
=
=
=
=
=
write(aa,3)
close
open(filename, IO_READ, IO_FISH)
read(bb, 3)
close
;
; now check results...
if type(bb(1)) # 3 then
oo = out( Bad FISH string read/write)
exit
endif
if bb(2) # funny_int then
oo = out( Bad FISH integer read/write)
exit
endif
if bb(3) # funny_float then
oo = out( Bad FISH float read/write)
exit
endif
oo = out(bb(1)) ; (should be a good message)
command
sys del junk.dat
endcommand
end
;
io
2 - 66
FISH in FLAC
sclose(ID)
Channel ID is closed.
sopen(mode, ID)
The integer, mode, takes the value 0 or 1. A value of 1 causes the data
channel of number ID to be initiated, with the process acting as a server.
Another process can link to the server, with the same ID, by invoking sopen,
with mode = 0, which denotes the process as a client. The ID number must
be in the range 0 to 5, inclusive, giving a total of six possible channels
of communication. The server sopen function must be issued before the
client sopen function, for a given ID. While waiting for a connection, the
server process is unresponsive. The sopen function returns 0 when a good
connection has been made, and nonzero if an error has been detected.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 67
2 - 68
FISH in FLAC
Data have been passed both ways between the two code instances. A more useful example is given
below, in Section 2.5.3.1.
2.7.1 Coupled FLAC and PFC 2D Simulation
This example demonstrates the use of the socket I/O functions to transfer data between two codes
executing separately. A deformable punch (modeled with FLAC) is driven into an assembly of
particles (modeled with PFC 2D ). Initially, a series of walls is created in PFC 2D, with each wall
corresponding to a single surface segment of a FLAC zone. As the FLAC zones deform in largestrain, gridpoint velocities are transferred to PFC 2D, so that the walls move in exactly the same way
as the boundary segments of the FLAC grid. The resulting wall forces, due to particles interacting
with the walls, are transferred to FLAC as applied gridpoint forces. In this way, a fully coupled
simulation is performed.
Three data files are used in the simulation. The file in Example 2.23 must first be executed by PFC 2D
to create an assembly of particles within a container, and bring the assembly to equilibrium under
gravity. The files in Examples 2.24 and 2.25 may then be used by FLAC and PFC 2D, respectively,
to execute the simulation. In order for the system to operate correctly, both codes should be started
as separate processes from separate directories. Then, Example 2.24 should be called first from
FLAC as the server, which waits (indefinitely) for a connection from another process. The file
Example 2.25 may then be called from PFC 2D (operating as a client process) to establish contact.
Initially, FLAC sends a series of wall coordinates to PFC 2D, and both codes set up arrays of pointers
to eliminate searching during cycling. Once the setup process is complete, cycling begins in both
codes, with forces being sent by PFC 2D to FLAC, and velocities being sent by FLAC to PFC 2D.
Cycling in both codes is synchronized, using a timestep of unity, so that the same displacements
are calculated in each step in each code.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 69
Example 2.24 FLAC initialization and run file for coupled FLAC/PFC 2D example
grid 20 10
gen -0.5 1.5 -0.5 2.0 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.5
model elas
prop dens 1000 shear 5e8 bulk 10e8
fix x y j=11
def setLimits ; Array limits ... must be changed for bigger problem
nbuff = 1000 ; general buffer size
nList = 200 ; max number of walls generated
igpf = igp
jgpf = jgp
end
setLimits
def iniComms ; initialize communications, & send wall data
array buff(nbuff) numrec(1)
array i1List(nList) j1List(nList) i2List(nList) j2List(nList)
array appnt(igpf,jgpf)
oo = sopen(1,1) ; channel 1 ... server
numWalls = 0
loop j (1,jzones) ; left side
numWalls = numWalls + 1
i1List(numWalls) = 1
j1List(numWalls) = j
i2List(numWalls) = 1
2 - 70
FISH in FLAC
j2List(numWalls) = j+1
endLoop
loop i (1,izones) ; bottom
numWalls = numWalls + 1
i1List(numWalls) = i+1
j1List(numWalls) = 1
i2List(numWalls) = i
j2List(numWalls) = 1
endLoop
loop j (1,jzones) ; right side
numWalls = numWalls + 1
i1List(numWalls) = igp
j1List(numWalls) = j+1
i2List(numWalls) = igp
j2List(numWalls) = j
endLoop
ibuf = 0
loop nn (1,numWalls)
setIJ
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = x(i1,j1)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = y(i1,j1)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = x(i2,j2)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = y(i2,j2)
command
apply xforce=1e-10 yforce=1e-10 i=i1 j=j1
endCommand
endLoop
numrec(1) = numWalls
oo = out( Sending +string(numWalls)+ wall segments to PFC ...)
oo = swrite(numrec,1,1)
oo = swrite(buff,ibuf,1)
ap = app_pnt ; set up easy access to apply-list pointers
loop while ap # 0
ii = imem(ap+$kapi1)
jj = imem(ap+$kapj1)
appnt(ii,jj) = ap
ap = imem(ap)
endLoop
end
def setIJ ; set i,j values, given index nn
i1 = i1List(nn)
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 71
j1 = j1List(nn)
i2 = i2List(nn)
j2 = j2List(nn)
end
def endComms ; Close communications
oo = sclose(1)
end
def sendVelocities
ibuf = 0
loop nn (1,numWalls)
setIJ
buff(ibuf+1) = xvel(i1,j1)
buff(ibuf+2) = yvel(i1,j1)
buff(ibuf+3) = xvel(i2,j2)
buff(ibuf+4) = yvel(i2,j2)
ibuf = ibuf + 4
endLoop
ibuf = numWalls * 4
oo = swrite(buff,ibuf,1)
getForces
end
def getForces
loop nn (1,numWalls) ; reset applied forces
setIJ
ap1 = appnt(i1,j1)
ap2 = appnt(i2,j2)
fmem(ap1+$kapv1) = 0.0
fmem(ap1+$kapv2) = 0.0
fmem(ap2+$kapv1) = 0.0
fmem(ap2+$kapv2) = 0.0
endLoop
ibuf = numWalls * 3
oo
= sread(buff,ibuf,1)
ibuf = 0
loop nn (1,numWalls)
setIJ
FxW = buff(ibuf+1)
FyW = buff(ibuf+2)
MomW = buff(ibuf+3)
denom = FyW * (x(i1,j1)-x(i2,j2)) - FxW * (y(i1,j1)-y(i2,j2))
if denom # 0.0
rat = (MomW - FyW * x(i2,j2) + FxW * y(i2,j2)) / denom
rat = max(0.0,min(1.0,rat))
ap1 = appnt(i1,j1)
ap2 = appnt(i2,j2)
2 - 72
fmem(ap1+$kapv3) = fmem(ap1+$kapv3)
fmem(ap2+$kapv3) = fmem(ap2+$kapv3)
fmem(ap1+$kapv4) = fmem(ap1+$kapv4)
fmem(ap2+$kapv4) = fmem(ap2+$kapv4)
endif
ibuf = ibuf + 3
endLoop
end
call app.fin
set echo off
iniComms
set echo on
ini yvel=-0.5e-3
set fishcall 15 sendVelocities
win -2 2 -1 3
set large
cycle 1300
endComms
plot hold bound sig2 fill
FISH in FLAC
+
+
+
+
rat * FxW
(1.0-rat) * FxW
rat * FyW
(1.0-rat) * FyW
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 73
wp = wall_head
loop while wp # null
if w_id(wp) = IDmake
exit section
endif
wp = w_next(wp)
endLoop
oo = out( ** error in finding wall pointer)
Exit
EndSection
Wpoint(nn) = wp ; save wall pointer
w_fix(wp) = 1
; inhibit PFC wall velocity update
IDmake = IDmake + 1
endLoop
end
def getSeg
ibuf = ibuf + 1
x1 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
y1 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
x2 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
y2 = buff(ibuf)
end
def endComms
oo = close(1)
end
def getVelocities
ibuf = numWalls * 4
oo
= sread(buff,ibuf,1)
ibuf = 0
loop nn (1,numWalls)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
xv1 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
yv1 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
xv2 = buff(ibuf)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
yv2 = buff(ibuf)
wp
= Wpoint(nn)
ws
= w_wlist(wp)
ws_xvel(ws) = xv1
ws_yvel(ws) = yv1
2 - 74
FISH in FLAC
ws
= ws_next(ws)
ws_xvel(ws) = xv2
ws_yvel(ws) = yv2
endLoop
end
def sendForces
ibuf = 0
loop nn (1,numWalls)
wp = Wpoint(nn)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = w_xfob(wp)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = w_yfob(wp)
ibuf = ibuf + 1
buff(ibuf) = w_mom(wp)
endLoop
ibuf = numWalls * 3
oo
= swrite(buff,ibuf,1)
end
set fishcall 0 getVelocities
set fishcall 3 sendForces
iniComms
plot sho
pause
cycle 1300
endComms
Figure 2.1 shows the initial particle assembly and the 40 walls that form the deformable punch,
corresponding to three sides of a 200-zone FLAC grid. Figure 2.2 shows the final state from PFC 2D,
in which the active surfaces of the punch exhibit large deformation in response to the forces exerted
by the particles. Figure 2.3 shows the corresponding state from FLAC, in which the same surface
deformation is evident, as well as contours of major principal stresses. Note that FLAC will halt
with a bad geometry error if the simulation is continued much further.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 75
PFC2D 3.10
Step 30000 15:36:53 Wed Mar 30 2005
View Size:
X: -2.200e+000 <=> 2.200e+000
Y: -1.449e+000 <=> 3.449e+000
Wall
Ball
CForce Chains
Compression
Tension
Maximum = 6.305e+002
Figure 2.1
PFC2D 3.10
Step 31300 15:25:06 Wed Mar 30 2005
View Size:
X: -2.200e+000 <=> 2.200e+000
Y: -1.449e+000 <=> 3.449e+000
Wall
Ball
CForce Chains
Compression
Tension
Maximum = 2.418e+005
Figure 2.2
2 - 76
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
1.900
30-Mar-05 15:21
step
1300
-1.000E+00 <x< 1.000E+00
2.500E-01 <y< 2.250E+00
1.700
1.500
1.300
1.100
0.900
5E -1
0.500
0.300
-0.900
Figure 2.3
-0.700
-0.500
-0.300
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
The physical process is quite straightforward, but there are some points that are important to note:
1. Large-strain mode should be used in FLAC, because PFC 2D cannot operate
in any other way, and it is necessary for wall movement to keep track with
zone-boundary movement.
2. In a simulation that is closely coupled, data should be exchanged at every
cycle, at the appropriate points in the calculation cycles for both codes.
3. The timestep in both codes should be identical. This is achieved here by
running FLAC in static mode and PFC 2D with density scaling. Thus, the
timestep is unity for both processes. Alternatively, both codes could be run in
dynamic mode with the same timestep.
4. In order to slave the movement of PFC 2Ds walls to FLAC s zone-segments,
the walls are declared fixed, using the FISH intrinsic w x. This allows a
user-written FISH function to override the calculation of wall segment motion.
Some manipulation of forces sent from PFC 2D must be done, because each wall produces forces
and moments relative to its center of rotation. FLAC gridpoint forces are derived from these data
by using equations of moment equilibrium, to determine the line of action of the resultant force. To
avoid giving many APPLY commands at each step, the data in an APPLY list are modified directly
by a FISH function, using a single APPLY list that is set up at the beginning of the run.
The example is contrived and simplified, but it illustrates that closely coupled interaction may be
achieved between a continuum region and a region that contains discrete bodies.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 77
2 - 78
FISH in FLAC
The optional ID number that follows the word CONSTITUTIVE MODEL must be a positive integer,
and must not conflict with the ID numbers of any of FLAC s internal models (see Section 2.5.3
for a list of built-in model numbers under variable name model). If the ID number is omitted
or is inappropriate, then an ID number of zero is taken. The given number is not necessary, but it
is useful when using a FISH function to perform some operation that requires a knowledge of the
model installed in a particular zone the grid variable model will return the given ID number. Note
that the ID number can only be set by means of the CONSTITUTIVE MODEL statement; it cannot be
assigned anywhere else. The code fragment in Example 2.27 illustrates the use of an ID number.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 79
The name for a UDM should not conflict with that of any of the built-in models see Section 1.2
in the Command Reference, under the MODEL command. Section 2.2.2 should also be consulted
to avoid conflicts with other pre-defined names.
2.8.3 User-Defined Local Property Variables
Named variables may be used by the UDM, as with any other FISH function but, since regular
FISH variables are of global scope, they cannot be used to store things that are different for each
zone. However, variables that are local to each zone may be defined by declaring them in advance
with the f prop statement:
f prop
var1
var2
var3
...
This statement is followed by a list of names separated by space(s). Several such statements may
be given, but they should precede any executable code. The names must be unique and must not
conflict with FISH statements or any built-in property name (see Section 2.5.4). Any length of
name is allowed, but only the first 12 characters are displayed on plots or print headings.
During compilation of the FISH function, the number of user-defined local variables is counted and
used by FLAC to allocate that number of extra words of memory per zone. The names mentioned
in the f prop statement(s) are completely equivalent to FLAC properties they may be set with
the PROPERTY command, printed with the PRINT command, and plotted with the PLOT command
(as contours). The variables are of type float; they are normally used to store material properties,
but they can be used to store any state variables at the individual zone level. The names of the local
variables are used just like any other scalar variable within the function that defines them i.e.,
they are referred to without zone indices.
Local property variables are also available in other FISH functions (apart from the defining
function), but there they act like other property variables i.e., zone subscripts are needed.
2 - 80
FISH in FLAC
Some program fragments in Example 2.28 illustrate the use of local property variables.
Example 2.28 Using local property variables
def my_model
constitutive_model 102
f_prop apples plums prunes bananas
f_prop grapes pears
case_of mode
case 1
;--- do initialization & checking here
case 2
zs11 = grapes * zde11 + 2.0 * zde22 / prunes
.
.
end
;
def ini_prop
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
if model(i,j) = 102 then
grapes(i,j) = 34.5
prunes(i,j) = 66.6
else
.
end
;
grid 10 10
model my_model
ini_prop
.
.
In this example, the newly defined properties are used (as scalars) in the calculation of zone stresses
(discussed later). The same names are used in another function as indexed grid variables.
In general, note that indexed zone or gridpoint variables must not be used in a UDM function; the
function is already being called for a particular zone, so indices are irrelevant (and forbidden).
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 81
zart
zde11
zde12
zde22
zde33
zdpp
zdrot
zporos
zs11
zs12
zs22
zs33
zsub
ztea
zteb
ztec
zted
ztsa
ztsb
ztsc
ztsd
zvisc
2 - 82
FISH in FLAC
zxbar
The notations (input) or (output) indicate, respectively, that the variable should be used (and not
modified) by the UDM, or that it may be modified by the UDM.
It is the main task of the UDM function to update the four stress components, given the current
stresses and the four strain increments. Note that the strain components are given; they cannot be
changed by the function. The process of mixed discretization (see Section 1.3.2 in Theory and
Background) has already been applied to the strains before the UDM is called; after the four subzones are processed by the UDM, the stresses are adjusted externally, as described in Section 1.3.3
in Theory and Background.
If a state variable that applies to the whole quadrilateral zone (e.g., accumulated plastic strain) is
required, then appropriate averaging must be done within the UDM. The variable zsub indicates to
the function when averaging of quantities in the 4 sub-zones may be performed (see Section 2.8.6
for details).
The variable zdpp is an increment of pore pressure that may be generated by the constitutive model.
It is important to note that the increment in pore pressure due to the change in the volume of the zone
is already calculated before the UDM is called. The variable zdpp is only to be used by models that
produce pore pressure changes in addition to those associated with zone volume changes (e.g., if
the grains are compressible). Note that zdpp is ignored in axisymmetric mode i.e., pore pressure
generation cannot be done by a UDM in an axisymmetric model.
In dynamic simulations, zvisc should be set to 0.0 if it is required that stiffness-proportional damping
be inhibited; for example, this type of damping may be switched off if plastic flow is occurring.
If zvisc is set to 1.0, then stiffness-proportional damping will be done normally (if it has been
requested by a FLAC command).
For thermal/mechanical calculations, the bulk modulus of the model should be used to provide
increments in stresses from increments of strains. This allows the thermal expansion/contraction
to be modeled properly.
2.8.5 Operations to Be Performed by the UDM: Use of mode Variable
In addition to the action during stepping (mentioned above), the UDM function must perform other
tasks. The scalar variable mode is defined whenever the function is called by FLAC. The UDM
should test the value of mode (an integer) and perform the appropriate tasks according to its value,
as follows.
mode
1
This mode is set when the function is called prior to stepping; the UDM
may perform any initialization or checking of material properties, or it may
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 83
do nothing. In mode 1, the function is called only once per zone per STEP
command.
2
Mode 2 corresponds to the main task of the function, as described in Section 2.8.4 i.e., new stresses should be computed from old stresses and strain
increments. In this mode, the function is called up to 4 times per zone (once
for each sub-zone).
The UDM must return values for the scalars cm max and sm max: these should
be set to the maximum confined modulus and the shear modulus, respectively,
as estimated for this zone. The value of cm max is used by FLAC to compute
a stable timestep; it is essential that a value is returned for this variable. For an
elastic model, this variable is given by K +(4G/3). Both variables are used by
the absorbing boundary logic in dynamic mode estimates of tangent moduli
should be provided. The UDM is called once per zone for mode 3; it is called
at the beginning of stepping and every ten steps in large-strain mode. It may
also be called more often if FLAC determines that it needs to recompute the
internal timestep.
Note that mode 3 is called before mode 1 for constitutive models; also, zone stresses are undefined
in mode 1, mode 3 and mode 4.
As an example of a simple constitutive model written in FISH, the function in Example 2.29 performs
an identical operation to the built-in isotropic elastic model of FLAC.
Example 2.29 FISH constitutive model for isotropic elastic behavior
def m_elas
constitutive_model
f_prop m_shear m_bulk
f_prop m_e1 m_e2 m_g2
case_of mode
; --- initialization --case 1
m_e1 = m_bulk + 4.0 * m_shear / 3.0
m_e2 = m_bulk - 2.0 * m_shear / 3.0
m_g2 = 2.0 * m_shear
; --- running section --case 2
zs11 = zs11 + zde11 * m_e1 + (zde22+zde33) * m_e2
2 - 84
FISH in FLAC
The properties m e1, m e2 and m g2 are evaluated in the initialization section, to save time
during stepping. We may store the above FISH code in a file (e.g., ELAS.FIS) and call it from a
FLAC data file, as shown in Example 2.30.
Example 2.30 Applying the FISH elastic model
g 5 5
set grav 10
fix x y j=1
call elas.fis
mod m_elas
prop m_bulk=2e8 m_shear=1e8 dens=1000
step 100
print ydisp m_bulk m_shear m_e1
ret
The results should be identical to those using FLAC s built-in elastic law. However, the execution
time will be slower, as explained in Section 2.8.1. The speed may be increased considerably by
using the command OPT m elas (see Section 2.9).
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 85
zsub > 0
The elastic model given as an example in Section 2.8.5 may be modified to illustrate the use
of parameter zsub to save average state variables. For example, suppose we want to save the
accumulated volume strain for each zone. We introduce a new property name m dvol, and a
new global variable m vol, which should not be used elsewhere. The following modified part of
the FISH code in Example 2.31 will store the average volumetric strain in the property variable
comfontm dvol.
Example 2.31 Storing average volumetric strain
.
.
f_prop m_dvol
case_of mode
.
.
;--- running section --case 2
zs11 = zs11 + zde11 * m_e1 + (zde22+zde33) * m_e2
zs22 = zs22 + (zde11+zde33) * m_e2 + zde22 * m_e1
zs33 = zs33 + (zde11+zde22) * m_e2 + zde33 * m_e1
zs12 = zs12 + zde12 * m_g2
m_vol = m_vol + zde11 + zde22 + zde33
2 - 86
FISH in FLAC
After running FLAC, the correctness may be verified by printing out both the newly defined volume
strain and FLAC s built-in volume strain measure:
print m dvol vsi
...
where func1 and func2 are names of FISH functions. Within such functions (when called from the
UDM), the intrinsic zone variables (e.g., zde11, mode, etc.) and property names are treated exactly
as they are in the calling UDM. The FRIEND declaration is only necessary if zone properties and
variables are to be accessed by the associated function. The following restrictions apply.
a) Each function may only be declared as the friend of one UDM; otherwise,
there would be a conflict in zone variable names. However, each UDM may
declare any number of friends.
b) The function referred to by the FRIEND statement must be defined after the originating UDM; otherwise, the compiler cannot know that the property names
(used in the FRIEND function) are not just global variables.
c) If a FRIEND function is optimized, the associated UDM function must also be
optimized.
Example 2.32 demonstrates and validates the FRIEND logic.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 87
2 - 88
FISH in FLAC
pr xdisp
; ---> Note that results should be symmetric, but of opposite sign.
elas.fis
;compile required models
mohr.fis
my model.fis
defmod.sav ;now save compiled versions
The compiled models can now be retrieved rapidly (from some other data file):
res defmod.sav
grid 20 20
model my model
.
.
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 89
2 - 90
FISH in FLAC
OPT
FISH REFERENCE
2 - 91
2.9.3 Restrictions
The following rules must be observed when writing a function that can be successfully optimized.
1. The function may call other functions, but such functions must have already
been defined prior to optimization. The called functions may or may not have
been optimized themselves.
2. COMMAND sections may not be executed while an optimized function is active:
for example, an error will occur if an optimized function calls a non-optimized
function that contains a COMMAND section. An optimized function may not
contain the COMMAND statement.
3. No mixed-mode arithmetic is allowed that is, all variables (and functions)
in an arithmetic expression must be of the same type (all integer or all floatingpoint). Furthermore, the destination type must be the same as the source type
in an assignment statement. If type conversion is required, then the functions
int( ), oat( ) or string( ) should be used. The specification statements INT,
FLOAT and STRING should be used at the beginning of the function to pre-define
the types of all variables that will be used. Exempted from the mixed-mode
restriction is the exponentiation operation; for example, 3.42 is allowed.
4. The following scalar variables (see Section 2.5.2) will not work in optimized
code: clock, imem, fmem, urand and grand. All other variables and functions
work correctly.
2.9.4 Suggestions
The following suggestions are designed to improve the speed of an optimized function, but it is not
necessary to follow them in order to achieve a working program.
1. The use of property variables within a constitutive model function should be
minimized; if possible, work with regular FISH variables, which are accessed
more rapidly.
2. The following variables or functions involve extra computational overheads:
tables, all grid-indexed variables (e.g., sxx(i,j), ex 3(i,j),
shear mod(i,j), etc.), and intrinsic functions (e.g., sin(x), sqrt(x)).
Also included in the list are user-defined constitutive properties used outside
of the constitutive model in which they are defined.
3. If possible, replace exponentiation () with repeated multiplications e.g.,
xdif2 should be replaced with xdif*xdif.
2 - 92
FISH in FLAC
2.9.5 Warning
Variable types (integer, float or string) are built into the optimized code at the time of optimization.
If the variable types subsequently change, then the results of arithmetic operations will be wrong;
for example, integer arithmetic might be used to multiply two floating-point numbers. It is the
responsibility of the user to ensure that variable types do not change.
Brazilian Test
17 - 1
17 Brazilian Test
17.1 Problem Statement
The Brazilian test (see Goodman 1980, for example) is used to estimate the tensile strength of
rock and concrete. A disk or cylinder of the material is loaded diametrically between the platens
of a testing machine. Failure is usually by splitting across the loaded diameter. The Brazilian
tensile strength is estimated from the test result by reporting the horizontal stress t (i.e., the stress
perpendicular to the loaded diameter along the center part of the specimen) that corresponds to the
peak applied compression load. The relation between t and the applied load can be determined
approximately from an analytical expression, assuming that the material is homogeneous, linearly
elastic and isotropic. This verification test compares the FLAC calculation to this solution.
The Brazilian test is only valid if primary fracture initiates from the center of the specimen and
spreads along the loaded diameter. The FLAC analysis can also study the test conditions that affect
fracture initiation. In this example, the influence of the size of the loading area of the platen is
evaluated. The parameters describing the problem conditions are shown in Figure 17.1. The loading
area is defined by 2, which is the angular distance over which the applied force, F , is assumed to
be distributed radially. ro is the radius of the specimen.
F
2=
r0
17 - 2
Verification Problems
r 2
r 2
1 ro
sin 2
1
+
F
ro
1
= +
r 2 tan
r 2
r 4 tan
ro t 1 2
1 ro
cos 2 + ro
ro
r 2
r 2
1 ro
sin 2
1
+
F
ro
1
r =
r 2
r 4 + tan
r 2 tan
ro t 1 2
cos 2 + ro
1 ro
ro
(17.1)
(17.2)
where t is the thickness of the cylindrical specimen, and r is the distance from the center of the
specimen. (Compressive stress is negative.)
The value of at the center of the cylinder is
c
F
F sin 2
1
=
ro t
ro t
(17.3)
This approximation is used to calculate the tensile strength, t . It is assumed that failure is independent of stresses that develop normal to the disk face, and is a plane-strain solution.
Brazilian Test
17 - 3
2500 kg/m3
1.0 GPa
3.0 GPa
3.0 MPa
45
0
1.0 MPa
The material is considered brittle with a total loss of cohesion at a plastic shear strain of 106 , and
a total loss of tensile strength at a plastic tensile strain of 106 .
The APPLY pressure command is used to apply the diametrical load as a normal stress. The boundary
over which the pressure is applied is selected to correspond to the loading area defined by 2. Two
cases of loading area are studied: Case 1 corresponds to 2 13 ; and Case 2 corresponds to 2
5 . The applied normal stress increases at a rate of 1.0 kPa per step. The load is increased to
a level that is a few steps below the load at which failure initiates. The boundary conditions and
applied forces for Case 1 at a normal stress of 14.244 MPa are shown in Figure 17.3.
A FISH function, load, calculates the applied load, F , and the horizontal stress, c , at the center
of the specimen. The analytical expressions Eqs. (17.1) and (17.2) are input in Tables 11 and 12
with FISH function braz anal, and the FLAC results for r and through the specimen are
stored in Tables 21 and 22 via FISH function braz num, for comparison purposes.
The data file BRAZIL.DAT carries out the analyses for both cases. Set the MOVIE command
on before running the states BRAZIL1 MOV.SAV and BRAZIL2 MOV.SAV. The MOVIE command generates a series of plots that can be viewed with the MOVIE.EXE program. See Section 5
in the Users Guide for information on the movie viewer.
For each case, the model is saved at a state that is within the elastic range a few steps prior to
initiation of failure. The results at this state are then compared to the analytical solution. (The
PAUSE command pauses the analysis at this state.) When the simulation is continued (by typing
CONTINUE), plots of plastic failure are generated as a movie that illustrates the progression of failure
in the model.
17 - 4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 11:33
step 14244
-2.222E+01 <x< 2.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
Grid plot
0
1E 1
1.250
0.750
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^1)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 11:33
step 14244
-2.222E+01 <x< 2.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
1.250
2E 7
Fixed Gridpoints
Y Y-direction
0.250
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^1)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
Figure 17.3 Boundary conditions and applied load for Case 1 at an applied
pressure of 14.244 MPa
Brazilian Test
17 - 5
17.4 Results
The FLAC values for r and along the loading diameter are compared to the analytical solution
in Figure 17.4 for Case 1, and in Figure 17.5 for Case 2. In both cases the agreement is very good.
The failure mode is very different for each case. In Case 1, for the wider loading area, tensile
failure initiates in the center of the cylinder and propagates upward, as shown in Figure 17.6 and
indicated from the movie BRAZIL1.DCX. In Case 2, shear failure initiates first at the base of
the applied load, and then shear and tensile failure propagate downward toward the center of the
specimen. This is shown in Figure 17.7 and in the movie BRAZIL2.DCX. For further discussion
on the influence of loading area on the mode of failure, see Vutukuri et al. (1974).
17.5 References
Goodman, R. E. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.
Vutukuri, V. S., R. D. Lama and S. S. Saluja. Handbook on Mechanical Properties of Rocks,
Vol. 1. Clausthal, Germany: Trans Tech., 1974.
17 - 6
Verification Problems
07
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 13:01
step 14244
Table Plot
anal hoop stress
FLAC hoop stress
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
10
12
14
16
18
14
16
18
07
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 13:36
step 18280
Table Plot
anal hoop stress
FLAC hoop stress
0.000
-0.200
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
10
12
Brazilian Test
17 - 7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 11:33
step 14284
-2.222E+01 <x< 2.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
1.250
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.750
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^1)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 11:54
step 18600
-2.222E+01 <x< 2.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
1.250
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.750
0.250
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^1)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
17 - 8
Verification Problems
Brazilian Test
17 - 9
17 - 10
hist syy i 20 j 40
hist load
hist sigma t
; case 1 loading
step 14244
braz anal
braz num
save brazil1.sav
;... State: brazil1 mov.sav ....
; movie file brazil1.dcx
def ssolve1
loop k (1,20)
command
step 2
pl b pl
end command
end loop
end
ssolve1
save brazil1 mov.sav
;*** Branch: Case 2 ****
restore brazil0.sav
;... State: brazil2.sav ....
parm case2
apply press 1e3 hist ramp from first i 41 to last i 41
hist unbal
hist sxx i 20 j 1
hist syy i 20 j 1
hist sxx i 20 j 40
hist syy i 20 j 40
hist load
hist sigma t
; case 2 loading
step 18280
braz anal
braz num
save brazil2.sav
;... State: brazil2 mov.sav ....
; movie file brazil2.dcx
def ssolve2
loop k (1,20)
command
Verification Problems
Brazilian Test
17 - 11
step 16
; for Case 2
pl b pl
end command
end loop
end
ssolve2
save brazil2 mov.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
;plot name: Boundary conditions and applied load
plot hold bound apply aforce fix
;plot name: Stress comparison
label table 1
Analytical solution
label table 2
FLAC solution
label table 12
anal. radial stress
label table 21
FLAC hoop stress
label table 11
anal hoop stress
label table 22
FLAC radial stress
plot hold table 22 cross 21 cross 12 line 11 line label 1 red label 2 red &
label 12 red label 21 red label 11 red label 22 red
;plot name: Initial plasticity indicator
plot hold bound plasticity
;plot name: Grid, plasticity indicator and net applied force
plot hold grid plasticity apply aforce white
17 - 12
Verification Problems
18 - 1
>
18 - 2
Verification Problems
sin i
i x
2FB(1 + u )
cos i exp(i2 ct/a 2 )
cos
p=
3a
i sin i cos i
a
(18.1)
i=1
where B is Skemptons pore pressure coefficient (the ratio of induced pore pressure to variation
of confining pressure under undrained conditions), and u are drained and undrained Poissons
ratio, c is the true diffusivity (or generalized consolidation coefficient), t is time and i , i = 1, ,
are the roots of the equation:
tan i =
1
i
u
(18.2)
If the solid grains that form the material are assumed to be incompressible, as is the case in FLAC,
the following relations between material constants apply:
Kw
Kw + nK
Kw
Ku = K +
n
1
n
+
)
c = k/(
Kw
K + 4G/3
B=
(18.3)
where Kw is fluid bulk modulus, n is porosity, K and Ku are drained and undrained bulk moduli,
G is shear modulus and k is mobility coefficient. The drained and undrained Poissons ratios are
related to the moduli G, K and Ku , as follows:
u =
3K 2G
6K + 2G
3Ku 2G
6Ku + 2G
(18.4)
18 - 3
F
F (1 u ) sin i cos i
exp(i2 ct/a 2 )
+
ux (a, t) =
2G
G
i sin i cos i
i=1
uy (b, t) =
F (1 )b F (1 u )b
+
2Ga
Ga
i=1
(18.5)
sin i cos i
exp(i2 ct/a 2 )
i sin i cos i
According to the exact solution, the initial (instantaneous) and final vertical displacements of the
upper platen are:
uy (b, 0) = F b
uy (b, ) = F b
1 u
2Ga
1
2Ga
(18.6)
The lateral boundaries of the sample stay plane during drainage; they first move outward and then
inward. The initial (instantaneous) and final lateral displacements of the right boundary are:
ux (a, 0) = F
u
2G
ux (a, ) = F
2G
(18.7)
The degrees of consolidation in the horizontal and vertical directions, Dh and Dv , are defined as:
Dh =
Dv =
ux (a, t) ux (a, 0)
ux (a, ) ux (a, 0)
uy (b, t) uy (b, 0)
uy (b, ) uy (b, 0)
(18.8)
18 - 4
Verification Problems
These degrees are found to be identical, and the analytic expression for D = Dh = Dv is
(18.9)
i=1
Because the discharge has only a horizontal component in Mandels problem, the pore pressure,
stress and strain solutions are independent of the y-coordinate.
18.3 FLAC Model
By symmetry, only a quarter of the sample is considered in the numerical model.* The grid has 20
zones in the x-direction and 2 in the y-direction. Mandels problem is solved for the case:
drained Poissons ratio ()
Skempton coefficient (B)
0.2
0.9
The FLAC simulation is carried out to produce results in terms of normalized pore pressure, p,
distance, x,
and time, t , defined as:
ap
F
x
x =
a
ct
t = 2
a
p =
(18.10)
The normalized results are not affected by the absolute magnitude of material properties used, as
long as their combination yields the value for u and B specified above. The FLAC grid dimensions,
applied force and property values used in the simulation may be viewed as scaled for the purpose
of producing the normalized results. They are selected as follows:
* CAUTION: When running this example in the GIIC, be sure to turn off the listing to the Console
pane using the File/Preference Settings menu item. Otherwise, the size of the save files will
become excessive.
18 - 5
1
0.1
1
1
0.75
9
0.5
With the above values, the true diffusivity in the FLAC model is unity, and the model time is t. The
model mechanical boundary conditions correspond to roller boundaries along the x- and y-axes of
symmetry. The sample is initially stress-free, and the pore pressure is equal to zero. Undrained
conditions are established first by applying a constant unit mechanical pressure at the top boundary
of the model.
In the second part of the simulation, the pore pressure is fixed at zero on the right side of the model
to allow drainage to occur. The rigid plate condition is enforced by applying a vertical velocity
at the top of the model. The velocity magnitude is derived from the exact displacement solution
(Eq. (18.5)). As a verification to the numerical solution, the reaction force on the top platen is
monitored to check whether it remains constant and equal to one.
18.4 Results
The numerical simulation is carried out for a total value of normalized time equal to 4, with intermediate results at t = 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 2. (Results at t = 0 correspond to the undrained response.)
The pore pressure profiles at those times are checked against exact solutions in Figure 18.2. At
early times, the pore pressure at x = 0 (center of sample) is seen to rise above the undrained value,
before decreasing as drainage evolves. This is also shown in Figure 18.3, which compares FLAC
to the analytical solution for the actual pore pressure versus consolidation time at the center of the
sample.
As may be seen in Figure 18.4, the reaction force stays equal to unity throughout the simulation.
(The approach taken to apply the force boundary condition is thus equivalent to a servo-controlled
velocity.)
Numerical values for the horizontal and vertical degrees of consolidation are plotted versus the
analytical solution values (Eq. (18.9)) in Figure 18.5.
18 - 6
Verification Problems
18.5 References
Cheng, A. H. D., and E. Detournay. A Direct Boundary Element Method for Plane Strain Poroelasticity, Int. J. Num. Methods and Anal. in Geomechanics, 12, 551-572 (1988).
Cryer, C. W. A Comparison of the Three-Dimensional Consolidation Theories of Biot and Terzaghi, Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., XVI, 4, 401-412 (1963).
Mandel, J. Consolidation des sols (tude mathmatique), Gotechnique, 3, 287-299 (1953).
Verruijt, A. Discussion, Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 3,
Montral, 401-402 (1965).
18 - 7
-01
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 13:55
step 208843
Flow Time
4.0000E+00
4.500
4.000
Table Plot
anal (t = 0.0)
3.500
anal (t = 0.01)
3.000
anal (t = 0.1)
2.500
anal (t = 0.5)
anal (t = 1.0)
2.000
anal (t = 2.0)
anal (t = 4.0)
FLAC (t = 0.0)
FLAC (t = 0.01)
1.500
1.000
FLAC (t = 0.1)
FLAC (t = 0.5)
0.500
FLAC (t = 1.0)
FLAC (t = 2.0)
2
FLAC (t = 4.0)
10
(10
-01
-01
LEGEND
30-Mar-04 10:27
step 208843
Cons. Time 4.0000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ana_pp
(FISH)
num_pp
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
Groundwater flow time
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
Figure 18.3 Pore pressure versus consolidation time at the center of the sample
18 - 8
Verification Problems
1.000
Table Plot
y-reaction force
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-01
0.900
0.800
Table Plot
Dv (FLAC)
0.700
Dh (FLAC)
0.600
D (anal)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
5
(10
-01
18 - 9
18 - 10
Verification Problems
18 - 11
loop ii (1,nroot)
val
= float(ii-1)*pi
c eps1 = c eps2*(val + c int - val root - pi)
if ii > 50 then
c eps1 = c eps1*10.
end if
c x1 = val - c eps1
c x2 = val + c int - c eps1
val root = froot
xtable(tabroot,ii) = ii
ytable(tabroot,ii) = val root
sr = sin(val root)
cr = cos(val root)
den = val root-sr*cr
r2 = val root * val root
xtable(tab1,ii)
= ii
ytable(tab1,ii)
= sr/den
xtable(tab2,ii)
= ii
ytable(tab2,ii)
= cr/den
xtable(tab3,ii)
= ii
ytable(tab3,ii)
= sr*cr/den
xtable(tab4,ii)
= ii
ytable(tab4,ii)
= r2
xtable(tab5,ii)
= ii
ytable(tab5,ii)
= r2*sr*cr/den
end loop
end
store root
def rf
; reaction force
sum = 0.
loop ii(1,igp)
sum = sum + yforce(ii,jgp)
end loop
rf = sum
end
def qout
; outflow
outflow = 0.0
loop j (1,jgp)
outflow = outflow - gflow(igp,j)
end loop
qout = outflow
end
def ana yv
; velocity per mechanical step
velo = 0.
veln = 0.
jjsav = 0
18 - 12
Verification Problems
loop jj (1,nroot)
al2 = ytable(tab4,jj)
veln = velo + ytable(tab5,jj)*exp(-al2*coe*gwtime)
if veln = velo then
jjsav = jj
jj
= nroot
end if
velo = veln
end loop
ana yv = veln*v co*gwtdel
end
def check pp ; pore pressure profile
ini man
pcoe = 2.*c F*c sk*(1.+c un)/(3.*c a)
tabn = taba + 10
loop ip (1,igp)
sumo = 0.
sumn = 0.
jjsav = 0
xval = x(ip,2)
loop jjp (1,nroot)
al2 = ytable(tab4,jjp)
al
= ytable(tabroot,jjp)
term = cos(al*xval/c a)-cos(al)
sumn = sumo + ytable(tab1,jjp)*term*exp(-al2*coe*gwtime)
if sumn = sumo then
jjsav = jjp
jjp
= nroot
end if
sumo = sumn
end loop
xtable(taba,ip) = xval
ytable(taba,ip) = sumn*pcoe
xtable(tabn,ip) = xval
ytable(tabn,ip) = gpp(ip,2)
end loop
end
def ana pp ; pore pressure history
sumo = 0.
sumn = 0.
jjsav = 0
xval = x(1,2)
loop jjp (1,nroot)
al2 = ytable(tab4,jjp)
al
= ytable(tabroot,jjp)
term = cos(al*xval/c a)-cos(al)
18 - 13
18 - 14
Verification Problems
step 1
set flow off mech on
end command
val yv = ana yv
command
ini yv val yv j=fjgp
step 1
ini yv 0
j=fjgp
set echo on mess on
solve sratio 5.e-2
set echo off mess off
end command
tbi = tbi + 1
xtable(1,tbi) = gwtime
ytable(1,tbi) = rf
; reaction force
xtable(2,tbi) = gwtime
ytable(2,tbi) = val yv ; velocity increment per step
xtable(3,tbi) = gwtime
ytable(3,tbi) = ydisp(1,jgp)
; top
y-displacement
xtable(4,tbi) = gwtime
ytable(4,tbi) = xdisp(igp,1)
; right x-displacement
end loop
end
; --- drained conditions --apply remove mech j=fjgp
fix pp
i=figp
ini pp 0 i=figp
fix y
j=fjgp
ini yv 0 j=fjgp
set flow on
hist ana pp
hist num pp
hist gwtime
; --- drained test --set gwdt=8e-5
set nfstep = 125
big step
set taba=11
check pp
save man1.sav
;... State: man2.sav ....
set nfstep = 1125
big step
set taba=12
check pp
18 - 15
save man2.sav
;... State: man3.sav ....
set nfstep = 5000
big step
set taba=13
check pp
save man3.sav
;... State: man4.sav ....
set nfstep = 6250
big step
set taba=14
check pp
save man4.sav
;... State: man5.sav ....
set nfstep = 12500
big step
set taba=15
check pp
save man5.sav
;... State: man6.sav ....
set nfstep = 25000
big step
set taba=16
check pp
save man6.sav
;... State: man7.sav ....
set taba=7
deg cons
set echo on mess on
save man7.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Pore pressure versus consolidation time
plot hold history 1 line 2 line vs 3
;plot name: Pore pressure profile
label table 10
anal (t = 0.01)
label table 20
FLAC (t = 0.01)
label table 11
anal (t = 0.01)
18 - 16
Verification Problems
label table 21
FLAC (t = 0.01)
label table 12
anal (t = 0.1)
label table 22
FLAC (t = 0.1)
label table 13
anal (t = 0.5)
label table 23
FLAC (t = 0.5)
label table 14
anal (t = 1.0)
label table 24
FLAC (t = 1.0)
label table 15
anal (t = 2.0)
label table 25
FLAC (t = 2.0)
label table 16
anal (t = 4.0)
label table 26
FLAC (t = 4.0)
plot hold table 26 cross 16 line 25 cross 15 line 24 cross 14 line 23
cross 13 line 22 cross 12 line 21 cross 11 line 20 cross 10 line
;plot name: Degree of consolidation versus log time
label table 7
D (anal)
label table 8
Dh (FLAC)
label table 9
Dv (FLAC)
plot hold table 9 line 8 line 7 line
;plot name: Y-reaction force history
label table 1
y-reaction force
plot hold table 1 line
&
18 - 17
18 - 18
Verification Problems
xm = 0.5*(c c-c b)
if abs(xm) <= tol1 then
froot = c b
exit
end if
if fb = 0. then
froot = c b
exit
end if
if abs(c e) >= tol1 then
if abs(fa) > abs(fb) then
c s = fb/fa
if c a = c c then
c p = 2.*xm*c s
c q = 1. - c s
else
c q = fa/fc
c r = fb/fc
c p = c s*(2.*xm*c q*(c q-c r)-(c b-c a)*(c r-1.))
c q = (c q-1.)*(c r-1.)*(c s-1.)
end if
if c p > 0. then
c q = -c q
end if
c p=abs(c p)
if 2.*c p < min(3.*xm*c q-abs(tol1*c q),abs(c e*c q)) then
c e = c d
c d = c p/c q
else
c d = xm
c e = c d
end if
else
c d = xm
c e = c d
end if
else
c d = xm
c e = c d
end if
c a = c b
fa = fb
if abs(c d) > tol1 then
c b = c b + c d
else
c b = c b + sign(tol1,xm)
18 - 19
end if
c x = c b
fb = func
end loop
toto = out( froot exceeding maximum iteration)
froot = c b
command
pause
end command
end
18 - 20
Verification Problems
Optional Features
PRECIS
This volume contains descriptions of four optional facilities that can be added to the basic version
of FLAC.
Section 1 describes the thermal model option and presents several verification problems that illustrate its application both with and without interaction with mechanical stress and pore pressure.
Section 2 describes the creep models option i.e., the facility to simulate time-dependent material
behavior. Six creep models, including both viscoelastic and viscoplastic models, are available.
The dynamic analysis option is described in Section 3. Special considerations for running a dynamic
analysis are provided and several verification examples are included.
User-defined constitutive models can be implemented in FLAC as a DLL file (dynamic link library)
written in C++. The procedure to create DLLs is given in Section 4.
Optional Features
13 - 1
2 units
rough, rigid
punch
1 unit
Figure 13.1 Boundary conditions and dimensions for the numerical simulation of a punch problem
13 - 2
Verification Problems
1.66667 MPa
1.0 MPa
1000 kg/m3
10 kPa
0
X = 1.0
A velocity loading condition, shown in Figure 13.3, is applied. The gradual application of the
boundary velocity reduces the tendency for initial oscillation in the loading curve, but does not
affect the collapse load.
Controlled Nodes
13 - 3
-06
LEGEND
19-Mar-04 13:25
step 25000
4.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
vel_his
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
12
16
20
24
(10
03
13 - 4
Verification Problems
5.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
anal
4.000
(FISH)
X-axis :
disp
(FISH)
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.250
LEGEND
-0.250
21-Sep-04 14:20
step 25000
-1.000E+00 <x< 3.000E+00
-3.500E+00 <y< 5.000E-01
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
-1.250
Velocity vectors
scaled to max = 1.000E-05
max vector = 4.011E-06
0
-1.750
2E -5
-2.250
-2.750
-3.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
13 - 5
0.250
LEGEND
-0.250
21-Sep-04 14:20
step 25000
-1.000E+00 <x< 3.000E+00
-3.500E+00 <y< 5.000E-01
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 0
-1.250
-1.750
-2.250
-2.750
-3.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
Figure 13.6 Contours of maximum shear strain rate for 8-zone punch
Pressure
Error
1
2
4
8
16
4.969
5.067
5.121
5.148
5.156
- 3.4%
- 1.5%
- 0.4%
+ 0.12%
+ 0.28%
13.4 Reference
van Langen, H., and P. A. Vermeer. Interface Elements for Singular Plasticity Points, Int. J. Num.
Anal. Methods Geomech., 15, 301-305 (1991).
13 - 6
Verification Problems
13 - 7
save m9.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
;plot name: Applied punch velocity
plot hold history 4 line
;plot name: Normalized load/displacement
plot hold history 1 line 2 line begin 3000 skip 30 vs 3
;plot name: Steady-state velocity field
plot hold bound velocity max 1.0E-5
;plot name: Contous of max. shear strain rate
plot hold bound ssr fill
13 - 8
Verification Problems
20 - 1
20 - 2
Verification Problems
2
+ =
2
P
2
2
(20.1)
where and are shear and normal stress on the potential surface. For a Mohr-Coulomb material,
the shear strength of the soil, max , may be expressed as
max = c + tan
(20.2)
where is normal stress on the potential failure surface. This criterion is represented by a straight
line in Figure 20.2. We consider two common definitions for factor of safety and illustrate how, for
the example, they relate to the estimate obtained using the strength reduction technique.
20 - 3
max
(20.3)
where max is the average shear strength of the soil, and is the average shear stress developed
along the most critical potential failure surface. Also, the most critical surface is the one that gives
the minimum value to the ratio Eq. (20.3) (Das, 1994).
For the vertical slope problem, the stress ratio may be expressed using the expressions for max and
from Eqs. (20.2) and (20.1), respectively. This gives
max
c + tan
=
P 2
P 2
2
2
(20.4)
The stress ratio may be interpreted geometrically on Figure 20.2, as a ratio of elevations, to the
failure line, max , and Mohrs circle, . The minimum of this ratio is obtained for a particular value
s of (and, thus, a particular value s of ), which is obtained by setting to zero the derivative of
max
with respect to in Eq. (20.4), and solving for . The result is
s =
Pc
P tan + 2c
(20.5)
2
P
2
P
s
2
2
(20.6)
c + s tan
s
(20.7)
After substitution (in Eq. (20.7)) of Eq. (20.5) for s , and Eq. (20.6) for s , and some manipulations,
the expression is
Fs = 2
c 2
P
c
P
tan
(20.8)
20 - 4
Verification Problems
The predicted orientation for the failure plane is given by tan s = s /s . Using Eq. (20.5), we
obtain
tan s =
P
tan + 1
c
(20.9)
The stresses (s , s ) have an interesting property: they correspond to the failure state of a fictional
material in which cohesion, cd , and friction, tan d , are reduced in the same proportion so as to
keep the ratio c/tan constant. This may be seen from geometrical considerations as follows.
The failure criterion for such a material is represented by the straight line = cd + tan d in
Figure 20.3, which goes through the apex = 0, = c/ tan . This line is tangent to Mohrs
circle at the point (I , I ). The contention is that this point coincides with (s , s ).
Figure 20.3 Failure criteria for actual and fictional material with reduced
cohesion and friction
From triangle q1 -q2 -q3 , we have
cos d =
where D is given by Pythagoras theorem
D
c/ tan + P /2
(20.10)
D +
2
P
2
2
=
c
P
+
tan
2
20 - 5
2
(20.11)
c
= D cos d
tan
(20.12)
If we substitute Eq. (20.10) in Eq. (20.12), use Eq. (20.11), and solve for I , we obtain, after some
manipulations:
I =
Pc
P tan + 2c
(20.13)
This expression is identical to Eq. (20.5) and, since the point is located on Mohrs circle, it implies
that (I , I ) coincides with (s , s ). In particular, we can write
s = cd + s tan d
(20.14)
We can now relate the factor of safety in Eq. (20.3) to the expression used in the strength reduction
technique. To do this, we substitute Eq. (20.14) in Eq. (20.7). This gives:
Fs =
c + s tan
cd + s tan d
(20.15)
Since, by definition, we have c/tan = cd /tan d , Eq. (20.15) may also be expressed as
c
cd
(20.16)
tan
tan d
(20.17)
Fs =
or else as
Fs =
From this it follows that if we were, for example, to evaluate cd by the stress reduction technique,
with both friction and cohesion involved, and use it in Eq. (20.16), we would obtain the same
factor-of-safety value as the one derived from Eq. (20.8).
20 - 6
Verification Problems
20 - 7
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
5E 0
0.750
2E 5
0.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
(*10^1)
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
5E 0
0.750
2E 5
0.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
(*10^1)
1.250
1.750
2.250
20 - 8
Verification Problems
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
5E 0
-0.250
0.250
0.750
(*10^1)
1.250
1.750
2.250
20 - 9
Pcr
P
(20.18)
For this case, the load is increased, in a virtual sense, until failure occurs. The failure criterion is
shown by the line = c + tan in Figure 20.7, and the current stress on the potential failure plane
is represented by the Mohrs circle with radius P /2. As the load increases, the Mohrs circle grows,
until a state of limit equilibrium is reached for which contact is made with the failure criterion. The
surface load at that stage is Pcr .
Figure 20.7 Failure criteria for actual and fictional material with reduced
cohesion
The load ratio Pcr /P has a special property: if we consider the failure state of a fictional material
in which cohesion, cd , is allowed to be reduced, while friction is maintained constant and equal to
tan , then Pcr /P = c/cd . This may be shown using geometrical considerations as follows. The
ultimate failure criterion for the material with reduced cohesion is a line = cd + tan , tangent
to the Mohrs circle with radius P /2. The two triangles q1 -q2 -q3 and q1 -q2 -q3 in Figure 20.7 are
similar, and we may write
20 - 10
Verification Problems
Pcr
=
P
Pcr
2 +L
P
2 + Ld
(20.19)
(20.20)
1
1
sin
(20.21)
2 1+sin
1sin
(20.22)
Finally, using Eq. (20.22) in Eq. (20.20), and the result in Eq. (20.18), we obtain the following
expression for the safety factor with respect to load:
c
Fl = 2
P
1 + sin
1 sin
(20.23)
20 - 11
A typical failure state with linear failure surface as predicted by the simulations is shown in Figure 20.8.
JOB TITLE : Vertical Slope - C = P, phi = 30
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
0.750
0.250
5E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 1.188E-06
-0.250
2E -6
0.250
0.750
(*10^1)
1.250
1.750
2.250
20 - 12
Verification Problems
20 - 13
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
0.750
5E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 1.727E-06
0
5E -6
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
20 - 14
Verification Problems
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
Grid plot
0
1.250
5E 0
1E 5
0.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
(*10^1)
2.250
1.750
1.250
5E 0
0.750
1E 5
0.250
-0.250
0.250
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
20 - 15
20.5 Reference
Das, B. M. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 3rd Ed. Boston: PWS Publishing Company,
1994.
20 - 16
Verification Problems
20 - 17
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save FOScoarse FC a.fsv
;*** BRANCH: COHESION ****
restore coarse a.sav
;... STATE: FOSCOARSE C A ....
solve fos no restore exclude friction file=FOScoarse C a.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save FOScoarse C a.fsv
;*** BRANCH: COARSE: PHI=30, P=C ****
new
;... STATE: COARSE B ....
config extra 4
; START MODEL
; Stepped slope mesh (Simple slope only)
grid 20,20
model elastic j=1,2
model elastic i=2,20
gen -2.0,-2.0 -2.0,0.0 0.0,0.0 0.0,-2.0 i=1,2 j=1,3
gen 0.0,-2.0 0.0,0.0 20.0,0.0 20.0,-2.0 i=2,21 j=1,3
gen 0.0,0.0 0,20.0 20.0,20.0 20.0,0.0 i=2,21 j=3 21
; Add top
table 100 -13.00 -2.000 -13.00 0 -2.000 0 0 0 0 20.00 20.00 20.00
table 100 31.00 20.00 31.00 -2.000
ini x 10.0 y 20.0 i 12 j 21
; Add layers
; Add fix conditions to Bottom, Left, Right
fix x y j=1
20 - 18
Verification Problems
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
apply pressure 100000.0 from xy 0.0010,20.0 to xy 10.0,20.0
; Identify zones into layered region (cascading assignment)
group Generic:cohesive reg tab 100
model mohr group Generic:cohesive notnull
prop density=1.0 bulk=1E8 shear=3E7 cohesion=100000.0 friction=30.0 &
dilation=0.0 tension=1.0E10 group Generic:cohesive notnull
; END MODEL
save coarse b.sav
;*** BRANCH: FRICTION AND COHESION ****
;... STATE: FOSCOARSE FC B ....
solve fos no restore file=FOScoarse FC b.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save FOScoarse FC b.fsv
;*** BRANCH: COHESION ****
restore coarse b.sav
;... STATE: FOSCOARSE C B ....
solve fos no restore exclude friction file=FOScoarse C b.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
20 - 19
20 - 20
Verification Problems
20 - 21
20 - 22
Verification Problems
20 - 23
extrap to gp
save AFOSmedium FC b.fsv
;*** BRANCH: COHESION ****
restore Amedium b.sav
;... STATE: AFOSMEDIUM C B ....
solve fos exclude friction no restore file=FOSmedium C b.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save AFOSmedium C b.fsv
;*** BRANCH: AMED: PHI=30, P=C/2 ****
new
;... STATE: AMEDIUM C ....
config extra 4
; START MODEL
; Stepped slope mesh (Simple slope only)
grid 40,38
model elastic j=1,3
model elastic i=4,40
gen -2.0,-2.0 -2.0,0.0 0.0,0.0 0.0,-2.0 i=1,4 j=1,4
gen 0.0,-2.0 0.0,0.0 21.0,0.0 21.0,-2.0 i=4,41 j=1,4
gen 0.0,0.0 0.0,20.0 21.0,20.0 21.0,0.0 i=4,41 j=4 39
; Add top
table 100 -13.50 -2.000 -13.50 0 -2.000 0 0 0 0 20.00 21.00 20.00
table 100 32.50 20.00 32.50 -2.000
ini x 10.0 y 20.0 i 22 j 39
; Add layers
; Add fix conditions to Bottom, Left, Right
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=41
apply pressure 50000.0 from xy 0.0010,20.0 to xy 10.0,20.0
; Identify zones into layered region (cascading assignment)
20 - 24
Verification Problems
20 - 25
20 - 26
Verification Problems
extrap to gp
save FOS med FC a.fsv
;*** BRANCH: COHESION ****
restore Medium a.sav
;... STATE: FOS MED C A ....
solve fos no restore exclude friction file=FOS med C a.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save FOS med C a.fsv
;*** BRANCH: MED: PHI=30, P=C ****
new
;... STATE: MEDIUM B ....
config extra 4
; START MODEL
; Stepped slope mesh (Simple slope only)
grid 40,40
model elastic j 1 4
model elastic i 4,40 j 5 50
gen -2.0,-2.0 -2.0,0.0 0.0,0.0 0.0,-2.0 i=1,4 j=1,5
gen 0.0,-2.0 0.0,0.0 20.0,0.0 20.0,-2.0 i=4,41 j=1,5
gen 0.0,0.0 0.0,20.0 20.0,20.0 20.0,0.0 i=4,41 j=5 41
; Add top
table 100 -13.50 -2.000 -13.50 0 -2.000 0 0 0 0 20.00 20.00 20.00
table 100 32.50 20.00 32.50 -2.000
ini x 10.0 y 20.0 i 22 j 41
; Add layers
; Add fix conditions to Bottom, Left, Right
fix x y j=1
fix x i=1
fix x i=41
apply pressure 100000.0 from xy 0.0010,20.0 to xy 10.0,20.0
; Identify zones into layered region (cascading assignment)
20 - 27
20 - 28
Verification Problems
20 - 29
20 - 30
Verification Problems
fix x i=61
apply pressure 100000.0 from xy 0.0010,20.0 to xy 10.0,20.0
; Identify zones into layered region (cascading assignment)
group soil reg tab 100
model mohr group soil notnull
prop density=1000.0 bulk=1.00000008E8 shear=3.0E7 cohesion=100000.0 &
friction=30.0 dilation=0.0 tension=1.0E10 group soil notnull
save fine b.sav
;... STATE: FOSFINE B ....
solve fos exclude friction no restore file=FoSfine b.fsv
call extrap.fis
def fill ex1 ssr
; --- Loop through all zones
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
ex 1(i,j) = ssr(i,j)
end loop
end loop
end
fill ex1 ssr
set gp avg=1
extrap to gp
save FoSfine b.fsv
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Grid
plot hold fos grid apply aforce
;plot name: Failure mode
plot hold fos ex 2 alias Shear Strain Rate contours fill zero boundary &
apply aforce velocity
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2-1
2 TWO-PHASE FLOW
2.1 Introduction
The two-phase flow option in FLAC allows numerical modeling of the flow of two immiscible fluids
through porous media. The formulation applies to problems, such as those encountered in reservoir
simulation, in which a fluid displaces another and simultaneous flow of the two fluids takes place
in the porous medium with no mass transfer between them. The formulation is not suitable for
describing piston-like processes in which a sharp interface between the two fluids moves at the
average speed of fluid flow. A description of the concepts involved in the mathematical description
of multi-phase flow may be found in reference books such as Fundamentals of Numerical Reservoir
Simulation (Donald W. Peaceman 1977). Some of these concepts are addressed below.
In two-phase flow, the void space is completely filled by the two fluids. One of the fluids (the wetting
fluid, identified by the subscript w) wets the porous medium more than the other (the non-wetting
fluid, identified by subscript g or nw). As a result, the pressure in the non-wetting fluid will be higher
than the pressure in the wetting fluid. The pressure difference Pg Pw is the capillary pressure
Pc , which is a function of saturation, Sw . Darcys law is used to describe the flow of each fluid.
The effective intrinsic permeability in the law is given as a fraction of the single-fluid (or saturated)
intrinsic permeability. The fractions (or relative permeabilities) are functions of saturation, Sw . In
the FLAC implementation, the curves for capillary pressure and relative permeabilities are built-in
empirical laws of the van Genuchten form (van Genuchten 1980).
The flow modeling with FLAC may be done by itself or in parallel with the mechanical modeling.
In the latter case, the solid grains forming the matrix are assumed to be incompressible (equivalent
to the Biot coefficient equal to one for single phase flow). The following features of the fluids/solid
interaction is captured using the built-in logic:
Changes in effective stress cause volumetric strain to occur (the effective stress increment
for two-phase flow is the Terzaghi effective stress increment, with pore pressure increment
replaced by mean, saturation weighted, fluid pressure increments see, e.g., Dangla
1999).
Volumetric deformation causes changes in fluid pressures.
Bishop effective stress is used in the detection of yield in constitutive models involving
plasticity (see, e.g., Hutter et al., 1999).
Volumetric deformations induce changes in porosity, which in turn impact permeability and the
capillary pressure curve parameters. These dependencies are not accounted for automatically in
the code. However, the user can implement them using appropriate FISH functions. (FISH access
is provided to most of the two-phase flow parameters and fluid properties.)
The following characteristics are provided.
1. The fluid transport laws correspond to both isotropic and anisotropic permeability.
2-2
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
* The data files listed in this chapter are created in one of two ways: either by typing in the commands
in a text editor, or by generating the model in the GIIC and exporting the file using the File / Export
Record menu item. The files are stored in the directory ITASCA\FLAC500\FLUID\2-TwoPhase
with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an
example and compare the results to plots in this volume, open a project file in the GIIC, by clicking
on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting the project file name (with extension .PRJ).
Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved
states and the example data file will be run and plots created.
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2-3
qi = kijw
(Pw w gk xk )
xj
(2.1)
w g
r
(Pg g gk xk )
g xj
(2.2)
where kij is saturated mobility coefficient, which is a tensor, r is relative permeability for the fluid,
which is a function of saturation Sw , is dynamic viscosity, P is pore pressure, is fluid density,
and g is gravity. Note that the mobility coefficient (or FLAC permeability) is defined as the ratio of
intrinsic permeability to dynamic viscosity.
Relative Permeability Laws
Relative permeabilities are related to saturation Sw by empirical laws of the van Genuchten form
(van Genuchten 1980) see, e.g., Figure 2.1:
2
1/a a
rw = Seb 1 1 Se
(2.3)
g
1/a 2a
r = (1 Se )c 1 Se
(2.4)
In those laws, a, b and c are constant parameters and Se is the effective saturation.
The effective saturation is defined as
Se =
Sw Srw
1 Srw
(2.5)
where Srw is residual wetting fluid saturation (the residual saturation, which remains in spite of high
capillary pressures, is referred to as connate in the case of water).
2-4
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
Table Plot
non-wetting fluid
0.800
wetting fluid
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
Figure 2.1
(2.6)
In FLAC, this empirical law is of the van Genuchten form (see Figure 2.2):
1a
1/a
1
Pc (Sw ) = P0 Se
(2.7)
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2-5
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 14:10
step
0
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
Capillary pressure curve
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
Figure 2.2
The parameter P0 is larger for finer material, and its dependency on material properties may be
assessed using the Leverett scaling law (see, e.g., Nikolaevskij 1990, p. 414). This law, derived
using dimensional analysis, has the form:
P0 =
/n
(2.8)
where is surface tension, a property of the matrix, is intrinsic permeability, and n is porosity. The
alpha coefficient is sometimes introduced in the literature in place of P0 . The relation between
those two scaling parameters is
P0 =
w g
(2.9)
(2.10)
2-6
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
(2.11)
q
g
= i + qvg
t
xi
(2.12)
where is the variation of fluid content (variation of fluid volume per unit volume of porous
material), and qv is the volumetric fluid source intensity.
Fluid Constitutive Laws
The constitutive laws for the fluids are:
Pw
Kw
=
Sw
t
n
Pg
Kg
=
Sg
t
n
w
Sw
n
Sw
t
t
t
g
Sg
n
Sg
t
t
t
(2.13)
(2.14)
Sw
Sw Pw
+
n
Kw t
t
Sg
Sg Pg
+
n
Kg t
t
qiw
=
+ Sw
xi
t
qi
+ Sg
=
xi
t
(2.15)
(2.16)
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2-7
Balance of Momentum
The balance equation is
ij
d u i
+ gi =
xj
dt
(2.17)
where, is bulk density, and u is velocity. For two-phase flow calculations, we have
= d + n(Sw w + Sg g )
(2.18)
(2.19)
where ij is the change in effective stress, H is the functional form of the constitutive law, and
is a history parameter. For two-phase flow, the change in effective stress is defined as
ij = ij + P ij
(2.20)
P = Sw Pw + Sg Pg
(2.21)
As may be seen from this formulation, provided the total stress remains constant, deformation will
only occur if a change of pore pressure takes place. For constitutive models involving plasticity,
Bishop effective stress is used to detect failure. This effective stress is defined as ij + P ij , with
P = Sw Pw + Sg Pg .
Compatibility Equation
The relation between strain rate and velocity gradient is given as usual. It is listed here for completeness:
uj
1 u i
+
ij =
2 xj
xi
(2.22)
2-8
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2-9
(2.23)
Sg
1
Pg + Sg =
Qg t + Sg V
Kg
nV
(2.24)
(2.25)
Sw + Sg = 0
(2.26)
Sg Pc
1
Qg t + Sg V
1 Sw =
Kg
nV
(2.27)
(2.28)
2 - 10
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Qw
Sw Sg
Sw =
nV D
Kg
Kw
nV D
Kg
Kw
(2.29)
(2.30)
where, by definition:
D=
Sg
Sw Sg Pc
Sw
+
Kw
Kg
Kw Kg
(2.31)
and the undrained coefficient , introduced for numerical convenience, is a constant equal to one
for mechanical coupling and to zero for a stand-alone fluid flow calculation.
Differentiation of Eq. (2.7) with respect to Sw gives, using Eq. (2.5):
Sg Pc = P0
1a
1/a
1/a a
(1 Se )Se
1 Se
a
(2.32)
As may be seen from this expression, although the derivative of the capillary curve has a vertical
tangent at Sw = 1, the term Sg Pc , which appears in Eqs. (2.29) to (2.31), is finite and goes to zero
at full saturation.
In the FLAC explicit numerical scheme, the new nodal wetting pore pressure and saturation at t +t
are evaluated from those at time, t, by adding the increments Eqs. (2.29) and (2.30), evaluated from
known quantities at time, t. The new value of Pg at the node is derived from new values of Pw and
Sw , using the capillary pressure law Eq. (2.6).
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 11
Qg = r
[Mw ]{Pg g xi gi }
(2.33)
(2.34)
where S is the zone average saturation, and r is relative permeability for the zone. In FLAC, an
upstream weighting technique is used, whereby the average saturation at inflow nodes in the zone
is used in combination with Eqs. (2.3) (2.5) to evaluate the zone relative permeabilities.
2.3.3 Timestep
In a two-phase flow calculation, the stable timestep for numerical stability is calculated on the
basis of fluid diffusivity (even in coupled simulations). It is taken as the minimum value of stable
timesteps that would be used for saturated flow of the wetting and non-wetting fluid, respectively
(see Section 1.3.5 for reference to critical timestep determination for saturated flow). An estimation
of the timestep magnitude may be obtained using the formula:
t =
L2z n min
1
1
,
kw Kw kg Kg
(2.35)
where Lz is the smallest zone size in the simulation, and kg is the saturated mobility coefficient for
the non-wetting fluid (kg = kw w /g ).
The effect of increased mechanical stiffness is incorporated in quasi-static analysis in the densityscaling scheme already in FLAC; the apparent mechanical bulk modulus of a zone is modified by
the presence of fluids as follows:
K := K +
Sw Kw + Sg Kg
n
(2.36)
2 - 12
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 13
w pore pressure
nw pore pressure *
w saturation
w fluid modulus
nw fluid modulus
van Genuchten a
van Genuchten b
van Genuchten c
van Genuchten PO
residual saturation Srw
* This command is only used at fixed nwpp nodes. The quantity is initialized automatically by the
code at nodes where the nwpp is not fixed.
2 - 14
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Table 2.2
INITIAL
* This command initializes k11 and k22 at the given value, and k12 to zero.
** This coefficient, which is 1 by default, can be initialized to 0 to prevent generation of pore
pressure by volumetric straining.
*** The ratio is for wetting over non-wetting fluid dynamic viscosity.
Please note the difference between groundwater-flow mode and two-phase flow mode.
In CONFIG gw we use:
PROPERTY porosity
PROPERTY k11
PROPERTY k12
PROPERTY permeability
In CONFIG tpow we use:
INITIAL porosity
INITIAL wk11
INITIAL wk12
INITIAL wpermeability
In both configurations, the permeability input is the value of the wetting fluid mobility coefficient
(coefficient of pore pressure in Darcys law) at full saturation. The effective mobility is obtained
by multiplication of the wetting fluid input value with a relative mobility law built into the code. In
CONFIG tpow, and for the non-wetting fluid, this relation is multiplied by the viscosity ratio (an
input value equal to wetting fluid over non-wetting fluid viscosity).
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 15
The wetting and non-wetting fluid density can be initialized using the commands:
WATER density value
WATER nwdensity value
The minimum value of relative saturation (used to cap the capillary pressure) can be changed to a
value larger than the default value of 105 , using the command
WATER secap value
2.4.3 Printing
The variables listed Tables 2.3 and 2.4 in CONFIG tpow, using the PRINT command.
Table 2.3
PRINT
keyword
gpp
nwpp
saturation
fmodulus
f2modulus
vga
vgpcw
vgpcnw
vgp0
rsat
w pore pressure
nw pore pressure
w saturation
w fluid modulus
nw fluid modulus
van Genuchten a
van Genuchten b
van Genuchten c
van Genuchten P0
residual saturation Srw
2 - 16
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Table 2.4
PRINT
keyword
pp
zpp
wk11
wk12
wk22
wpermeability
poro
udcoe
visrat
* Defined as Pw Sw + Pg Sg .
** Coefficient of pore pressure increment generated by volumetric straining, which can take the
value 0 or 1.
*** Wetting over non-wetting dynamic fluid viscosity.
2.4.4 Boundary Conditions
Pore pressures can be fixed or freed using the commands:
FIX/FREE pp
FIX/FREE nwpp
A seepage boundary condition can be fixed/freed using the command
FIX/FREE seepage
At a seepage boundary, the non-wetting fluid pressure is atmospheric (value zero). The boundary
is impermeable to the wetting fluid as long as the wetting pressure is negative, the non-wetting pore
pressure is set to zero at boundary nodes where the condition is not met.
Wells, pore pressure or discharge can be applied for the wetting fluid, using the commands:
INTERIOR well value
APPLY discharge value
APPLY pp value
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 17
2 - 18
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Table 2.6
pp
wk11
wk12
wk22
poro2
rsat
visrat
udcoe
zone pp *
w sat mobility coeff. k11
w sat mobility coeff. k12
w sat mobility coeff. k22
porosity
w-fluid residual saturation
viscosity ratio (wet/non-wet)
undrained coeff.
READ only
READ only
READ only
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 19
2 - 20
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 21
JOB TITLE : .
6.000
saturation front
ubound
5.000
saturation t=7.16d
saturation t=4.16d
4.000
saturation t=1.16d
lbound
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
(10
-01
Figure 2.3
JOB TITLE : .
6.000
water content
ubound
5.000
4.000
lbound
2.000
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-02
Figure 2.4
2 - 22
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 23
save caisd.sav
apply remove j=c_jgp
set gwtime 0.0
solve age 86.4e3
; 1 day
save caise.sav
solve age 345.6e3
; 4 day
save caisf.sav
solve age 1.728e6
; 20 day
save caisg.sav
solve age 8.640e6
; 100 day
save caish.sav
;
; create plots
res caisa.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = satl.log
set tabin=1
log_satl
set filename = sata.log
set tabin=2
log_sat
;
new
res caisb.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = satb.log
set tabin=3
log_sat
;
new
res caisc.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = satc.log
set tabin=4
log_sat
set filename = satu.log
set tabin=5
log_satu
;
new
res caise.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = wcl.log
set tabin=6
log_wcl
set filename = wca.log
2 - 24
set tabin=7
log_wc
;
new
res caisf.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = wcb.log
set tabin=8
log_wc
;
new
res caisg.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = wcc.log
set tabin=9
log_wc
;
new
res caish.sav
ca caisson_log.fis
set filename = wcd.log
set tabin=10
log_wc
set filename = wcu.log
set tabin=11
log_wcu
;
new
gr 1 1
set echo off
ca satl.log
ca sata.log
ca satb.log
ca satc.log
ca satu.log
ca wcl.log
ca wca.log
ca wcb.log
ca wcc.log
ca wcd.log
ca wcu.log
set echo on
label table 1
lbound
label table 2
saturation t=1.16d
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 25
label table 3
saturation t=4.16d
label table 4
saturation t=7.16d
label table 5
ubound
label table 6
lbound
label table 7
water content t=1d
label table 8
water content t=4d
label table 9
water content t=20d
label table 10
water content t=100d
label table 11
ubound
plot hold
alias
plot hold
alias
ret
table 1 l 2 l 3 l 4 l 5 l &
saturation front label
table 6 l 7 l 8 l 9 l 10 l 11 l &
water content label
2 - 26
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
Table Plot
non-wetting fluid
0.800
wetting fluid
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
Figure 2.5
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
0.900
19-Apr-04 11:48
step
0
0.800
Table Plot
Capillary pressure curve
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
(10
Figure 2.6
-01
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 27
A grid of 20 by 20 zones is used in the FLAC simulation. A seepage condition is assigned on the
right side of the model, and saturation is fixed (at one) at the water inlet (top, left side of the model).
A low bulk modulus (1.39 105 Pa) and high viscosity ratio (55) are used to model the air phase.
Figure 2.7 shows the evolution of saturation at monitoring points indicated in Figure 2.8, for the
first 140 seconds after the caisson is placed in contact with water. Contours of saturation and flow
vectors at the end of the simulation are given in Figure 2.9.
JOB TITLE : .
(FISH)
_sat3
(FISH)
_sat4
(FISH)
_sat5
(FISH)
_sat6
(FISH)
0.900
0.800
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
_sat1
(FISH)
_sat2
1.000
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
X-axis :
Groundwater flow time
0.300
0.200
0.100
10
12
(10
01
Figure 2.7
Saturation histories
2 - 28
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 12:44
step 2527778
Cons. Time 1.4000E+02
-1.467E+00 <x< 3.147E+01
-6.467E+00 <y< 2.647E+01
1.750
Grid plot
1.250
1E 1
Marked Gridpoints
0.750
0.250
-0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
Figure 2.8
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 12:44
step 2527778
Flow Time
1.4000E+02
-1.667E+00 <x< 3.167E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 2.667E+01
1.750
Saturation contours
0.00E+00
2.00E-01
4.00E-01
6.00E-01
8.00E-01
1.00E+00
Contour interval= 1.00E-01
Boundary plot
0
Flow vectors
max vector =
1.250
0.750
1E 1
0.250
9.194E-02
2E -1
-0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
Figure 2.9
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 29
8e5
1-1./2.
0.01
1e-9
1e-3
c_iperm/c_vis
1e5
; P_0
; a
; initial saturation
; intrinsic permeability
; water viscosity at 20 degree in Pa*s
; water saturated mobility coefficient
; initial air pressure
; (=atmospheric pressure)
; initial water pressure
= c_nwpp-c_vgp0 * (c_inisat(-1.0/c_vga)-1.0)(1.0-c_vga)
c_inip
end
setup
; --- properties --ini wk11=c_perm wk12=0. wk22=c_perm ; water mobility coefficient(isotropic)
ini poro 0.4
; porosity
ini fmod 2e9 f2mod 1.39e5
; water/air bulk modulus
ini visrat 55
ini udcoe 0.
;
;
;
ini vga=c_vga vgpcw 0.5 vgpcnw 0.333
ini rsat 0.0
;
water dens 0
;
set grav 0
;
; --- initial conditions --ini pp c_inip
;
ini sat c_inisat
;
; --- boundary conditions --ini pp 0
i 1 j 18,21
fix pp
i 1 j 18,21
fix sat
i 1 j 18,21
fix seepage i 21
; --- boundary conditions ---
2 - 30
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 31
1010 m2 /(Pa-s)
0.3
1000 kg/m3
1000 Pa
10 m/sec2
The laws adopted for relative permeability and capillary pressure are shown in Figures 2.10 and
2.11. They correspond to the van Genuchten parameter values a = 0.336, b = 0.5, c = 0.5 and
P0 = 0.699 104 .
JOB TITLE : .
1.000
Table Plot
non-wetting fluid
wetting fluid
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
2 - 32
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 14:10
step
0
Table Plot
Capillary pressure curve
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-01
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 33
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6.000
19-Apr-04 10:36
step 55556
Cons. Time 3.0000E+09
-4.400E-01 <x< 9.440E+00
-1.940E+00 <y< 7.940E+00
5.000
Boundary plot
0
4.000
2E 0
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
JOB TITLE : .
3.500
LEGEND
3.000
19-Apr-04 10:36
step 55556
Flow Time
3.0000E+09
6.500E+00 <x< 1.050E+01
-2.500E-01 <y< 3.750E+00
2.500
Boundary plot
2.000
1E 0
seepage face
(analytical)
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0.725
0.775
0.825
0.875
0.925
0.975
1.025
(*10^1)
2 - 34
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 35
fix pp
i 1 j 1 5
fix sat i 1 j 1 5
fix pp
i 31 j 1 5
fix sat i 31 j 1 5
; --- Settings --set flow on mech off
set grav=gr
; --- raise upstream water level --ini pp 6e4 var 0 -6e4 i 1 j 1 21
fix pp
i=1 j 1 21
fix sat
i=1 j 1 21
fix seepage i 31 j 6 21
; --- fish function --def qin
valin = 0.0
valout = 0.0
loop jj (1,21)
valin = valin + gflow(1,jj)
if and(flags(igp,jj),262144) # 0 then
if gpp(igp,jj) = 0.0 then
;
seepage node
valout = valout - gflow(igp,jj)
endif
else
;
fixed pp node
valout = valout - gflow(igp,jj)
endif
end_loop
qin = valin
qout = valout
end
; --- histories --his ns 1000
his gwtime
his qin
his qout
; --- Step to steady-state --set step 200000
set ncw 1000
solve age 3e9
save emb2.sav
; --- View plots --plot hold pp fill int 10000 flow
win 6.5 10.5 -.25 3.75
label plot 1 (9.25,1.50)
seepage face
2 - 36
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 37
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 10:28
step 77813
Cons. Time 3.0000E+05
-1.038E+00 <x< 1.554E+01
-1.009E+01 <y< 6.488E+00
0.300
0.100
Boundary plot
0
-0.100
5E 0
Saturation contours
0.00E+00
2.00E-01
4.00E-01
6.00E-01
8.00E-01
1.00E+00
Contour interval= 1.00E-01
-0.300
-0.500
-0.700
-0.900
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.400
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
0.750
19-Apr-04 10:28
step 77813
Cons. Time 3.0000E+05
-2.062E+00 <x< 2.598E+01
-2.007E+01 <y< 7.968E+00
-0.250
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
-0.750
-1.250
2E -7
-1.750
0.750
1.250
(*10^1)
1.750
2.250
2 - 38
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 39
2 - 40
bd_seep
end
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
= val + drift_seep
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 41
2 - 42
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:49
step
0
-2.505E+00 <x< 5.505E+00
-1.005E+00 <y< 7.005E+00
4.500
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.500
2.500
1.500
2E 0
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:49
step
0
-2.505E+00 <x< 5.505E+00
-1.005E+00 <y< 7.005E+00
4.500
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
3.500
Grid plot
0
2E 0
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 43
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:50
step
5333
Cons. Time 2.0002E+05
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
0
2E 0
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:50
step
5333
Flow Time
2.0002E+05
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
2 - 44
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:51
step 10630
Cons. Time 4.0001E+05
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
0
2E 0
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:51
step 10630
Flow Time
4.0001E+05
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 45
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:52
step 15761
Cons. Time 6.0004E+05
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
0
2E 0
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:52
step 15761
Flow Time
6.0004E+05
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
2 - 46
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:53
step 20769
Cons. Time 8.0002E+05
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
0
2E 0
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:53
step 20769
Flow Time
8.0002E+05
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 47
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:56
step 29834
Cons. Time 1.2000E+06
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
0
2E 0
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:56
step 29834
Flow Time
1.2000E+06
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
2 - 48
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
19-Apr-04 9:59
step 41742
Cons. Time 1.8001E+06
-2.246E+00 <x< 5.246E+00
-7.458E-01 <y< 6.746E+00
5.000
4.000
Saturation contours
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
9.00E-01
1.00E+00
3.000
2.000
1.000
5E -6
Boundary plot
0.000
2E 0
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
6.500
LEGEND
5.500
19-Apr-04 9:59
step 41742
Flow Time
1.8001E+06
-2.500E+00 <x< 5.500E+00
-1.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
4.500
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 49
2 - 50
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
ini_pps
ini sat 1
i 1 13 j 1 8
ini pp 2e4 var 0 -2e4 i 1 13 j 1 8
ini nwpp 0 j=c_jgp
fix nwpp
j=c_jgp
fix pp i=13 j=1,8
fix sat i=13 j=1,8
def ini_str
rowup = 0.0
valup = 0.0
loop jj (1,jzones)
j1 = jgp - jj
myzsat = (sat(1,j1)+sat(2,j1)+sat(1,j1+1)+sat(2,j1+1))*0.25
thisrow = (1500. + 0.3 * myzsat * 1000.) * 10. * 0.25
val = valup + (rowup + thisrow) * 0.5
loop ii (1,izones)
sxx(ii,j1) = -val
syy(ii,j1) = -val
szz(ii,j1) = -val
end_loop
valup = val
rowup = thisrow
end_loop
end
ini_str
save cuve0.sav
; remplissage
ini udcoe 1
apply discharge c_q i=1,3 j=c_jgp
set gwtime 0
solve auto on age 2e5
save cuvea.sav
solve auto on age 4e5
save cuveb.sav
solve auto on age 6e5
save cuvec.sav
solve auto on age 8e5
save cuved.sav
solve auto on age 10e5
save cuvee.sav
solve auto on age 12e5
save cuvef.sav
solve auto on age 14e5
save cuveg.sav
solve auto on age 16e5
save cuveh.sav
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 51
of a caisson t=0s
of a caisson t=2e5s
of a caisson t=4e5s
of a caisson t=6e5s
new
res cuved.sav
title
Deformation caused by filling of a caisson t=8e5s
plot hold sat fill flow bl
plot hold grid mag
;
new
res cuvef.sav
title
Deformation caused by filling of a caisson t=12e5s
plot hold sat fill flow bl
plot hold grid mag
;
new
2 - 52
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
res cuvei.sav
title
Deformation caused by filling of a caisson t=18e5s
plot hold sat fill flow bl
plot hold grid mag
ret
TWO-PHASE FLOW
2 - 53
2.6 References
Dangla, P. Approches Energetique et Numerique des Milieux Poreux Non Satures. Memoire
dhabilitation a diriger des recherches. Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees. Ecole Normale
Superieure de Cachan. Universite de Marne-la-Valee, 1999.
Forsyth, P. A., Y. S. Wu, and K. Pruess. Robust Numerical Methods for Saturated-Unsaturated
Flow with Dry Initial Conditions in Heterogeneous Media, in Advances in Water Resources, Vol.
18, pp. 25-38, Elsevier Science Limited, 1995.
Harr, M. E. Groundwater and Seepage. Dover, 1991.
Hutter, K., L. Laloui and L. Vulliet. Thermodynamically Based Mixture Models of Saturated and
Unsaturated Soils, in Mechanics of Cohesive-Frictional Materials, Vol. 4, Issue no 4, pp. 295-338.
F. Darve and R. de Borst, Eds. Wiley, 1999.
Nikolaevskij, V. N. Mechanics of Porous and Fractured Media. Series in Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics. R. K. T. Hsieh, Ed. World Scientific, 1990.
Peaceman, D. W. Fundamentals of Numerical Reservoir Simulation. Developments in Petroleum
Science, 6. Elsevier, 1977.
Philip, J. R., J. H. Knight and R. T. Waechter. Unsaturated Seepage and Subterranean Holes: Conspectus, and Exclusion Problem for Circular Cylindrical Cavities, in Water Resources Research,
Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 16-28, January 1989.
van Genuchten, M. Th., A Closed Form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of
Unsaturated Soils, in Soil Sc. Soc. Am. J., Vol. 44, pp. 892-898, 1980.
2 - 54
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
14 - 1
1.5 109 Pa
1.5 109 Pa
porosity (n)
0.3
Biot coefficient ()
0.65
14 - 2
Verification Problems
2.0 109 Pa
permeability (k)
1012 (m/sec)/(Pa/m)
a2
)
r2
a2
= P0 (1 + 2 )
r
rr = P0 (1
r = 0
(14.1)
ur =
u = 0
p= 0
P0
2G r
a2
14 - 3
r
a 3 4ct
(r a)2
r a
a 2 4ct
2
exp
1 erfc
2
r
4ct
a
a2
r
a2
4ct
rr = 2p0
a 3 4ct
(r a)2
r a
a 2 4ct
2
exp
+ erfc
2
r
4ct
a2
r
a2
4ct
= 2p0
r
(r a)2
4ct
a
r a
1 a
+ 2p0
exp
1
1 erfc
8 r
r
4ct
a
a2
4ct
r = 0
(14.2)
ap0
ur = 2
2G
r
(r a)2
r a
a
4ct
a 4ct
exp
1 erfc
+
r
4ct
a
r a2
a2
4ct
u = 0
p
p0
=1
a
r
erfc
ra
4ct
1
8
a
r
a
r
r
(r a)2
4ct
r a
exp
1 erfc
4ct
a
a2
4ct
14 - 4
Verification Problems
The poroelastic coefficient, , and the diffusivity, c, involved in the above equations are
defined as follows (assuming incompressible grains):
(1 2u )
2(1 u )
(14.3)
1
2
)
+
M
K + 43 G
(14.4)
=
and
c = k/(
where k is the mobility coefficient (FLAC permeability), K and G are the drained bulk
and shear moduli of the medium, M is the Biot modulus, is the drained Poissons ratio,
and u is the undrained Poissons ratio.
The undrained Poissons ratio u is defined as
u =
3Ku 2G
2(3Ku + G)
(14.5)
(14.6)
The mode 2 solution indicates that a maximum tensile stress = 2p0 is reached at the
borehole wall.
(3) Loading Mode 3: Far-Field Deviator
The mode 3 solution is for deviatoric loading. The following short-time asymptotic
equations for stresses, pore pressure and displacements are obtained for this mode:
a4
a2
1 4 2 + 3 4 cos 2
r
r
rr = S0
= S0
u
1 + 4
1
r a
a
a4
erfc
3 4 cos 2
r
r
4ct
14 - 5
r = S0
a4
a2
1 2 2 + 3 4 sin 2
r
r
ur =
a3
(14.7)
aS0
a
4(1 u ) 3 cos 2
2G
r
r
aS0
a
a3
u =
2(1 2u ) 3 sin 2
2G
r
r
4
a
r a
a2
p = S0 B(1 + u )
erfc
+ 2 cos 2
3
r
r
4ct
In the mode 3 equations, the Skemptons coefficient B is expressed as
B = (Ku K)/(Ku )
(14.8)
The superposition of the three loading mode solutions (Eqs. (14.1), (14.2) and (14.7))
is performed in three FISH functions (BHPP.FIS (see Section 14.7), SIGT.FIS (see
Section 14.8), and BPUR.FIS (see Section 14.9)), to provide solutions for pore pressure, tangential stress and radial displacement, respectively, for comparison to the FLAC
results. Note that the FISH function ERFC.FIS (see Section 3 in the FISH volume) is
used to calculate the complementary error function.
14.3 FLAC Model
The FLAC grid used in the simulation is shown in Figure 14.2. The model takes advantage of the
problem quarter symmetry: it corresponds to a quarter of a ring with inner radius a equal to 1 m,
and outer radius b equal to 50 m. The origin of the system-of-reference axes is at the borehole
center; the x- and y-axes are in the direction of the minimum and maximum compressive in-situ
principal stresses, respectively.
The boundary conditions correspond to roller boundaries along the symmetry lines, zero pore
pressure and no traction at the borehole, and fixed displacements at the far boundary.
The grid has 50 zones in the radial direction and 16 zones on the circumference, and is generated
by the FISH function QDONUT.FIS (see Section 3 in the FISH volume). The radial extent of
the model is selected such that the stress state at the outer boundary, estimated using the Kirsch
solution, compares with good accuracy to the in-situ stress field.
14 - 6
Verification Problems
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Sep-04 16:32
step 14006
Flow Time
3.0000E-01
-8.333E+00 <x< 5.833E+01
-8.333E+00 <y< 5.833E+01
4.000
Grid plot
3.000
2E 1
2.000
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
(*10^1)
14 - 7
06
LEGEND
29-Sep-04 16:32
step
0
1.800
1.600
1.400
FLAC t = 0.03 s
FLAC t = 0.003 s
1.200
analytical t = 0.3 s
analytical t = 0.03 s
analytical t = 0.003 s
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
(10
-02
14 - 8
Verification Problems
The drained modulus characterizes the rock in the vicinity of the borehole, and the stiffer undrained
modulus characterizes the rock further away. The shielding effect on the stress concentration
near the borehole caused by this stiffness contrast is shown in Figure 14.4. In this figure, the
isochrones of tangential stress variation with radius are compared to the analytical solution for the
three values of time considered earlier and along the x-direction. As this figure shows, at the very
small times considered in the simulation, the peak tangential stress is actually located inside the
rock. This mechanism explains field observations which indicate that failure can be initiated at a
small distance inside the rock, rather than at the borehole wall as predicted by an elastic analysis.
JOB TITLE : POROELASTIC RESPONSE OF A BOREHOLE - PLANE STRAIN
06
LEGEND
29-Sep-04 16:32
step
0
-2.200
-2.400
-2.600
FLAC t = 0.03 s
FLAC t = 0.003 s
-2.800
analytical t = 0.3 s
analytical t = 0.03 s
analytical t = 0.003 s
-3.000
-3.200
-3.400
-3.600
-3.800
10
15
20
25
30
(10
-02
14 - 9
The radial displacement versus is compared to the analytical solution in Figure 14.5 for a simulation
time of 0.3 second. The results of the FLAC simulation show good agreement with the analytical
predictions.
JOB TITLE : POROELASTIC RESPONSE OF A BOREHOLE - PLANE STRAIN
-04
LEGEND
29-Sep-04 16:32
step 14006
Flow Time
3.0000E-01
6.000
4.000
Radial displacement
FLAC t = 0.3 s
analytical t = 0.3 s
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
9
(10
01
14.5 Reference
Detournay, E., and A. H.-D. Cheng. Poroelastic Response of a Borehole in a Non-Hydrostatic
Stress Field, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 25(3), 171-182 (1988).
14 - 10
Verification Problems
c bm
c bma
14 - 11
= M
= 1./stor
;
b0 ii = 0
ip
= 1
jp
= 1
tabin = 1
tabout = 1
end
ini bh
; --- properties --pro bulk c bu she c sh den 2500
pro por c n perm c k biot c c bc
water den 1000 tens 1e20
set biot on
initial biot mod c bm
; --- initial and boundary conditions --ini sxx sxx0 syy syy0 szz sxx0
ini pp pp0
fix y j 1
fix x j 17
fix x y i 51
fix sat
; --- undrained response --set flow off
solve sratio 5.e-3
save bh a.sav
;... STATE: BH 1 ....
; --- drained response --ini pp 0 i 1
fix pp i 1
;
set clock 1000000 step 1000000
set gwdt=3e-4
;
set flow on mech off
initial biot mod c bma
solve age 3e-3
set flow off mech on
initial biot mod 0
solve sratio 5.e-3
save bh 1.sav
;... STATE: BH 1M ....
set flow on
14 - 12
ca erfc.fis
ca bhpp.fis
ca sigt.fis
ca log it.fis
;
set tabout = 1
stor pp
set tabout = 101
stor sigt
;
set filename = bhpp1.log
set tabin=1
log it
set filename = bhpp11.log
set tabin=11
log it
;
set filename = bh101.log
set tabin=101
log it
set filename = bh111.log
set tabin=111
log it
save bh 1m.sav
;... STATE: BH 2 ....
;
set flow on mech off
initial biot mod c bma
solve age 3e-2
set flow off mech on
initial biot mod 0
solve sratio 5.e-3
save bh 2.sav
;... STATE: BH 2M ....
set flow on
ca erfc.fis
ca bhpp.fis
ca sigt.fis
;ca log it.fis
;
set tabout = 2
stor pp
set tabout = 102
stor sigt
Verification Problems
;
set filename =
set tabin=2
log it
set filename =
set tabin=12
log it
;
set filename =
set tabin=102
log it
set filename =
set tabin=112
log it
save bh 2m.sav
14 - 13
bhpp2.log
bhpp12.log
bh102.log
bh112.log
14 - 14
;
set filename = bh103.log
set tabin=103
log it
set filename = bh113.log
set tabin=113
log it
save bh 3m.sav
;*** BRANCH: RESULTS ****
new
;... STATE: BH M ....
config gwflow
gr 1 1
set echo off
; pore pressure results
call bhpp1.log
call bhpp2.log
call bhpp3.log
call bhpp11.log
call bhpp12.log
call bhpp13.log
; tangential stress results
call bh101.log
call bh102.log
call bh103.log
call bh111.log
call bh112.log
call bh113.log
set echo on
save Bh m.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Pore pressure
label table 1
analytical t = 0.003 s
label table 2
analytical t = 0.03 s
label table 3
analytical t = 0.3 s
label table 11
FLAC t = 0.003 s
label table 12
FLAC t = 0.03 s
label table 13
Verification Problems
14 - 15
FLAC t = 0.3 s
plot hold table 1 line 11 cross 2 line 12 cross 3 line 13 cross end 20
;plot name: Tangential stress
label table 101
analytical t = 0.003 s
label table 102
analytical t = 0.03 s
label table 103
analytical t = 0.3 s
label table 111
FLAC t = 0.003 s
label table 112
FLAC t = 0.03 s
label table 113
FLAC t = 0.3 s
plot hold table 101 line 111 cross 102 line 112 cross 103 line 113 cross &
end 20
;plot name: Radial displacement
label table 203
analytical t = 0.3 s
label table 213
FLAC t = 0.3 s
plot hold table 203 line 213 cross end 20
14 - 16
Verification Problems
14 - 17
14 - 18
Verification Problems
14 - 19
14 - 20
Verification Problems
1-1
1-2
Example Applications
A Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model is assigned to all zones (assumed because no range is given)
with the following properties:
density
shear modulus
bulk modulus
friction angle
cohesion
tensile strength
1500 kg/m3
0.3 108 Pa
108 Pa
20
1010 Pa
1010 Pa
Note that a high cohesion and tensile strength are assigned to prevent slope failure during the
initialization of gravitational stresses in the model (see below).
The basic grid is deformed into the shape of a slope and the soil base beneath it. This is done using
the GENERATE command. Two different quadrilateral regions are created with the following two
GENERATE commands:
gen 0,0 0,3 20,3 20,0
gen same 9,10 20,10 same
j = 1,4
i = 6,21
j = 4,11
The first GENERATE command defines the base of the slope, and the second GENERATE command
creates the slope. Note that the zones are aligned with the angle of the slope so that the zones
along the slope face are all quadrilateral-shaped. This is recommended because all zones are then
composed of two overlaid sets of triangular elements. These zones are well-suited for plasticity
analysis (see Section 1.3.3.2 in Theory and Background). It is also possible to create a slope
using the GENERATE line command. However, with this command, single triangular zones will be
created along the slope face; these zones are not as accurate for plasticity analysis.
The area directly to the left of the slope face is excavated by declaring the appropriate zones as
null. This is done by creating a region (i.e., the grid is divided into two regions separated by a
boundary) that is defined by marking selected gridpoints as boundaries between regions. The
following commands mark the boundary of the excavated region and then null the zones within that
region:
mark i = 1,6 j = 4
mark i = 6
j = 4,11
model null region 1,10
The marked boundaries can be verified by issuing the PRINT mark command. The MODEL null
command will delete zones in the region containing zone (1,10). Figure 1.1 shows the resulting
FLAC grid.
1-3
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
715
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Grid plot
0
5E 0
0.400
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.1
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
The acceleration of gravity is set to 9.81 m/sec2 (positive means acting downward). The boundary
conditions consist of roller boundaries on the left and right sides of the model as well as a fixed base.
An initial elastic state in which gravitational stresses are equilibrated is desired. This is achieved
with the SOLVE command, using default limits. Equilibrium is obtained when the out-of-balance
force ratio limit of 103 is reached. To examine the progression of the solution, the y-displacement
history is requested at a gridpoint at the slope crest. This is done using the HISTORY command.
When the SOLVE command has reached its limit, the history may be plotted to verify that the mesh
is, indeed, at an equilibrium state (i.e., PLOT history 1). A numerical and graphical representation
of the elastic stresses can be obtained by issuing the following commands:
print sxx syy
plot sxx yellow
plot syy yellow
bound
bound
Initially, very large values for the cohesion and tensile strength are assigned to the slope. In justification, let us re-examine the way in which an explicit model works. An initial grid is created first
and, in this case, gravity applied to the gridpoints and gravitational stresses allowed to equilibrate.
For most problems, it is desirable that this process occur as rapidly as possible. This can be done
by requiring the material to behave elastically during the equilibration process.
Once stresses have equilibrated, actual material properties are assigned, excavation is made, loads
are applied, etc., and the simulation process continued. In the case illustrated here, a plastic
constitutive model is assigned initially, with high cohesion and tensile strength, forcing the material
to behave elastically. Then the cohesion and tensile strength are reset to the desired values. This
1-4
Example Applications
eliminates the necessity of redefining the constitutive model and properties after equilibrium, thus
saving a few steps of input. The same effect could be obtained by using an elastic model initially
for the equilibration process, followed by a change to the Mohr-Coulomb model, followed by a
definition of the material friction, cohesion and tensile strength. Either methodology for initializing
a gravity-loaded grid is acceptable and is selected based on the preference of the user.
A restart file is created to save the elastic equilibrium state. This is done to save time in case future
runs will be made in which material parameters or constitutive models are varied. Performing
these studies requires only that the elastic state be restored, therefore eliminating the necessity to
recompute the equilibrium state.
The command
save sl1.sav
will create a restart file on the default drive called SL1.SAV. FLAC could be halted at this point
and the program run with the saved state restored at a later time, simply by typing
restore sl1.sav
xdis=0
ydis=0
From this point on, plots or printouts will show only the change in displacement from the previous
state.
Next, the material properties of the zones are reset by using the PROPERTY command. The cohesion
is set to zero for all zones that are currently composed of soil.* Finally, the calculation mode is
set to large-strain to provide a more accurate geometrical representation of the slope failure as it
progresses. Because slope collapse will occur due to the angle of repose of the soil being smaller
than the slope angle, the SOLVE command is not used (because equilibrium will not be reached).
The STEP command is used to step the simulation a small number of calculational steps at a time,
stopping to print and plot intermediate stages. Here, the power of the explicit method is evident in
* Note that the tensile strength will also be set to zero in FLAC, because the tensile strength is
calculated from cohesion/tan (friction).
1-5
its ability to follow highly nonlinear problems, which may never converge to an equilibrium state,
through progressive failure.
The model is now stepped in intervals to evaluate the progressive collapse of the slope. The collapse
is revealed when printing and plotting results after each step. The following commands are used:
print xv yv xd yd state
plot xv z disp bou
Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the state of the slope at 915 steps and 1715 steps. These figures illustrate
the progressive collapse and, in particular, indicate the location of the failure (slip) surface. The
slope is collapsing in an attempt to reach its angle of repose. At some point, the displacements of the
gridpoints become unrealistic because of extreme distortion of the grid. FLAC automatically checks
for excessive grid deformation and will stop the calculation process if the condition is detected,
displaying an error message.
JOB TITLE : SLOPE UNDER GRAVITATIONAL LOAD
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
915
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 2.674E-02
0.400
5E -2
X-velocity contours
Contour interval= 2.50E-05
Minimum: -2.25E-04
Maximum: 0.00E+00
(zero contour omitted)
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.2
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
1-6
Example Applications
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
1715
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 5.766E-01
0.400
1E 0
X-velocity contours
Contour interval= 2.00E-04
Minimum: -1.00E-03
Maximum: 0.00E+00
(zero contour omitted)
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.3
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
An interesting comparison can be obtained by running another simulation in which a small cohesion
and zero tensile strength are assigned to the soil. Because the initial elastic equilibrium state has
been saved, the problem can be restored from this state:
rest sl1.sav
Under these conditions, the results will show that the slope is stable. (Note the small magnitude of
the calculated displacements.)
1-7
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
1473
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Density
1.45E+03
1.50E+03
1.55E+03
1.60E+03
1.65E+03
1.70E+03
1.75E+03
1.80E+03
0.400
0.000
5E 0
Water Table
Net Applied Forces
max vector =
2.000E+04
-0.400
0 Consulting Group,
5E 4Inc.
Itasca
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.200
Figure 1.4
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Location of water table, applied forces along slope and wet and
dry densities
1-8
Example Applications
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
7473
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
Boundary plot
5E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 2.806E-05
0
0.800
E
F
5E -5
0.400
H
I
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.5
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Pore pressure distribution and velocity vectors in failed slope (using WATER table)
1-9
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
2054
Flow Time
5.9240E+07
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
5E 0
5.672E-07
0.400
1E -6
phreatic surface
Contour interval= 5.00E-01
Minimum: 0.00E+00
Maximum: 5.00E-01
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.6
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Mechanical equilibrium is then established including the pore pressure. This is accomplished with
the following commands:
set flow off mech on
apply press 2e4 var 0
water bulk = 0.0
-2e4
from 1,4
to 6,6
These commands turn off the flow calculation, turn on the mechanical calculation, apply the weight
of the water to the excavation surface, and set the bulk modulus of the water to zero. The last
command prevents pore pressures from generating as a result of mechanical deformation. This is
done so that the results can be compared to the previous case using the water table. The SOLVE
command is then used to find the equilibrium state.
Finally, the cohesion is reduced to 1.0 104 , the tensile strength to zero, and the calculation is
continued with the STEP command. The slope fails, as shown in Figure 1.7. The result is the same
as that which occurs using WATER table.
The approach using the groundwater flow mode can take longer to reach a solution because of the
extra calculation needed to establish the pore pressure distribution. However, this method is helpful
when the pore pressure distribution or phreatic surface location is unknown. Also, this approach
avoids the necessity of assigning wet density values to zones beneath the phreatic surface, which
can become difficult for complex geometries.
1 - 10
Example Applications
(*10^1)
24-Aug-04 16:47
step
3865
Flow Time
5.9240E+07
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
B
Boundary plot
5E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 1.531E-04
0.800
0.400
5E -4
I
0.000
-0.400
Figure 1.7
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
Pore pressure distribution and velocity vectors in failed slope (using CONFIG gw)
1 - 11
1 - 12
Example Applications
1 - 13
config gw ats ex 1
grid 20,10
;Mohr-Coulomb model
m m
; soil properties --- note large cohesion to force initial elastic
; behavior for determining initial stress state. This will prevent
; slope failure when initializing the gravity stresses
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1500 fri=20 coh=1e10 ten=1e10
; warp grid to form a slope :
gen 0,0 0,3 20,3 20,0 j 1,4
gen same 9,10 20,10 same i 6 21 j 4 11
mark i=1,6 j=4
mark i=6 j=4,11
model null region 1,10
prop perm 1e-10 por .3
water den 1000 bulk 1e4
; displacement boundary conditions
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
fix x y j=1
; pore pressure boundary conditions
apply pp 9e4 var 0 -9e4 i 21 j 1 10
apply pp 5e4 var 0 -3e4 i 1 j 1 4
ini
pp 2e4 var 0 -2e4 mark i 1 6 j 4 6
fix pp mark
; apply gravity
set grav=9.81
call qratio.fis
hist gwtime
hist qratio
hist inflow
hist outflow
set mech off
solve
save slgw1.sav
;... STATE: SLGW3 ....
set flow off mech on
app press 2e4 var 0 -2e4 from 1 4 to 6 6
water bulk 0.0
; displacement history of slope
hist reset
his ydis i=10 j=10
solve
save slgw3.sav
1 - 14
Example Applications
2-1
2-2
Example Applications
If the model is stepped further beyond the state where the equilibrium ratio is below 0.5 105
after the final cut, the floor continues to heave a small amount. In fact, several hundred additional
steps are required to reach an equilibrium state. This is because very low forces are able to cause
displacement of the weak sandfill.
The plots of the plasticity state in Figures 2.10 through 2.14 show that the pillar yields adjacent to
the cut-and-fill stope but eventually stabilizes due to the surrounding fill. Figure 2.15 presents a
plot of horizontal displacement histories at different locations along the pillar, also indicating that
the pillar is stable. For these plots, the Mohr-Coulomb model was used for the sandfill.
JOB TITLE : MODEL OF POST-PILLAR MINING
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
2111
-3.501E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.002E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.700
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.1
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
2-3
-02
LEGEND
6.500
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
2111
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 5, 8)
X-axis :
Number of steps
5.500
5.000
4.500
4.000
3.500
3.000
12
16
20
(10
02
Figure 2.2
History of horizontal displacement at midpoint of pillar wall following excavation of first cut
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
2111
-3.501E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.002E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Principal stresses
Max. Value = -2.300E+05
Min. Value = -8.468E+07
0
0.500
5E 8
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.3
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
2-4
Example Applications
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
3658
-3.501E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.002E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 1.428E+01
Min. Value = -8.681E+07
0
0.500
5E 8
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.4
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
Principal stresses after second cut and fill of first cut (M-C sandfill)
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
5293
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 7.906E+00
Min. Value = -8.899E+07
0
0.500
5E 8
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.5
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
Principal stresses after third cut and fill of second cut (M-C sandfill)
2-5
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
7070
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 5.809E+00
Min. Value = -9.035E+07
0
0.500
5E 8
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.6
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
Principal stresses after fourth cut and fill of third cut (M-C sandfill)
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
9472
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 1.792E+01
Min. Value = -9.041E+07
0
0.500
5E 8
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.7
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
Principal stresses after fifth cut and fill of fourth cut (M-C sandfill)
2-6
Example Applications
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
9472
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Displacement vectors
scaled to max = 5.000E-01
max vector = 1.934E-01
0
0.500
1E 0
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.8
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:50
step
8819
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Displacement vectors
scaled to max = 5.000E-01
max vector = 1.600E-01
0
0.500
1E 0
0.300
0.100
-0.100
Figure 2.9
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
2-7
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
2111
-3.501E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.002E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
3658
-3.501E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.002E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
2-8
Example Applications
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
5293
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
7070
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
2-9
(*10^2)
1.300
LEGEND
1.100
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
9472
-3.502E+01 <x< 1.250E+02
-2.003E+01 <y< 1.400E+02
0.900
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.700
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
0.000
0.200
0.400
(*10^2)
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
-02
LEGEND
25-Aug-04 11:49
step
9472
8.000
7.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 5, 8)
6.000
X displacement( 5, 10)
5.000
X displacement( 5, 12)
X displacement( 5, 14)
4.000
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
9
(10
03
2 - 10
Example Applications
2 - 11
2 - 12
Example Applications
save ppmc4.sav
;... STATE: PPMC5 ....
;
;excavate cut-and-fill stope lift 5
mod null i=5,12 j=15,16
;
;backfill previous cut using Mohr-Coulomb model
mod mohr i=5,12 j=13,14
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600 fric=35 coh=0 ten=0 i=5,12 j=13,14
solve
save ppmc5.sav
;*** BRANCH: D-Y SANDFILL ****
restore pp1.sav
;... STATE: PPDY2 ....
;
;excavate cut-and-fill stope lift 2
mod null i=5,12 j=9,10
;
;backfill previous cut using DY model
mod dy i=5,12 j=7,8
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600 fric=35 coh=0 ten=0 cptable=1 i=5,12 j=7,8
; relation between cap pressure and volumetric strain
table 1 0 1e4 .02 .2e6 .04 .8e6 .06 1.3e6 .08 3.5e6 .1 5.5e6
table 1 .12 8.5e6 .14 11.5e6 .16 19e6 .18 34e6 .2 50e6
;history of horizontal stress in fill
hist sxx i=9 j=7
solve
save ppdy2.sav
;... STATE: PPDY3 ....
;
;excavate cut-and-fill stope lift 3
mod null i=5,12 j=11,12
;
;backfill previous cut using DY model
mod dy i=5,12 j=9,10
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600 fric=35 coh=0 ten=0 cptable 1 i=5,12 j=9,10
;history of horizontal stress in fill
hist sxx i=9 j=9
solve
save ppdy3.sav
;... STATE: PPDY4 ....
2 - 13
;
;excavate cut-and-fill stope lift 4
mod null i=5,12 j=13,14
;
;backfill previous cut using DY model
mod dy i=5,12 j=11,12
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600 fric=35 coh=0 ten=0 cptable 1 i=5,12 j=11,12
;history of horizontal stress in fill
hist sxx i=9 j=11
solve
save ppdy4.sav
;... STATE: PPDY5 ....
;
;excavate cut-and-fill stope lift 5
mod null i=5,12 j=15,16
;
;backfill previous cut using DY model
mod dy i=5,12 j=13,14
prop s=.3e8 b=1e8 d=1600 fric=35 coh=0 ten=0 cptable 1 i=5,12 j=13,14
;history of horizontal stress in fill
hist sxx i=9 j=13
solve
save ppdy5.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Excavation
plot hold grid
;plot name: Horizontal Disp-midpoint
plot hold history 14 line
;plot name: Principal stresses
plot hold bound stress
;plot name: Displacement of fill
plot hold bound displacement max 0.5
;plot name: Plasticity state
plot hold bound plasticity
;plot name: Horizontal disp - different locations
plot hold history 14 line 15 line 16 line 17 line
2 - 14
Example Applications
3-1
2100 kg/m3
110 MPa
37 MPa
0.1 MPa
35
0.14 MPa
3-2
Example Applications
15m
27m
75m
unmined
backfill
unmined
boundaries fixed
in one direction
boundary fixed
in two directions
sliding interface
Figure 3.1
Schematic illustrating true three-dimensional backfill pillar geometry and two-dimensional representation
3.3 Results
Figures 3.2 through 3.7 show displacement vectors in the model at different blast heights. The
model comes to equilibrium for the first three blast heights (6 m, 12 m and 18 m), as indicated by
Figures 3.2 through 3.5. Only a small localized displacement is shown in each of these figures.
Note that after excavation of the 12 m blast height, the zones nearest to the left-face boundary
fail in tension. These zones are deleted in order to remove elements that will produce a bad zone
geometry as the excavation continues. The model is still in equilibrium after these zones are deleted;
Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show displacements before and after tension-failed zones were deleted. For the
3-3
first three stages (6 m, 12 m and 18 m blast heights), the model can be brought to equilibrium after
each excavation is made by using the SOLVE command.
At the fourth blast height (24 m), collapse of the pillar begins to occur. The failure is shown by the
large region of downward movement that is shown in Figure 3.6. The failure is even more evident
at the 30 m blast height, as shown by Figure 3.7. The deformed boundary and plasticity states at
collapse of the pillar are shown in Figure 3.8. A history of x-displacement at the left-face boundary
is shown in Figure 3.9. This gridpoint history is reset at the fourth blast height, and indicates that
the model reaches equilibrium at this stage and collapsing in the next.
JOB TITLE : CEMENTED BACKFILL PILLAR - 6 M BLAST HEIGHT
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Dec-04 14:48
step
4641
-4.155E+01 <x< 5.845E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.018E-01
0
2E -1
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.2
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
3-4
Example Applications
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Dec-04 14:48
step
6604
-4.155E+01 <x< 5.845E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.120E-01
0
2E -1
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.3
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:30
step
8342
-4.157E+01 <x< 5.844E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.222E-01
0
2E -1
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.4
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
3-5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:30
step
8356
-4.157E+01 <x< 5.844E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.309E-06
0
2E -6
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.5
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:33
step 35856
-4.157E+01 <x< 5.844E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.228E+00
0
2E 0
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.6
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
3-6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:33
step 39856
-4.157E+01 <x< 5.844E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Displacement vectors
max vector = 5.909E+00
0
2E 1
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.7
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 14:33
step 39856
-4.157E+01 <x< 5.844E+01
-1.251E+01 <y< 8.750E+01
6.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
4.000
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
2.000
0.000
Figure 3.8
-1.000
1.000
(*10^1)
3.000
5.000
3-7
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
7 X displacement( 1, 11)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
03
Figure 3.9
3-8
Example Applications
3-9
;
;large strain mode on
set large
;
;turn down cohesion and tension
prop coh=0.1e6 tens=0.14e6
;turn up friction for interface
int 1 fric=35
;fix y at right face boundary
fix y i=18
;
;reset displacements
ini xdis=0 ydis=0
his xdis i=1 j=3
his xdis i=1 j=5
his xdis i=1 j=7
his xdis i=1 j=9
his xdis i=1 j=11
his xdis i=1 j=13
his xdis i=1 j=15
his xdis i=1 j=17
his xdis i=1 j=19
;
set sratio 1e-4
;
;simulate vertical retreat mining in adjacent stope by
;freeing xfix on node points
; 6 m blast height
free x i=1 j=4,5
solve
save step1.sav
;... State: step2.sav ....
;
; 12 m blast height
ini xdis=0 ydis=0
free x i=1 j=6,7
solve
save step2.sav
;... State: step2del.sav ....
;
;delete zones that failed in tension
model null i 1 j 4 6
solve
save step2del.sav
3 - 10
Example Applications
4-1
4-2
Optional Features
4.2 Methodology
4.2.1 Base Class for Constitutive Models
The methodology described above is exploited in FLAC s support for user-written constitutive
models. A base class provides a framework for actual constitutive models, which are classes derived from the base class. The base class, called ConstitutiveModel, is termed an abstract
class because it declares a number of pure virtual member functions (signified by the =0 syntax
appended to the function prototypes). This means that no object of this base class can be created, and that any derived-class object must supply real member functions to replace each one of
the pure virtual functions of ConstitutiveModel. Example 4.1 provides a partial listing of
ConstitutiveModel (contained in file CONMODEL.H). Some members of ConstitutiveModel, such as utility functions, are omitted from the listing in Example 4.1; the use of utility
functions (such as YoungPoissonFromBulkShear) is self-evident, and examples of their use
can be found in the supplied model source files. Other functions are used by FLAC to manipulate
and interrogate constitutive models; there is no reason for a user-written model to use or redefine
these.
Example 4.1 Partial class definition for base class, ConstitutiveModel
class ConstitutiveModel {
public:
EXPORT ConstitutiveModel(unsigned uTypeIn,bool bRegister=false);
EXPORT virtual ConstitutiveModel(void);
// ROUTINES THAT MUST BE SPECIFIED BY THE DERIVED TYPE
virtual const char *Keyword(void) const=0;
virtual const char *Name(void) const=0;
virtual const char **Properties(void) const=0;
virtual const char **States(void) const=0;
virtual double GetProperty(unsigned ul) const=0;
virtual ConstitutiveModel *Clone(void) const=0;
virtual double ConfinedModulus(void) const=0;
virtual double ShearModulus(void) const=0;
virtual double BulkModulus(void) const=0;
virtual double SafetyFactor(void) const=0;
virtual unsigned Version(void) const=0;
virtual void SetProperty(unsigned ul,const double &d)=0;
EXPORT virtual const char *Copy(const ConstitutiveModel *cm)=0;
virtual const char *Initialize(unsigned uDim,State *pst)=0;
virtual const char *Run(unsigned uDim,State *pst)=0;
EXPORT virtual const char *SaveRestore(ModelSaveObject *mso)=0;
};
4-3
4-4
Optional Features
perform initialization of its property or state variables, or it may do nothing. The dimensionality (e.g., this is 2 for FLAC) is given as uDim, and structure ps (see Section 4.2.4)
contains current information for the zone containing the model object. A pointer to a
character string should be returned if an error is detected; otherwise, 0 is returned. Note
that strains are undefined when Initialize is called. The average stress components for the full zone are available in the state structure; they cannot be changed by the
Initialize() member function.
const char *Run(unsigned uDim, State *ps)This function is called for
each sub-zone (up to four per zone) at each cycle from within FLAC s zone scan. The
model must update the stress tensor from strain increments. The structure ps (see
Section 4.2.4) contains the current stress components and the computed strain increment
components for the sub-zone being processed. The stress components already contain the
rotation-correction terms when Run() is called. A pointer to a character string should
be returned if an error is detected; otherwise, 0 is returned.
double ConfinedModulus(void)The model object must return a value for its
best estimate of the maximum confined modulus. This is used by FLAC to compute the
stable timestep. For a linear, elastic model, the confined modulus is K + 4G/3.
double ShearModulus(void)The model object must return a value for its best
estimate of the current tangent shear modulus. This is used by FLAC to determine
coefficients for quiet boundaries in dynamic mode.
double BulkModulus(void)This is not used by FLAC at present, but the model
object should return its best estimate of the current tangent bulk modulus.
double SafetyFactor(void)This function is not used at present. It should return
some value, such as 10.0.
unsigned Version(void)The version number of the constitutive model should
be returned. This may be used to deal with the case of restoring files containing objects
of earlier versions of the model, which perhaps omit certain variables.
ConstitutiveModel *Clone(void)A new object must be created, of the same
class as the current object, and a pointer to it of type ConstitutiveModel returned.
This function is called whenever FLAC installs the model in a zone.
const char *SaveRestore(ModelSaveObject *mso)This function is
called when either the SAVE or RESTORE command is given. The model object should
first call the SaveRestore() function of the base class. SaveRestore allows
the model to save and restore data members of each object. Only integers and real
variables are accepted, so other data types must be converted to those. The derivedclass function must call mso->Initialize(nd,ni), where nd is the number of
doubles, and ni is the number of ints, to be saved/restored. The variables are then
identified by calling mso->Save(ns,var), where ns is the sequence number of
the variable (from 0 to nd-1 or 0 to ni-1, depending on whether reals or integers
are being saved/restored), and var is the variable to be saved. There are separate
4-5
Save() functions for processing double or int variables. The structure of the
ModelSaveObject class is irrelevant, except for the use of the member functions
mentioned. It is defined in CONMODEL.H.
The model class definition should also contain a constructor that must invoke the base constructor.
If the base constructor is called with bRegister, set true, then the derived model is registered
with FLAC (see Section 4.2.3). A type number (uTypeIn) unique to the model must also be passed;
this enables the correct model to be reinstalled in each zone when a problem is restored from a save
file. It is recommended that a high value of type number be chosen (e.g., 100 or higher), to avoid
conflicts with the built-in models, which start from type 1. In all other cases, the derived-class
constructor should be called with no parameters, as in the Clone member function. Initialization
of data members may be performed by the constructor, as illustrated in Example 4.2. In this
example, the models unique type number is the integer mnUserMohrModel (see Example 4.4
for its definition), and the symbols dBulk, dShear etc., are the data members for the derived
model.
Example 4.2 Typical model constructor
UserMohrModel::UserMohrModel(bool bRegister)
:ConstitutiveModel(mnUserMohrModel,bRegister), dBulk(0.0),
dShear(0.0), dCohesion(0.0), dFriction(0.0), dDilation(0.0),
dTension(0.0), dYoung(0.0), dPoisson(0.0), dE1(0.0), dE2(0.0),
dG2(0.0), dNPH(0.0), dCSN(0.0), dSC1(0.0), dSC3(0.0),
dBISC(0.0), dE21(0.0) { }
4-6
Optional Features
4-7
4-8
Optional Features
4-9
4.2.5.5 Illustration of the Difference between Plane Strain and Plane Stress
The following extract is from FLAC s built-in Fortran coding for the elastic model. Note that it is
the model that determines whether the solution is plane strain or plane stress.
c
c
c
c
c
c
.
.
---------------------Initialisation section
---------------------100 e1 = zx(kk) + c4d3 * zx(kg)
e2 = zx(kk) - c2d3 * zx(kg)
if ( (e1.eq.dpc0) .and. (e2.eq.dpc0) .and. mecflg) then
nerr = 208
error = .true.
return
endif
if (pstrss) then
div1 = e2 * e2 / e1
zx(ke1) = e1 - div1
zx(ke2) = e2 - div1
else
zx(ke1) = e1
zx(ke2) = e2
endif
zx(kg2) = dpc2 * zx(kg)
return
--------------Running section
--------------200 continue
s11 = s11 + de11 * zx(ke1) + (de22+de33) * zx(ke2)
s22 = s22 + (de11+de33) * zx(ke2) + de22 * zx(ke1)
if(.not.pstrss) s33 = s33 + (de11+de22) * zx(ke2) + de33 * zx(ke1)
s12 = s12 + de12*zx(kg2)
c
Rvisc = dpc1
return
.
.
4 - 10
Optional Features
4.3 Implementation
4.3.1 Utility Structures
Three structures/classes are provided to assist in writing and communicating with constitutive
models: STensor, Axes and ConTableList, contained in files STENSOR.H, AXES.H
and CONTABLE.H, respectively. The usage of the structures may be determined from the
annotations in the header files and from examples in the constitutive model source files provided.
The only essential components are the following data members of STensor: d11, d22, d33,
d12, d13 and d23. These correspond to the three direct stress or strain components, and the three
shear-stress or -strain components, respectively. (Note that components d13 and d23 are not used
in FLAC.) Tensors are assumed to be symmetric. The structure STensor also contains member
functions that compute principal stresses and resolve stresses from global to principal axes, and
vice versa. The full source code of these, and other, utility functions is available to the user for
inspection.
4.3.2 Example Constitutive Model
The source codes of all constitutive models used by FLAC are provided for the user to inspect or
adapt. Here we extract, for illustration, parts of the Mohr-Coulomb elastic/plastic model contained
in files USERMOHR.*. Example 4.4 provides the class specification for the model, which
also includes the definition of the models unique type number. Note that there are more private
variables than property names (see the Properties() member function). In this model, some of
the variables are for internal use only: they occupy memory in each zone, but they are not available
for the user of FLAC to change or print out.
Example 4.4 Class specification for the Mohr-Coulomb model: file CMMOHR.H
class UserMohrModel : public ConstitutiveModel {
public:
// User must give a number greater than 100 to avoid conflict with
built-in models.
enum ModelNum { mnUserMohrModel=109 };
// Creators
EXPORT UserMohrModel(bool bRegister=true);
// Use keyword to load model into FLAC/FLAC3D
virtual const char *Keyword(void) const { return("usermohr"); }
// Expanded name for printing purposes
virtual const char *Name(void) const { return("User-Mohr"); }
virtual const char **Properties(void) const;
virtual const char **States(void) const;
virtual double GetProperty(unsigned ul) const;
virtual ConstitutiveModel *Clone(void) const { return(new
UserMohrModel()); }
4 - 11
Example 4.5 provides the constant definitions used by the model as well as the global instantiation
of the model, as discussed in Section 4.2.3.
Example 4.5 Constant definition for Mohr-Coulomb model, and instantiation
static
static
static
static
The constructor for this model was listed in Example 4.2. Example 4.6 provides listings of the
member functions for initialization and execution (running). Note that, to save time, private
model variables dE1, dE2, dG2, etc., are not computed at each cycle. Note also the use of the
State structure in providing strain increments and stresses. In general, separate sections should
be provided in every model for execution in two and three dimensions, to allow the same models to
be used efficiently in FLAC. In this example, the 2D section is identical to the 3D section. Please
refer to the file USERMOHR.CPP for listings of member functions: Properties, States,
GetProperties, SetProperties, Copy and SaveRestore.
4 - 12
Optional Features
4 - 13
4 - 14
Optional Features
bFast);
ps->bViscous = false; // Inhibit stiffness-damping terms
} else {
ps->bViscous = true; // Allow stiffness-damping terms
}
return(0);
}
stores in val the floating-point value of property named p name in the zone with indices i,j. p name
may be a string containing the property name, or a FISH variable that evaluates to such a string.
For example, z prop(i,j,bulk) would refer to the bulk modulus. If there is no constitutive model
in i,j, or the model does not possess the named property, then 0.0 is returned. Similarly,
z prop(i,j,p name) = val
stores val in the property named p name in zone i,j. Nothing is stored if there is no constitutive
model in i,j, or if the model does not possess the named property or val is not an integer or floatingpoint number. In both uses, i,j must be integers and p name must either be a string or a FISH
variable containing a string.
z model(i,j)
The action of this intrinsic depends on context. If used in the following way:
var = z model(i,j)
the returned variable var will be a string containing the keyword name of the model installed in
zone i,j. Otherwise, an integer variable zero will be returned, denoting that no constitutive model
is present (the users FISH function must check for the variable type before doing a comparison).
If used in the following way:
z model(i,j) = var
the string contained in var will be taken as a model name, and the corresponding constitutive model
will be installed in the zone, erasing whatever was there before. If var does not contain a valid
model name, nothing will be done and no error will be signalled. The constitutive model member
function Initialize() is called immediately after the model object is constructed.
4 - 15
4 - 16
Optional Features
2. Click on Project > Add to Project > Files and select the source files: MYMODEL.CPP
and MYMODEL.H. These will be added to the project tree in the workspace.
3. Remove the existing source files, USERSSOFT.CPP and USERSSOFT.H from the
project tree.
4. Click on Build > Rebuild all to build the MYMODEL.DLL file. (With this procedure,
existing object files from previous compilations will be deleted before a new DLL is
built.)
4.3.5 Loading and Running User-Written Model DLLs
Before user-defined models can be loaded into FLAC, the code must first be configured to accept
DLL models by giving the CONFIG cppudm command. Model DLL files may then be loaded into
FLAC while it is running by giving the command MODEL load <lename>, with the lename of the
DLL. Thereafter, the new model name and property names will be recognized by FLAC and FISH
functions that refer to the model and its properties. If the MODEL load command is given for a
model that is already loaded, nothing will be done, but an informative message will be displayed.
The CONFIG cppudm and MODEL load commands must also be given to register the DLL model
before restoring save files that include a user-defined model. These commands can be put into
the FLAC.INI file if the user-defined model is used often. If running FLAC in the GIIC, these
commands are automatically saved in the project file.
4.4 References
Stevens, A. Teach yourself C++, 4th Ed. New York: MIS Press, 1994.
5-1
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Mar-04 14:37
step
1685
-1.895E+01 <x< 4.895E+01
-1.941E+01 <y< 4.849E+01
3.000
Grid plot
0
2.000
2E 1
1.000
0.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.1
5-2
Example Applications
The properties used in this problem are shown in Table 5.1. The strain-softening model in FLAC is
used to produce a peak/residual strength behavior for the pillar.
Backfill in confined compression exhibits a pore-collapse behavior, as shown inFigure 5.2. The
double-yield model in FLAC is used to model the backfill. The relation between cap pressure (cp )
and plastic volumetric strain (epv ) is found by fitting a simple model to a uniaxial strain test on
backfill (Clark 1991). (See Figure 5.2.) The relation found to fit the test is
cp = 1.15 10
epv
0.28 epv
1.5
(5.1)
+ 104
A table of discrete values is calculated from this relation and used in the problem. Slipping interfaces
(with = 20 and c = 100 MPa) between the pillar and hangingwall/footwall simulate a weak contact.
FISH functions are used to monitor the pillar behavior. The strain is obtained by averaging the
displacements across the ends of the pillar and dividing by the original length. Averaging the
stresses is done along the interface between pillar and footwall.
The three cases are run sequentially from the data file PILL.DAT (see Section 5.5).
Table 5.1
Model
Cohesion (MPa)
Initial
Residual
Friction Angle ( )
Initial
Residual
Bulk
(Pa)
Shear
(Pa)
2.3 109
2.3 109
600 106
Strain-Softening (pillar)
20
40
30
Double-Yield (backfill)
40
40
3 109
3 109
450 106
12
16
20
24
0.01
0.80
3.50
8.50
19.0
50.0
170.0
Cap-Pressure Table
Strain, epv (%)
Pressure, cp (MPa)
5-3
50
FLAC model
40
Laboratory test
30
20
10
0
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Figure 5.2
5.3 Results
Figures 5.3 through 5.5 show the plastic shear strain in the pillar for the three cases studied once a
vertical strain of approximately 11% in the pillar is reached. In Case 1 (no backfill), a well-formed
shear band crosses the pillar; this band is inhibited when the backfill is placed (compare Figures 5.4
and 5.5 to Figure 5.3).
The vertical-stress versus the vertical-strain (both measured in the pillar) results are plotted for the
three cases in Figure 5.6.* The backfill has little effect on the peak strength but it has a significant
effect on the post-peak behavior due to an increase in confining stress. When backfill is present,
the average pillar stress does not drop below 55 MPa, as opposed to a residual average stress of
approximately 35 MPa with no backfill present. An expected delay in stress build-up in the pillar
occurs for the case that includes a gap between roof and backfill.
* The pillar stress/strain response for each case is obtained in PILL.DAT by writing the history results to tables that are then copied in TABLE command format to three separate files (P1 RES.DAT,
P2 RES.DAT and P3 RES.DAT) using FISH I/O routines (see LOG IT.FIS in Section 5.6),
and retrieved at the completion of the three cases.
5-4
Example Applications
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Mar-04 14:50
step 11685
-1.895E+01 <x< 4.895E+01
-1.941E+01 <y< 4.849E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2.000
2E 1
e_plastic
0.00E+00
5.00E-02
1.00E-01
1.50E-01
2.00E-01
2.50E-01
3.00E-01
3.50E-01
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.3
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Mar-04 14:53
step 17362
-1.895E+01 <x< 4.895E+01
-1.941E+01 <y< 4.849E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2.000
2E 1
e_plastic
0.00E+00
2.50E-02
5.00E-02
7.50E-02
1.00E-01
1.25E-01
1.50E-01
1.75E-01
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.4
5-5
(*10^1)
LEGEND
12-Mar-04 14:57
step 17449
-1.895E+01 <x< 4.895E+01
-1.941E+01 <y< 4.849E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
0
2.000
2E 1
e_plastic
0.00E+00
2.50E-02
5.00E-02
7.50E-02
1.00E-01
1.25E-01
1.50E-01
1.75E-01
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
(*10^1)
Figure 5.5
08
LEGEND
12-Mar-04 14:58
step
0
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
backfill with 10 cm gap
tight backfill
1.000
no backfill
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
(10
-02
Figure 5.6
5-6
Example Applications
5.4 Reference
Clark, I. H. The Cap Model for Stress Path Analysis of Mine Backfill Compaction Processes, in
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, pp. 1293-1298. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1991.
5-7
5-8
Example Applications
5-9
hst1=((xdisp(16,12)-xdisp(6,12))*c20-(ydisp(16,12)+ydisp(6,12))*c70)/l0
hst2=((xdisp(16,10)-xdisp(6,10))*c20-(ydisp(16,10)+ydisp(6,10))*c70)/l0
hst3=((xdisp(16,14)-xdisp(6,14))*c20-(ydisp(16,14)+ydisp(6,14))*c70)/l0
end
;
def const
c20=cos(.35)
c70=cos(1.22)
l0=11.7
n num = 0
end
const
;
;let interfaces settle down under gravity before applying loads
set grav 10
his unbal
solve
save pill1eq.sav
;... State: pill1.sav ....
;
ini xvel=0 yvel=0
;apply y-oriented velocities to compress pillar
ini yvel=-1e-4 j=23
ini yvel=1e-4 j=1
fix x y j=1
fix x y j=23
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
;
;servo to control y-velocity
def servo
while stepping
if unbal > 1e6 then
loop i (1,21)
yvel(i,23)=yvel(i,23)*.975
yvel(i,1)=yvel(i,1)*.975
end loop
end if
if unbal < 1e5 then
loop i (1,21)
yvel(i,23)=yvel(i,23)*1.025
yvel(i,1)=yvel(i,1)*1.025
end loop
end if
end
5 - 10
Example Applications
;
history sigma
history deforpil
history pillar1
history pillar3
history hst1
history hst2
history hst3
history avers
history yvel i=1 j=23
;
step 10000
hist write 2 vs 3 table 1
call log it.fis
set filename = p1 res.dat
set tabin 1
log it
save pill1.sav
;*** Branch: tight backfill ****
new
;... State: pill2eq.sav ....
config
; ***********************
; Mining Example Problem
; ***********************
;Data file illustrating backfilled pillar compression tests
gr 20,22
m e
;backfilled. No gap.
prop s=2.292e9 b=3.056e9 d=2700
mod null j=6
mod null j=17
mod null i=5 j=7,16
mod null i=16 j=7,16
gen 0,0 0,16 9.5,12.54 9.5,-3.46 rat 0.6667 0.6667 i=1,6 j=1,6
gen 9.5,-3.46 9.5,12.54 20.5,8.54 20.5,-7.46 rat 1.0 0.6667 i=6,16 j=1,6
gen 20.5,-7.46 20.5,8.54 30,5.08 30,-10.92 rat 1.5 0.6667 i=16,21 j=1,6
gen 0,16 0,24 9.5,20.54 9.5,12.54 rat 0.6667 1.0 i=1,5 j=7,17
gen 9.5,12.54 9.5,20.54 20.5,16.54 20.5,8.54 i=6,16 j=7,17
gen 20.5,8.54 20.5,16.54 30,13.08 30,5.08 rat 1.5 1.0 i=17,21 j=7,17
gen 0,24 0,40 9.5,36.54 9.5,20.54 rat 0.6667 1.5 i=1,6 j=18,23
gen 9.5,20.54 9.5,36.54 20.5,32.54 20.5,16.54 rat 1.0 1.5 i=6,16 j=18,23
gen 20.5,16.54 20.5,32.54 30,29.08 30,13.08 rat 1.5 1.5 i=16,21 j=18,23
;backfill a Double-Yield material, 30:1 sand/cement
5 - 11
3 i=1,4 j=7,16
3 i=17,20 j=7,16
5.5e6
.22 80e6
j=7,16
5 - 12
Example Applications
sigma=.1*s
n num = n num + 1
end
;
;averaging of reaction stress at lower boundary
def avers
force=0.0
loop i (1,igp)
force=force-yforce(i,1)
end loop
avers=force/30.0
end
;
;averaging major and minor principal stress in pillar
def pillar1
sum1=0.0
sum3=0.0
loop i (6,15)
loop j (7,16)
temp1=-0.5*(sxx(i,j)+syy(i,j))
temp2=sqrt(sxy(i,j) 2+0.25*(sxx(i,j)-syy(i,j)) 2)
s1=max(temp1+temp2,-szz(i,j))
s3=min(temp1-temp2,-szz(i,j))
sum1=sum1+s1
sum3=sum3+s3
end loop
end loop
pillar1=sum1/100.0
pillar3=sum3/100.0
end
;
;horizontal strain at 3 locations across pillar
def hst1
hst1=((xdisp(16,12)-xdisp(6,12))*c20-(ydisp(16,12)+ydisp(6,12))*c70)/l0
hst2=((xdisp(16,10)-xdisp(6,10))*c20-(ydisp(16,10)+ydisp(6,10))*c70)/l0
hst3=((xdisp(16,14)-xdisp(6,14))*c20-(ydisp(16,14)+ydisp(6,14))*c70)/l0
end
;
def const
c20=cos(.35)
c70=cos(1.22)
l0=11.7
n num = 0
end
const
;
5 - 13
5 - 14
Example Applications
5 - 15
5 - 16
Example Applications
5 - 17
fix x y j=23
fix x i=1
fix x i=21
;
;servo to control y-velocity
def servo
while stepping
if unbal > 1e6 then
loop i (1,21)
yvel(i,23)=yvel(i,23)*.975
yvel(i,1)=yvel(i,1)*.975
end loop
end if
if unbal < 1e5 then
loop i (1,21)
yvel(i,23)=yvel(i,23)*1.025
yvel(i,1)=yvel(i,1)*1.025
end loop
end if
end
;
history sigma
history deforpil
history pillar1
history pillar3
history hst1
history hst2
history hst3
history avers
history yvel i=1 j=23
;
step 15000
hist write 2 vs 3 table 3
call log it.fis
set filename = p3 res.dat
set tabin 3
log it
save pill3.sav
;*** Branch: compare vertical stress ****
new
;... State: compare.sav ....
config
call p1 res.dat
call p2 res.dat
5 - 18
Example Applications
call p3 res.dat
save compare.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Plastic shear strain in pillar
plot hold bound e plastic fill
;plot name: FLAC model of a pillar in a dipping seam
plot hold grid
;plot name: Vertical stress versus vertical strain in pillar
label table 1
no backfill
label table 2
tight backfill
label table 3
backfill with 10 cm gap
plot hold table 3 line 2 line 1 line
5 - 19
5 - 20
Example Applications
6-1
Figure 6.1
The prototype wall consists of nails and tiebacks at regularly spaced vertical and horizontal intervals.
Reducing three-dimensional problems with regularly spaced reinforcement to two-dimensional
problems involves averaging the reinforcement effect in three dimensions over the distance between
the reinforcement. Donovan et al. (1984) suggest that linear scaling of material properties is a simple
and convenient way of distributing the discrete effect of reinforcement over the distance between
reinforcement in a regularly spaced pattern.
This approach is used in this analysis, based upon a one-foot problem width and the spacing for
reinforcement shown in Table 6.1. See Section 1.9.4 in Structural Elements for a description of
the properties that are scaled using this approach.
6-2
Example Applications
Table 6.1
Reinforcement spacing
Row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Spacing (feet)
4.5
3.5
9.0
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
Note that the spacing is the horizontal reinforcement spacing (in feet) for each of the seven rows
for which the support components are installed.
The nails and tiebacks are assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic materials represented as cables with the properties shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2
Property
Row 1 Nails
Row 2 Nails
Row 3 Nails
Grouted Tieback
Ungrouted Portion
4.2 10
4.2 10
4.2 10
4.2 10
4.2 10
4.2 10
.0103
.0103
Area (ft )
Bond Stiffness (lbf /ft/ft)
Bond Strength (lbf /ft)
Yield Strength (lbf )
8.5 10
-3
6.3 10
8.5 10
-3
6.3 10
8.5 10
-3
8.5 10
-3
6.3 10
6.3 10
6.3 10
990
5000
6000
9000
6000
73620
73620
73620
222750
222750
73620
The pressure dependency of the grout bond strength is neglected for this analysis. See Section 9
for an example that includes the pressure dependency of the bond strength.
The shotcrete is assumed to be a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic material represented as a
liner with the following properties:
Youngs modulus
Poissons ratio
0.2
moment of inertia
area
0.333 ft2
Note that the Youngs modulus is adjusted in the FLAC analysis to account for plane-strain conditions
by dividing by (1 - 2 ). A value for E of 5.00 108 psf is used in the analysis.
6-3
The soil is assumed to be homogeneous and to behave as a Mohr-Coulomb material with the
following properties:
density
3.63 slugs/ft3
friction
36
cohesion
dilation
7.5
bulk modulus
shear modulus
6-4
Example Applications
Figure 6.2
Build
/ Block dialog
(*10^2)
1.150
1.050
27-Aug-04 14:55
step
0
-5.333E+01 <x< 1.333E+01
5.067E+01 <y< 1.173E+02
0.950
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.850
0.750
0.650
0.550
-3.500
-2.500
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
(*10^1)
Figure 6.3
Roller-boundary conditions are applied to the bottom and side boundaries. The ground surface is
free (i.e., no applied stress). An initial stress state given by a coefficient of earth pressure at rest of
0.45 is assumed. The problem is then timestepped to equilibrium.
Excavation Stage I
The first increment of excavation is modeled by deleting elements to a depth of 5 feet. At the same
time, liner elements representing the shotcrete face support and cable elements representing the
first row of soil nails are introduced. The model is stepped to equilibrium for this stage.
6-5
Excavation Stage II
The next increment is modeled by deleting elements equivalent to 2 feet of excavation. Again,
shotcrete and nail support are installed via liner and cable elements, and the problem is stepped to
equilibrium.
Excavation Stage III
The next increment is modeled by deleting zones equivalent to 5 feet of excavation. Shotcrete and
nail support are installed, as before. The tieback at this level is modeled using a six-segment cable
with a grouted unstressed length of 24 feet connected to a one-segment cable with a pre-tensioned
ungrouted length of 21 feet. A pre-tension force of 186.2 kips is applied to the ungrouted cable to
simulate the effect of the pressure grouting. (Note that the pre-tensioning parameter is also scaled
automatically by the tieback spacing of 9 feet.) The end of the tieback at the excavation face is
connected directly to a gridpoint common to the shotcrete and soil mass, in order to simulate the
effect of the reinforced concrete pads.
In order to create the tieback, the ungrouted cable is installed first, and then the grouted cable is
installed. In this way, the properties of the grouted portion of the cable will be assigned to the node
connecting the grouted and ungrouted cables.
Excavation Stages IV VII
The next four stages consist of deleting elements to simulate soil excavation, simultaneously installing support elements, and stepping to equilibrium to allow passive forces to develop in the
reinforcement.
Excavation Stage VIII
The final stage consists of deleting elements equivalent to one foot of excavation and simultaneously
installing a liner element equivalent to one foot of shotcrete. The problem is then stepped to
equilibrium.
The model grid at the completion of all excavation stages is shown in Figure 6.4.
6-6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
1.150
1.050
13-Jan-05 15:24
step 106218
-5.333E+01 <x< 1.333E+01
5.069E+01 <y< 1.174E+02
0.950
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.850
0.750
0.650
0.550
-3.500
-2.500
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
(*10^1)
Figure 6.4
6.3 Results
The results presented in Figures 6.5 through 6.8 represent the state of the analysis following all
excavation and support installation (i.e., the end of the analysis).
Figure 6.5 plots the actual axial forces in the soil nails and tiebacks at the last stage. Note that
when spacing is specified with the STRUCT prop command, the actual forces (and moments) are
displayed in printed and plotted output for spaced structural elements.
Figures 6.6 and 6.7 plot the actual forces along the tieback and soil nails, respectively, at the
last stage. These plots are created using the FISH function tabforce listed in WALL.FIS
in Section 6.6. Scaled values for axial force are accessed directly in FLAC by the FISH offset
$kelfax. These forces must be multiplied by the spacing to obtain the actual values, which are
then stored in tables. The table numbers for the soil nail forces correspond to the excavation stages
in which the nails were installed. Note that the peak value in the tieback force distribution plot in
Figure 6.6 corresponds to the axial force in cable ID 4 (161.7 kips), shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.8 shows the displacement vectors at the last stage and indicates the effect of the pretensioning in the tieback on reducing the movement of the wall.
Intermediate results at the end of each stage, as well as displacement and loads in the shotcrete, are
also available but are not presented here. Further discussion on this application is given by Lorig
(1991).
6-7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
1.150
1.050
13-Jan-05 15:24
step 106218
-5.333E+01 <x< 1.333E+01
5.069E+01 <y< 1.174E+02
0.950
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
Cable Plot
0.850
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 2 (Cable) -3.728E+03
# 3 (Cable) -6.511E+03
# 4 (Cable) -1.690E+03
# 5 (Cable) -1.618E+05
# 6 (Cable) -7.486E+04
# 7 (Cable) -1.098E+04
# 8 (Cable) -1.423E+04
# 9 (Cable) -1.450E+04
#10 (Cable) -1.061E+04
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
0.750
0.650
0.550
-3.500
-2.500
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
(*10^1)
Figure 6.5
Actual axial tensile forces in the soil nails and tieback at the end
of the analysis
JOB TITLE : .
02
LEGEND
1.600
13-Jan-05 15:24
step 106218
Table Plot
Axial Tensile Force (kips)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
Figure 6.6
6-8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
13-Jan-05 15:24
step 106218
1.400
1.200
Table Plot
Stage VII nail
Stage VI nail
1.000
Stage V nail
Stage IV nail
0.800
0.600
Stage I nail
0.400
0.200
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
Figure 6.7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
1.150
1.050
13-Jan-05 15:24
step 106218
-5.333E+01 <x< 1.333E+01
5.069E+01 <y< 1.174E+02
0.950
Displacement vectors
scaled to max = 5.000E-02
max vector = 8.055E-02
0
0.850
1E -1
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
0.750
0.650
0.550
-3.500
-2.500
-1.500
-0.500
(*10^1)
Figure 6.8
0.500
6-9
6.4 References
ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers). Full Scale Wall Tests Soil Nailing in Sand, Civil
Engineering, 58(5) (1988).
Donovan, K., W. G. Pariseau and M. Cepak. Finite Element Approach to Cable Bolting in Steeply
Dipping VCR Stopes, in Geomechanics Applications in Underground Hardrock Mining, pp. 6590. New York: AIME, 1984.
Lorig, L. J. Analysis of Novel Retaining Structures Using Explicit Finite Difference Codes, in
Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, pp. 157-164. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema,
1991.
6 - 10
Example Applications
6 - 11
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
6 - 12
Example Applications
group null i 31 35 j 20 23
group delete null
struct node 43 grid 31,20
struct node 44 grid 31,21
struct node 45 grid 31,22
struct node 46 grid 31,23
struct liner begin node 43 end
struct liner begin node 44 end
struct liner begin node 45 end
struct liner begin node 46 end
struct node 47 -11.9,85.17
struct node 48 -0.1,87.25
struct cable begin node 47 end
struct prop 2006
struct prop 2006 spacing 4.5 e
yield 73620.0
solve
save tw5.sav
;... State: tw6.sav ....
model null i 31 35 j 15 19
group null i 31 35 j 15 19
group delete null
struct node 54 grid 31,15
struct node 55 grid 31,16
struct node 56 grid 31,17
struct node 57 grid 31,18
struct node 58 grid 31,19
struct liner begin node 54 end
struct liner begin node 55 end
struct liner begin node 56 end
struct liner begin node 57 end
struct liner begin node 58 end
struct node 59 -11.9,80.67
struct node 60 -0.1,82.75
struct cable begin node 59 end
solve
save tw6.sav
6 - 13
node
node
node
node
44
45
46
23
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
node
node
node
node
node
55
56
57
58
43
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
6 - 14
Example Applications
end
end
end
end
node
node
node
node
67
68
69
54
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
node
node
node
node
node
78
79
80
81
66
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
6 - 15
6 - 16
Example Applications
6 - 17
xtable(3,i3) = xe
ytable(3,i3) = -fmem(nin+$kelfax)*9.0/1000.0
else
if ye < 97.0 then
i2 = i2 + 1
xtable(2,i2) = xe
ytable(2,i2) = -fmem(nin+$kelfax)*3.5/1000.0
else
if ye < 102.0 then
i1 = i1 + 1
xtable(1,i1) = xe
ytable(1,i1) = -fmem(nin+$kelfax)*4.5/1000.0
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
; property numbers 2004 and 2005 correspond to the tieback
if imem(nin+$keltyp) = 2005 then
i8 = i8 + 1
p1 = imem(nin + $keln1)
p2 = imem(nin + $keln2)
xe = (fmem(p2+$kndx)+fmem(p1+$kndx))*0.5
ye = (fmem(p2+$kndy)+fmem(p1+$kndy))*0.5
xtable(8,i8) = xe
ytable(8,i8) = -fmem(nin+$kelfax)*9.0/1000.0
end if
if imem(nin+$keltyp) = 2004 then
i8 = i8 + 1
p1 = imem(nin + $keln1)
p2 = imem(nin + $keln2)
xe = (fmem(p2+$kndx)+fmem(p1+$kndx))*0.5
ye = (fmem(p2+$kndy)+fmem(p1+$kndy))*0.5
xtable(8,i8) = xe
ytable(8,i8) = -fmem(nin+$kelfax)*9.0/1000.0
end if
nin = imem(nin)
end loop
loop m (1,i8)
x value = xtable(8,m)
y value = ytable(8,m)
6 - 18
Example Applications
7-1
elev 0'
y = 30
5'
mica-schist
rock
5' 10"
5'
elev -30
y=0
0"
elev -90
y = -60
x=0
Figure 7.1
It is assumed that the rock is at equilibrium under gravity loading prior to making the excavation.
Further, it is assumed that there is sufficient time delay between excavation and liner installation to
permit the perturbed stress field to come to equilibrium.
7-2
Example Applications
170 pcf
The analysis focuses on the installation of a 1 ft section of the liner. In order to account for the
plane-strain conditions assumed for the rock mass, the input value for E of the liner is divided by
(1 - 2 ). The moment of inertia, I , for the lining is determined from I = t3 /12, where t is the liner
thickness.
After the liner is installed, the tunnel is pressurized to 200 psi. For this analysis, the pressurization
is performed at the same stage during which the liner is installed.
7-3
* For other scenarios for modeling forces on submerged lined tunnels, see Section 1.9.5 in FluidMechanical Interaction.
7-4
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
Grid plot
0
0.000
2E 1
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.2
A roller boundary is used to model zero x-displacement along the line of symmetry at x = 0 and
the right boundary at x = 100. The bottom of the mesh is pinned in both x- and y-directions.
The modeling sequence consists of the following stages:
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
The lining is represented by structural liner elements connected from node to node around the
excavation. Thus, the liner segments are effectively bonded to the rock.
Each structural element has nodal endpoints that coincide with gridpoints describing the excavation
periphery. The internal tunnel pressure (200 psi) at the tunnel boundary is reduced to account for
the thickness of the liner.
The effect of groundwater pressure on the liner is obtained automatically, because the total stress
exerted by each rock zone contains a pore pressure component. As the liner deforms under load,
it will affect the rock stresses and local pore pressures. The influence on pore pressures can be
evaluated by the following approach.
Two different effective-stress analyses are performed to evaluate the influence of pore pressure. In
the first analysis, the effect of pore-pressure change on the response of the system is neglected.
7-5
The WATER table command sets the pore pressure distribution, and this does not change during the
modeling stages.
In the second analysis, mechanical generation of pore pressures is included. The CONFIG gw
command and a groundwater bulk modulus of 4 107 psf are used in this case. SET ow off
is specified in order to exclude groundwater flow. The INITIAL pp command sets the initial pore
pressure distribution for this case.
The initial total stress distribution is also specified in both cases, using INITIAL sxx syy szz commands.
As a result, both analyses are at a stress equilibrium state with the same total and effective stress
distributions, before the tunnel is excavated. The initial states can be compared by viewing states
W2.SAV and GW W2.SAV. The data file (PRESSTUNNEL.DAT) including both analyses
is listed in Section 7.4.
7-6
Example Applications
7-7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
5E 4
Water Table
-2.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
-4.000
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.3
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 9:45
step
21
-2.504E+01 <x< 2.904E+01
-2.704E+01 <y< 2.704E+01
1.000
Principal stresses
Max. Value = -1.589E+02
Min. Value = -9.597E+03
0
5E 4
0.000
Water Table
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.000
-2.000
Figure 7.4
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
7-8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
5E 4
Water Table
-2.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
-4.000
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 9:46
step
2649
-2.504E+01 <x< 2.904E+01
-2.704E+01 <y< 2.704E+01
1.000
Principal stresses
Max. Value = -6.432E+01
Min. Value = -1.180E+04
0
5E 4
0.000
Water Table
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.000
-2.000
Figure 7.6
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
7-9
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
1E 5
Water Table
-2.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
-4.000
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 9:47
step
7856
-2.504E+01 <x< 2.904E+01
-2.704E+01 <y< 2.704E+01
1.000
Principal stresses
Max. Value = 2.772E+03
Min. Value = -1.947E+04
0
1E 5
0.000
Water Table
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.000
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner) -5.605E+04
Net Applied Forces
max vector =
2.320E+04
-2.000
5E 4
Figure 7.8
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
7 - 10
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 9:47
step
7856
-2.504E+01 <x< 2.904E+01
-2.704E+01 <y< 2.704E+01
1.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
Figure 7.9
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
2E 1
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.10 Pore pressure distribution after liner installed and pressurized
(no mechanical generation of pore pressure)
7 - 11
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
2E 1
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
2E 1
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.12 Pore pressure distribution after liner installed and pressurized
(mechanical generation of pore pressure)
7 - 12
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
5E 4
Boundary plot
0
-2.000
2E 1
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.13 Effective principal stress distribution, pore pressure contours and
tensile stress region after tunnel excavation (mechanical generation of pore pressure included)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
2.000
0.000
5E 4
Boundary plot
0
-2.000
2E 1
-6.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
(*10^2)
Figure 7.14 Effective principal stress distribution, pore pressure contours and
tensile stress region after liner installed and pressurized (mechanical generation of pore pressure included)
7 - 13
7 - 14
table 1 delete
table 1 0 25.00 100.0 25.00
set gravity=32.18504
water density=1.938
water table=1
initial syy -15207.83 var 0.0,14451.36
initial syy -756.47
var 0.0,756.47
initial syy -8407.19 var 0.0,6800.64
initial sxx -8275.37 var 0.0,8048.43 i
initial sxx -226.94 var 0.0,226.94 i
initial sxx -4487.87 var 0.0,3787.49 i
initial szz -8275.37 var 0.0,8048.43 i
initial szz -226.94 var 0.0,226.94 i
initial szz -4487.87 var 0.0,3787.49 i
history 999 unbalanced
solve elastic
save w2.sav
;... State: w3.sav ....
model null region 38 22
group null region 38 22
group delete null
solve
save w3.sav
;... State: w4.sav ....
initial xdisp 0 ydisp 0
initial xvel 0 yvel 0
struct node 1 grid 35,16
struct node 2 grid 36,16
struct node 3 grid 37,16
struct node 4 grid 38,16
struct node 5 grid 38,17
struct node 6 grid 39,17
struct node 7 grid 40,17
struct node 8 grid 40,18
struct node 9 grid 41,18
struct node 10 grid 41,19
struct node 11 grid 41,20
struct node 12 grid 42,20
struct node 13 grid 42,21
struct node 14 grid 42,22
struct node 15 grid 42,23
struct node 16 grid 42,24
struct node 17 grid 41,24
struct node 18 grid 41,25
Example Applications
i 2 33
i 2 33
i 35 58
2 33 j
2 33 j
35 58 j
2 33 j
2 33 j
35 58 j
j 1 46
j 47 51
j 1 42
1 46
47 51
1 42
1 46
47 51
1 42
7 - 15
7 - 16
Example Applications
initial
initial
initial
initial
history
solve
save gw
sxx
szz
szz
szz
999
-4487.87 var
-8275.37 var
-226.94
var
-4487.87 var
unbalanced
0.0,3787.49
0.0,8048.43
0.0,226.94
0.0,3787.49
7 - 17
i
i
i
i
35 58
2 33
2 33
35 58
j
j
j
j
1 42
1 46
47 51
1 42
w2.sav
7 - 18
Example Applications
7 - 19
;plot name: pp
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: fail Mohr
set pltc 4320.0 pltf 45.0 pltt 4320.0
plot hold fail normal
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid
7 - 20
Example Applications
8-1
2m
2m
STEP 1
Figure 8.1
STEP 2
STEP 3
8-2
Example Applications
In reality, the chalk exhibits time-dependent behavior associated with creep. The analysis presented
here is limited to the elastic response which accounts for the closure near the face. The following
properties are used:
Chalk
density
bulk modulus
shear modulus
2350 kg/m3
600 MPa
360 MPa
Concrete Liner
density
bulk modulus
shear modulus
2500 kg/m3
14 GPa
8.4 GPa
|y|
ur = c0 + c1 1 exp
0.7R
|y|
ur = c0 c1 1 exp
0.7R
y0
(8.1)
y0
with:
where:
c0 =
o R
ho
2G
c1 =
o R
(1 ho )
2G
(8.2)
8-3
|y|= distance to the face (positive in the direction of the advancing face).
Two analyses are performed for the advancing shaft:
(1) the unlined shaft is modeled and the results compared to Panets (1979) solution; and
(2) the effect of the lining is studied.
(*10^1)
3.500
LEGEND
2.500
30-Aug-04 11:37
step
1037
-2.500E+01 <x< 5.500E+01
-4.000E+01 <y< 4.000E+01
1.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
(*10^1)
Figure 8.2
Zone geometry
8-4
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 11:37
step
1037
-6.338E-01 <x< 1.175E+01
-6.100E+00 <y< 6.284E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
1.000
2E 0
-1.000
-3.000
-5.000
Figure 8.3
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
8.3 Results
For the analysis of the unlined shaft, the radial displacements, ur , calculated at the shaft circumference closely match Panets solution (Eq. (8.1)). Figure 8.4 compares the radial displacements as a
function of the distance to the face obtained from FLAC with Panets solution.
For the lined shaft analysis, the radial displacements that take place at the shaft interface with the
precast liner are plotted in Figure 8.5. The displacements are approximately 60% of those with no
liner. The jagged shape is due to the uneven radial displacement of the unsupported span, which is
partially confined at both ends (last ring of lining and shafts face) and relatively free to move in
the middle.
Figure 8.6 shows a magnified grid plot for the unlined shaft, while Figure 8.7 shows the same plot
for the lined shaft. The jagged shape of the deformed liner is also evident in the second plot.
Note that the use of the axisymmetry option prevents FLAC from modeling the bending resistance
accurately. However, the compression resistance is represented adequately.
8-5
JOB TITLE : .
-1.000
Table Plot
FLAC
-2.000
Panet Solution
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 8.4
JOB TITLE : .
-1.000
Table Plot
Panet Solution
-2.000
FLAC
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Figure 8.5
8-6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 11:37
step
1037
-6.338E-01 <x< 1.175E+01
-6.100E+00 <y< 6.284E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
1.000
2E 0
-3.000
-5.000
Figure 8.6
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
16-Dec-04 12:26
step 27102
-6.338E-01 <x< 1.175E+01
-6.100E+00 <y< 6.284E+00
3.000
Grid plot
0
1.000
2E 0
-3.000
-5.000
Figure 8.7
0.300
0.500
(*10^1)
0.700
0.900
1.100
8-7
8.4 Reference
Panet, M. Time-Dependent Deformations in Underground Works, in Proceedings of the 4th
ISRM Congress (Montreux), Vol. 3, pp. 279-289. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema and the Swiss
Society for Soil and Rock Mechanics, 1979.
8-8
Example Applications
8-9
yval
= 1.-exp(yv * a2)
if yf < 0.0 then
yval = (c0 - c0 * yval)*1e3
else
yval = (c0 + c1 * yval)*1e3
end if
ytable(10,k) = yval
xtable(11,k) = yf
ytable(11,k) = xdisp(i,j)*1e3
end if
end loop
end
panet
save ExApp 08a.sav
;*** BRANCH: LINED ****
new
;... State: shax2.sav ....
config axi
g 20 65
mo el
gen 0 -30 0 0 2.5 0 2.5 -30 i 1 5 j 1 21 rat 1 0.9
gen s 0 30 2.5 30 s i 1 5 j 21 66
gen 2.5 0 2.5 30 30 30 30 0 i 5 21 j 21 66 rat 1.2 1
gen 2.5 -30 2.5 0 30 0 30 -30 i 5 21 j 1 21 rat 1.2 .9
ini x 2.72 i 6
pro bulk 6e8 she 3.6e8 den 2350
ini sxx=-1.5e6 syy=-1.5e6 szz=-1.5e6
app sxx=-1.5e6 i 21
fix y j 1
fix y j 66
hist unbal
hist xd i 5 j 21
hist xd i 5 j 61
mo null i 1 5 j 63 65
solve
def excav
loop k (1,14)
jj1=63-3*k
jj2=jj1+2
jj3=jj2+1
jj4=jj3+2
command
mo null i 1 5 j jj1 jj2
mo el i 5 j jj3 jj4
8 - 10
Example Applications
8 - 11
8 - 12
Example Applications
9-1
15.2 mm
2 x 15.2 mm
25
24 mm
Force (tons/m)
20
26 mm
15
10
0
0
Figure 9.1
10
15
20
Displacement (mm)
25
30
9-2
Example Applications
Table 9.1
Nominal
diameter (mm)
Nominal
mass (kg/m)
Nominal
area (mm2 )
Grade
15
1.54
177
Super
105
125
145
190
19
2.42
283
Super
170
200
230
305
23
3.49
415
Reg
Super
235
250
280
295
325
340
430
450
26
4.43
530
Reg
Super
300
315
355
370
410
430
545
570
29
5.48
660
Reg
Super
375
390
440
460
510
535
680
710
32
6.64
804
Reg
Super
455
480
540
565
625
655
830
870
35
7.91
962
Reg
Super
545
570
645
675
745
780
990
1040
38
9.29
1140
Reg
Super
645
675
765
800
880
925
1175
1230
In this example problem, FLAC is used to model the previous tests and reproduce the field data. It is
noted that the current cable bolt model in FLAC describes the response of the cable-rock interaction
as cohesive and frictional in nature. The model assumes the grout behaves as an elastic, perfectly
plastic material with confining stress dependence but no loss of strength after failure. Recent field
and laboratory work (e.g., Kaiser et al. 1992) has shown that dilation introduced by the spiral cable
strands can be an important factor in cable response. This behavior is not addressed here, but could
be accounted for through the use of a FISH routine.
9-3
28 tons/meter
= 1.12 107 N/m/m
3
25 10 meter
This value of kbond is very low, indicating a rather poor grouting job for the cable. Typical kbond
values would be approximately one order of magnitude or more higher than this.
The value of sbond for the single 15.2 mm wire is simply the peak shear resistance in tons/m. In this
case, sbond 17.5 tons/m, or 17.5 104 N/m. To check this value of sbond for reasonableness,
it can be converted to grout shear strength by dividing by the approximate surface area of the
wire (assuming the bond fails at the grout/cable interface). We find that the peak shear strength
is 3.66 MPa. This value should equal roughly half the uniaxial compressive strength of the grout,
indicating either a very poor grout or that the cable was allowed to rotate during the pull-test,
yielding artificially low grout shear-strength values.*
At Branch: Single 15.2 mm Cable in the data file PULL.DAT (see Section 9.4) is the command
listing for a simple example of a pull-test using FLAC. The cable end-node is pulled at a small,
constant y-oriented velocity (Figure 9.2). A FISH function, ff, is used to sum the reaction forces
and monitor nodal displacement generated by the pull-tests for comparison to field test results.
9-4
Example Applications
Figure 9.2
A plot of history 1 versus history 2 (pull force versus cable displacement) for the case of a single
15.2 mm cable is shown in Figure 9.3. This figure illustrates the general force-displacement behavior
given in Figure 9.1. The peak force is reached at a displacement of approximately 17 mm. After
this point, the cable is simply pulled out of the borehole in much the same fashion as a block sliding
on a plane. Figures 9.4(a-c) show the axial force distribution on the cable for displacements of 10
mm, 17 mm and 17.5 mm, respectively. Superimposed on the axial forces are locations at which
the grout bond is yielding. At 10 mm [Figure 9.4(a)], the grout bond has not failed. At 17 mm
[Figure 9.4(b)], bond failure is initiated and rapidly propagates [Figure 9.4(c)] down the entire cable
length. At that stage, the force on the cable end is simply the sum of sbond li (where li is the length
of cable segments) for all n-slipping segments. If the embedded length were long enough, the cable
axial force would eventually reach the yield force limit of the cable itself. The cable should then
break when the extension strain equals the ultimate breaking strain of the cable (generally, around
3%). The cable model does not have an extension strain limit; the rockbolt model (see Section 1.6
in Structural Elements) should be used to simulate this condition.
9-5
05
LEGEND
1.600
30-Aug-04 15:26
step 20000
1.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
20
(10
-03
Figure 9.3
9-6
Example Applications
LEGEND
0.650
30-Aug-04 15:26
step 10000
-2.733E-01 <x< 6.733E-01
-1.183E-01 <y< 8.283E-01
0.550
Boundary plot
0.450
2E -1
Cable Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -4.938E+04
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
0.350
0.250
0.150
0.050
-0.050
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
(a) at 10 mm deformation
JOB TITLE : PULL OUT TEST FOR SINGLE 15.2 MM CABLE
LEGEND
0.650
30-Aug-04 15:26
step 17000
-2.780E-01 <x< 6.780E-01
-1.195E-01 <y< 8.365E-01
0.550
Boundary plot
0.450
2E -1
Cable Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -8.258E+04
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
0.350
0.250
0.150
0.050
-0.050
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
(b) at 17 mm deformation
0.400
0.500
0.600
9-7
LEGEND
0.650
30-Aug-04 15:26
step 17500
-2.783E-01 <x< 6.783E-01
-1.196E-01 <y< 8.371E-01
0.550
Boundary plot
0.450
2E -1
Cable Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Cable) -8.402E+04
Cable Plot
Shear Spring Bond Yields
0.350
0.250
0.150
0.050
-0.050
Figure 9.4
-0.100
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
The evolution of the force profile along the cable is illustrated for the case of the 26 mm cables (Figure 9.5). See Branch:26 mm Cable in PULL.DAT in Section 9.4. Here, the force-displacement
profiles for various snapshots in displacement are compared. Table 10 is labeled 5 mm displacement, and the remaining tables are labeled at 5 mm increments up to 30 mm. (Note that the last
three values in each table are for structural nodes outside the grid and should be neglected.) Up
to the point of approximately 20 mm, bond slippage does not occur, and the increase in axial load
is essentially elastic; however, bond slippage occurs rapidly between 20 and 25 mm (Tables 40
and 50), with a constant force distribution thereafter. The slope of the final curve is approximately
sbond/L, where L is the initial grouted length of the cable.
9-8
Example Applications
01
LEGEND
30-Aug-04 15:26
step 30000
2.400
2.000
25 mm displ
20 mm displ
1.600
15 mm displ
10 mm displ
1.200
5 mm displ
0.800
0.400
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-02
Figure 9.5
The cable shear bond strength will, in general, increase with increasing effective pressure p acting
on the cable. A linear law is implemented in FLAC, whereby the cable shear bond strength is defined
as a constant (sbond) plus the effective pressure on the cable multiplied by the cable perimeter
(perimeter) times a friction angle (sfriction). This pressure dependence is activated automatically in
FLAC by issuing the cable properties perimeter and sfriction. Note that, in this case, the input data
for sbond must correspond to the shear bond strength in a cable pull-out test carried out without
confining pressure. Numerical results of pull-out tests on the 15.2 mm cable are presented for a
friction angle of 20 and three levels of initial confining pressure, namely p = 105 , 106 and 107
N/m2 , in Figures 9.6 to 9.8. Those figures indicate an increasing failure level with increasing initial
confining pressure illustrating the frictional character of the cable-rock interface. Results for the
pull-out test with confined pressure on the 15.2 mm cable were obtained in PULL.DAT at the
branch named Branch: 15.2 mm cab. with confining pressure in Section 9.4.
9-9
05
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 8:44
step 40000
3.500
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-03
Figure 9.6
05
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 8:44
step 40000
3.500
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-03
Figure 9.7
9 - 10
Example Applications
05
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 8:44
step 40000
3.500
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
ff
(FISH)
X-axis :
dd
(FISH)
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
-03
Figure 9.8
9.3 References
Hyett, A. J., W. F. Bawden and R. D. Reichert. The Effect of Rock Mass Confinement on the
Bond Strength of Fully Grouted Cable Bolts, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.,
29(5), pp. 503-524, 1992.
Kaiser, P. K., M. Diederichs and S. Yazici. Cable Bolt Performance During Mining Induced Stress
Change Three Case Examples, in Rock Support in Mining and Underground Construction
(Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rock Support, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, June,
1992), pp. 377-384. P. K. Kaiser and D. R. McCreath, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1992.
9 - 11
9 - 12
Example Applications
; 17 mm deformation
;plot hold bou struc ax struc bo
save pull b.sav
;... State: pull c.sav ....
step 500
; 17.5 mm deformation
;plot hold bou struc ax struc bo
save pull c.sav
;... State: pull.sav ....
step 2500
; 20 mm deformation
;plot hold his 1 vs 2
save pull.sav
;*** Branch: 26 mm cable ****
new
;... State: pull1.sav ....
config
;pull1.dat
g 4 6
mo el
ini x mul .1
ini y mul .1
pro bulk 5e9 she 3e9 den 2000
fix y j 7
set large
set st damp struct combined
; --- Cable installation --stru cable beg .2 0.1 end .2 .7 seg 12
stru pro 1 e 98.6e9 yield 545.e3 a 530.e-6 sbond 2.63e5 kbond 1.12e7
; --- Fish functions --;
ff : Pull force per unit cable length
;
dd : Displacement of cable end
def ff
sum = 0.0
loop i (1,igp)
sum = sum+yforce(i,7)
end loop
ff=2.0*sum
dd=step*1e-6
end
ca str.fin
def fill tab
;
;
9 - 13
end
def test
command
step 5000
end command
itab = itab + 10
fill tab
end
; --- Histories --his nstep 100
hist ff
hist dd
hist unbal
; --- Pull out test --stru node 13 fix y ini yvel 1e-6
test
save pull1.sav
;... State: pull2.sav ....
test
save pull2.sav
;... State: pull3.sav ....
test
save pull3.sav
;... State: pull4.sav ....
test
save pull4.sav
;... State: pull5.sav ....
test
9 - 14
Example Applications
save pull5.sav
;... State: pull6.sav ....
test
save pull6.sav
;*** Branch: 15.2 mm cab. with confining pressure ****
new
;... State: pull2p.sav ....
config
;pull2.dat
g 4 6
mo el
ini x mul .1
ini y mul .1
pro bulk 5e9 she 3e9 den 2000
fix y j 7
; --- Settings --set large
set st damp struc combined
; --- Cable installation --stru cable beg .2 0.1 end .2 .7 seg 12
stru pro 1 e 98.6e9 yield 232.13e3 a 181e-6 sbond 1.75e5 kbond 1.12e7
stru pro 1 sfriction 20.0 perimeter 47.75e-3
; --- Fish functions --def con p
cpm = - cp
command
ini sxx cpm szz cpm
app pr cp i 1
app pr cp i 5
end command
end
;
ff : Pull force per unit cable length
;
dd : Displacement of cable end
def ff
sum = 0.0
loop i (1,igp)
sum = sum+yforce(i,7)
end loop
ff=2.0*sum
dd=step*1e-6
end
; --- Histories --his nstep 100
9 - 15
hist ff
hist dd
hist unbal
; --- Pull out test --stru node 13 fix y ini yvel 1e-6
save pull2p.sav
;*** Branch: c.p. =1e5 ****
;... State: pullp1.sav ....
set cp = 1e5
con p
step 40000
save pullp1.sav
;*** Branch: c.p.=1e6 ****
restore pull2p.sav
;... State: pullp2.sav ....
set cp = 1e6
con p
step 40000
save pullp2.sav
;*** Branch: c.p.=1e7 ****
restore pull2p.sav
;... State: pullp3.sav ....
set cp = 1e7
con p
step 40000
save pullp3.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Pull force vs displ
plot hold history 1 line vs 2
;plot name: Axial force and cable bond yield points
plot hold bound struct cable axial max 90000.0 struct cable bond
;plot name: Axial force along cable
label table 10
5 mm displ
label table 20
10 mm displ
label table 30
15 mm displ
label table 40
9 - 16
Example Applications
20 mm displ
label table 50
25 mm displ
label table 60
30 mm displ
plot hold table 60 both 50 both 40 both 30 both 20 both 10 both alias &
axial force along cable
10 - 1
tension
crack
a
R
5m
10
20
2
Scale m
3
4
a/R = 0.401
5
8
Figure 10.1 Failure surface solution from Bishops method for a rock slope
[Hoek and Bray (1981)]
10 - 2
Example Applications
The rock mass is classified as a Hoek-Brown material with strength parameters of:
m
s
c
cm
=
=
=
=
0.13
0.00001
150
MPa
s c = 0.47 MPa
The tensile strength is estimated to be 0.012 MPa. For the Bishops method, a tangent to the curved
Hoek-Brown failure envelope is drawn at a normal stress level estimated from the slope geometry.
Mohr-Coulomb properties for friction angle and cohesive strength are then estimated to be (see
HOEK.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH volume):
= 45
c = 0.14 MPa
The mass density of the dry rock mass is 2500 kg/m3 , and the mass density of the saturated rock
mass is 2800 kg/m3 . The phreatic surface is located as shown in Figure 10.1, and the mass density
of water is 1000 kg/m3 .
Based upon these parameters, Hoek and Bray report that the Bishop method produces a location
for the circular failure surface and tension crack, as shown in Figure 10.1, and a factor of safety of
1.423.
10.2 Modeling Procedure
In FLAC, the failure surface can evolve during the calculation in a way that is representative of the
natural evolution of the physical failure plane in the slope. It is not necessary to make an estimate
for the location of the circular failure line when beginning an analysis, as it is with limit-equilibrium
methods. FLAC will find the failure plane and the failure mechanism by simulating the material
behavior directly. Run the data file ROCKSL.DAT in Section 10.5 to perform this analysis.
A reasonably fine grid should be selected to ensure that the failure plane will be well-defined as
it develops. It is best to use the finest grid possible when studying problems involving localized
failure (see Section 3.2.4 in the Users Guide). For the bench-cut slope, a model grid is created as
shown in Figure 10.2.
10 - 3
(*10^2)
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 12:07
step
0
-5.000E+01 <x< 1.500E+02
-8.000E+01 <y< 1.200E+02
0.600
Grid plot
0
5E 1
Water Table
0.200
-0.200
-0.600
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^2)
10 - 4
Example Applications
06
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 12:43
step
4909
Failure Surface Plot
Shear Stress vs
Normal Stress
Zone Stress States
Mohr-Coulomb Fail. Surf.
Friction = 4.5000E+01
Cohesion = 1.4000E+05
Tension = 1.2000E+04
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
(10
05
10 - 5
10.3 Results
While FLAC is executing the SOLVE fos command, the bracketing values for fs are printed continuously to the screen. When completed, the final value for fs is displayed. In this case, the calculated
fs is 1.41.
The failure surface is identified by the plots in Figures 10.4 and 10.5. These plots are generated
after restoring the file ROCKSL FOS.SAV,
In Figure 10.4, the contours of shear strain rate indicate the plane of shear failure, while the plot of
zero tensile strength within zones denotes the region in which tensile failure occurs (and the tensile
strength drops to zero). In Figure 10.5, the plot of velocity vectors also indicates the pattern of
motion at the initiation of failure.
Compare Figures 10.4 and 10.5 to Figure 10.1. The failure surface in FLAC closely resembles that
produced from the Bishop solution. However, the tensile failure extends farther up the slope in
the FLAC solution. It is important to recognize that the limit equilibrium solution only identifies
the onset of failure, whereas the FLAC solution includes the effect of stress redistribution and
progressive failure after failure has been initiated. In this problem, tensile failure continues up the
slope as a result of the tensile softening. The resulting factor of safety allows for this weakening
effect.
This rock slope example is also run using FLAC/Slope, see Section 1.4.5 in the FLAC/Slope Users
Guide. The factor of safety calculated in the FLAC/Slope simulation is 1.38, and the failure pattern
is slightly different. For example, compare Figure 10.5 to Figure 1.96 in the FLAC/Slope Users
Guide. This difference is related to the effect of the loading path on the development of tensile
failure in the model. In FLAC/Slope, the SOLVE fos solution is invoked from an initial stress state
of zero in the model. In this example, the model is brought to an equilibrium stress state, with only
a minor amount of tensile failure, before the SOLVE fos solution is performed. The approach in
FLAC/Slope produces slightly more tensile failure in the model. Note that if the tensile strength
is set to a high value (e.g., 0.14 MPa), then no tensile failure occurs, and the calculated factor of
safety is the same for both simulations: 1.41.
More detailed comparisons of FLAC to limit equilibrium solutions have been made by others (e.g.,
Thompson 1993 and Dawson et al., 1999).
10 - 6
Example Applications
(*10^2)
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 13:18
step 25225
-5.000E+01 <x< 1.500E+02
-8.000E+01 <y< 1.200E+02
0.600
0.200
5E 1
-0.200
-0.600
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^2)
Figure 10.4 Failure surface in slope indicated by shear strain contours and
zero tension zones
(*10^2)
LEGEND
31-Aug-04 13:18
step 25225
-5.000E+01 <x< 1.500E+02
-8.000E+01 <y< 1.200E+02
0.600
0.200
1E -2
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
o at yield in tension
-0.200
-0.600
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^2)
Figure 10.5 Failure surface in slope indicated by velocity vectors and plasticity
indicators
10 - 7
10.4 References
Bishop, A. W. The Use of the Slip Circle in the Stability Analysis of Earth Slopes, Gotechnique,
5, 7-17 (1955).
Dawson, E. M., W. H. Roth and A. Drescher. Slope Stability Analysis by Strength Reduction,
Gotechnique, 49(6), 835-840 (1999).
Hoek, E., and J. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering. London: IMM, 1981.
Thompson, R. J. The Location of Critical Slip Surfaces in Slope-Stability Problems, J. S. Afr.
Inst. Min. Metall., 93(4), 85-95 (1993).
10 - 8
Example Applications
10 - 9
yc=0.25*ya
if yc < table(2,xc) then
density(i,j) = 2800
endif
endif
endloop
endloop
end
wet den
water density=1000.0
water table=2
solve
save rocsl 2.sav
;... State: rocksl fos.fsv ....
solve fos no restore file rocksl fos.fsv
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid water iwhite
;plot name: fail Mohr
set pltc 140000.0 pltf 45.0 pltt 12000.0
plot hold fail normal
;plot name: fos - ssi
plot hold fos tension block inv ssi iwhite bound
;plot name: fos - vel. vectors
plot hold fos group water velocity plasticity no past
10 - 10
Example Applications
19 - 1
19 - 2
Verification Problems
LEGEND
23-Sep-04 9:37
step 340000
-5.000E-01 <x< 1.450E+01
-8.000E+00 <y< 7.000E+00
3.000
state
Elastic
At Yield in Shear or Vol.
Elastic, Yield in Past
At Yield in Tension
Boundary plot
0
1.000
-1.000
2E 0
Velocity vectors
max vector = 2.883E-06
0
-3.000
5E -6
-5.000
-7.000
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 19.1 Plasticity and velocity fields for steady-state flow in associated
material, = 45 ; applied velocity is 108
It might be expected that the system would be very sensitive to extraneous mechanisms of energy
loss, because a large volume of material is being moved by a very small object. The situation is
analogous to the operation of a lever arm, in which the length of the active (or driven) end of the
lever is many times smaller than that of the passive end; small changes in resistance at the passive
end are reflected as large changes in load at the active end. The expression tail wagging the dog
also comes to mind.
19.3 Energy Balance
At the condition of apparent steady-state flow with FLAC (constant footing load) for an associated,
noncohesive material, the power supplied to the system must equal the rate of work done. The
input power is simply the footing velocity multiplied by the footing load. At steady state, there is
no change in elastic strain energy, and there is no plastic dissipation for an associated, noncohesive
material. Work is done on body forces at gridpoints, equal to the dot product of their velocities and
the applied forces. There is also energy loss due to damping, even though the velocity field appears
steady, because of small fluctuations in velocity vectors. In FLAC s damping formulation (see
Section 1.3.4 in Theory and Background), kinetic energy is extracted whenever the magnitude
of a velocity component passes through a local maximum. The magnitude of the energy loss is
proportional to the kinetic energy at the time of extraction. The energy balance for the whole system
can be written as follows:
Lu f +
(Fib u i )
19 - 3
g g
(mu i u i ) = 0
(19.1)
g
where L is the footing load, u f is the footing velocity, m is a gridpoint mass, u i is the gridpoint
b
velocity vector
and Fi is the body force vector (including gravity) acting at the gridpoint. The
summation ( ) is over all gridpoints, and the constant, , in the damping term accounts for the
periodic removal of kinetic energy (done for each degree of freedom, independently). Eq. (19.1) is
only valid in an average sense, when evaluated over an interval that contains a number of natural
periods of the system. The exact solution, with no damping loss, is the load P = L, obtained
when the damping term is omitted from Eq. (19.1):
(Fib u i )
u f
P =
(19.2)
(19.3)
The action of
is to increase the apparent limit load, L, above the true limit load, P ,
damping
g
b
(noting that (Fi u i ) is negative). It is apparent that the error term in Eq. (19.3) tends to zero as
gridpoint velocities tend to zero, because the term contains dimensions of velocity-squared divided
by velocity. Since mean gridpoint velocities are proportional to the applied footing velocity, the
error in measured footing load is thus expected to decrease as the applied velocity decreases.
However, as mentioned above, the single-precision calculation of FLAC prevents the velocity from
being decreased indefinitely, due to rounding errors. These errors can be reduced by using the
double-precision version.
A similar result (that the apparent limit load approaches the true limit load as the applied velocity
approaches zero) is obtained for a non-associated material or a cohesive material. In that case, an
extra term is included in Eq. (19.1), representing the sum of plastic work-rate done in each zone.
A zones plastic work-rate is proportional to strain rate, and hence to gridpoint velocities. Again,
the error term in Eq. (19.3) will vanish as velocities tend to zero.
19 - 4
Verification Problems
19 - 5
JOB TITLE : .
0.400
0.000
Grid plot
0
-0.400
5E -1
Marked Gridpoints
-0.800
-1.200
-1.600
0.400
0.800
1.200
1.600
2.000
Figure 19.2 Close-up view of the grid near the footing (denoted by crosses)
After executing LIMITS.DAT, the history of footing load may be plotted (see Figure 19.3). The
load level marked A corresponds to the initial rapid loading velocity of 106 . Reducing the
footing velocity by a factor of 100, to 108 , reduces the footing load to that denoted by B. After
setting the damping to zero, the load falls to point C. This load represents the upper bound discussed
in Section 19.4, and has the value of 898 units. The velocities are then set to zero, and the system
allowed to stabilize (see point D). At this state, the footing load is 887 units, which corresponds
to a lower bound. The difference between the two bounds is about 1.2%, which seems reasonably
accurate, given the difficulty associated with high-friction simulations. According to Frydman
(1998), the results represent values for N in the range of 316 to 319 (in the Terzaghi (1943)
formula for bearing capacity), and are consistent with an upper-bound solution of N = 322.8
(Michalowski, 1997).
19 - 6
Verification Problems
03
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 18:19
step 640000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
load
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
)
A
1.400
1.200
1.000
B
C
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
04
19 - 7
19.7 References
Brune, J. N., S. Brown, and P. A. Johnson. Tectonophysics, 218: 56-59 (1993).
Frydman, S. Personal Communication, 1998.
Frydman, S., and H. J. Burd. Numerical Studies of Bearing-Capacity Factor N , J. Geotechnical
and Environmental Engineering ASCE, 123 20-29 (1997).
Michalowski, R. L. An Estimate of the Influence of Soil Weight on Bearing Capacity Using Limit
Analysis, Soils and Foundations, Japanese Geotechnical Society, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 57-64
(1997).
Terzaghi, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1943.
19 - 8
Verification Problems
19 - 9
19 - 10
Verification Problems
21 - 1
(21.1)
Where A and B are the pore-pressure coefficients, and 1 and 3 are the total principal stress
increments due to the embankment loading. If it is assumed that the groundwater is incompressible
(which is commonly done in practice) and that the soil mass behaves as an isotropic and elastic
material, then Eq. (21.1) reduces to
1
u = 3 + (1 3 )
3
(21.2)
We use this simple expression, Eq. (21.2), to illustrate the application of FLAC to calculate excess
pore pressure resulting from an undrained embankment loading.
This FLAC exercise is a derivation of a simple embankment loading example provided by Lambe
and Whitman, 1969 (see Figure 26.14). In this example, a heavy soil embankment is placed
over a foundation clay. It is assumed that the loading is applied more rapidly than drainage can
occur, so that undrained conditions apply. The embankment is in the shape of a truncated cone;
the embankment configuration and dimensions and the location of the water surface are shown in
Figure 21.1. The excess pore pressure is monitored at an elevation of -31.5 ft, directly beneath the
center of the embankment.
+28.3
R = 48 ft
r = 25 ft
Equivalent
cylinder
Embankment load
qs = 4700 lb/ft2
0
-6.5
-9.5
r = 69 ft
Clay
-31.5
21 - 2
Verification Problems
The clay foundation material is assumed to have an unsaturated unit weight of 93.8 pcf. For
comparison of Eq. (21.2) to the FLAC solution in this exercise, we assume that the clay behaves
as an elastic material. The drained elastic modulus of the clay is 145,000 psf, and the drained
Poissons ratio is 0.45. The porosity of the clay is 30%.
In the Lambe and Whitman example, the embankment loading is approximated by a vertical pressure
of 4700 psf applied at the ground surface over a circular area with a 48 ft radius. Based on this
form of loading, the total principal stress increments at a depth of -31.5 ft beneath the center of
the circular area are 1 = 4180 psf, and 3 = 1645 psf (determined from the stress distribution
charts for a uniform load on a circular area; see Figure 8.5 in Lambe and Whitman, 1969). The
excess pore pressure (from Eq. (21.2)) is then u = 2490 psf.
21.2 FLAC Model
The FLAC simulation of this problem is performed in axisymmetry mode with the groundwater
flow configuration. The groundwater-flow calculation is turned off; excess pore pressure generation
is controlled by specifying the water bulk modulus.
The model grid is created to provide finer zoning beneath the region of the applied embankment
loading. The zoning is adjusted slightly to position a row of zones with centroids at -31.5 ft, for
comparison to the Lambe and Whitman solution. The model grid is shown in Figure 21.2.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
-0.200
28-Sep-04 5:42
step
15
-2.067E+01 <x< 1.707E+02
-1.739E+02 <y< 1.742E+01
-0.400
Grid plot
-0.600
5E 1
-0.800
2.004E+02
5E 2
-1.000
-1.200
-1.400
-1.600
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^2)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
21 - 3
We first set the water bulk modulus to zero and calculate the initial stress state using the ININV.FIS
function, provided in the FISH Library (see Section 3 in the FISH volume), with the settings: wth
= -9.5, and k0x = k0z = 0.637. The values for the ratios of effective horizontal stress to effective
vertical stress, k0x and k0z, are selected to produce a total horizontal stress to total vertical stress
ratio of 0.818. This ratio corresponds to the stress state computed for gravitational loading of an
isotropic elastic material with a Poissons ratio of 0.45, which is the assumed initial condition for
the Lambe and Whitman problem.
Next, the embankment loading is simulated by applying a vertical pressure of 4700 psf at the ground
surface over a circular area with a 48 ft radius. The applied force vectors corresponding to this
pressure are shown in Figure 21.2. The loading is applied gradually (by using a FISH history
multiplier, ramp, with the APPLY command) in order to produce a monotonic increase in pressure
in the soil foundation. This type of loading is not required in this case because the foundation
material is assumed to be elastic. However, if a plastic material model is assigned to the foundation,
then loading should be gradual to minimize any effects of transient forces that may arise from the
loading.
For the loading phase, the water bulk modulus must be specified in order to generate pore pressures
as a result of the applied loading. The assumption of incompressible groundwater, in Eq. (21.2), is
approximated in the FLAC model by selecting a water bulk modulus, Kw , equal to
4
Kw = 20n(K + G)
3
(21.3)
where n is the porosity, and K and G are the bulk and shear moduli of the unsaturated soil. For this
problem, Kw is calculated to be 3,300,000 psf. (Note that the actual bulk modulus of pure water is
41,700,000 psf.)
A FISH function, pphist ini, stores the initial values for total stress and pore pressure before
loading, and another function, pphist, monitors the change in total stress and pore pressure
resulting from the applied load. These FISH variables are then recorded as histories for comparison
to the Lambe and Whitman values.
21.3 Results and Discussion
The comparison of the FLAC solution to the Lambe and Whitman solution for the total principal
stress change due to the embankment loading is illustrated in Figure 21.3. The final FLAC value
for 1 is within 0.5% of the Lambe and Whitman solution, and the value for 3 is within 3.5%.
The comparison of excess pore pressure is shown in Figure 21.4. The FLAC value is within 3%
of the Lambe and Whitman value. Note that the difference between the values can be reduced
by increasing the water bulk modulus. However, this will also increase the calculational stepping
required to reach the equilibrium solution.
21 - 4
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
28-Sep-04 15:49
step 46742
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
del_sig1_ana (FISH)
0.000
-1.000
del_sig3_ana (FISH)
del_sig1
(FISH)
del_sig3
(FISH)
-2.000
X-axis :
Number of steps
-3.000
-4.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
03
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
28-Sep-04 15:49
step 46742
2.500
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
del_pp_ana (FISH)
2.000
pphist
(FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
03
Figure 21.4 Comparison of change in pore pressure, u, resulting from the
embankment loading
21 - 5
21.4 Reference
Lambe, T. W., and R. V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1969.
Skempton, A. W. The Pore-Pressure Coefficients A and B, Gotechnique, 4, 143-147 (1954).
21 - 6
Verification Problems
21 - 7
call pphist.fis
pphist
history 1 del sig1 ana
history 2 del sig3 ana
history 3 del pp ana
history 4 pphist
history 5 del sig1
history 6 del sig3
save e2.sav
;... STATE: E3 ....
set echo off
call ramp.fis
ramp
apply pressure 4700.0 hist ramp from 1,49 to 25,49
water bulk=3300000.0
solve
save e3.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pp contours
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: grid
plot hold grid apply white
;plot name: Unbalanced force
plot hold history 999
;plot name: stress
plot hold stress bound
;plot name: total princ stress
plot hold history 1 line 2 line 5 line 6 line
;plot name: pore pressure
plot hold history 3 line 4 line
21 - 8
Verification Problems
15 - 1
250 p1
1.02
0.2
0.05
1 kPa
8 p1
40 p1
3.32
1000 kg / m3
Initially, the sample is in a state of isotropic compression corresponding to p0 = 5p1 and zero excess
has magnitude 8 p in the lightly
pore pressure (p0 = p0 ). The preconsolidation pressure pc0
1
over-consolidated case, and 40 p1 in the heavily over-consolidated case. These cases correspond
/p of 1.6 and 8, respectively. The shear modulus is assumed
to an over-consolidation ratio R = pc0
0
to remain constant during the test carried out with constant confining pressure, p0 , and simulated
strain controlled platens. Drained and undrained tests are considered. Refer to Wood (1990) for a
detailed discussion on the Cam-clay plasticity theory.
15 - 2
Verification Problems
1
p = (1 + 22 )
3
(15.1)
q = (1 2 )
where 1 is the axial stress, and 2 is the cell pressure.
Since the cell pressure is kept constant during the test, the total stress path in the (p, q) plane is
constrained by the relation
dq = 3dp
(15.2)
q
+ p0
3
(15.3)
In a drained test, no excess pore pressure is generated, the effective and the total stress paths coincide
and we may write
p =
q
+ p0
3
(15.4)
This stress path is represented in Figure 15.1(a). The dashed line in the figure is the critical state
line.
In an undrained test, when the fluid bulk modulus is much larger than that of the soil (incompressible
fluid), the specific volume, v, remains constant, equal to the initial value, v0 , and it may be shown
that the effective stress path is also well-defined.
M
q=
critical
point
critical
point
p'
LOC
HOC
p'0
15 - 3
p'0
p'c0
p'
a. drained
q
M
q=
critical
points
p'
LOC
HOC
p'0
p'0
p'c0
p'
b. undrained
Figure 15.1 Effective stress paths
Consider the case of an over-consolidated sample. Referring to Figure 15.1(b), as long as the stress
state lies inside the first yield surface, the path corresponds to the straight line
p = p0
(15.5)
When plastic deformation takes place, the shape of the effective stress path is (see Wood 1990,
p.127)
pi
=
p
M 2 + 2
M 2 + i2
(15.6)
15 - 4
Verification Problems
where = ( )/, = q/p and pi and i define the effective stress state at impending yield,
indicated as point I in Figure 15.1(b).
Note that, under undrained conditions, the yield path is defined by an equation of the form shown
in Eq. (15.6) for any boundary condition (i.e., not only under triaxial compression conditions).
with the straight path p = p gives (using that R =
Intersection of the yield curve through pc0
0
pc0 /p0 ):
pi = p0
i2
(15.7)
= M (R 1)
2
M 2 + 2
M 2R
(15.8)
q
plastic
volumetric
dilation
q=
'
Mp
plastic
volumetric
compression
qcr
p'cr
2p'cr
p'
vcr
normal
consolidation
line
swelling
line
ln(p'cr)
ln (2p'cr)
ln p'
15 - 5
3p0
3M
= Mpcr
= v ln(2pcr /p1 ) + ln 2
pcr =
qcr
vcr
(15.9)
where the value vcr corresponds to the specific volume at p = pcr on the elastic swelling line
through pc = 2pcr . In this case, the critical state of a specific material depends only on the initial
mean pressure and is not affected by the preconsolidation pressure.
In the undrained case, the intersection of the stress path represented by Eq. (15.8) with the critical
state line = M yields (assuming that v remains constant):
2
= p0
R
= Mpcr
= v0
pcr
qcr
vcr
(15.10)
(15.11)
q
+ p0 p
3
(15.12)
qcr
+ p0 pcr
3
(15.13)
15 - 6
Verification Problems
vy
vy
P0
y
x
l
Figure 15.3 Grid geometry and boundary conditions
By default, the initial specific volume is calculated to correspond to the value at the preconsoli , and mean pressure, p , using the formula (see Eq. (2.220) in Theory and
dation pressure, pc0
0
Background):
/p1 ) + ln(pc0
/p0 )
v0 = v ln(pc0
(15.14)
Similarly, the current bulk modulus, K0 , is initialized by the code to the value
K0 =
v0 p0
The maximum value of the tangent bulk modulus is set to 800 p1 .
(15.15)
15 - 7
A compressive velocity is applied in cycles of 40 steps at the top of the model: the velocity magnitude
is set to a finite value for the first 20 steps, and to zero for the remaining part of the cycle. A total
of 5,000 cycles with a velocity magnitude of 0.5 104 m/sec was used in the drained examples.
For the undrained tests, the porosity, n, is derived from the specific volume using n = (v 1)/v,
and the water bulk modulus is set to 2 104 p1 a large value compared to the initial value of
the product nK, which is of the order 102 p1 . In this case, a compressive velocity of magnitude
0.5 106 m/sec is applied for a total of 10,000 cycles. The mean pressure, deviator stress, specific
volume and, in the undrained case, pore pressure are monitored as they converge to the critical state.
The data file CAM.DAT in Section 15.6 was used to carry out the drained and undrained numerical
tests. The property mpc was adjusted there to the values 8 and 40 to treat the lightly and heavily
over-consolidated cases, respectively. FISH functions are used to apply the velocity boundary
conditions and evaluate the relative error made at the end of the simulation.
15.4 FLAC Results and Discussion
Numerical values for p, q and v for the drained case, and p1 , q, v and u for the undrained case, are
compared with the analytical predictions at the end of each simulation. The results, presented in
Tables 15.1 and 15.2, indicate relative errors of less than 2%.
Table 15.1 Drained case
p
q
v
R = 1.6
R=8
Analytical
7.590
7.779
2.810
7.600
7.818
2.809
7.576
7.727
2.811
4.239
4.317
2.927
2.201
4.229
4.314
2.928
2.209
R=8
Numerical
Analytical
1.407 101
1.442 101
2.687
-4.258
1.414 101
1.442 101
2.686
-4.334
15 - 8
Verification Problems
The diagrams (p , q) and (ln p , v) for the different tests are presented in Figures 15.4 to 15.11.
The (p , q) plots also contain overlays of the initial yield surface and critical state line, and the
(ln p , v) plots contain an overlay of the normal consolidation line. The initial yield surface is
created with the YIELD.FIS function listed in Section 15.7. The responses of the lightly and
heavily over-consolidated samples on their way to the critical state are in agreement with those
predicted by the theory. This can be seen by comparing these plots to those in Figures 15.1 and
15.2.
As the drained test progresses, the lightly over-consolidated sample shows a steady increase in deviator stress, q, and a steady decrease in specific volume; the heavily over-consolidated sample shows
a rise in deviator stress to a peak, followed by a drop, and an initial decrease in volume followed by
volumetric expansion (see Figures 15.12 to 15.15). The principal feature of the undrained tests is
the contrast between the steady increase of pore pressure in the lightly over-consolidated sample and
the initial increase followed by a steady decrease of pore pressure in the heavily over-consolidated
soil (see Figures 15.16 and 15.17).
15.5 Reference
Wood, D. M. Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
15 - 9
01
LEGEND
31-Mar-04 8:57
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sq
(FISH)
X-axis :
sp
(FISH)
Initial Yield Surface
1.200
q=Mp
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
4.000
3.500
normal cons. line
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
(10
-01
15 - 10
Verification Problems
01
LEGEND
31-Mar-04 9:08
step 20000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sq
(FISH)
X-axis :
sp
(FISH)
Initial Yield Surface
4.000
3.500
q=Mp
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
4.000
3.500
normal cons. line
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
(10
-01
15 - 11
01
LEGEND
31-Mar-04 9:42
step 400001
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sq
(FISH)
X-axis :
sp
(FISH)
Initial Yield Surface
1.200
q=Mp
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
4.000
3.500
normal cons. line
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
(10
-01
15 - 12
Verification Problems
01
LEGEND
31-Mar-04 12:24
step 400001
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sq
(FISH)
X-axis :
sp
(FISH)
Initial Yield Interface
4.000
3.500
q=Mp
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
4.000
3.500
normal cons. line
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
(10
-01
15 - 13
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 15.12 Evolution of deviator stress with axial strain for R = 1.6
drained test
2.920
2.900
2.880
2.860
2.840
2.820
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 15.13 Evolution of specific volume with axial strain for R = 1.6
drained test
15 - 14
Verification Problems
01
LEGEND
31-Mar-04 9:08
step 20000
1.800
1.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
sq
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 15.14 Evolution of deviator stress with axial strain for R = 8 drained
test
2.800
2.780
2.760
2.740
2.720
2.700
2.680
2.660
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-02
Figure 15.15 Evolution of specific volume with axial strain for R = 8 drained
test
15 - 15
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
(10
-02
Figure 15.16 Evolution of pore pressure with axial strain for R = 1.6
undrained test
4.000
3.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
p_fl
(FISH)
X-axis :
Rev_Y displacement( 1, 2)
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
10
(10
-02
15 - 16
Verification Problems
15 - 17
lnp = ln(sp)
sv1 = sv(1,1)
mk = bulk current(1,1)
mg = shear mod(1,1)
end
; ... analytical critical value for p, q, v ...
def e sol
p0 = -(syy(1,1)+2.*sxx(1,1))/3.
p1 = mp1(1,1)
pf = 3.*p0/(3. - mm(1,1))
qf = mm(1,1)*pf
pcf = 2.*pf
vcf = mv l(1,1) - lambda(1,1)*ln(pcf/p1)
vf = vcf + kappa(1,1)*ln(2.)
end
; ... relative error ...
def er r
e p = 100.*(sp-pf)/pf
e q = 100.*(sq-qf)/qf
e v = 100.*(sv1-vf)/vf
end
; --- histories --his nstep 40
his unbal
his path
his sp
his lnp
his sq
his sqcr
his sv1
his mk
his mg
his ydisp i=1 j=2
; --- test --e sol
c step
; --- results --path
er r
save cam1 l.sav
;... State: Cam1 lM.sav ....
;
call yield.fis
set filename = cam1 8.ovr
set pc val = 8.0 p int = 0.1
15 - 18
Verification Problems
p num = 81
15 - 19
sqcr= sp*mm(1,1)
lnp = ln(sp)
sv1 = sv(1,1)
mk = bulk current(1,1)
mg = shear mod(1,1)
end
; ... analytical critical value for p, q, v ...
def e sol
p0 = -(syy(1,1)+2.*sxx(1,1))/3.
p1 = mp1(1,1)
pf = 3.*p0/(3. - mm(1,1))
qf = mm(1,1)*pf
pcf = 2.*pf
vcf = mv l(1,1) - lambda(1,1)*ln(pcf/p1)
vf = vcf + kappa(1,1)*ln(2.)
end
; ... relative error ...
def er r
e p = 100.*(sp-pf)/pf
e q = 100.*(sq-qf)/qf
e v = 100.*(sv1-vf)/vf
end
; --- histories --his nstep 40
his unbal
his path
his sp
his lnp
his sq
his sqcr
his sv1
his mk
his mg
his ydisp i=1 j=2
; --- test --e sol
c step
; --- results --path
er r
;save cam1 l.sav
save cam1 h.sav
;... State: Cam1 hM.sav ....
;
call yield.fis
15 - 20
Verification Problems
15 - 21
end command
end loop
end
; ... numerical values for p, q, v ...
def path
s1
= -syy(1,1)
s2
= -sxx(1,1)
p fl = pp(1,1)
sp = (s1 + 2. * s2)/3.0 - p fl
sq = s1-s2
sqcr= sp*mm(1,1)
lnp = ln(sp)
sv1 = sv(1,1)
mk = bulk current(1,1)
mg = shear mod(1,1)
end
; ... analytical critical value for p, q, v ...
def e sol
p0 = -(syy(1,1) + 2. * sxx(1,1)) / 3.
rr = mpc(1,1) / p0
mbl = -1. + kappa(1,1) / lambda(1,1)
aux = mbl * ln(2./rr)
pf = p0 * exp(aux)
pcf1 = pf*2.
qf = mm(1,1)*pf
pfl = qf/3. + p0 - pf
vf = mv0(1,1)
end
; ... relative error ...
def er r
e p = 100.*(sp-pf)/pf
e q = 100.*(sq-qf)/qf
e v = 100.*(sv1-vf)/vf
e pf= 100.*(p fl-pfl)/pfl
end
; --- histories --his nstep 2000
his unbal
his path
his sp
his lnp
his sq
his sqcr
his sv1
his mk
his mg
15 - 22
Verification Problems
15 - 23
prop por n0
end command
end
; ... velocity boundary conditions ...
def c step
loop i (1,10000)
command
ini yvel -0.5e-6 j=2
step 20
ini yvel 0.0 j=2
step 20
end command
end loop
end
; ... numerical values for p, q, v ...
def path
s1
= -syy(1,1)
s2
= -sxx(1,1)
p fl = pp(1,1)
sp = (s1 + 2. * s2)/3.0 - p fl
sq = s1-s2
sqcr= sp*mm(1,1)
lnp = ln(sp)
sv1 = sv(1,1)
mk = bulk current(1,1)
mg = shear mod(1,1)
end
; ... analytical critical value for p, q, v ...
def e sol
p0 = -(syy(1,1) + 2. * sxx(1,1)) / 3.
rr = mpc(1,1) / p0
mbl = -1. + kappa(1,1) / lambda(1,1)
aux = mbl * ln(2./rr)
pf = p0 * exp(aux)
pcf1 = pf*2.
qf = mm(1,1)*pf
pfl = qf/3. + p0 - pf
vf = mv0(1,1)
end
; ... relative error ...
def er r
e p = 100.*(sp-pf)/pf
e q = 100.*(sq-qf)/qf
e v = 100.*(sv1-vf)/vf
e pf= 100.*(p fl-pfl)/pfl
end
15 - 24
Verification Problems
15 - 25
15 - 26
Verification Problems
4-1
1 MPa
74 Cu
1.2
0.15
0.03
Cu
2.3
103 kg/m3
The clay is normally consolidated with in-situ stresses, r = = 1.65Cu , z = 3Cu , and
initial excess pore pressure, ue = 0. The shear modulus of the material is assumed to remain
constant during the simulation. The pressuremeter membrane is considered impermeable, and the
fluid bulk modulus is much larger than that of the soil, so that the numerical simulation can be
carried out under undrained conditions.
4.2 Modeling Procedure
The problem is modeled using an axisymmetric configuration and plane-strain boundary conditions,
as represented in Figure 4.1. The FLAC model is of finite extent, but the length, L, is chosen as
very large compared to a0 .
4-2
Example Applications
a0
Figure 4.1
Model geometry
The dimensions of the FLAC grid correspond to dimensionless values L/a0 = 100 and h/a0 = 1,
as indicated in Figure 4.2, where the FLAC system of reference axes is also represented. The grid
is composed of a single layer of 31 zones of constant height and variable zone width, graded by a
factor of 1.1.
100
Figure 4.2
Grid geometry
Initially, the cavity boundary is fixed, in-situ stresses are installed, and a pressure boundary condition
of magnitude 1.65Cu is applied at the far x-boundary. The groundwater configuration (CONFIG gw)
is selected, and the no flow (SET ow off) and large-strain (SET large) options are specified.
The preconsolidation pressure must be supplied to the numerical model. Since the soil is normally
consolidated, this value is calculated from the given initial state. The corresponding values of mean
pressure and deviator stress are p0 = 2.1Cu and q0 = 1.35Cu , and the preconsolidation pressure,
evaluated from the Cam-clay yield function (see Section 2.4.7 in Theory and Background),
pc0
= p0 [1 + (q0 /(Mp0 ))2 ]
(4.1)
4-3
/p , is approxis, hence, 2.70Cu . The value of the over-consolidation ratio R, defined as R = pc0
0
imately 1.29 for this problem.
As an illustration, initial values for the specific volume, v0 , and tangent bulk modulus, K0 , are
specified. They correspond to the default values that would have been assigned by the code at the
first step command:
v0 = v ln(pc0
/p1 ) + ln(pc0
/p0 )
K0 =
v0 p0
(4.2)
(4.3)
Here, information derived from v0 and K0 is used to specify the initial porosity, water and material
bulk modulus.
The initial porosity is calculated from
n0 = 1 1/v0
(4.4)
The bulk modulus of the water is set to 100 times the initial value of the product K n. This is
sufficient to represent the water as incompressible relative to the clay. The maximum bulk modulus
of the clay is set to 10 times the initial value.
A compressive velocity of magnitude 105 a0 is applied at the cavity boundary for a total of 100,000
steps to allow doubling of the cavity radius at the end of the pressure test. Stresses and pore pressure
are monitored during the calculation.
The data file for this problem, CAV.DAT, is listed at the end of this section (Section 4.5). The Camclay parameters are calculated in the FISH functions set prop and c var. The FISH function
b table creates tables to plot results for comparison to the solution by Carter et al. (1979).
4.3 Results and Discussion
The evolution of the deviator stress, q/Cu , at the cavity wall during the expansion is plotted in
Figure 4.3. The numerical results indicate a failure level at q/Cu = 1.778. This value can
be compared to the Cam-clay analytical prediction, as follows. Under undrained conditions, the
yield path, followed by a normally consolidated stress point, has the form (see Section 15 in the
Verifications volume):
p0
=
p
M 2 + 2
M 2 + 02
(4.5)
4-4
Example Applications
where = q/p and = ( )/. The initial value 0 = q0 /p0 can be derived from Eq. (4.1).
Using the definition of R, we obtain
02 = RM 2 M 2
(4.6)
M 2 + 2
RM 2
(4.7)
Intersection of this stress path with the critical state line q = Mp or = M gives
qcr =
Mp0
2
R
(4.8)
The prediction of qcr /Cu derived from this formula is 1.771, a value in close agreement with that
obtained numerically.
JOB TITLE : UNDRAINED CYLINDRICAL CAVITY EXPANSION IN CAM-CLAY MEDIUM
12-Mar-04 12:02
step 100000
1.700
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
c_q
(FISH)
X-axis :
c_a
(FISH)
1.650
1.600
1.550
1.500
1.450
1.400
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
(10
-01
Figure 4.3
4-5
The variation of excess pore pressure and total radial stress at the cavity wall as the cavity expands is
illustrated in Figure 4.4. These curves show a sharp rise followed by a gentle slope as pore pressure
and radial stress approach a limit value.
JOB TITLE : UNDRAINED CYLINDRICAL CAVITY EXPANSION IN CAM-CLAY MEDIUM
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev_Ave. SXX
( 1, 1)
5.000
Pore pressure ( 1, 1)
4.000
X-axis :
c_a
(FISH)
3.000
2.000
1.000
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
(10
-01
Figure 4.4
Total radial stress r /Cu and excess pore pressure ue /Cu at the
cavity wall versus a/a0
The radial distribution of effective stresses and pore pressure is plotted in Figure 4.5 when a = 2a0 .
It may be seen that the stresses remain constant in an annulus around the cavity where the soil is
at the critical state. There, the distribution of stresses has been greatly affected by the process of
cavity expansion with radial and tangential stresses now in the role of minor and major principal
stresses. The excess pore pressure develops mainly in this region. Further out, the stresses and pore
pressure are shown to evolve towards their in-situ values. These results compare well with those
presented by Carter et al. (1979).
4-6
Example Applications
12-Mar-04 12:02
step 100000
Table Plot
effective tangential stress
3.000
2.500
2.000
Pore Pressure
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
Figure 4.5
4.4 Reference
Carter, J. P., M. F. Randolph and C. P. Wroth. Stress and Pore Pressure Changes in Clay during and
after the Expansion of a Cylindrical Cavity, International Journal for Numerical and Analytical
Methods in Geomechanics, 3, 305-322 (1979).
4-7
4-8
Example Applications
end command
end
; ... numerical variables ...
def c var
c ep = cam p(1,1)
; effective pressure
c q = cam q(1,1)
; deviatoric stress
c cq = c ep * mm(1,1)
c tp = c ep + pp(1,1)
c v = sv(1,1)
c a = 1. + xdisp(1,1)
c b = bulk current(1,1)
c pc = mpc(1,1)
end
; --- histories --hist nstep 500
hist c var
hist sxx i 1 j 1
hist pp i 1 j 1
hist c a
hist c ep
hist c cq
hist c tp
hist c v
hist c q
hist c b
hist c pc
hist unbal
; --- test --set prop
step 100000
save cav.sav
;... State: cav1.sav ....
;
table 10 : pore pressure
;
table 11 : radial-component of effective stress (xx-stress)
;
table 12 : axial-component of effective stress (yy-stress)
;
table 13 : tangential-component of effective stress (zz-stress)
;
xval
: ln(r/a0)
def b table
loop i(1,izones)
xval = (x(i+1,1) + x(i,1)) * 0.5
xval = ln(xval)
c pp = pp(i,1)
xtable(10,i) = xval
ytable(10,i) = c pp
xtable(11,i) = xval
ytable(11,i)
xtable(12,i)
ytable(12,i)
xtable(13,i)
ytable(13,i)
end loop
=
=
=
=
=
4-9
-sxx(i,1) - c pp
xval
-syy(i,1) - c pp
xval
-szz(i,1) - c pp
end
b table
save cav1.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: Deviator stress
plot hold history 9 line vs 4
;plot name: Total radial stress and excess pore pressure
plot hold history -2 line 3 line vs 4
;plot name: Distribution of eff. stresses and pore pressure
label table 10
pore pressure
label table 11
effective radial stress
label table 12
effective axial stress
label table 13
effective tangential stress
plot hold table 13 line 12 line 11 line 10 line
4 - 10
Example Applications
11 - 1
11 - 2
Example Applications
2m
3m
Soil 1
3.5 m
5m
7.8 m
CL/ML
8.5 m
8.3 m
11.5 m
14.75 m
10 m
Soil 2
12 m
Strut 1H 400 x 400
SM
15 m
15.25 m
17 m
Soil 3
18 m
CL/ML
20 m
17.8 m
25 m
20.5 m
Soil 4
SM
30 m
30 m
Soil 5
ML
33.5 m
34 m
Soil 6
GW
Support
Subsurface Condition
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
Soil 4
Soil 5
Soil 6
Dry Density
(kg/m3 )
Bulk Modulus
(MPa)
Shear Modulus
(MPa)
Friction Angle
(degrees)
1880
1980
1910
1970
1980
1700
16.67
30.30
33.33
41.67
77.78
78.43
10.17
25.60
20.25
32.50
47.25
53.20
30
32
30
34
32
38
11 - 3
Depth
(m)
Area
(m2 )
Moment of
Inertia (m4 )
Pre-Load
(kN)
1
2
3
4
3
7
11
14
173.9 104
218.7 104
218.7 104
218.7 104
4.03 104
6.60 104
6.60 104
6.60 104
200.0
400.0
450.0
400.0
Figure 11.2 Settings in Model Options dialog for concrete diaphragm wall
example
11 - 4
Example Applications
The grid for this analysis is created using the Build / Block tool. The model dimensions and zoning
selected for the grid are assigned in the Block dialog, as shown in Figure 11.3. The grid is shown
in Figure 11.4. The right boundary of the grid is the line of symmetry for the excavation. The
left boundary is located approximately 15 times the excavation width away from the excavation, in
order to minimize boundary effects.
Figure 11.3
Build
/ Block dialog
(*10^2)
LEGEND
25-Sep-03 16:36
step
0
-1.580E+02 <x< 1.695E+01
-1.175E+02 <y< 5.745E+01
0.200
0.000
Grid plot
0
5E 1
-0.200
Beam plot
-0.400
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
-1.200
-1.000
-0.800
(*10^2)
-0.600
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
Figure 11.4 FLAC grid for the analysis of a concrete diaphragm wall
The diaphragm wall is also in place in the model before the initial equilibrium calculation is
performed, as shown in Figure 11.4. The wall is modeled by 28 beam elements. The upper 18
elements are each 1 meter in height and are positioned so that beam nodes coincide with the depths
of the struts. (See Figure 11.5). The structural nodes with numbers 27, 23, 19 and 16 will be
11 - 5
attached to the struts during the excavation stages. The beam is connected to the soil grid via
interface elements attached on both sides of the beam elements. The bottom node (node 1) is
attached directly to a gridpoint; this provides a representation for end-bearing loading of the wall.
Note that structural element logic is a plane-stress formulation, so the value specified for the Youngs
modulus, E, is divided by (1 2 ) to correspond to the plane-strain model (see Section 1.2.2 in
Structural Elements).
11 - 6
Example Applications
Although stresses and pore pressures are initialized in the grid, some stepping is required to bring the
model to equilibrium. This is because the additional weight of the beam elements representing the
concrete wall produces an imbalance that necessitates some stepping to equilibrate the model again.
Note that the grid is pulled down slightly as the wall settles due to gravity. This problem is run in
large-strain mode. The model at the initial equilibrium stage is saved to the file DW EQUIL.SAV.
The structural forces in the wall arising from the presence of groundwater will depend on the details
of the connection, the fluid boundary conditions, and when the support is installed. Section 1.9.5
in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction discusses the various possibilities. It is important to recognize
the conditions that the model is to represent before setting up model conditions. For this example,
we assume the following conditions apply:
1. The structure exists independently of the grid. Forces are transmitted through
the interface elements.
2. The wall provides an impermeable barrier to the groundwater, which acts
directly on the surface of the wall.
3. The wall is dewatered instantaneously; no movements or transient flow effects
are considered. (See Section 1.8.2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction for a
recommended procedure to determine if this assumption is appropriate.)
The pore pressure distribution in the model is changed at each stage to represent dewatering.
The distribution approximates the steady-state flow condition for that excavation stage. (It is not
necessary to perform a flow calculation for this analysis, because of the constant pore pressure
at the base of the wall imposed by the underlying aquifer.) Note that stresses are also changed
automatically by specifying CONFIG ats because total stresses change if pore pressure is changed
by some external method. (See Section 1.9.7 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.) The effect of
dewatering for the first excavation stage is illustrated in Figure 11.6. This plot shows the settlement
within the trench region, as well as the moments in the wall, induced by the dewatering.
The struts are modeled with beam elements. One long element segment represents each strut. The
Youngs modulus of the strut is automatically scaled by the 2 meter strut spacing when the spacing
property is given. The pre-load applied with the STRUCT node n load command is scaled manually
by dividing the actual pre-load value by the 2 meter spacing.
The struts should be installed so that moments cannot develop at their connection with the wall.
This is accomplished by slaving the strut node to the wall node using the STRUCTURE node n slave
x y m command, in which n corresponds to the strut node and m to the wall node. The strut node
is slaved in the x- and y-direction to the wall node, but is free to rotate. In this way, the wall and
strut can move without moments developing between the strut and the wall.
11 - 7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
0.500
-0.500
Y-displacement contours
-7.50E-04
-5.00E-04
-2.50E-04
2.50E-04
5.00E-04
C
-1.500
E
-2.500
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
2.364E+05
-3.500
I
-3.000
-2.000
-1.000
(*10^1)
0.000
1.000
11 - 8
Example Applications
11.3 Results
The deflections of the diaphragm wall at each excavation stage are indicated by the plot of xdisplacement of the wall structure versus wall depth in Figure 11.7 for the pre-loaded struts, and
in Figure 11.8 for no pre-loading. These plots are table plots generated using the FISH function
WALL DISP.FIS listed in Section 11.6. The x-displacement and the y-position of each node
along the wall are stored in five tables corresponding to each excavation stage. The maximum
deformation is approximately 62 mm at 20 m depth for pre-loaded struts (shown in Figure 11.7)
and 70 mm for no pre-load (shown in Figure 11.8), at the final stage.
The actual axial loads in the struts are calculated by the FISH functions in STRUT AX LOAD.FIS
listed in Section 11.8, after the model has come to equilibrium for each excavation stage. Note
that the axial loads accessed by FISH are scaled values and must be multiplied by the spacing to
determine the actual values. The actual axial load values are then stored in tables for comparison
at the end of the calculation. The results are shown in Figure 11.9 for pre-loaded struts, and in
Figure 11.10 for no pre-load.
As shown in Figure 11.9 for the pre-load case, the axial load in strut 1 (stored in Table 1) is initially
at a pre-load value of 200 kN for the first stage, increases at the second stage and then decreases for
the later stages. The axial load in strut 2 (Table 2) increases until the third stage and then decreases.
The load in strut 3 (Table 3) increases until the fourth stage, while strut 4 (Table 4) increases through
the fifth stage.
The results are similar for the no pre-load case, as shown in Figure 11.10.
The change in axial load is related to the movement of the wall during excavation indicated
by the plot in Figure 11.11 for pre-loaded struts, and in Figure 11.12 for no pre-loading. These
figures show the evolution of the horizontal displacement at five elevations on the wall (at the top
of the wall, and at the location of each strut). The top of the wall is shown to move away from
the excavation (i.e., in the negative x-direction) after an initial inward movement, while most of
the wall moves into the excavation (i.e., in the positive x-direction). The movements increase with
depth, and coincide with the increase in axial forces for the struts.
Figures 11.13 and 11.14 plot the x-displacement contours and axial forces in the struts after the
final excavation stage, for pre-loading and no pre-loading, respectively. Again, as shown in these
figures, the movements correspond to the increase in loads in the struts. Note that actual values for
the axial forces are plotted directly for these plots.
The moment distribution and shear forces in the wall, for the analysis with pre-loaded struts, are
shown in Figures 11.15 and 11.17, and for the no pre-loading case in Figures 11.16 and 11.18. In
both cases, a large bending moment is shown to develop in the wall at the bottom of the excavation.
11 - 9
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
0.000
-0.500
Table Plot
Stage 1
Stage 2
-1.000
Stage 3
Stage 4
-1.500
Stage 5
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
JOB TITLE : .
01
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
Table Plot
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
Stage 4
Stage 5
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
-3.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
-03
11 - 10
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
Table Plot
Strut 1
3.000
2.500
Strut 2
Strut 3
2.000
Strut 4
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
Figure 11.9 Actual axial forces in struts at the end of each excavation stage
for pre-loaded struts
JOB TITLE : .
06
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
Table Plot
Strut 1
Strut 2
Strut 3
3.000
2.500
2.000
Strut 4
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
Figure 11.10 Actual axial forces in struts at the end of each excavation stage
for no pre-loading in struts
11 - 11
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 X displacement( 28, 36)
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
X-axis :
Number of steps
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(10
03
Figure 11.11 x-displacement histories at five elevations along the wall for preloaded struts
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 X displacement( 28, 36)
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
(10
03
Figure 11.12 x-displacement histories at five elevations along the wall for no
pre-loading in struts
11 - 12
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
0.750
0.250
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
-2.769E+01 <x< 1.787E+01
-3.677E+01 <y< 8.791E+00
-0.250
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.250
Beam Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 2 (Beam )
1.200E+05
# 3 (Beam )
9.227E+05
# 4 (Beam )
1.479E+06
# 5 (Beam )
3.344E+06
X-displacement contours
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
-1.750
-2.250
-2.750
-3.250
-2.000
-1.500
-1.000
-0.500
(*10^1)
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
Figure 11.13 x-displacement contours in the grid and axial forces in the struts
at the final excavation stage for pre-loaded struts
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
0.750
0.250
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
-2.769E+01 <x< 1.787E+01
-3.677E+01 <y< 8.791E+00
-0.250
-0.750
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
-1.250
Beam Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 2 (Beam )
8.761E+04
# 3 (Beam )
1.019E+06
# 4 (Beam )
1.598E+06
# 5 (Beam )
3.147E+06
X-displacement contours
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
-1.750
-2.250
-2.750
-3.250
-2.000
-1.500
-1.000
-0.500
(*10^1)
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
Figure 11.14 x-displacement contours in the grid and axial forces in the struts
at the final excavation stage for no pre-loading in struts
11 - 13
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.000
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
-3.075E+01 <x< 2.908E+01
-4.570E+01 <y< 1.413E+01
0.000
Beam plot
Boundary plot
0
-1.000
1E 1
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -2.420E+06
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
Figure 11.15 Moments in the diaphragm wall at the final excavation stage (with
pre-loading)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1.000
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
-3.075E+01 <x< 2.908E+01
-4.570E+01 <y< 1.413E+01
0.000
Beam plot
Boundary plot
0
-1.000
1E 1
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -2.500E+06
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-1.500
-0.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
Figure 11.16 Moments in the diaphragm wall at the final excavation stage (no
pre-loading)
11 - 14
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 12:19
step 41545
-2.569E+01 <x< 3.175E+01
-4.682E+01 <y< 1.062E+01
-1.000
Beam Plot
Shear Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -1.168E+06
Beam plot
Boundary plot
0
-2.000
1E 1
-3.000
-4.000
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
3.000
Figure 11.17 Shear forces in the diaphragm wall at the final excavation stage
(with pre-loading)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 12:30
step 36654
-2.569E+01 <x< 3.175E+01
-4.682E+01 <y< 1.062E+01
-1.000
Beam Plot
Shear Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam ) -1.142E+06
Beam plot
Boundary plot
0
-2.000
1E 1
-3.000
-4.000
-1.000
0.000
(*10^1)
1.000
2.000
3.000
Figure 11.18 Shear forces in the diaphragm wall at the final excavation stage
(no pre-loading)
11 - 15
11.4 Reference
Clayton, C. R. I., J. Milititsky and R. T. Woods. Earth Pressure and Earth-Retaining Structures.
London: Blackie Academic & Professional, 1993.
11 - 16
Example Applications
11 - 17
11 - 18
Example Applications
11 - 19
11 - 20
initial pp 0.0 i 29 38 j 24 28
solve
save dw w3.sav
;... State: dw e3.sav ....
model null i 29 37 j 24 27
group null i 29 37 j 24 27
group delete null
solve
save dw e3.sav
;... State: dw s3.sav ....
struct node 34 9.0,-11.0
struct node 35 0.0,-11.0 pin slave x y 19
struct beam begin node 34 end node 35 prop 1003
struct node 34 fix y r load -225000.0,0.0 0.0
solve
struct node 34 fix x initial xvel 0.0 load 0.0,0.0 0.0
solve
save dw s3.sav
;... State: dw r3.sav ....
set echo off
call wall disp.fis
set nodes in wall=29 n table=3
wall disp
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=3 nstrut=11 el num=29
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=3 nstrut=12 el num=30
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=3 nstrut=13 el num=31
strut ax load
save dw r3.sav
;... State: dw w4.sav ....
initial pp 317000.0 var 0.0,-317000.0 i 29 38 j 8 21
initial pp 0.0 i 29 38 j 21 24
initial saturation 0.0 i 29 38 j 21 24
solve
save dw w4.sav
Example Applications
11 - 21
11 - 22
Example Applications
save dw w5.sav
;... State: dw e5.sav ....
model null i 29 37 j 18 20
group null i 29 37 j 18 20
group delete null
solve
save dw e5.sav
;... State: dw r5.sav ....
set echo off
call wall disp.fis
set nodes in wall=29 n table=5
wall disp
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=5 nstrut=11 el num=29
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=5 nstrut=12 el num=30
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=5 nstrut=13 el num=31
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=5 nstrut=14 el num=32
strut ax load
save dw r5.sav
;*** Branch: NoPreload ****
restore dw e1.sav
;... State:
struct node
struct node
struct beam
struct prop
struct prop
struct node
solve
save noload
11 - 23
11 - 24
Example Applications
strut ax load
set echo off
call strut ax load.fis
set nstage=2 nstrut=12 el num=30
strut ax load
save noload dw r2.sav
;... State: noload dw w3.sav ....
initial pp 317000.0 var 0.0,-317000.0 i 29 38 j 8 24
initial saturation 0.0 i 29 38 j 24 28
initial pp 0.0 i 29 38 j 24 28
solve
save noload dw w3.sav
;... State: noload dw e3.sav ....
model null i 29 37 j 24 27
group null i 29 37 j 24 27
group delete null
solve
save noload dw e3.sav
;... State:
struct node
struct node
struct beam
struct node
solve
save noload
11 - 25
11 - 26
Example Applications
11 - 27
11 - 28
Example Applications
11 - 29
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11 - 30
Example Applications
1-1
1-2
FISH in FLAC
1.2 Tutorial
This section is intended for people who have run FLAC (at least for simple problems) but have not
used the FISH language; no programming experience is assumed. To get the maximum benefit
from the examples given here, you should try them out with FLAC running interactively. The short
programs may be typed in directly. After running an example, give the FLAC command NEW to
wipe the slate clean, ready for the next example. Alternatively, the more lengthy programs may
be created on file and CALLed when required.
Type the lines in Example 1.1 after FLAC s command prompt, pressing <Enter> at the end of
each line.
Example 1.1 Defining a FISH function
def abc
abc = 22 * 3 + 5
end
Note that the command prompt changes to Def> after the first line has been typed in; then it changes
back to the usual prompt when the command END is entered. This change in prompt lets you know
if you are sending lines to FLAC or to FISH. Normally, all lines following the DEFINE statement
are taken as part of the definition of a FISH function (until the END statement is entered). However,
if you type in a line that contains an error (e.g., you type the = sign instead of the + sign), then
you will get the FLAC prompt back again. In this case, you should give the NEW command and
try again from the beginning. Since it is very easy to make mistakes, FISH programs are normally
typed into a file using an editor. These are then CALLed into FLAC just like a regular FLAC data
file. We will describe this process later; for now, well continue to work interactively. Assuming
that you typed in the above lines without error and that you now see the FLAC prompt flac:, you
can execute the function abc,* defined earlier in Example 1.1, by typing the line
print abc
The message
abc =
71
should appear on the screen. By defining the symbol abc (using the DEFINE ... END construction,
as in Example 1.1), we can now refer to it in many ways using FLAC commands.
For example, the PRINT command causes the value of a FISH symbol to be displayed; the value is
computed by the series of arithmetic operations in the line
abc = 22 * 3 + 5
* We will use courier boldface to identify user-defined FISH functions and declared variables
in the text.
1-3
This is an assignment statement. If an equal sign is present, the expression on the right-hand side
of the equal sign is evaluated and given to the variable on the left-hand side. Note that arithmetic
operations follow the usual conventions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done
with the signs +, -, * and /, respectively. The sign denotes raised to the power of.
We now type in a slightly different program (using the NEW command to erase the old one):
Example 1.2 Using a variable
new
def abc
hh = 22
abc = hh * 3 + 5
end
Here we introduce a variable, hh, which is given the value of 22 and then used in the next line.
If we give the command PRINT abc, then exactly the same output as in the previous case appears.
However, we now have two FISH symbols; they both have values, but one (abc) is known as a
function, and the other (hh) as a variable. The distinction is as follows.
When a FISH symbol name is mentioned (e.g., in a PRINT statement),
the associated function is executed if the symbol corresponds to a
function; however, if the symbol is not a function name, then simply
the current value of the symbol is used.
The following experiment may help to clarify the distinction between variables and functions.
Before doing the experiment, note that FLAC s SET command can be used to set the value of any
user-defined FISH symbol, independent of the FISH program in which the symbol was introduced.
Now type in the following lines without giving the NEW command, since we want to keep our
previously entered program in memory.
Example 1.3 SETting variables
set abc=0 hh=0
print hh
print abc
print hh
The SET command sets the values of both abc and hh to zero. Since hh is a variable, the first PRINT
command simply displays the current value of hh, which is zero. The second PRINT command
causes abc to be executed (since abc is the name of a function); the values of both hh and abc
are thereby recalculated. Accordingly, the third PRINT statement shows that hh has indeed been
reset to its original value. As a test of your understanding, you should type in the slightly modified
sequence shown in Example 1.4, and figure out why the displayed answers are different.
1-4
FISH in FLAC
At this stage, it may be useful to list the most important FLAC commands that directly refer to
simple FISH variables or functions. (In Table 1.1 below, var stands for the name of the variable or
function.)
Table 1.1 Commands that directly
refer to FISH names
PRINT
SET
HISTORY
var
var = value
var
We have already seen examples of the first two (refer to Examples 1.3 and 1.4); the third case is
useful when histories are required of things that are not provided in the standard FLAC list of history
variables. Example 1.5 shows how this can be done. Example 1.5 shows how the total load on the
top platen of a triaxial test sample can be stored as a history.
Example 1.5 Capturing the history of a FISH variable
new
grid 3 6
model mohr
prop dens 2000 shear 1e8 bulk 2e8 cohes 1e5 tens 1e10
fix x y j=1
fix y
j=7
ini yvel=-2e-5 j=7
def load
load = yforce(1,7)+yforce(2,7)+yforce(3,7)+yforce(4,7)
end
hist load
hist ydisp i=1 j=7
step 500
1-5
Note that the FISH variable load is equal to the sum of four other variables, given by yforce.
The variable yforce is an example of a grid quantity that is available within a FISH program:
there is a complete list of these in Sections 2.5.3 and 2.5.4. Grid variables are simply pre-defined
names of quantities that relate to the FLAC grid. In our example, yforce is the y-component of the
unbalanced gridpoint force; each instance of yforce must be followed by grid indices, or a pair
of numbers denoting a particular gridpoint. In the example, the indices (1,7), (2,7), (3,7)
and (4,7) refer to the four gridpoints at the top of the sample. The derived variable load, which
is the sum of the four top forces, is calculated whenever history points are taken (every ten steps,
by default). At the end of the run, we simply plot out the history of load (history 1) just like any
other history. In a similar way, we may use FISH functions to plot out a history of any quantity we
wish, no matter how complicated the formula to describe it might be.
In addition to the above-mentioned pre-defined variable names, there are many other pre-defined
objects available to a FISH program. These fall into several classes; one such class consists of
scalar variables, which are single numbers for example:
igp
izones
jgp
jzones
clock
unbal
pi
step
urand
This is just a small selection; the full list is given in Section 2.5.2. For example, we could have
replaced the number 7 in the function load with the pre-defined variable jgp, to make the program
more general (i.e., so that it would work for any grid size vertically, rather than just a grid of 7
gridpoints).
Another useful class of built-in objects is the set of intrinsic functions, which enables things like
sines and cosines to be calculated from within a FISH program. A complete list is provided in
Section 2.5.5; a few are given below:
abs(a)
absolute value of a
cos(a)
cosine of a (a is in radians)
1-6
FISH in FLAC
log(a)
base-ten logarithm of a
max(a,b)
returns maximum of a, b
sqrt(a)
square root of a
An example in the use of intrinsic functions will be presented later, but now we must discuss one
further way in which a FLAC data file can make use of user-defined FISH names.
Wherever a number is expected in a FLAC input line, you may
substitute the name of a FISH variable or function.
This simple statement is the key to a very powerful feature of FISH that allows such things as ranges,
applied stresses, properties, etc. to be computed in a FISH function and used by FLAC input in
symbolic form. Hence, parameter changes can be made very easily, without the need to change
many numbers in an input file. As an example, let us assume that we know the Youngs modulus
and Poissons ratio of a material. Although properties may be specified using Youngs modulus
and Poissons ratio (internally, FLAC uses the bulk and shear moduli), we may derive these with a
FISH function, using Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2):
G=
E
2(1 + )
(1.1)
K=
E
3(1 2)
(1.2)
Coding Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2) into a FISH function (called derive) can then be done as shown in
Example 1.6, below.
Example 1.6 FISH functions to calculate bulk and shear moduli
new
def derive
s_mod = y_mod / (2.0 * (1.0 + p_ratio))
b_mod = y_mod / (3.0 * (1.0 - 2.0 * p_ratio))
end
set y_mod = 5e8 p_ratio = 0.25
derive
print b_mod s_mod
Note that here we execute the function derive by giving its name by itself on a line; we are not
interested in its value, only what it does. If you run this example, you will see that values are
computed for the bulk and shear moduli, b mod and s mod, respectively. These can then be used,
in symbolic form, in FLAC input, as shown in Example 1.7.
1-7
bulk=b mod
shear=s mod
The validity of this operation may be checked by printing out bulk and shear in the usual way. In
these examples, our property input is given via the SET command i.e., to variables y mod and
p ratio, which stand for Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, respectively.
In passing, note that there is great flexibility in choosing names for FISH variables and functions;
the underline character ( ) may be included in a name. Names must begin with a non-number and
must not contain any of the arithmetic operators (+, , /, * or ). A chosen name should not be the
same as one of the built-in (or reserved) names; Table 2.1 in Section 2.2.2 contains a complete list
of names to be avoided, as well as some rules that should be followed.
In the above examples, we checked the computed values of FISH variables by giving their names
to a PRINT command explicitly as arguments. Alternatively, we can list all current variables and
functions. A printout of all current values is produced by giving the command
print fish
We now examine ways in which decisions can be made, and repeated operations done, in FISH
programs. The following FISH statements allow specified sections of a program to be repeated
many times:
LOOP
ENDLOOP
The words LOOP and ENDLOOP are FISH statements, the symbol var stands for the loop variable,
and expr1 and expr2 stand for expressions (or single variables). Example 1.8 shows the use of a
loop (or repeated sequence) to produce the sum and product of the first 10 integers.
1-8
FISH in FLAC
In this case, the loop variable n is given successive values from 1 to 10, and the statements inside
the loop (between the LOOP and ENDLOOP statements) are executed for each value. As mentioned,
variable names or an arithmetic expression could be substituted for the numbers 1 or 10.
A practical use of the LOOP construct is to install a nonlinear initial distribution of elastic moduli
in a FLAC grid. Suppose that the Youngs modulus at a site is given by Eq. (1.3):
E = E + c z
(1.3)
where z is the depth below surface, and c and E are constants. We write a FISH function to install
appropriate values of bulk and shear modulus in the grid, as in Example 1.9.
Example 1.9 Applying a nonlinear initial distribution of moduli
new
grid 20 10
model elas
def install
loop i (1,izones)
loop j (1,jzones)
yc
= (y(i,j)+y(i+1,j)+y(i,j+1)+y(i+1,j+1))/4.0
zz
= y(1,jgp) - yc
y mod = y zero + cc * sqrt(zz)
shear mod(i,j) = y mod / (2.0*(1.0+p ratio))
bulk mod(i,j) = y mod / (3.0*(1.0-2.0*p ratio))
end loop
end loop
1-9
end
set p ratio=0.25 y zero=1e7 cc=1e8
install
Again, you can verify correct operation of the function by printing or plotting shear and bulk moduli.
In the function install, we have two loops the outer loop (with index i) scans all columns in the
grid, and the inner loop (index j) scans all rows. Inside the loops, yc is calculated as the approximate
centroid of each zone (i.e., the average of the y-coordinate for the four surrounding gridpoints). We
assume that the datum (or ground surface reference point) is the top, left-hand gridpoint; then, the
depth of any zone centroid below surface is computed as zz. This is then inserted into the formula
for Youngs modulus given previously, using constants E and c, which have the FISH names y zero
and cc, respectively. Grid values for bulk modulus and shear modulus are calculated as in a previous
example. The variables y( ), shear mod( ) and bulk mod( ) are grid variables. (Recall that we talked
about another grid variable, yforce( ), earlier.) Here, we set properties directly from within a FISH
function, rather than with a PROP command as in our earlier example.
Having seen several examples of FISH programs, lets briefly examine the question of program
syntax and style. A complete FISH statement must occupy one line; there are no continuation lines.
If a formula is too long to fit on one line, then a temporary variable must be used to split the formula.
Example 1.10 shows how this can be done.
Example 1.10 Splitting lines
def long sum ;example of a sum of many things
temp1 = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5 + v6 + v7 + v8 + v9 + v10
long sum = temp1 + v11 + v12 + v13 + v14 + v15
end
In this case, the sum of 15 variables is split into two parts. Note also the use of the semicolon
in line 1 of Example 1.10 to indicate a comment. Any characters that follow a semicolon are
ignored by the FISH compiler, but they are echoed to the log file. It is good programming practice
to annotate programs with informative comments. Some of the programs have been shown with
indentation that is, space inserted at the beginning of some lines to denote a related group of
statements. Any number of space characters may be inserted (optionally) between variable names
and arithmetic operations to make the program more readable. Again, it is good programming
practice to include indentation to indicate things like loops, conditional clauses and so on. Spaces
in FISH are significant in the sense that space characters may not be inserted into a variable or
function name.
One other topic that should be addressed now is that of variable type. You may have noticed,
when printing out variables from the various program examples, that numbers are either printed
without decimal points or in E-format that is, as a number with an exponent denoted by E.
At any instant in time, a FISH variable or function name is classified as one of three types: integer,
floating-point or string. These types may change dynamically, depending on context, but the casual
1 - 10
FISH in FLAC
user should not normally have to worry about the type of a variable, since it is set automatically.
Consider Example 1.11.
Example 1.11 Variable types
new
def haveone
aa = 2
bb = 3.4
cc = Have a nice day
dd = aa * bb
ee = cc + , old chap
end
haveone
print fish
Name
---aa
bb
cc
dd
ee
haveone
The variables aa, bb and cc are converted to integer, float and string, respectively, corresponding
to the numbers (or strings) that were assigned to them. Integers are exact numbers (without decimal
points) but are of limited range; floating-point numbers have limited precision (about six decimal
places) but are of much greater range; string variables are arbitrary sequences of characters. There
are various rules for conversion between the three types. For example, dd becomes a floating-point
number, because it is set to the product of a floating-point number and an integer; the variable
ee becomes a string because it is the sum (concatenation) of two strings. The topic can get quite
complicated, but it is fully explained in Sections 2.2.4 and 2.2.5.
There is a further language element in FISH that is commonly used the IF statement. The
following three statements allow decisions to be made within a FISH program.
IF
ELSE
ENDIF
1 - 11
These statements allow conditional execution of FISH program segments; ELSE and THEN are
optional. The item test consists of one of the following symbols or symbol-pairs:
=
>
<
>=
<=
The meanings are standard except for #, which means not equal. The items expr1 and expr2
are any valid expressions or single variables. If the test is true, then the statements immediately
following IF are executed until ELSE or ENDIF is encountered. If the test is false, the statements
between ELSE and ENDIF are executed if the ELSE statement exists; otherwise, the program jumps
to the first line after ENDIF. The action of these statements is illustrated in Example 1.12.
Example 1.12 Action of the IF ELSE ENDIF construct
new
def abc
if xx > 0 then
abc = 33
else
abc = 11
end if
end
set xx = 1
print abc
set xx = -1
print abc
The displayed value of abc in Example 1.12 depends on the set value of xx. You should experiment
with different test symbols (e.g., replace > with <).
Until now, our FISH programs have been invoked from FLAC either by using the PRINT command,
or by giving the name of the function on a separate line of FLAC input. It is also possible to do
the reverse that is, to give FLAC commands from within a FISH function. Most valid FLAC
commands can be embedded between the following two FISH statements:
COMMAND
ENDCOMMAND
There are two main reasons for sending out FLAC commands from a FISH program. First, it is
possible to use a FISH function to perform operations that are not possible using the pre-defined
variables that we already discussed. Second, we can control a complete FLAC run with FISH. As
an illustration of the first use of the COMMAND statement, we can write a FISH program to connect
a number of beam segments to the surface of an elastic material. When many beam elements are
required, it becomes tedious to type many separate STRUCT commands, each with different grid
indices. However, with FISH, we can send out the commands from within a loop and adjust the
grid indices automatically each time around the loop, as illustrated in Example 1.13.
1 - 12
FISH in FLAC
After entering these statements, you should do a printout of structural data to verify that seven
beam segments have been created, and that they are connected to appropriate gridpoints. In this
example, we use variables i1 and i2 as parameters to the function place beams. These denote
the starting gridpoint i-index and the ending i-index, which are given values by the SET command.
Note that the STRUCT commands sent out from the FISH function have parameters that are symbolic
(as we explained previously), with values that are modified for each circuit of the loop. One further
thing to note we create a FISH variable jtop that is equal to the built-in scalar jgp. We cannot
use the name jgp directly as an argument to the STRUCT command because jgp (and all the other
pre-defined names) is only recognized within a FISH function.
You can now step FLAC to determine the equilibrium state for the above problem (which models a
single load acting on the beam), or you can type in the additional set of lines given in Example 1.14;
this illustrates the second use of COMMAND mentioned previously. The idea here is to produce a
movie without having to give many PLOT commands manually.
1 - 13
By executing the function grid movie, we create a movie with 10 frames, showing the progressive
deformation of the grid. When FLAC has stopped stepping, the movie file beam load.dcx can be
viewed with the movie viewer, MOVIE.EXE, located in the ITASCA\Shared\Utility directory.
In general, when making movies, you should give a fixed WINDOW and a fixed scale (in this case,
magnification), so that auto-scaling is inhibited.
We have now covered some of the aspects of the FISH language and how it interacts with FLAC.
A complete guide to the language is contained in Section 2.2 and some examples are provided in
Section 3. There is also a useful example of FISH programming in Section 1.4 in Theory and
Background.
1 - 14
FISH in FLAC
13 - 1
0.3
0.888
0.161
0.062
100.0 Pa
2.858
0.3
2 103 kg/m3
The clay is lightly over-consolidated, and the initial value of the cap pressure, pc , is equal to 1.6
105 Pa in the example. (Note that for a normally consolidated soil, the value for pc is equal to
1.579 105 Pa at the base of the clay layer, where p = 8.33 104 Pa and q = 7.0 104 Pa.) The
drained Poissons ratio of the material is assumed to remain constant during the simulation.
The foundation has a permeability, k, of 1012 (m/s)/(Pa/m). The soil moduli are functions of the
mean effective pressure and the soil specific volume, quantities which vary in space and evolve
during the simulation. The average value of K + 4/3G stays, however, in the order of 106 Pa, or
two orders of magnitude lower than the water bulk modulus (Kw is 2 108 Pa). The diffusivity,
c, is thus controlled by the soil material in this example, its magnitude can be estimated from the
formula c = k(K + 4/3G), and is of the order of 106 m2 /s. The time scale for the diffusion
process can be estimated using tc = L2 /c, where L is the model height. Using L = 10 m, we
have that tc is on the order of 3 years. Compared to that time, construction of the embankment
may be assumed to occur instantaneously. An undrained analysis is first conducted to evaluate the
foundation settlement in the short-term after building of the embankment; the long-term response
is then monitored after allowing drainage from the soil surface.
13 - 2
Example Applications
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 14:45
step
6645
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
8
7
6
0.800
Grid plot
5E 0
1E 5
History Locations
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
13 - 3
In the second stage, fluid flow is allowed to develop by issuing the command SET ow on. Water
then drains through the top of the model where the pore pressure is fixed at zero, and additional
settlement takes place under the embankment. The SOLVE auto on command, used to perform
the coupled simulation, requires parameters that determine the accuracy of the solution. These
parameters may need to be different if different properties or model conditions are used. Refer to
Section 1.8.6 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction for a discussion on these topics.
Stresses, pore pressures and vertical displacements are monitored during the calculation. The data
file for this problem, EMC.DAT, is listed in Section 13.4.
13.3 Results and Discussion
Displacement vectors, vertical displacement contours, the pore pressure distribution and the plastic
state at the end of the undrained and drained numerical simulations are presented in Figures 13.2
to 13.9. The vertical displacement histories in Figure 13.10, recorded at four monitoring points
(locations 2, 3, 4 and 5 in Figure 13.1), indicate that the maximum settlement under the embankment
increases from approximately 0.14 cm to 0.19 cm as a result of drainage. Note that the displacement vectors in Figure 13.3, and vertical displacement contours in Figure 13.5, correspond to the
combined undrained and drained displacements.
In Figure 13.11, the graph of pore pressure evolution at two monitoring points (locations 8 and 9 in
Figure 13.1) confirms that a steady-state flow has been reached by the end of the drained simulation.
13 - 4
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 14:45
step
6645
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.410E-01
0.400
2E -1
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Displacement vectors
max vector = 1.937E-01
0
0.400
5E -1
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
13 - 5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 14:45
step
6645
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Y-displacement contours
-1.25E-01
-1.00E-01
-7.50E-02
-5.00E-02
-2.50E-02
0.00E+00
2.50E-02
0.400
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Y-displacement contours
-1.75E-01
-1.50E-01
-1.25E-01
-1.00E-01
-7.50E-02
-5.00E-02
-2.50E-02
0.00E+00
0.400
0.000
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
13 - 6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 14:45
step
6645
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.400
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.400
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
13 - 7
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 14:45
step
6645
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
0.400
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
-1.111E+00 <x< 2.111E+01
-6.111E+00 <y< 1.611E+01
0.800
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
X elastic, at yield in past
0.400
0.000
-0.400
0.600
1.000
(*10^1)
1.400
1.800
13 - 8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
1.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Rev 2 Y displacement( 1, 11)
1.200
Rev
3 Y displacement( 3, 11)
0.800
Rev
4 Y displacement( 5, 11)
Rev
5 Y displacement( 7, 11)
0.400
X-axis :
10 Groundwater flow time
0.000
-0.400
9
(10
07
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 15:17
step 84237
Flow Time
1.0007E+08
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
8 Pore pressure ( 1, 10)
5.000
9 Pore pressure ( 2, 8)
4.000
X-axis :
10 Groundwater flow time
3.000
2.000
1.000
9
(10
07
13 - 9
13 - 10
Example Applications
Users Guide
Terms - 1
Terms - 2
Users Guide
LIMITATION OF LIABILITY
Itasca assumes no liability whatsoever with respect to any use of FLAC or any portion thereof or
with respect to any damages or losses that may result from such use, including (without limitation)
loss of time, money or goodwill that may arise from the use of FLAC (including any modifications or
updates that may follow). In no event shall Itasca be responsible for any indirect, special, incidental
or consequential damages arising from use of FLAC.
CODE SUPPORT
Itasca will provide telephone support, at no charge, to assist the code owner in the installation of
the FLAC code on his or her computer system. Additionally, general assistance may be provided
in aiding the owner in understanding the capabilities of the various features of the code. However,
no-cost assistance is not provided for help in applying FLAC to specific user-defined problems.
Technical support can be purchased on an as-needed basis. For users who envisage the need for
substantial amounts of assistance, consulting support is available. In all instances, the user is
encouraged to send the problem description to Itasca by electronic mail in order to minimize the
amount of time spent trying to define the problem. See Section 5 in the Users Guide for details.
MISCELLANEOUS
5-1
5 MISCELLANEOUS
5.1 FLAC Runtime Benchmark
FLAC has been tested on a number of different computers. The calculation rates are compared here
for a 9684-zone model of Mohr-Coulomb material subject to isotropic loading. The model is run
for 500 steps, and the rate is calculated by a FISH function. The data file is given in Example 5.1;
Table 5.1 summarizes the calculation rates for different computers.
Example 5.1 Benchmark data file TIMING.DAT
def TimeDiff
TimeDiff = (t1 - t0) / 9925.0
end
def time0
t0 = clock / 100.0
end
def time1
t1 = clock / 100.0
end
grid 100,100
m mohr
gen circ 50 50 10
model null reg 50 50
prop dens=1000 bu=1e8 sh=7e7 fric 25 coh 3.5e4 tens 1e10
def qqq
figp = igp
fjgp = jgp
end
qqq
fix x i=1
fix x i=figp
fix y j=1
set grav 10
ini syy -1e6 var 0 1e6
ini sxx -0.5e6 var 0 0.5e6
ini szz -0.5e6 var 0 0.5e6
set ncw=50
time0
step 1000
time1
print TimeDiff
5-2
Users Guide
Table 5.1
Computer
Intel Pentium II (735 MHz)
AMD Athlon (1.4 MHz)
Intel Pentium IV (2.4 GHz)
Intel(R) Pentium IV (3.06 GHz)
sec / gridpoint
/ 1000 steps
0.00484
0.00262
0.00232
0.00161
operating
system
Win2000
Win 98
Win XP
Win 98
MISCELLANEOUS
5-3
5-4
Users Guide
MISCELLANEOUS
5-5
Phone:
Fax:
Email:
Computer:
RAM:
FLAC Data
Serial No.:
Version*
Options:
Description:
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
5-6
Users Guide
MISCELLANEOUS
5-7
Description
View movie files generated with the MOVIE
command.
Utility program used to update hardware key.
5-8
Users Guide
FISH in FLAC
PRECIS
This volume contains a complete documentation on the built-in programming language, FISH, and
its application in FLAC.
A beginners guide to FISH is given first in Section 1. This section includes a tutorial to help new
users become familiar with the operation of FISH.
Section 2 contains a detailed reference to the FISH language. All FISH statements, variables and
functions are explained and examples are given.
A library of common and general purpose FISH functions is provided in Section 3. These functions
can assist with various aspects of FLAC model generation and solution.
Section 4 contains a program guide to FLAC s linked-list data structure. These structures provide
direct access to FLAC variables.
FISH in FLAC
Users Guide
PRECIS
This volume is the users guide to FLAC. This guide contains general information on the operation
of FLAC for engineering mechanics computation.
Section 1 gives an introduction to the capabilities and applications of FLAC. An overview of the
new features in the latest version of FLAC is also provided.
The first-time user should consult Section 2 for an introduction to the operation of FLAC. The
installation and operation procedures are given along with a simple tutorial to guide the new user
through a FLAC analysis.
Section 3 provides general guidance in the use of FLAC in problem solving for static mechanical
analysis for geotechnical engineering.
An introduction to the built-in programming language, FISH, is given in Section 4. This includes
a tutorial on the use of the FISH language. Note that no programming experience is assumed.
Various items of interest to FLAC users are contained in Section 5, including a FLAC runtime
benchmark on several different types of computers, procedures for reporting errors and requesting
technical assistance, and a listing of utility files to assist operating FLAC.
Section 6 contains a bibliography of published papers describing some applications of FLAC in
different fields of engineering.
The FLAC Manual consists of twelve documents. The following list of volumes, which comprise
the FLAC Manual, are available. (The titles in parentheses below are the names used to refer to the
volumes in the text.)
USERS GUIDE (Users Guide) an introduction to FLAC and its capabilities
COMMAND REFERENCE (Command Reference) descriptions of all FLAC commands
FISH in FLAC (FISH volume) a complete guide to FISH as applied in FLAC
THEORY AND BACKGROUND (Theory and Background) thorough discussions of the
built-in features in FLAC
FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION (Fluid-Mechanical Interaction) discussion of the
formulation and examples of the groundwater flow model; description of the optional two-phase
flow model
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (Structural Elements) descriptions for the four types of structural elements in FLAC: beams, cables, piles and supports
OPTIONAL FEATURES (Optional Features) detailed descriptions of the optional features:
thermal analysis, creep models, dynamic analysis and C++ user-defined models
VERIFICATION PROBLEMS (Verifications volume) a collection of verification problems
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS (Examples volume) a collection of example applications
Users Guide
COMMAND AND FISH REFERENCE SUMMARY (Command and FISH Reference Summary) a quick summary of all FLAC commands and FISH statements
FLAC-GIIC REFERENCE (GIIC Reference) describes all the components of the GIIC
FLAC/SLOPE USERS GUIDE (FLAC/Slope) a guide to FLAC/Slope and its capabilities
Example Applications
PRECIS
This volume contains documentation on a series of example application problems that have been
solved using FLAC. These example applications demonstrate the various classes of problems to
which FLAC may be applied.*
Table 1 presents a summary of the example applications described in this volume. The table also
identifies the specific FLAC feature that is examined in each problem.
The problems in this volume represent a brief sampling of potential applications for FLAC. We
plan to update this volume on a regular basis and will send new examples as they are prepared. We
also invite users to submit their own examples for inclusion or inform us of any type of problem
that they would like to see in this volume.
* The data files in this volume are all created in a text editor. The files are stored in the directory
ITASCA\FLAC500\ExampleApplications with the extension .DAT. A project file is also provided for each example. In order to run an example and compare the results to plots in this volume,
open a project file in the GIIC by clicking on the File / Open Project menu item and selecting
the project file name (with extension .PRJ). Click on the Project Options icon at the top of the
Project Tree Record, select Rebuild unsaved states and the example data file will be run and plots
created. All problems in this volume were run on a 2.4 GHz computer.
Example applications for the optional features thermal analysis, creep material models and
dynamic analysis are provided in Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3 in Optional Features,
respectively. There are also additional example applications for interface elements, structural elements and groundwater analysis in Section 4 in Theory and Background, Section 1 in Structural
Elements, and Section 1 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction, respectively.
Example Applications
1-1
SLOPE.DAT
2 Axisymmetric Modeling of
Post-Pillar Mining
2-1
POSTP.DAT
3-1
SAND.DAT
4-1
CAV.DAT
5-1
PILL.DAT
rockbolts
piles
liners
beams
Interface Elements
plane stress
groundwater
extra
dynamic
cppudm
axisymmetry
ats
ubiquitous joint
cables
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
CONFIG
strain-softening
Mohr-Coulomb
Finn
elastic, isotropic
CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
elastic, anisotropic
INPUT FILE
Drucker-Prager
PAGE
Cam-clay
DESCRIPTION
double-yield
Table 1
Performance
4 Undrained Cylindrical Cavity
Expansion in a Cam-Clay
Medium
5 Post-Peak Pillar Behavior
6-1
WALL.DAT
7-1
PRESSTUNNEL.DAT
x
x
x
x
Concrete Tunnel
8 Displacements near the Face
8-1
SHAX.DAT
9-1
PULL.DAT
10-1
ROCKSL.DAT
11-1
DIAP.DAT
12-1
MSTUNNEL.DAT
of an Advancing Tunnel
9 Simulation of Pull-Tests for
Rock Slope
11 Analysis of a Concrete
Diaphragm Wall
12 Multi-Stage Tunnel Excavation
and Support
13 Embankment Loading on a
Cam-Clay Foundation
13-1
EMC.DAT
14 Dewatered Construction of a
Braced Excavation
14-1
EXCAVATE.DAT
15 Earthquake Loading of a
Pile-Supported Wharf
15-1
WHARF.DAT
16 Pile-Supported Highway
Embankment
16-1
PEMBANK.DAT
17-1
LINER.DAT
18 Seismic Analysis of an
18-1
EARTHDAM.DAT
Embankment Dam
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
PRECIS
This volume contains a quick reference to all FLAC commands and FISH statements.
A summary of all the commands that can be entered in the command-driven mode in FLAC is given in Section 1.
(Note that the complete description of commands is provided in Section 1 in the Command Reference.)
A summary of all FISH statements is given in Section 2. (The complete description of FISH statements can
be found in Section 2 in the FISH volume.)
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
PRECIS
This volume contains background information on fluid flow modeling.
Section 1 describes the formulation for the fluid flow model in FLAC. This model can simulate
fluid flow through a porous medium, either independent of or coupled to the mechanical process.
The optional facility to model two-phase flow is described in Section 2. The formulation applies
for conditions in which two immiscible fluids flow simultaneously through a porous medium.
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
FLAC/SLOPE
1-1
1 FLAC/SLOPE
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Overview
FLAC/Slope is a mini-version of FLAC that is designed specifically to perform factor-of-safety
calculations for slope stability analysis. This version is operated entirely from FLAC s graphical
interface (the GIIC) which provides for rapid creation of models for soil and/or rock slopes and
solution of their stability condition.
FLAC/Slope provides an alternative to traditional limit equilibrium programs to determine factor
of safety. Limit equilibrium codes use an approximate scheme typically based on the method
of slices in which a number of assumptions are made (e.g., the location and angle of interslice
forces). Several assumed failure surfaces are tested, and the one giving the lowest factor of safety
is chosen. Equilibrium is only satisfied on an idealized set of surfaces.
In contrast, FLAC/Slope provides a full solution of the coupled stress/displacement, equilibrium and
constitutive equations. Given a set of properties, the system is determined to be stable or unstable.
By automatically performing a series of simulations while changing the strength properties (shear
strength reduction technique see Section 1.5), the factor of safety can be found to correspond
to the point of stability, and the critical failure (slip) surface can be located.
FLAC/Slope does take longer to determine a factor of safety than a limit equilibrium program.
However, with the advancement of computer processing speeds (e.g., 1 GHz and faster chips),
solutions can now be obtained in a reasonable amount of time. This makes FLAC/Slope a practical
alternative to a limit equilibrium program, and provides advantages over a limit equilibrium solution
(e.g., see Dawson and Roth (1999), and Cala and Flisiak (2001)):
1. Any failure mode develops naturally; there is no need to specify a range of
trial surfaces in advance.
2. No artificial parameters (e.g., functions for interslice force angles) need to be
given as input.
3. Multiple failure surfaces (or complex internal yielding) evolve naturally, if the
conditions give rise to them.
4. Structural interaction (e.g., rock bolt, soil nail or geogrid) is modeled realistically as fully coupled deforming elements, not simply as equivalent forces.
5. The solution consists of mechanisms that are kinematically feasible. (Note
that the limit equilibrium method only considers forces, not kinematics.)
1-2
FLAC/SLOPE
1-3
Please be aware that FLAC/Slope is limited to slope configurations with no more than
one interface. For analyses which involve multiple (and intersecting) interfaces or weak
planes, full FLAC should be used.
5. An Apply tool is used to apply surface loading to the model in the form of either an areal
pressure (surface load) or a point load.
6. A water table can be located at an arbitrary location by using the Water tool; the water table
defines the phreatic surface and pore pressure distribution for incorporation of effective
stresses and the assignment of wet and dry densities in the factor-of-safety calculation.
7. Structural reinforcement, such as soil nails, rock bolts or geotextiles, can be installed
at any location within the model using the Reinforce tool. Structural properties can be
assigned individually for different elements, or groups of elements, through a properties
dialog.
8. Selected regions of a FLAC/Slope model can be excluded from the factor-of-safety calculation. This is useful, for example, when studying complex slope geometries in which
the user wishes to disregard selected regions, such as localized sloughing of the slope
along the slope face.
1.1.4 Analysis Procedure
FLAC/Slope is specifically designed to perform multiple analyses and parametric studies for slope
stability projects. The structure of the program allows different models in a project to be easily
created, stored and accessed for direct comparison of model results.
A FLAC/Slope analysis project is divided into four stages. The modeling-stage tool bars for each
stage are shown and described below.
Models Stage
Each model in a project is named and listed in a tabbed bar in the Models stage. This
allows easy access to any model and results in a project. New models can be added to
the tabbed bar or deleted from it at any time in the project study. Models can also be
restored (loaded) from previous projects and added to the current project. Note that the
slope boundary is also defined for each model at this stage.
1-4
Build Stage
For a specific model, the slope conditions are defined in the Build stage. This includes:
changes to the slope geometry, addition of layers, specification of materials and weak
plane (interface), application of surface loading, positioning of a water table and installation of reinforcement. Also, spatial regions of the model can be excluded from
the factor-of-safety calculation. The build-stage conditions can be added, deleted and
modified at any time during this stage.
Solve Stage
In the Solve stage, the factor of safety is calculated. The resolution of the numerical mesh
is selected first (coarse, medium, fine or user-specified), and then the factor-of-safety
calculation is performed. Different strength parameters can be selected for inclusion in
the strength reduction approach to calculate the safety factor. By default, the material
cohesion and friction angle are used.
Plot Stage
After the solution is complete, several output selections are available in the Plot stage
for displaying the failure surface and recording the results. Model results are available
for subsequent access and comparison to other models in the project.
All models created within a project, along with their solutions, can be saved, the project files can
be easily restored and results viewed at a later time.
FLAC/SLOPE
1-5
(+1) 612-371-4711
(+1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
We also have a worldwide network of code agents who provide local technical support. Details
may be obtained from Itasca.
1.1.6 FLAC Mini-Version
The basis for FLAC/Slope is FLAC, Itascas numerical modeling code for advanced geotechnical
analysis of soil, rock and structural support in two dimensions. FLAC/Slope actually runs FLAC,
and the GIIC limits access to only those specific features in FLAC used for the slope stability
calculations. That is why we call FLAC/Slope a mini-version of FLAC.
When you install FLAC/Slope, the full version of FLAC is also installed. If you wish, you may start
up FLAC and evaluate its operation and features. See the installation and start-up instructions given
below in Section 1.2.1. The solve facility is turned off in this evaluation version. If you decide to
upgrade to the full FLAC, it is only necessary to upgrade your hardware lock to operate FLAC as
well as FLAC/Slope. Then, the full power of FLAC will also be available to you.
1-6
FLAC/SLOPE
1-7
The FLAC/Slope package can be uninstalled via the Add/Remove Programs icon in the Windows
Control Panel.
When the installation is finished, a file named INSTNOTE.PDF will be found in the program
sub-folder (FLAC500) that resides in the main installation folder. (This is the folder that is
specified during the installation process as the location to which files will be copied; by default,
this is \ITASCA.) The INSTNOTE.PDF file provides a listing of the directory structure that
is created on installation, and a description of the actions that have been performed as part of the
installation. This information may be used, in the unlikely event that it is necessary or desirable,
to either manually install or manually uninstall FLAC/Slope. The specific directories related to
FLAC/Slope are described below.
The \FLAC500 directory contains the files related to the operation of FLAC/Slope.
There are three sub-directories: FLAC500\EXE contains the executable code that
is loaded to run FLAC/Slope*; FLAC500\FLAC SLOPE contains the example files
described in this manual; and FLAC500\GUI contains files used in the operation of
the GIIC.
The \SHARED\JRE directory contains the JAVA(TM) Runtime Environment (standard edition 1.5.0) that is used for operating the GIIC.
The \MANUALS\FLAC500 directory contains the complete FLAC manual, which
includes the FLAC/Slope manual.
The first time you load FLAC/Slope you will be asked to specify a customer title. This title will
appear on all hardcopy output plots generated by FLAC/Slope. The title information is written to the
system registry. If you wish to rename the customer title at a later time, click on the File / Customer
Information menu item.
Finally, be sure to connect the FLAC/Slope hardware key to your LPT1 port before beginning
operation of the code.
Start-Up The default installation procedure creates an Itasca group with icons for FLAC/Slope
and FLAC. To load FLAC/Slope, simply click on the FLAC/Slope icon. The code will start up and
you will see the main window as shown in Figure 1.1.
The code name and current version number are printed in the title bar at the top of the window,
and a main menu bar is positioned just below the title bar. The main menu contains File, Show,
Tools, View and Help menus. Beneath the main menu bar is the Modeling Stage tool bar,
containing modeling-stage tabs for each of the stages: Models , Build , Solve and Plot . When you click
on a modeling-stage tab, a set of tools becomes available: these tools are used to create and run the
* The executable code used for FLAC/Slope is the single-precision version (FLACV SP.EXE). This
version is better-suited to factor-of-safety calculations than the double-precision version because it
runs approximately 1.5 to 2.0 times faster, and the single-precision calculation is sufficient for this
type of analysis. (See Sections 2.1.3 and 2.9 in the Users Guide.)
1-8
slope stability model. Separate sets of tools are provided for the models stage, the build stage, the
solve stage and the plot stage (as discussed previously in Section 1.1.4).
Figure 1.1
Beneath the Modeling Stage tool bar is the model-view pane.* The model-view pane shows a
graphical view of the model.
Directly above the model-view pane is a View tool bar. You can use the View tools to manipulate the
model-view pane (e.g., translate or rotate the view, increase or decrease the size of the view, turn
on and off the model axes). The View tools are also available in the View menu.
Whenever you start a new project, a Model Options dialog will appear, as shown in Figure 1.1. You
have the option to include different features, such as an interface (weak plane), a water table or
reinforcement, in the model and specify the system of units for your project with this dialog.
The menus and tools are described in detail in Section 1.3. An overview of the FLAC/Slope operation
is provided in the Help menu. This menu also contains a list of Frequently Asked Questions about
FLAC/Slope and an index to all GIIC Help files.
* If you are a user of full FLAC, you will also have access to a Console pane and Record pane. The
Console pane shows text output and echoes the FLAC commands that are created when operating
FLAC/Slope. This pane also allows command-line input (at the bottom of the pane). The Record
pane contains a list of all the FLAC commands, which can be exported to a data file for input into
full FLAC. The Console and Record panes are activated from the Show / Resources menu item.
FLAC/SLOPE
1-9
Figure 1.2
1 - 10
Defining the Project We begin the project by checking the Include water table? box in the Model
Options dialog. The water table tool will be made available for our analysis. We also select the SI:
meter-kilogram-second system of units. Press OK to include these options in the project analysis.
We now click on File / Save Project As ... to specify a project title, a working directory for
the project and a project save file. The Project Save dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.3, and we
enter the project title and project save file names. The working directory location for the project is
selected in this dialog. In order to change to a specific directory, we press ? in this dialog. An Open
dialog appears to allow us to change to the working directory of our choice. We specify a project
save file name of SLOPE and note that the extension .PSL is assigned automatically i.e., the
file SLOPE.PSL is created in our working directory. We click OK to accept these selections.
Figure 1.3
We next click on the Models tool and enter the Models stage to specify a name for the first model in
our project. We click on New and use the default model name Model 1 that appears in the New Model
dialog. There will be two models in our project: Model 1, which does not contain a water table;
and Model 2, which does. We will create Model 2 after we have completed the factor-of-safety
calculation for Model 1. (Note that, alternatively, we can create both models first before performing
the calculation.)
There are several types of model boundaries available to assist us in our model generation. For this
tutorial, we select the Simple boundary button.
When we press OK in the New Model dialog, an Edit slope parameters dialog opens and we enter the
dimensions for our model boundary, as shown in Figure 1.4. Note that we click on Mirror Layout to
reverse the model layout to match that shown in Figure 1.2. We click OK to view the slope boundary
that we have created. We can either edit the boundary further or accept it. We press OK to accept
the boundary for Model 1. The layout for the Model 1 slope is shown in Figure 1.5*. A tab is also
created with the model name (Model 1) at the bottom of the view. Also, note that an icon is shown
in the upper-left corner of the model view, indicating the direction and magnitude of the gravity
vector. The project save file name, title and model name are listed in the legend to the model view.
Additional information will be added as we build the model.
* We have increased the font size of the text in the model view. We click on the File / Preference
Settings ... menu item and change the font size to 16 in the Preference settings dialog.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 11
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Model 1 layout
1 - 12
Building the Model We click on the Build tool tab to enter the Build stage and begin adding the
slope conditions and materials to Model 1. We first define the two soil layers in the model. By
clicking on the Layers button, we open the Layers tool. (See Figure 1.6.) A green horizontal line
with square handles at each end is shown when we click on the mouse inside the slope boundary;
this line defines the boundary between two layers. We locate this line at the level y = 9 m by
right-clicking on one of the end handles and entering 9.0 in the Enter vertical level dialog. We press
OK
in the dialog and then OK in the Layers tool to create this boundary between the two layers. The
result is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.6
Layers tool
Figure 1.7
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 13
There are two materials in the slope. These materials are created and assigned to the layers using
the Material tool. After entering this tool, we first click on the Create button which opens the Define
Material dialog. We create the two materials, upper soil and lower soil, and assign the densities
and strength properties using this dialog. (Note that after one material is created, it can be cloned
using the Clone button, and then the properties can be modified to create the second material.) The
properties assigned for the upper soil material are shown in Figure 1.8. (A Class, or classification
name, is not specified; this is useful if materials are stored in a database see Section 1.3.5.)
Please be aware that we enter the (mass) density of the material, and not the unit weight. The
relation between density, , unit weight, , and gravitational magnitude, g, is
=
(1.1)
Note that Mass-Density and the system of units are shown in the dialog to emphasize that the input
should be density and not unit weight.
In the dialog shown in Figure 1.8, the in-situ density of the material above the water table (unsaturated density in Figure 1.2) is assigned under Mass-Density, and the in-situ density below the
water table is input under Wet Density. The relation between unsaturated and saturated in-situ
densities is discussed in Section 1.3.5.
Figure 1.8
After the materials are created, they are assigned to the two layers. We highlight the material in
the List pane and then click on the model view inside the layer we wish to assign the material. The
material will be assigned to this layer, and the name of the material will be shown at the position
that we click on the mouse inside this layer. The result after both materials are assigned is shown
in Figure 1.9. We press OK to accept these materials in Model 1.
1 - 14
Figure 1.9
Material
tool
Calculating a Factor of Safety We are now ready to calculate the factor of safety. We click on
the Solve tool tab to enter the factor-of-safety calculation stage. When we enter this stage, we must
first select a numerical mesh for our analysis. We choose a medium-grid model by pressing the
Medium
button, and the grid used for the FLAC solution appears in the model view. See Figure 1.10.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 15
the calculation mode, and a Model cycling dialog provides a status of the solution process. When
the calculation is complete, the calculated factor of safety is printed; in this case, the value is 1.60.
1 - 16
The value for factor of safety is also printed in the plot legend. This is the ratio of the in-situ strength
properties to the reduced properties at the onset of failure (see Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8) in Section 1.5).
Performing Multiple Analyses We wish to compare this result to the case with a water table.
We click on the Models tool tab to create the second model. We will start with Model 1 conditions
by clicking on the Clone button. An Input dialog will appear again, but this time the default model
name is copy of Model 1. We enter Model 2 and accept this name by pressing OK . A Model 2
tab is now shown at the bottom of the view. All of the model conditions from Model 1 have been
copied into Model 2. The only condition left to add is the water table. We go to the Build stage
and click on the Water button. A horizontal line with square handles is shown in the Water tool.
We position this line to match the location of the water table as shown in Figure 1.2. The line can
either be re-positioned by left-clicking the mouse on the line and dragging the line to the water table
location, or by right-clicking the mouse on the line, which opens a dialog to specify coordinates
of the water table. We define the water table by five points at coordinates: (0,10), (10,10), (20,8),
(35,3) and (45,3). The result is shown in Figure 1.13.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 17
1 - 18
(2) Alternatively, we can copy the plot to the clipboard, by clicking the Clipboard button. We
press OK to save this setting. Then, press Print in the Plot tool to send the plot to the
clipboard and, finally, paste the plot directly into the Word document.
The plot is shown in Figure 1.16. Note that hardcopy plots are formatted slightly differently than
the screen plots.
JOB TITLE : Tutorial
(*10^1)
3.000
2.500
LEGEND
22-Jan-04 12:08
2.000
1.000
0.500
0.000
1E 1
-0.500
Water Table
Velocity vectors
max vector =
0
-1.000
7.239E-06
2E -5
-1.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
(*10^1)
2.750
3.250
3.750
4.250
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 19
1 - 20
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 21
of your choosing from a Gravity tool in the Build tool bar. Note that pseudo-static horizontal
accelerations can be applied by using non-vertical gravity.
It is possible to exclude selected spatial regions of the model from the factor-of-safety calculation
by selecting the Allow excluded regions from fos? box. A tool will then be added to the Build tool bar to
allow excluded regions to be delineated in the model.
By default, a two-dimensional plane-strain analysis is performed. Alternatively, by clicking the
Axisymmetric model?
box, you can perform an axisymmetric analysis. In this mode, cylindrical coordinates are used; x = 0 is the axis of symmetry, the positive x-direction corresponds to the radial
coordinate, the y-direction to the axial coordinate and the out-of-plane direction (the z-direction) to
the circumferential coordinate. This geometry mode may be applied, for example, to cylindricalshaped mounds or circular open pits.
After you have selected which Model Options you wish to apply during your analysis, you can save
these preferences so that these selections are active each time you start FLAC/Slope. Also, you can
save your preferences for the look-and-feel of FLAC/Slope on start-up. You can select the size of
the Model-view pane and the layout for the modeling stage tool bar and the view tool bar. Open the
Show menu in the main menu to change the look-and-feel of the FLAC/Slope pane and tool bars.
Once you are satisfied, click File / Save Preferences in the main menu. The FLAC/Slope startup preferences are stored in the file STARTUP2.GPF, located in the ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI
directory.
1.3.2 Setting Up the Slope Project
When beginning a project, first select the File / Save Project As ... menu item in order to set
up a project save file. This opens a Project Save dialog as shown in Figure 1.20. The title and project
save-file name selected for the project will be printed in the plot legend for each plot created in the
project. The project save file will have the extension *.PSL. This file contains the project record
and also allows access to all the model save states (saved as *.SAV files) and factor-of-safety
calculation save states (saved as *.FSV files) for each model analysis in the project. Note that
you can click on ? in this dialog to select a directory in which to save the project and model-state
save files.
1 - 22
menu item); the entire project and associated model save and calculation save files will be accessible
as before.
1.3.3 Creating a Slope Model
After you have set up the project save file, you can enter the Models stage of the analysis. In this
stage, click on the New button to begin a new model analysis and assign a name to the model (the
default name is Model 1). Model naming is done in the New Model dialog as shown in Figure 1.21.
Note that you can also select the type of slope boundary to create for this model: a simple, linear
boundary; or more complex boundaries, such as bench slope, dam embankment or nonlinear slope
shapes. Advanced slope building is discussed in Section 1.3.13.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 23
When selecting the dimensions for Depth , Left and Right , it is important that these dimensions are
large enough such that artificial boundaries (i.e., left, right and bottom boundaries) do not influence
the development of the failure surface. If the final calculated slip surface is found to intersect any of
these boundaries, then the model should be rerun with a larger dimension so that the surface does
not intersect the boundary.
Please note that the coordinate axes for FLAC/Slope models are such that the axes origin is located
at the bottom left corner of the model, the y-axis is positive pointing upward in the vertical direction,
and the x-axis is positive pointing to the right in the horizontal direction. The axes origin can be
relocated by using the LowerLeftx and LowerLefty boxes in the Edit Slope Parameters dialog.
When you press OK , the dialog will close and the outline of the slope model will be drawn in a
boundary view, as shown in Figure 1.23. The boundary can be edited further in this view, either by
dragging the mouse to move the boundaries or by pressing the Edit button to open the Edit slope
parameters dialog again.
1 - 24
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 25
Figure 1.25 Slope model with two layer-boundary lines in the Layers tool
Each line corresponds to a table of points that defines the location of the layer boundary. When the
Add/Move
radio button is pressed, lines can be added or moved within the model. To move a line, click
and hold the left mouse button over one of the square handles and drag the mouse in the vertical
direction. The line will move up or down.
The shape of the boundary line can be modified by adding more handle points along the line, and
then dragging these points to different positions. Click on the Edit radio button to add points along
the line. To select a line to edit, click on the line number in the Layer boundaries list and the
selected line will turn white. For example, in Figure 1.26, the upper-layer boundary (boundary 1)
has been edited by adding two points which are then dragged to new positions.
Handle points can be located at specific x- and y-coordinate positions by right-clicking the mouse
over the handle. A Table dialog will open to enter the coordinates. The line tables can also be
edited by clicking on the Edit numerically button. This opens an Edit Table points dialog in which the
x- and y-coordinates for all of the table points for the line are listed. Points can be input and edited
in this dialog.
1 - 26
Figure 1.26 The upper layer-boundary line is edited to include two points
The Layers tool works best for sub-horizontal layers. However, it is possible to create models
containing sub-vertical layers, provided certain rules are followed. The boundary lines must run
continuously from the left model boundary to the right. In order to create a sub-vertical boundary,
handle points are added along the line to create a vertical segment. For example, in Figure 1.27, a
vertical column is created within a horizontal layer by adjusting the handle points along a boundary
line to create a vertical segment. When creating this line, the handle points should be offset slightly
from the existing horizontal lines so that the handle points of the new line do not coincide with
those of the existing lines. Note that in Figure 1.27 there is a slight offset in the data points listed
for the new line. By doing this, each line will be uniquely defined. Figure 1.28 displays the model
with a vertical column of material (mat 3) located within the horizontal layer (mat 2).
Layer-boundary lines can extend beyond the boundary; upon tool execution, the lines will terminate
at the boundary. Be careful to not make the layers too thin, because a bad zoning geometry may
result when the model zoning is performed in the Solve stage. FLAC should be used to model more
complex layering, involving, for example, pinched-out layers.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 27
Figure 1.27 The new boundary line, 3, is offset slightly to avoid coinciding
with the existing lines, 1 and 2
1 - 28
(1.2)
where wet is the wet in-situ density, is the moist in-situ density, n is the porosity, and w is the
density of water. When the water table is assigned to the model, all zones with centroids located
below the water table are assumed to be fully saturated and will automatically be assigned the value
for wet density for the factor-of-safety calculation.
Material failure is defined by the Mohr Coulomb plasticity model in terms of the cohesion and
internal angle of friction. A tensile strength and dilation angle may also be specified for the material.
If associated plastic flow is specified for the analysis, the dilation angle will be automatically adjusted
to match the friction angle. (See Section 1.3.11.2.)
The elastic properties have an insignificant effect on the factor-of-safety calculation and, therefore,
these properties are not required as input. By default, the bulk modulus and shear modulus of all
materials in the model (assuming SI units) are set to 100 MPa and 30 MPa, respectively.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 29
1 - 30
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 31
1 - 32
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 33
After the interface is located in the model, interface properties should be prescribed. This is done
by pressing the Property Edit button to open the Interface property list dialog. The dialog is shown in
Figure 1.34. The interface is defined by a classification and name e.g., classification: bedding
plane and name: smooth. The interface properties are then prescribed to this interface material and
applied by pressing Apply . Several interface materials can be created at one time in this dialog. The
highlighted material will be applied to the interface when OK is pressed. The interface material and
properties are listed in the Properties list in the Interface tool.
(1.3)
where ci = cohesion (in stress units) along the interface, i = friction angle of the interface surface,
and n is the normal stress acting on the interface.
In addition, the interface may dilate at the onset of slip. Dilation is governed in the Coulomb model
by a specified dilation angle, i .
If a tensile bond strength is specified for the interface, the interface acts as if it is glued, while the
tensile normal stress acting on the interface is below the bond strength. If the tensile normal stress
exceeds the bond strength, the bond breaks and separation and slip can occur.
The elastic shear and normal stiffnesses associated with the interface behavior do not affect the
solution for the factor of safety. Therefore, default values are assigned automatically to optimize
the solution convergence. (See Section 4.4.1 in Theory and Background of the full FLAC manual
for more information on the rationale for selection of stiffness values.)
1 - 34
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 35
The location of the water table is also used to determine if unsaturated or saturated density is used
to compute material weight. Unsaturated density is assigned to all zones in the model with zone
centroids located above the water table, and saturated density is assigned to all zones with centroids
below.
Figure 1.36 Water table repositioned with two handle points added
The water table can be located so that it intersects the slope surface and coincides with a reservoir
level, such as the case shown in Figure 1.37. In this case, the weight of the water corresponding to
the reservoir elevation is automatically included as a mechanical pressure acting on free surfaces
below the reservoir line.
1 - 36
Figure 1.37 Water table repositioned to intersect the slope and coincide with
a reservoir level
When we press OK to accept this location in the Water table tool, the surface water pressure is
depicted in the model view by a pressure bar acting along the slope boundary. See Figure 1.38.
When we click on the Solve tool tab to enter the Solve stage and create the zoned mesh for this model,
the surface water pressure is shown in the model view by arrows located at gridpoints along the
slope surface. The arrow lengths correspond to applied mechanical forces that are derived from the
value for the water pressure times the boundary length associated with each gridpoint. Figure 1.39
shows arrows corresponding to the surface water pressure applied in Figure 1.38.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 37
Figure 1.38 Water pressure acting along slope surface shown in model view
Figure 1.39 Applied forces corresponding to the surface water pressure applied in Figure 1.38
1 - 38
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 39
Figure 1.42 Editing the applied value in the Apply value dialog
The applied loading types are divided into two categories, Stress and Force, in the Apply tool list.
The stress types sxx, syy and sxy refer to stresses applied in the x-direction, y-direction or as a
xy-shear stress along a specified boundary, respectively. Alternatively, a stress can be applied in
the normal direction to the boundary with the nstress-type name or pressure-type name, and in
the shear direction with the sstress-type name. The sign convention for the stress types, sxx, syy
and nstress, is that positive values indicate tension. The sign convention for shear stress types,
1 - 40
sxy and sstress, is illustrated by Figure 2.43 in the Users Guide of the full FLAC manual. The
sign convention for pressure is that a positive pressure acts normal to, and in a direction toward,
the surface of a body (i.e., push towards the free surface). pressure and nstress apply the same
type of loading, but with an opposite sign convention.
When stresses are applied in FLAC/Slope, they are converted into forces applied at boundary gridpoints after the zoned mesh is created. The applied forces are derived from the value for stress (or
pressure) times the boundary segment length associated with each gridpoint.
Directional forces, xf orce and yf orce (shown in Figure 1.40), can also be applied to represent a
point (i.e., line) load on the boundary. A positive x- or y-force acts in the positive x- or y-direction.
The sense of the applied stress or force can be checked by entering the Solve stage after pressing OK
to leave the Apply tool. When the zoned mesh is created in this stage, the applied loading condition
will be depicted on the model view by arrows with lengths corresponding to applied forces, acting
at gridpoints along the model boundary. For example, Figure 1.43 illustrates the applied forces that
correspond to the applied pressure variation prescribed in Figure 1.42.
Figure 1.43 Applied forces corresponding to the applied pressure in Figure 1.42
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 41
The spatial variation in applied stress or force values is defined by the following formula. For a
stress or force variation applied along a boundary within the range x = x (s) to x (e) and y = y (s) to
y (e) , then the applied stress or force magnitude value, v is
v = v (s) +
x x (s)
y y (s)
v
+
vy
x
x (e) x (s)
y (e) y (s)
(1.4)
where (x (s) ,y (s) ) is the coordinate of the starting point, (x (e) ,y (e) ) is the coordinate of the ending
point, v (s) is the starting value of the stress or force entered under Value in the Apply value dialog,
and vx and vy are the variation values entered under X-Y Variation in the dialog.
For the example defined by the Apply value dialog in Figure 1.42, the coordinate range is (x (s) ,y (s) )
= (3,14) and (x (e) ,y (e) ) = (8,14). The variation in pressure is only in the x-direction (vy = 0). Thus,
by using Eq. (1.4), we get
v = 10, 000 1, 000(x 3.0)
(1.5)
When the zoned model is created, this pressure is converted into forces applied at gridpoints with
a variation as depicted by the vector lengths shown in Figure 1.43.
1.3.9 Installing Structural Reinforcement
Structural element logic is provided in FLAC/Slope to simulate the effect of reinforcement in a slope
or embankment. The FLAC cable element is used to represent this reinforcement in FLAC/Slope.
See Section 1.4 in Structural Elements of the full FLAC manual for a detailed description of the
cable element logic.
Reinforcement is installed in a slope by clicking on the Reinforce button in the Build tool bar. This
opens the Reinforcement tool, as shown in Figure 1.44. Cable elements are installed in a slope by
first checking the Add bolt radio button, and then pressing the mouse button at one endpoint of the
cable, dragging the mouse to the other endpoint, and then releasing the button. A yellow line with
square white handles will be drawn, as shown in Figure 1.44. Any number of cables can be installed
within the slope in this manner.
The end nodes of the cable can be positioned more precisely by right-clicking on the handles. This
opens a Coordinate dialog to enter x- and y-coordinates of the end node. End nodes can also be
relocated by checking the Move nodes radio button. Then, press and drag the end node with the mouse.
Cables can be deleted from the slope by checking the Delete radio button. You can then click the
mouse over the cable(s) you wish to delete.
1 - 42
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 43
By clicking the mouse over the property number, a Cable Element Properties dialog will open, as
shown in Figure 1.46. Properties are then assigned to a specific property number.
1 - 44
The following relation is used to determine the maximum bond shear force, Fsmax , that can develop
along the interface per length, L, of the cable:
Fsmax
= cb + c tan(b ) p
L
where:
cb
c
b
p
=
=
=
=
(1.6)
See Section 1.4.1.2 in Structural Elements of the full FLAC manual for more information on the
shear behavior.
The elastic shear stiffness at the interface does not affect the calculation of the factor of safety.
Therefore, it is computed automatically to optimize the solution convergence. (See Section 4.4.1
in Theory and Background of the full FLAC manual for more information on the rationale for
selection of stiffness values.)
The reinforcement properties are assigned to a property number in Figure 1.46, this is C1.
Additional property numbers can be created by pressing the New button in the Cable Element
Properties dialog. A new property number, C2, will be added to the Property List, and a different
set of properties can be prescribed for that number. Several property sets can be created in this
manner. The property number that is highlighted in the Property List will be assigned to the active
cable when OK is pressed.
Different segments along a cable can also be assigned different property numbers e.g., to simulate
bonded and unbonded portions of a grouted bolt. Figure 1.47 shows a bolt composed of two
segments. This is created in the Add bolt mode by creating one segment and then clicking the mouse
over one existing end node to start the second segment. The second segment will automatically be
connected to the first. After checking Properties , we can then assign properties for the unbonded
segment to C1, and the bonded segment to C2. We change the left portion of the bolt in Figure 1.47
to C2 by highlighting C2 in the Cable Element Properties dialog.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 45
1 - 46
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 47
Figure 1.49 Medium-zoned mesh showing zones excluded from the factor-ofsafety calculation
The effect of using the Exclude tool is shown by comparing factor-of-safety results for the slope
shown in Figure 1.48, with and without the excluding region. Figure 1.50 presents the factorof-safety plot for the case without an excluded region, and Figure 1.51 shows the result with the
excluded region. In the first case, the failure surface intersects the slope; in the second case, the
failure surface extends below the slope and into the base.
Note that the Exclude tool only applies to zones in the FLAC/Slope model. Interfaces or structural
reinforcement that lie within an excluded region will still be affected by the factor-of-safety calculation, if interface strength or grout strength parameters are selected as factor-of-safety parameters
in the calculation.
1 - 48
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Jan-04 21:48
2.500
1.500
0.500
1E 1
Velocity vectors
max vector =
3.241E-03
-0.500
1E -2
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
3.500
4.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
19-Jan-04 21:42
2.500
1.500
0.500
1E 1
Velocity vectors
max vector =
-0.500
1.135E-04
0
2E -4
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.500
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
3.500
4.500
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 49
1 - 50
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 51
1 - 52
Each time one of the zoning buttons is pressed, a set of FLAC commands, corresponding to the
model created in the Build tool, is executed to create the model for the factor-of-safety calculation.
The state of the model is also saved at this stage, with a file extension of *.SAV. The name of
the save file is defined by the project and model names and type of zoning. For example, when
the medium-grid model is created for the tutorial example in Section 1.2.2, a model save file is
created with the name slope Model 1 Medium.sav. Note that this save file is deleted after the
factor-of-safety calculation is completed. (See Section 1.3.11.3.)
1.3.11.2 Factor-of-Safety Parameters
After the grid generation is complete, the safety factor can be calculated. The calculation is performed by pressing the SolveFoS button. The factor-of-safety calculation is based on the strength
reduction technique, as described in Section 1.5. By default, the material strength parameters, cohesion and friction angle are reduced in accordance with Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8), given in that section.
When SolveFoS is pressed, a Factor of Safety parameters dialog opens, with the Friction angle and
Cohesion
boxes checked, as shown in Figure 1.56. By pressing OK , the calculation will commence.
It is also possible to include other strength parameters in the safety-factor calculation. By checking the Tension cutoff box, the material tensile strength can be reduced in a fashion similar to
that used with the material cohesion and friction angle. If a weak plane is included in the
model, the Interface friction & cohesion box should be checked to include these interface strength properties in the strength reduction solution. If structural reinforcement is included in the model, the
Reinforcement grout strength
box should be checked to include grout bond strength and bond friction angle
properties in the strength reduction solution. (The equations used for reduction of these additional
strength parameters are described in Section 1.5.) If these boxes are not checked, the corresponding
assigned properties will not be changed during the safety-factor calculation.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 53
associated plastic flow, the dilation angle is equal to the friction angle. If Use associated plastic flow rule
and Friction angle are checked, then dilation angle will be set equal to the friction angle during the
safety-factor calculation; otherwise, it will be held constant at its assigned value.
Note that for soils, rocks and concrete, the dilation angle is generally significantly smaller than the
friction angle of the material. Associated plastic flow is not observed in triaxial testing or shear
testing of these materials. See Section 3.7.4.1 in the Users Guide of the full FLAC manual for
additional information. Care should be taken when selecting this check box. If associated flow is
checked for a physically unrealistic dilation angle (e.g., if the friction angle is greater than 30 ), the
factor-of-safety calculation may fail to converge.
1.3.11.3 Factor-of-Safety Solution
When OK is pressed in the Factor of Safety parameters dialog, the factor-of-safety calculation begins.
A series of simulations will be made as described in Section 1.5, and the status of the calculation will
be reported in a Model cycling dialog, as shown in Figure 1.57. This dialog displays the percentage
of steps completed for an individual solution stage (based on a characteristic response time, as
defined in Section 1.5), the total number of solution stages that have been performed thus far in the
series, the operation currently being performed, and the bracketing values of the factor of safety;
the bracket range will continuously decrease until the final value is determined. The run stops when
the difference between the upper and lower bracket values becomes smaller than 0.005. When the
calculation is complete, the final value is reported.
1 - 54
The fc descriptor identifies that friction angle and cohesion are included in the calculation. The
following code names are used as descriptors for the factor-of-safety parameters:
f = friction angle
c = cohesion
t = tensile strength
i = interface friction and cohesion
s = structural element grout strength
a = associated plastic flow rule
1.3.12 Producing Output
The results of the factor-of-safety calculation are viewed in the Plot tool, which is accessed by
pressing the Plot button. When a calculation is complete, a factor-of-safety-plot button is added
to the Plot tool bar with a name corresponding to the type of zoning and factor-of-safety parameters
selected for the calculation. For example, in Figure 1.58, the button contains a four-square symbol,
indicating a medium-grid model, and the descriptors f c, indicating that friction angle and cohesion
were included in the calculation. Note that the name can be changed by right-clicking the mouse
over the button. Be careful to keep the name short, however, because the entire text is included on
the button.
Figure 1.58 Factor-of-safety plot for medium grid model with friction angle
and cohesion included in the factor-of-safety calculation
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 55
The factor-of-safety plot displayed in this tool contains, by default, a filled contour plot of shear
strain contours and velocity vectors.* The shear strain contours indicate the location of the failure
surface, and the velocity vectors indicate the failure mode, at the initiation of failure. This plot is
created at the solution stage for which the strengths are reduced to the values at the onset of failure.
The factor-of-safety value (i.e., the ratio of the actual strength to the strength at which failure occurs,
as defined in Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8)) is also displayed in the plot legend. For the tutorial Model 1 in
Section 1.2.2, these plot items show a well-defined failure surface and indicate a rotational failure
mode, as illustrated in Figure 1.58.
Different parameters can be displayed in the factor-of-safety plot. By pressing the Items button, a
Plot items dialog opens as shown in Figure 1.59. For example, the range of the contouring can be
controlled; this is useful to define a common contour level if several model results are compared.
Also, note that the shear strain-rate contours are derived from strain-rate values calculated in FLAC
at zone centroids. The contours for shear strain-rate terminate at zone centroids; they do not extend
to model boundaries. An extrapolation function is available to extend the contours to the boundaries.
The function uses a simple linear averaging extrapolation. (The extrapolation procedure is described
in EXTRAP.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH volume of the full FLAC manual.) The two contouring
approaches can be accessed by clicking on Zone centroid (exact) or Gridpoint linear extrapolation in the pulldown menu of the Plot items dialog. In most instances, Gridpoint linear extrapolation provides the clearest
representation of the failure surface.
Other optional plots that can be included on the plot are the mesh elements, the water table line and
the applied conditions. Plasticity indicators can be included; these identify the type of failure
e.g., shear or tensile failure.
* The shear strain contours are identified as shear strain rate contours in the plot legend. Shear
strain rate is a basic variable calculated in the FLAC solution method for every zone in a FLAC
mesh. The rate refers to the zone strain calculated during one computational step. For details on
this solution scheme, see Section 1.1.2 in Theory and Background of the full FLAC manual; and
for the definition of the shear strain rate, see Section 1.3.3.1 in Theory and Background. Shear
strain rate contours identify regions in the FLAC model where shear strain localizes. Bands of shear
localization, or shear bands that develop in the model during a calculation correspond to failure
surfaces.
Velocity vectors are also basic variables in the FLAC calculation. Velocities are calculated at all
gridpoints in a FLAC mesh. If a coherent velocity field is identified in a velocity vector plot, this
indicates that continuous failure (i.e., plastic flow of material) is occurring. For the factor-of-safety
calculation, velocity vectors are not related to a real-time movement. They only provide a sense of
the pattern of motion at any selected point in the calculation.
1 - 56
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 57
1 - 58
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 59
1 - 60
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 61
The slope line corresponds to a table of points that define the slope surface. The line table can
be edited by clicking on the Edit Numerically button in the General boundary tool; this opens an Edit
Table points dialog in which the x- and y-coordinates for all the slope points are listed. Points can
be input and edited in this dialog.
Figure 1.68 shows the General boundary tool with a nonlinear slope defined by seven handle points.
Figure 1.69 illustrates the final slope boundary.
A digital bitmap or DXF background image can be imported onto the model view from the pop-up
Plot menu. This menu is opened by right-clicking the mouse over the model view. Click on the
Images / Bitmap or Images / DXF menu item to import a bitmap or DXF file. The general slope
boundary can then be adjusted to fit this image.
For example, in Figure 1.70, a bitmap image of a rock slope is imported onto the model view in
the General boundary tool. The dimensions of the model are adjusted to correspond to the scale of
the bitmap drawing. Then, the slope line is manually altered to coincide with the slope line on the
bitmap, as shown in Figure 1.71. The final slope boundary is shown in Figure 1.72.
1 - 62
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 63
1 - 64
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 65
We use the Medium grid mode in the Solve stage; the resulting grid is shown in Figure 1.74.
We perform the factor-of-safety calculation and calculate a factor of 1.01. The failure surface is
indicated in Figure 1.75. Note that for a Coarse mesh, the calculated factor of safety is 1.03.
We also investigate the effect of assuming an associated flow behavior. If non-associated flow is
selected (with = 0) in the SolveFoS dialog, the calculated factor of safety is 1.00 for the coarse
grid and 0.98 for the medium grid.
1 - 66
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 67
Figure 1.76 Slope stability example (from Fredlund and Krahn, 1977)
1 - 68
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 69
The result for the factor-of-safety calculation for Case 6 is illustrated in Figure 1.79. The
FLAC/Slope results for all four cases are summarized in Table 1.1. The FLAC/Slope results are in
good agreement with the results from the limit-equilibrium calculations.
JOB TITLE : Comparison Study
(*10^2)
LEGEND
20-Feb-04 15:06
0.600
0.200
-0.200
5E 1
-0.600
Water Table
Velocity vectors
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.200
0.600
1.000
(*10^2)
1.400
1.800
Table 1.1 Results from Fredlund and Krahn (1977) study compared
to FLAC/Slope
Case
Simplified
Bishop
Spencers
Method
Method
Janbus
Rigorous
MorgensternPrice
Method
Method
FLAC/Slope
2.08
2.07
2.01
2.08
2.03
1.38
1.37
1.43
1.38
1.39
1.83
1.83
1.78
1.83
1.81
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.25
1.34
1 - 70
Figure 1.80 Clay slope containing a thin weak layer (from Griffiths and Lane,
1999)
The thin layer is created in the FLAC/Slope model by adjusting two layer boundaries to match the
locations denoted in Figure 1.80. The layer boundaries are positioned in the Layers tool by locating
the handle points along the boundaries at the specified x- and y-coordinate positions, as shown
in Figure 1.81. The resulting model is shown in Figure 1.82. A fine-grid model is necessary to
represent the thin layer see Figure 1.83. Three cases are analyzed: cl /c = 0.2, 0.6 and 1.0. The
project save file for this example is THIN.PSL.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 71
1 - 72
Figure 1.83 Fine-grid model for slope with thin weak layer
The factor-of-safety plots for the three cases are shown in Figures 1.84 through 1.86. The shearstrain contour plots in the three figures illustrate the different failure surfaces that develop as the
strength of the weak plane is changed. In Figure 1.84, the failure surface indicates localized slip
along the weak plane, while in Figure 1.86, a circular failure surface develops in the homogeneous
material. Figure 1.85 shows a combination of both weak plane failure and circular-slip failure. All
of these results compare directly to those reported in the study by Griffiths and Lane (1999).
The safety factors calculated by FLAC/Slope for these three cases also correspond to those presented
by Griffiths and Lane (1999). The factor is found to drop significantly as the strength of the weak
plane is reduced. The case of cl /c = 0.6 is shown by Griffith and Lane to be the strength ratio at
which there is a transition from the weak-plane failure mode to the circular failure mode.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 73
(*10^1)
LEGEND
21-Jan-04 16:35
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
2E 1
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Jan-04 13:05
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
2E 1
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
1 - 74
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Jan-04 12:56
3.000
2.000
1.000
2E 1
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 75
1 - 76
(*10^1)
LEGEND
16-Sep-04 15:48
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
1E 1
Cable plot
Velocity vectors
max vector =
-0.500
1.622E-05
Itasca
0 Consulting Group, Inc.
5E -5
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 77
(*10^1)
LEGEND
16-Sep-04 16:09
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
1E 1
Cable plot
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
0
-5
Minneapolis,
Minnesota1E
USA
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
Figure 1.90 Factor-of-safety results for geogrid support with bond cohesion
= 1000 N/m
(*10^1)
LEGEND
16-Sep-04 16:19
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
1E 1
Cable plot
Velocity vectors
-0.500
0.750
1.250
1.750
2.250
2.750
(*10^1)
Figure 1.91 Factor-of-safety results for geogrid support with bond cohesion
= 10,000 N/m
1 - 78
Figure 1.92 Failure surface solution from Bishops method for a rock slope
(Hoek and Bray 1981)
The rock mass is classified as a Hoek-Brown material with strength parameters of:
m
s
c
cm
=
=
=
=
0.13
0.00001
150
MPa
s c = 0.47 MPa
The tensile strength is estimated to be 0.012 MPa. In order to derive the Mohr-Coulomb properties
from the Hoek-Brown parameters, a tangent to the curved Hoek-Brown failure envelope is drawn
at a normal stress level estimated from the slope geometry. Mohr-Coulomb properties for friction
angle and cohesive strength are then estimated to be (see HOEK.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH
volume of the full FLAC manual):
= 45
c = 0.14 MPa
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 79
The mass density of the dry rock mass is 2500 kg/m3 , and the mass density of the saturated rock
mass is 2800 kg/m3 . The phreatic surface is located as shown in Figure 1.92, and the mass density
of water is 1000 kg/m3 .
Hoek and Bray (1981) present a limit-equilibrium solution for this problem derived from Bishops
simplified method of slices (Bishop 1955). Based upon the above parameters, Hoek and Bray report
that the Bishop method produces a location for the circular failure surface and tension crack, as
shown in Figure 1.92, and a factor of safety of 1.423.
The FLAC/Slope model is created using the General boundary tool in the New Model dialog to
specify the coordinates of bench locations along the slope face. Figure 1.93 shows the tool. The
Edit Numerically
button is selected to enter the data points that define the slope boundary.
The model also contains a water table at the position shown in Figure 1.92. The
to input data points defining the water table, as shown in Figure 1.94.
Water
tool is used
The model is run using the Fine grid. The project save file for this example is BENCH.PSL.
Figure 1.93
General
boundary tool
1 - 80
Figure 1.94
Water
tool
Figure 1.95 displays the factor-of-safety plot for this model. The calculated factor of safety is
1.38. The shear-strain contour plot closely resembles the failure surface produced from the Bishop
solution, although the failure surface extends farther up the slope in the FLAC/Slope results.
The FLAC/Slope results indicate that tensile failure continues up the slope (as identified from the
plot of velocity vectors and plasticity indicators, as shown in Figure 1.96). This progressive failure
cannot be identified in a limit-equilibrium solution.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 81
(*10^2)
LEGEND
0.800
20-Feb-04 15:30
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
5E 1
Water Table
-0.400
-0.600
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
(*10^2)
LEGEND
0.800
20-Feb-04 15:30
0.600
0.400
0.200
5E 1
Water Table
Velocity vectors
max vector =
0
0.000
7.905E-04
2E -3
-0.200
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
o at yield in tension
-0.400
-0.600
-0.100
0.100
0.300
0.500
(*10^2)
0.700
0.900
1.100
1.300
Figure 1.96 Factor-of-safety plot for rock slope with benches velocity vectors and plasticity indicators
1 - 82
ctrial =
trial
1
F trial
= arctan
c
(1.7)
1
F trial
tan
(1.8)
A series of simulations are made using trial values of the factor F trial to reduce the cohesion, c, and
friction angle, , until slope failure occurs. (Note that if the slope is initially unstable, c and will
be increased until the limiting condition is found.) In FLAC/Slope, a bracketing approach similar
to that proposed by Dawson, Roth and Drescher (1999) is used. The procedure in FLAC/Slope is
as follows.
First, the code finds a characteristic response time, which is a representative number of steps
(denoted by Nr ) that characterizes the response time of the system. Nr is found by setting the
cohesion and tensile strength to large values, making a large change to the internal stresses, and
finding how many steps are necessary for the system to return to equilibrium.*
Then, for a given factor of safety, F , Nr steps are executed. If the unbalanced force ratio is less
than 103 , then the system is in equilibrium. If the unbalanced force ratio is greater than 103 ,
then another Nr steps are executed, exiting the loop if the force ratio is less than 103 . The mean
value of force ratio, averaged over the current span of Nr steps, is compared with the mean force
ratio over the previous Nr steps. If the difference is less than 10%, the system is deemed to be in
non-equilibrium, and the loop is exited with the new non-equilibrium, F . If the above-mentioned
difference is greater than 10%, blocks of Nr steps are continued until either: (1) the difference is
less than 10%; (2) 6 such blocks have been executed; or (3) the force ratio is less than 103 . The
justification for case (1) is that the mean force ratio is converging to a steady value that is greater
than that corresponding to equilibrium; the system must therefore be in continuous motion.
* A maximum limit of 50,000 is set for Nr . If the model does not reach equilibrium within 50,000
steps, the run will stop, and the factor-of-safety solution cannot be completed. If this happens, the
user should review the parameters selected for the model. For example, if the user has selected
cable support with a high value for Youngs modulus, this may affect the solution convergence time.
In this event, the Compute (optimize for mesh) button should be selected when setting the Youngs modulus
for cables (see Figure 1.46).
The unbalanced force is the net force acting on a FLAC gridpoint. The ratio of this force to the mean
absolute value of force exerted by each surrounding zone is the unbalanced force ratio. Consult
note 4 of Section 3.8 in the Users Guide of the full FLAC manual for more information.
FLAC/SLOPE
1 - 83
t (trial) =
F trial
(1.9)
and, for the interface strength values ci and i , the equations are:
citrial =
itrial
1
F trial
ci
= arctan
(1.10)
1
F trial
tan i
(1.11)
For the reinforcement grout strength values cb and b , the strength-reduction equations are:
cbtrial =
btrial
1
F trial
= arctan
cb
(1.12)
1
F trial
tan b
(1.13)
1 - 84
1.6 References
Bishop, A. W. The Use of the Slip Circle in the Stability Analysis of Earth Slopes, Gotechnique,
5, 7-17 (1955).
Cala, M., and J. Flisiak. Slope Stability Analysis with FLAC and Limit Equilibrium Methods, in
FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics 2001 (Proceedings of the 2nd International
FLAC Symposium on Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics, Ecully-Lyon, France, October
2001), pp. 113-114. D. Billaux, X. Rachez, C. Detournay and R. Hart, Eds., Rotterdam: A. A.
Balkema, 2001.
Dawson, E. M., and W. H. Roth. Slope Stability Analysis with FLAC, in FLAC and Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the International FLAC Symposium on Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September 1999), pp. 3-9. C. Detournay
and R. Hart, Eds. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1999.
Dawson, E. M., W. H. Roth and A. Drescher. Slope Stability Analysis by Strength Reduction,
Gotechnique, 49(6), 835-840 (1999).
Fredlund, D. G., and J. Krahn. Comparison of Slope Stability Methods of Analysis, Can. Geotech.
J., 14, 429-439 (1977).
Griffiths, D. V., and P. A. Lane. Slope Stability Analysis by Finite Elements, Gotechnique,
49(3), 387-403 (1999).
Hoek, E., and J. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering. London: IMM, 1981.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1-1
1 FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.1 Introduction
The Graphical Interface for Itasca Codes (GIIC) is a menu-driven graphical interface developed to
assist users in operating Itasca codes.
This volume is a reference manual for the GIIC and describes all the individual components: menus,
tools and dialogs used in the operation of the GIIC. The following sections in this introduction
(Sections 1.1.1 through 1.1.5) provide an overview of the GIIC layout and operation. The GIIC
consists of four components: model-tool panes, resource panes, model-view/plots panes and the
FISH Editor pane. Section 1.2 lists and describes the model-tool panes, which are provided
in the GIIC to access FLAC commands. This section also includes simple tutorials to help you
understand the operation of the model tools. Sections 1.3 and 1.4 describe the resource panes
and model-view/plots panes, respectively. Section 1.3 also includes a recommended procedure for
setting up and organizing a FLAC project in the GIIC. This includes the creation of a project tree
for accessing results at any stage of the project analysis. Section 1.5 describes the FISH Editor,
which allows creation of FISH functions within the GIIC. In addition to these components, several
menus are provided in the GIIC to facilitate model and plot manipulation and file control; these are
described in Section 1.6.
You will notice that a Help menu is provided in the main menu bar for the GIIC. Help buttons are
also included with each tool in the GIIC, and Help panes can be opened by right-clicking on model
tool tabs. Consult these Help views for information when you are using a GIIC tool.
1.1.1 Start-Up
The FLAC installation procedure (see Section 2.1.2 in the Users Guide) creates an Itasca group
with an icon for FLAC. Click on the FLAC 5.0 icon. The code will start up and the GIIC main
window will appear, as shown in Figure 1.1.
1-2
Figure 1.1
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1-3
The Record pane also shows a project tree that displays a tree list of the saved states created for
a model. Section 1.3 describes operations in the Console pane and the Record pane.
The model-view pane shows a graphical view of the model. Additional views can be added as tabbed
panes in this window; these views display user-created plots. The model view and plot views are
described in detail in Section 1.4.
A status bar is located at the bottom of the main window and displays information related to the
currently active view or tool.
At the top of the model-view pane is a tab set that contains toolbars for each of the modeling stages:
Build
, Alter , Material , In Situ , Utility , Settings , Plot and Run . The Structure tab also appears in the tab
set when this option is checked in the Model Options dialog box (see Section 1.1.3, below). The
tools in each stage access model-tool panes that provide the necessary controls to create and run
your model. Each of the model tools is described in Section 1.2.
You can use the View menu to manipulate any view pane (e.g., translate or rotate the view, increase
or decrease the size of the view, turn on and off the model axes). The View menu is also available as
a tool bar that can be turned on from the Show menu. The View tool bar is shown on the model-view
pane in Figure 1.1. See Section 1.6.4 for further information on the View menu.
There is also a Fish Editor pane available in the GIIC that allows you to create new FISH functions,
edit existing functions and specify FISH parameters. This window can be opened from the Show
menu. See Section 1.5 for additional information on the operation of the Fish Editor.
An overview of the GIIC operation is provided in the Help menu. The menu contains a list
of Frequently Asked Questions about the GIIC and an index to all GIIC Help files. Additional
information on the Help menu is given in Section 1.6.5.
1.1.3 Model Options Dialog
A Model Options dialog box will appear every time you start the GIIC or begin a new model project.
The dialog is shown along with the GIIC main window in Figure 1.1. This dialog identifies which
modes of analysis are available to you in your version of FLAC. (Note that dynamic analysis,
thermal analysis, two-phase flow analysis, creep models and C++ user-defined models are separate
modules that can be activated at an additional cost per module.) The FLAC Configuration Options
must be selected at the beginning of a new analysis, while the User Interface Options (structural
elements, advanced material models and factor-of-safety calculation) can be included at any time
in the model run.
You can select a system of units for your analysis in the Model Options dialog. Many parameters
will then be labeled with the corresponding units, and predefined values, such as gravitational
magnitude and properties within the material database, will be converted to the selected system.
The selection of system of units should be done at the beginning of the analysis. The system of
units can be changed after the analysis has begun by clicking the Reset button. However, parameters
already set will not be changed to the new units. If Reset is used, all model parameters should be
rechecked to be sure that units are consistent.
1-4
If you are a new user, or only intend to perform a simple static analysis, we recommend that you
click the OK button in the Model Options dialog to access the basic FLAC features. In this case, only
the null, isotropic elastic and Mohr-Coulomb models are active, and a static, plane-strain analysis
is performed in the GIIC. If you wish to come back later in the analysis and, for example, add
structural elements, click File / Model Options in the main menu. This will reopen the Model
Options dialog. Check Include Structural Elements? and click OK . A Structure tab will be added to
the modeling-stage tab set, and structural elements can now be included in your model.
The final model option that can be selected is the format for the project record that is used in the
Record pane. Two types of format are provided: a Project List Record format and a Project Tree
Record format. The Project List format is a simple record with independent save files. Each save
file includes a record of all the commands needed to generate the state. The Project Tree format
shows changes between saved states. Saved-state file names are displayed in a tree structure. The
two formats are explained in detail in Section 1.3.
The Model Options dialog is shown below in Figure 1.2 with the following model options selected:
groundwater configuration option with automatic adjustment of total stresses for external porepressure change (CONFIG gw ats); structural elements user-interface option; Project Tree Record
format and SI system of units.
Figure 1.2
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1-5
The order follows the recommended procedure for problem solving discussed in Section 2.6 in the
Users Guide:
The first two modeling-stage tabs contain tools to generate and shape the grid
to fit the problem domain. The grid is first created via the Build tab, and
then shaped to fit the problem geometry via the
Alter
tab.
Next, material models and properties are assigned to the zones in the model,
using the tools accessed from the Material tab.
Boundary and initial conditions are applied via the
In Situ
tab.
If you select structural elements in the Model Options dialog, a Structure tab
will be included in the tab set to access structural support for the model.
The Utility tab provides tools to monitor model variables and access existing
FISH functions.
1-6
The Settings tab allows model global conditions to be set or changed during
the analysis.
All plotting facilities in FLAC are accessible via the
Calculations are performed using tools from the
Run
Plot
tab.
tab.
Note that model conditions can be changed at any point in the solution process by reentering a
modeling-stage tab. For example, model properties can be changed at any time via the Material tab,
and pressure or stress alterations can be made via the In Situ tab.
When you click on each of the modeling-stage tabs, a tool bar that provides access to model-tool
panes in which you can perform operations related to that tool will appear. The Build tab tool bar
is shown in Figure 1.1. Each of the model-building tools is described individually in Section 1.2.
The actions taken in each of the model-building tools are executed in FLAC by pressing the Execute
button at the bottom of each tool pane. When this is done, the GIIC returns to the main view, the
model-view pane is updated showing the result of the action taken, and the corresponding FLAC
commands are displayed in the resource pane. See Section 1 in the Command Reference for full
descriptions of all FLAC commands.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1-7
Tools
Build
Several grid-generation tools are available to help you create your model grid. These tools define
the general shape, spatial dimensions, and zoning density and gradation for the main grid. Click
the Build tab to access the available tools. Six tools are provided on the Build tool bar:
1.2.1.1
Grid
Tool
The Grid button accesses the GRID command and creates a rectangular grid with a specified number
of columns and rows of zones. The Grid tool is included as a quick means to create a simple grid.
The other Build tools provide more versatility in grid generation.
1.2.1.2
Simple
Block
and
Radial
Tools
Simple
Block
and
Radial
buttons.
When you press the Simple button, a dialog will open to allow you to specify the x- and y-range
dimensions for the grid. You can also select the number of zones and the grid ratios in this menu.
This dialog is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
Simple
dialog
1-8
The Block button allows you to first divide the problem region into separate rectangular domains
(blocks); the dimensions, number of zones and grid ratios are then specified for each block individually. A dialog appears first for you to select the number of blocks in which to divide the problem
region. Up to 25 blocks can be specified in both the x- and y-directions. After selecting the number
of blocks, a second dialog appears to allow you to specify dimensional and zoning parameters for
each of the blocks. The dialog for a 2 2 block grid is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4
Block
dialog
With the Radial tool, you can create a radially graded mesh that wraps around a central mesh.
ATTACH commands are assigned automatically to connect the radially graded meshes. The Radial
dialog is shown in Figure 1.5. Note that any of the four radially graded meshes, surrounding the
central mesh, can be hidden from view. This facilitates the creation of a free surface or a symmetry
plane in a radially graded mesh.
Figure 1.5
Radial
dialog
After you have selected parameters for one of the dialogs shown in Figures 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5, and
pressed OK , a plot of the grid will appear. A grid plot for the Simple tool is shown in Figure 1.6. You
can now manipulate this grid by selecting one of the grid-manipulation modes listed to the right of
the plot. You can reposition the edges (bounding box) or corners of the grid, change the grid ratio
and mesh density, and hide different regions of zones within the grid by clicking on the associated
radio button. These manipulations can all be done using the mouse. For example, after clicking
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1-9
on the Corners radio button, handle boxes will appear over each of the grid corners. Left-click and
drag one of the boxes to move a grid corner to a new position, or right-click on a grid corner to
open a dialog to enter new values for the corner coordinates. As an illustration, right-clicking on
the top-left corner of the mesh shown in Figure 1.6 opens the Vertex #1 dialog so that new values
can be given for the coordinates.
Note that you can also return to the initial parameters dialog by pressing the
bottom right of the model-tool pane.
Figure 1.6
Simple
tool with
Corners
Edit
button in the
mode active
When you are satisfied with the grid, press Execute and a set of FLAC commands that correspond to
your grid manipulations will be sent from the GIIC to FLAC. The GIIC will return to the model-view
pane, and a FLAC grid plot will be displayed.
The three grid-generation tools can be used for a variety of problem geometries. Use the Simple tool
for simple, regular shapes; use the Block tool when you need a variation in zoning e.g., a linearly
graded mesh; use the Radial tool to grade the mesh radially.
1 - 10
1.2.1.3
Slope
Tool
Slope shapes are created using the Slope tool. Figure 1.7 shows the Slope tool. For shallow
slopes (i.e., with a slope angle smaller than approximately 30 ), an expanded-grid zoning is
recommended and can be selected from the dialog. For steep slopes, a step-grid is recommended.
When OK is pressed, a grid plot appears and the grid can be manipulated further.
For more complex slope geometries, such as bench cuts, dams, or slopes with an irregular surface,
FLAC/Slope is recommended. See Section 1 in the FLAC/Slope Users Guide for a guide to this
program. FLAC/Slope may be applied as a grid-generation pre-processor for FLAC. A data file
for a model built in FLAC/Slope can be exported from this program and then imported into FLAC
(using File / Import Record).
Figure 1.7
1.2.1.4
Library
Slope
tool
Tool
This tool provides access to an advanced set of library grid objects commonly used in geomechanics:
dam, retaining wall, tunnel, etc. You may find these objects useful as a template to construct your
own model.
When the Library button is pressed, a Grid Library dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.8. Selecting
an available object in the left pane displays information about the object on the right. Figure 1.8
displays the thin seam with fault grid object.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.8
1 - 11
Library
tool
Select a grid object, press OK , and a dialog will then prompt for the objects x- and y-dimension
range. After the range is entered, a grid-plot tool will open, and the grid can be manipulated.
Figure 1.9 shows the grid-plot tool for the thin seam with fault grid object. The library object can
be manipulated in the same manner as the other grid tools. For example, you can easily increase
the mesh density in the region of interest by using the Mesh Density mode. By right-clicking on one
of the handle boxes, a dialog will open, as shown in Figure 1.9, to specify a different zone density
for a given grid block.
Figure 1.9
1 - 12
The grid object files are written in JAVA, and the class files and source code files for all of the grid
objects in the Library are stored in the ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI\Gridlib directory. If you wish,
you can create your own grid object; use the source-code files provided in the directory as a guide
to create your grid-object template. You can add your grid to the Library by copying your JAVA
*.CLASS file to the ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI\Gridlib directory, and then pressing the Refresh
button in the Library tool (see Figure 1.8). The library list will be updated to include the new grid
object.
1.2.2
Alter
Tools
After you have completed the Build operation and created the grid to fit the problem domain, click
on the Alter tab to access tools that you can use to define sub-regions or add additional shapes (e.g.,
excavation boundaries, layered materials or discontinuous features) to the grid. Four Alter tools are
provided to alter or shape the grid:
1.2.2.1
Mark
Tool
Mark gridpoints to delimit regions in your model by pressing the Mark button; you will then enter the
Mark-tool pane. This tool is useful, for example, to define layered materials in a model. With the
Set
radio button checked, you can mark a gridpoint simply by moving the mouse to that gridpoint
and pressing the left mouse button. Click and drag to mark multiple gridpoints. Note that when you
mark a gridpoint, a MARK command will be created in the Changes sub-pane. See Figure 1.10*.
Commands in the Changes pane have not yet been sent to FLAC. You can clear these commands
with the arrow buttons located at the top of the Changes pane. Once you are satisfied with your
selections, press the Execute button and the commands will then be sent to FLAC. This approach
allows you to change your selections and view the results in the GIIC before sending the commands
to FLAC. This method is used in several of the model-tool panes.
You can return to this tool at any time and mark new gridpoints or un-mark a marked gridpoint. To
un-mark, check the Clear radio button and then click on the gridpoint you wish to un-mark. The
UNMARK command is created for the specified gridpoint.
* The View / Show axis values menu item is selected to display x- and y-coordinate axes on the left
and bottom borders of the model view. See Section 1.6.4 for further information on manipulating
the model view.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.10
1.2.2.2
Shape
1 - 13
Mark
tool
Tool
The Shape tool is mainly used to conform the grid to specified shapes, such as tunnels, geological
boundaries and construction boundaries. Note that if a construction sequence is to be modeled
(e.g., emplacement of layers in an earth dam), the grid should be adjusted to conform to all future
geometrical stages at the start. The grid should not be adjusted with the Shape tool after the solution
process has begun.
When using the Shape tool, it is recommended that the Bad Zone Geometry setting be active. (This is the
default setting for the Shape tool.) Bad Zone Geometry is set on the pop-up menu accessed through the
pop-up button on the View toolbar, or by right-clicking on the background of the grid plot view.
(See Section 1.4.1.1 for more information on the pop-up menu.) When distorting the grid in the
Shape
tool, you will be able to see immediately if you have created a bad-geometry condition (as
defined by the criteria illustrated in Figure 2.40 in the Users Guide). You can then correct the bad
geometry condition before the calculation starts.
1 - 14
Figure 1.11
Geometry
You can conform the grid to fit given shapes, such as circles, arcs and lines, with the Shape tool.
The various shape modes are listed to the right. Select the shape mode you wish to apply, click and
drag in the grid to apply the shape; the shape will appear on the grid. Release the mouse button
and click the Generate button to conform the grid to the shape. Note that this is a virtual grid; the
commands have not yet been sent to FLAC. Press Clear to remove the shape from the virtual grid.
Press Execute to send the corresponding commands to FLAC.
For example, select the Circle mode, position the circles center on the grid, then click and drag
to position the circles periphery. A circle outline will appear with two handle boxes, one at the
centroid and one along the circle periphery (see Figure 1.12). Click and drag on these handle boxes
to move the circle and/or adjust its radius. Right-click on the handle boxes to access pop-up dialogs
to specify values for the center and radius. When you click Generate , the virtual grid is adjusted to
fit the circular shape, as shown in Figure 1.13. Click Execute to send the corresponding GENERATE
circle command to FLAC.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 15
Circle
button active
Circle
shape
1 - 16
The Line and Arc modes are implemented in the same way as the Circle mode. When you select
these modes, a corresponding tool adjusts the grid to fit each shape. Once executed, Line and Arc
modes send GENERATE line and GENERATE arc commands, respectively, to FLAC. The Point mode
allows you to move individual gridpoints. This mode creates INITIAL x and INITIAL y commands to
reposition gridpoints in the FLAC mesh.
For the Table mode, a table must first be created from the Utility / Table tool.* (See Section 1.2.6
for the procedure to create a geometric table.) Tables are assigned identification numbers. After
you click on the Table radio button in the Shape tool, select the ID number of the table you wish to
generate and then point and click the mouse on the table in the grid plot. The table line will be
highlighted, as shown in Figure 1.14. Press Generate to conform the grid to fit the table line (see
Figure 1.15).
Table
button active
* A table can also be read into FLAC by pressing the ? button located to the right of the ID number
pulldown. The table file must be an ASCII file in the format of a TABLE command, as described in
Section 1 in the Command Reference.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 17
Table
line
You will note in Figure 1.15 that the gridpoints at the ends of the line were not adjusted to fit the line.
This can happen if the table line does not extend far enough, or if the grid is too coarse. Press the
Point
radio button to move the end gridpoints, as shown in Figure 1.16. By right-clicking on each
end gridpoint, a dialog opens to specify new x- and y-coordinates for these gridpoints. This creates
the INITIAL commands to reposition the gridpoints, as shown in the Changes pane in Figure 1.16.
Now it is necessary to mark these end gridpoints. This is done with the Mark tool, as shown
in Figure 1.17. In order to define two separate regions in the FLAC model, a contiguous line of
marked gridpoints must be delineated. The regions can be viewed in the model-view pane by turning
on the regions-view mode. This is done from the model-view pop-up menu. Position the mouse
anywhere within the model-view pane and press the right button. The pop-up menu will appear, as
shown in Figure 1.18. See Section 1.4.1.1 for more information on the model-view pop-up menu.
1 - 18
Point
mode in the
Mark
tool
Shape
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 19
1 - 20
You can reposition the entire grid or portions of the grid by using the Range mode in the Shape tool.
Drag the mouse over the portion of the grid that you wish to reposition. This portion is highlighted.
Handle boxes appear at the corner gridpoints of the highlighted region. See Figure 1.19. Click and
drag on a handle box to distort the highlighted region. All gridpoints within the region are adjusted
to maintain the original zone spacing. Right-click on any handle box to call a pop-up dialog to
specify new x- and y-coordinates. A handle box also appears in the center of the highlighted region;
this box can be used to change the grid ratio for the highlighted zones.
For example, if you wish to distort a 20 20 zone grid to form a rectangular opening, first highlight
the right half of the grid, as shown in Figure 1.19. Then right-click on each of the four corners
of the highlighted region. Enter the following coordinates, beginning with Corner 4. (The corner
number is identified on the title bar of the pop-up dialog.)
Corner
Corner
Corner
Corner
4
3
2
1
:
:
:
:
x=5.0,
x=20.0,
x=20.0,
x=5.0,
y=0.0;
y=0.0;
y=20.0;
y=5.0.
Then, press Generate . Now highlight the left half of the grid and enter the new coordinates, beginning
with Corner 4:
Corner
Corner
Corner
Corner
4
3
2
1
:
:
:
:
x=5.0,
x=20.0,
x=0.0,
x=0.0,
y=5.0;
y=20.0;
y=20.0;
y=5.0.
Press Generate again, and the distorted mesh will be formed, as shown in Figure 1.20. Two GENERATE
commands are created; these are the same as those issued for the command-line example given in
Example 2.2 in the Users Guide.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 21
Range
Range
mode
mode
1 - 22
The Region mode in the Shape tool is used to move the entire grid, or sub-grids, by a specified
displacement. This mode creates INITIAL x add and INITIAL y add commands for FLAC. Select the
Region
mode, then select a gridpoint within the sub-grid you wish to move, and drag-and-drop the
sub-grid to a new location. Alternatively, right-click over the grid; a dialog will open to enter xand y-displacement values to move the sub-grid.
Sub-grids are separated by null zones. In order to apply the Region mode to a sub-grid, null zones
must first be created using the Material / Assign tool. (See Section 1.2.3 for the procedure to create
null zones.) For example, Figure 1.21 shows a model with two sub-grids separated by a vertical
column of null zones. In order to close the gap between the two sub-grids, first select the Region
mode. Now, left-click on the bottom left corner of the right sub-grid. While holding down the
<Ctrl> key on your keyboard, drag the bottom-left corner node toward the bottom-right corner
of the left sub-grid. The node will snap to this location, because the <Ctrl> key is depressed.
When the left mouse button is released, the right sub-grid will be shifted to the left and an INITIAL
x add command will be created, as shown in Figure 1.22. Note that, even though the boundaries
of the two sub-grids are now at the same location, the sub-grids will not interact. It is necessary to
either attach the sub-grids, or add an interface along the boundaries, for interaction to occur. This
is accomplished with either the Attach and Interface tools, described below, in Sections 1.2.2.3 and
1.2.2.4, respectively,
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 23
Region
mode
1 - 24
1.2.2.3
Attach
Tool
The ATTACH command is implemented via the Attach tool. When in this tool, select the A-side radio
button and click and drag along one boundary of a sub-grid you wish to attach. A highlight bar will
be drawn along this boundary when you release the button. Then, repeat this process with the B-side
radio button selected and drag, in the same direction, along the boundary of the other sub-grid to
be attached. A highlight bar will appear along this boundary. Click Assign to create the ATTACH
command, and Execute to send this command to FLAC.
For example, to attach the two sub-grids shown in Figure 1.22, enter the Attach tool, click on the
A-side
radio button and drag the mouse along the right boundary of the left sub-grid. A highlight
bar will appear along this boundary. Select B-side and drag along the left boundary of the right
sub-grid, in the same direction as that for the A-side. A highlight bar will appear. The two bars are
shown in Figure 1.23.
Attach
tool
When the Assign button is pressed, marks are placed at all attached gridpoints, and an ATTACH
command is shown in the Changes pane. See Figure 1.24.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 25
Assign
is pressed
The Attach tool will attach sub-grids with matching gridpoints and sub-grids with non-matching
gridpoints. However, sub-grids with non-matching gridpoints must have an integral ratio between
gridpoint segments along the two boundaries to be attached. For example, if one boundary has
3 segments (4 gridpoints), then the matching boundary must have an integral multiple number of
segments e.g., 6 segments (7 gridpoints). The Assign button will only activate if this condition is
satisfied. The segment ratio is monitored and printed at the top right of the Attach tool.
As an example, a sub-grid with 20 segments along a boundary is attached to a sub-grid with 10
segments along a boundary. The two sub-grids are first created from a 20 16 zone grid by nulling
zones to separate the sub-grids (using the procedure described in Section 1.2.3). The sub-grids are
shown in Figure 1.25. The A-side for the attached boundaries is assigned to the top boundary of
the lower sub-grid (10 segments), and the B-side is assigned to the bottom boundary of the upper
sub-grid (20 segments), as shown in Figure 1.25. The attached gridpoints between the two sub-grids
are identified by connecting lines, as shown in Figure 1.26, when Assign is pressed. After the Attach
tool is executed, the Shape tool is used to move the two sub-grids together. All zones in the upper
sub-grid are selected; then the upper sub-grid is positioned on top of the lower sub-grid by using the
Range
mode. Figure 1.27 shows the upper sub-grid highlighted with its bottom-left corner relocated
to the position of the top-left corner of the lower sub-grid. (The <Ctrl> key is held to snap the
upper sub-grid corner to the location of the lower sub-grid corner.) Next, the other three corners
of the upper sub-grid are moved to their new positions. Figure 1.28 shows the final position of the
upper sub-grid after all four corners are relocated.
1 - 26
Figure 1.26 Attached gridpoints identified by marks and connecting lines using the Attach tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 27
Figure 1.27 Moving corner gridpoints of the upper sub-grid using the
mode in the Shape tool
Range
Figure 1.28 Final position of two attached sub-grids with unequal boundary
segments
1 - 28
Note that it does not matter whether the sub-grids are moved together first and then attached
(Figures 1.22 and 1.23), or attached first and then moved together (Figures 1.25 through 1.28).
However, the directions in which the A-side and B-side of the attached grid are defined does matter.
If the B-side of the upper sub-grid is specified by dragging the mouse in the direction opposite to
that for the A-side of the lower sub-grid, the attached gridpoints will not be coincident when the
sub-grids are moved together. This can easily be seen when the sub-grids are apart initially because
the connecting lines will cross. If this happens, press Reset in the Attach tool and reassign the A-side
and B-side in the same direction.
The ability to match unequal grids provides more flexibility in creating graded meshes. It is
convenient to use the Build / Radial tool to create a radially graded grid to provide the boundary
conditions for a single tunnel. However, it is difficult to extend this approach to multiple tunnels
that interact with each other. As an alternative approach, it is possible to insert and completely
attach several fine-zone sub-grids within voids in a coarse-zone sub-grid. In this way, a grid can be
constructed in which each tunnel has its own fine grid for good local accuracy, while the interactions
and boundary conditions make use of a coarse grid.
Figure 1.29 shows an initial 78 50 grid divided into four sub-grids: one large sub-grid containing
three regions of null zones; and three smaller, 16 16 zone, sub-grids. (See Section 1.2.3 for the
procedure to create the null-zone regions.) The Shape tool in Range mode is used to move each of the
three sub-grids into the null-zone regions of the large sub-grid. Figure 1.30 shows this operation in
progress. Note that the <Ctrl> key is pressed when each sub-grid corner is dragged, so that the
corner will be snapped onto the corresponding corner of the null-zone region. Also, note that the
integral ratio of the boundaries between the smaller sub-grid and the larger sub-grid is 2:1.
After the three sub-grids are repositioned inside the larger sub-grid, they are attached to the larger
sub-grid using the Attach tool. The attachment is done in two steps for each of the three small
sub-grids. First, the A-side is assigned along the bottom and right side of the boundary of the large
sub-grid, and the B-side is assigned along the bottom and right side of the adjacent small sub-grid,
as shown by the highlight bars in Figure 1.31.* When the B-side is assigned, the highlight bar may
flip from the bottom-right to the top-left of the sub-grid while being drawn. In order to change the
path direction, check the B-long box, as shown in Figure 1.31. After clicking Assign , the procedure
is repeated to attach the left-side and top boundaries see Figure 1.32. The two-step procedure is
repeated to attach all three sub-grids inside the large sub-grid. The result is shown in Figure 1.33.
Tunnels can now be defined within the three fine-grid regions, using the Shape tool. See Example 3.18
in Theory and Background for a comparison of this model to that for a model created with a uniform
grid, using the same mesh size throughout as that for the fine-zone region.
* The View / Zoom box menu item is selected to magnify the view of one of the small sub-grids shown
in Figures 1.31 and 1.32, to facilitate the use of the Attach tool.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 29
Figure 1.29 Initial grid divided into large sub-grid with null-zone regions plus
three separate sub-grids
Shape
tool in
Range
mode
1 - 30
Figure 1.32 Attaching the left-side and top boundaries of a sub-grid inside a
sub-grid using the Attach tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 31
1 - 32
1.2.2.4
Interface
Tool
An interface between two sub-grids is created in the same manner as an attached grid. An A-side and
B-side of the interface are defined by left-clicking and dragging the mouse along the boundaries
of the sub-grids that will be assigned an interface. This operation is performed in the Interface
tool. Figure 1.34 illustrates the creation of an interface beginning with the two sub-grids shown
previously in Figure 1.22. When the Assign button is pressed, an Interface properties dialog opens
so that the interface type and properties can be prescribed. See Sections 4.2 and 4.4 in Theory and
Background for information on the interface material model and selection of properties. When OK
is pressed in the dialog, a line is drawn along the boundary to denote the location of the interface,
with marks indicating the locations of interface nodes. An identification (ID) number circle at one
end of the interface identifies the interface. See Figure 1.35. An INTERFACE command is created,
as shown in the Changes pane in this figure. Note that interface creation does not have the same
restriction as an attached grid on non-matching gridpoints between sub-grids. An integral ratio
between gridpoint segments along the boundaries is not required.
Interface properties can be changed at any stage of a model analysis by first clicking on the Property
radio button in the Interface tool and then pointing and clicking the mouse on the ID number circle
in the Interface tool grid plot. This will cause the Interface properties dialog to reopen so that
properties can be changed.
An interface can be removed in a manner similar to that employed when editing interface properties
i.e., first click on the Remove radio button in the Interface tool and then point and click the mouse
on the ID number circle.
An interface can also allow interaction between beam elements and a grid. The procedure to create
an interface between a beam and grid is described in Section 1.2.5.4.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 33
Interface
tool
1 - 34
1.2.3
Material
Tools
Material models and properties are assigned to the FLAC model using the Material tools. By default,
only two tools are provided: Assign and Cut&Fill . These tools are sufficient for simple static analyses
and use only the null, isotropic elastic and Mohr-Coulomb models.
Default material tools
If the GWFlow box is checked in the Model Options dialog, a GWProp tool is added to the Material tool
bar. This allows the assignment of groundwater flow properties associated with CONFIG gw.
Default material tools plus groundwater properties tool
If the Include Advanced Constitutive Models? box is checked in the Model Options dialog, then two additional
tools, Model and Property , are made available to implement the advanced constitutive models and
property variations. Note that if FLAC is configured to include the optional creep-analysis feature,
the Include Advanced Constitutive Models? box must be checked in order for the Creep option to be invoked
in the Model Options dialog. Creep material models will then be available through the Model tool.
Material tools with advanced constitutive models
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 35
If the Thermal box is checked in the Model Options dialog, a Thermal tool is added to the Material tool
bar. This allows the assignment of thermal properties associated with CONFIG thermal.
Default material tools plus thermal properties tool
In order to include the C++ user-defined model option, the Include Advanced Constitutive Models? box must
be checked to access the C++ UDMs check box in the Model Options dialog. When these options are
invoked, a LoadModel tool is added to the Material tool bar.
Material tools with advanced constitutive models plus option for
C++ user-defined models
1 - 36
1.2.3.1
Assign
Tool
The Assign tool is used to create and assign null, isotropic elastic and Mohr-Coulomb materials to
zones within the grid. The tool is shown in Figure 1.36.
Figure 1.36
Assign
tool
Elastic and Mohr-Coulomb materials are created via a Define Material dialog that is opened by
pressing the Create button in the Edit group in the Assign tool. After the material is created, the
material name is added to a material List pane in the tool. Materials are then assigned to zones
by selecting a material name in the material List modes and then selecting the mode in which that
material is assigned to zones. Four modes are available:
(1) If all zones in the model are to have the same material, click the
material List in the Assign tool.
SetAll
(2) To assign the material to one zone at a time, select Rectangle in the Zone Range mode
groups; click (single zone) or click and drag (multiple zones) to assign the material.
(3) To assign a material to a lateral layer of zones, select
and drag (multiple layers) to assign the material.
Layer
(4) By selecting Region , a highlight line will be drawn around all defined regions in the model.
Click on any zone within a region to assign the material to all zones within that region.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 37
When the FLAC grid is first created with one of the Build tools, an isotropic-elastic model (MODEL
elastic) is automatically assigned to all of the non-null zones in the grid.* When you first enter
the Assign tool, the null material is the only material available to be assigned, and is listed in the
material List pane, as shown in Figure 1.36. Null zones can then be added to the grid using mode
(2), (3) or (4) described above. For example, a column of null zones is created to separate two
sub-grids, as shown in Figure 1.36, by checking the Rectangle radio button and then holding the left
button and dragging the mouse over the column of zones to be made null. This is the approach
to define sub-grids, as discussed previously for the creation of attached grids (Section 1.2.2.3) and
interfaces (Section 1.2.2.4).
New elastic or Mohr-Coulomb materials are created in the Define Material dialog. Figure 1.37
shows the Define Material dialog, opened in the Assign tool by pressing the Create button. Within
this dialog, you can assign a classification and material name, prescribe elastic or Mohr-Coulomb
constitutive model type and assign material properties. The classification name is used to help
identify materials within a Material Database; the database is described below in Section 1.2.3.2.
If only a few materials are prescribed for a model, then the classification may not be needed and can
be left blank. The dialog in Figure 1.37 creates a silty sand material and assigns a Mohr-Coulomb
material model with elastic and plastic properties. Note that the dialog provides the option to assign
either bulk and shear moduli or elastic (Youngs) modulus and Poissons ratio. The alternative
elastic properties are calculated when the Alternate box is checked.
Assign
tool
* Note that a model created with one of the Build tools can consist of null-material zones as well as
elastic-material zones. You can distinguish the null and elastic zones in a model by switching the
model view from x-y space to i-j space. This is done with a right-click in the model view to
open the model-view pop-up menu (see Section 1.4.1.1), and then selection of IJ Space . The model
view will switch to i-j space and any null zones will be visible.
1 - 38
When OK is pressed, the material is created and the material name is added to the material List.
Clone
and Edit buttons are also provided to facilitate creation and modification of several materials.
Delete
The
button will delete a selected material from the material list.
After all materials required for the model have been created, they can be assigned to the grid, using
mode (1), (2), (3) or (4), described above. Figure 1.38 illustrates the assignment of two materials
in three layers in a model.
Layer
mode
When a material is assigned, a GROUP command is created to associate a group name with a
material, a MODEL command is created to prescribe the selected constitutive model, and a PROPERTY
command is created to assign the associated material properties. The commands are listed in the
Changes pane in Figure 1.38.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 39
1 - 40
Figure 1.40
Edit
Make changes to a material in the Edit pane and press Apply at the bottom of the tool to update the
material. The Create and Clone buttons at the bottom of the Selection pane are used to create new
materials to add to the database. Copy->Database adds the material to the database under the specified
classification name. The material is removed from the Selection pane using the Remove button.
The Save , Append and Load buttons beneath the material tree (in Figure 1.39) are used to save-to-file,
append to, or load-from-file the database that you create. The Delete button allows you to delete
materials from the database. A user-created database is given the extension .GMT when it is
saved in a selected directory using the Save button.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.3.3
Cut&Fill
1 - 41
Tool
The Cut&Fill tool is used, in conjunction with the Assign tool, for the case in which either elastic
or Mohr-Coulomb material is added to the model (fill material) or subtracted from the model
(excavated material) during different stages of the analysis e.g., adding embankment lifts in the
construction of an earth dam. Note that this tool only applies to elastic or Mohr-Coulomb materials
created with the Assign tool. The Cut&Fill tool cannot be used, at this time, with advanced material
models assigned with the Model tool. The tool is shown in Figure 1.41.
Figure 1.41
Cut&Fill
tool
After materials are created in the Assign tool, these materials will be listed in the List pane of the
Cut&Fill
tool, as shown in Figure 1.41. A material is excavated by selecting the material name in
the material List and then pressing Excavate . Alternatively, you can right-click on the material in the
model view; a pop-up menu will then open and you can select Excavate . If the Show excavations? box is
checked, a shaded region will be shown in the model view to help identify which materials have
been excavated.
In order to fill an excavated region, highlight the excavated material name in List and click on Fill .
You can also right-click on the excavated material to select Fill on the pop-up menu. In Figure 1.41,
four materials (Layer 1 through Layer 4) have been excavated, and Layer 1 has been filled. The
associated MODEL commands are listed in the Changes pane in the Cut&Fill tool when the material
is either excavated or filled. Note that all material regions in the FLAC grid must be defined before
the FLAC calculation is started. If materials are to be added at a later stage of an analysis, they can
be nulled (excavated) before beginning the calculation and then added (filled) at the later stage.
1 - 42
1.2.3.4
GWProp
Tool
The GWProp tool is used to set the porosity and permeability properties for the groundwater-flow
configuration (when CONFIG gw is specified). The tool is shown in Figure 1.42. Zones are selected
to assign the groundwater properties in one of four ways, as described previously in Section 1.2.3.1.
After the zone selection is made, a Model Groundwater properties dialog will open, as shown
in Figure 1.42. Either constant values for porosity and (isotropic or anisotropic) permeability, or
values that vary as a function of volumetric strain, can be specified. See the PROPERTY command in
Section 1 in the Command Reference for a description of the porosity and permeability properties.
The Biot coefficient is also set in this tool, if Set Biot on? is selected in the GW (Flow) Settings dialog
accessed from the GW tool in the Settings tab. See Section 1.2.7.3.
Figure 1.42
GWProp
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.3.5
Model
1 - 43
Tool
All material constitutive models are available through the GIIC if the Include Advanced Constitutive Models?
box is checked in the Models Options dialog. Note that this option can be turned on at any stage of
the FLAC analysis. When this box is checked, the Model and Property buttons are added to the Material
tool bar.
The constitutive models are divided into seven groups and accessed by clicking on one of the radio
buttons: Null , Elastic , Plastic , Creep , Dynamic , User Fish or User C++ . Note that the Creep button, the
Dynamic
button and the User C++ button will only be visible if the creep-analysis mode, the dynamicanalysis mode or the C++ user-defined model mode, respectively, is checked in the Model Options
dialog. The User Fish button is included after a FISH constitutive model is called into FLAC. (See
Section 1.2.3.7 for information on implementing FISH constitutive models in FLAC.) The User C++
button is included after a C++ user-defined model is called into FLAC. (See Section 1.2.3.8 for
information on implementing C++ user-defined models.) Figure 1.43 shows the Model tool with all
constitutive models available.
Figure 1.43
Model
tool
When you select a radio button, a list of constitutive models will be shown in the bottom-right corner
of the Model tool. For example, the Plastic radio button is checked, and six of the eight plasticity
models are visible, in Figure 1.43.
In order to assign a constitutive model to the FLAC grid, first select one of the models. The
ubiquitous-joint model is selected in Figure 1.43. A constitutive model is assigned to zones in a
1 - 44
FLAC model in one of four ways, as explained previously in Section 1.2.3.1. When the assignment
is made (for example, by pressing SetAll ), a properties dialog will open. The Model ubiquitous
properties dialog is shown in Figure 1.43. After entering the properties in the dialog, press OK and
a MODEL and PROPERTY command will be created and shown in the Changes pane. A group name
can be associated with the constitutive model for the selected zone range. Note that the group name
must be assigned before the zone range is selected. For example, the group name bedded shale is
associated with the ubiquitous-joint model before SetAll is pressed. A GROUP command is then
also created when OK is pressed in the properties dialog. After all constitutive models have been
assigned to the FLAC grid, press Execute to send the commands to FLAC and return to the main
window. The model-view pane will be updated to show the assigned constitutive models.
1.2.3.6
Property
Tool
The Property tool accesses all material properties associated with the constitutive models provided in
the Model tool. Material properties can be prescribed individually for each zone in a model or over a
region of zones. A linear variation of the property over a given range can also be prescribed, and the
values of the property can be chosen randomly from a normal (Gaussian) distribution. Figure 1.44
shows the Property tool. The cohesion property, used in the ubiquitous-joint model, is highlighted,
and the SetAll button is pressed. This causes a dialog to open to specify a value and optional variation
for the cohesion property. A spatial variation in the y-direction is given for cohesion in Figure 1.44.
When OK is pressed, a PROPERTY command with a var keyword is created. (See Section 1.1.3.4 in
the Command Reference for the definition of var to apply a spatial variation.) See the PROPERTY
command description in Section 1 in the Command Reference for descriptions of the different
ways material properties can be varied.
After the property change or variation has been made, press Execute to send the PROPERTY command(s) to FLAC. If you wish to confirm the action taken with the PROPERTY command, return to
the Property tool, highlight the property in question, and press the Plot values . A contour plot of the
selected property will appear in the model-view of the Property tool. Figure 1.45 shows the contour
plot of cohesion corresponding to the variation assigned in Figure 1.44.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.44
1 - 45
Property
tool
1 - 46
FishLib
library
The user-defined model can now be loaded into FLAC by pressing the OK button in the FishLib tool.
Once the model is loaded, the User Fish radio button is added to the Model tool. The FISH model
can now be applied to the FLAC grid and material properties assigned in the same manner as that
for the built-in models, as described in Section 1.2.3.5. Figure 1.47 shows the Model user-defined
properties: dialog opened to assign properties for this FISH constitutive model.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.47
1 - 47
User Fish
button added to
Model
tool
1 - 48
1.2.3.8
LoadModel
Tool
The LoadModel tool is added to the Material tool bar when the CPP UDMs box is checked in the Model
Options dialog. This tool is used to load user-defined models, written in C++ and compiled as DLL
(dynamic link library) files, into FLAC. See Section 4 in Optional Features for instructions on
creating new constitutive models for FLAC. Once you have created a new model as a DLL, press
the LoadModel button to open a dialog and load the model into FLAC. Select the directory in which the
DLL file is located, and click on the DLL file name. This will create a MODEL load command and
load the model into the FLAC executable. The new model can then be assigned to zones in FLAC in
exactly the same way as the built-in models. For example, Figure 1.48 shows the Model tool after a
user-defined model, usermohr.dll, has been loaded. When the model is assigned to zones, a Model
dll usermohr properties: dialog opens, as shown in the figure, to enter properties for this model.
Figure 1.48
User C++
LoadModel
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.3.9
Thermal
1 - 49
Tool
The Thermal tool is added to the Material tool bar when the Thermal box is checked in the Model Options
dialog. The tool is shown in Figure 1.49. This tool assigns thermal models to a FLAC grid. The
models (thermal null, isotropic heat conduction, anisotropic heat conduction and isotropic heat
conduction with temperature-dependent thermal conductivity) are shown in the Thermal Tool list
on the right side of the Thermal tool. If the groundwater-flow configuration is set ( GWFlow checked in
the Model Options dialog), then thermal-GW is added to the Thermal Tool list. In order to assign a
thermal model to the FLAC grid, highlight the model name in the Thermal Tool list, and then use
one of the four methods discussed in Section 1.2.3.1 to assign the model to specific zones. After
the zones are selected, a dialog will open to enter properties corresponding to the chosen thermal
model. For example, in Figure 1.49, the Model th isotropic properties: dialog is shown to assign
properties for the isotropic heat conduction model.
Figure 1.49
Thermal
tool
1 - 50
1.2.4
In Situ
Tools
The In Situ tools assign boundary conditions and initial conditions to the FLAC model. There
are four tools to assign these conditions. The Apply tool and the Fix tool set boundary conditions
along the boundary of the model. The Interior tool prescribes an unchanging condition to interior
gridpoints or zones. The Initial tool assigns initial conditions to gridpoints or zones; conditions
can change during the solution process with this tool.
1.2.4.1
Apply
Tool
The Apply tool assigns boundary conditions to the FLAC model. The types of boundary conditions are
listed in the B. C. types pane, an expandable tree shown in Figure 1.50. The boundary conditions
are divided into six groups: Stress, Velocity, Force, Dynamic, Groundwater and Thermal. The
Dynamic, Groundwater and Thermal groups will only be visible if the dynamic analysis mode, the
groundwater flow mode or the thermal analysis mode, respectively, is checked in the Model Options
dialog.
Figure 1.50
Apply
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 51
In order to assign a boundary condition, first select the condition in the B. C. types list. For example,
pressure is highlighted in the Stress group in Figure 1.50. After highlighting the condition, click
and drag the mouse along the boundary on which the condition is to be applied. A highlight bar
will appear with a circle denoting the starting gridpoint for the applied condition. Next, press the
Assign
button, which opens an Assign value dialog. Enter the value for the boundary condition and
then press OK to create the APPLY command.
An optional spatial variation can be prescribed in the Assign value dialog when the Variation box is
checked. The spatial variation is assigned using the relation given by Eq. (3.2) in the Users Guide.
If a spatial variation is assigned, an arrow will appear along the selected boundary; the arrow points
in the direction of the most positive value. For example, a variation in the y-direction is specified
for the xx-stress component in Figure 1.51. The arrow is pointing upward in this figure because
the stress varies from a value of -100 at the bottom of the model to zero at the top. (Recall that
negative stresses indicate compression.)
Figure 1.51 Spatial variation in the boundary condition value assigned with
the Apply tool
A history multiplier can also be specified for the boundary condition value in order to apply a timevarying boundary condition. The multiplier can be given as a FISH function, an input history or an
input table. The boundary-condition value in the Value box (or adjusted by the X-Y Variation) in
the Assign value dialog is multiplied by the history multiplier. If a FISH function is the multiplier,
then the function must first be called into FLAC. See Section 1.5 for instructions on using the FISH
Editor to create and execute FISH functions in the GIIC. If the multiplier is an input history, the
history file must be formatted in the form described for the HISTORY read command as given in
1 - 52
Section 1 in the Command Reference. If the multiplier is an input table, then the table must be
formatted in the form described for the TABLE command as given in Section 1 in the Command
Reference. See Section 1.2.6.2 for instructions on creating a table. The input history and input
table only apply for the dynamic-analysis option.
Figure 1.52 illustrates the specification of an input history as a multiplier. A file, ACC1.HIS, is
an acceleration record formatted as described for the HISTORY read command. The History radio
button is pressed in the Multiplier pane of the Assign value dialog. The ? button is then pressed
to locate the directory in which the ACC1.HIS file is located. When this file is selected, it is
assigned a history number, and a HISTORY read command is created. This command is then sent to
FLAC and the history file is read into the code. By pressing OK in the Assign value dialog, an APPLY
command is created with the hist keyword. Finally, when Execute is pressed in the Apply dialog, the
APPLY command is sent to FLAC and the GIIC returns to the main window. The HISTORY read and
APPLY commands are now listed in the resource pane.
Apply
tool
Note that the form of the boundary path (short, long or both) can be selected, and the apply condition
can be removed in the Apply tool. Also, note that a Free-Field button is provided to assign a free-field
boundary condition for dynamic analysis.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.4.2
Fix
1 - 53
Tool
With the Fix tool, velocity, pore pressure, saturation and temperature (and non-wetting pore pressure
and seepage for two-phase flow analysis) can be prevented from changing at selected gridpoints.
This tool is typically used to set mechanical, groundwater or thermal boundary conditions for a
model. For example, if a fixed displacement (i.e., roller or pinned) boundary condition is required,
the appropriate velocities are first initialized (using the Initial tool; note that zero velocity is the
default on start-up) and then the selected boundary gridpoints are fixed to prevent movement.
Figure 1.53 shows the Fix tool.
Figure 1.53
Fix
tool
In order to fix a condition, select the corresponding type (e.g., in Figure 1.53, the X&Y gridpoint
velocity is selected). Then click and drag the mouse over the gridpoints to be fixed. A circle will
appear as the pointer passes over the gridpoint, and a letter designation will appear when the mouse
button is released. In Figure 1.53, the letter B is shown, which designates that the gridpoint is
fixed in both the x- and y-directions. A FIX command will also be created and listed in the Changes
pane. Press Execute to send the FIX command(s) to FLAC. A SetMarked GP button and Set All GP button
are provided to apply the fixity condition to multiple gridpoints. A fixity condition can also be
removed in this tool by first selecting the Free radio button and then dragging the mouse over the
gridpoints to be freed.
1 - 54
1.2.4.3
Initial
Tool
Certain gridpoint or zone variables can be assigned initial values using the Initial tool. The gridpoint
variables and zone variables are grouped separately in expandable trees shown in Figures 1.54 and
1.55. In order to assign initial values to a selected variable, first select the variable name. Next,
click and drag the mouse over the gridpoints (or zones) that are to be assigned initial values. For
example, in Figure 1.54, gridpoint pore pressure* is selected (pp), and the mouse is dragged over
the lower seven rows of gridpoints; these gridpoints are then highlighted. Now, press the Assign
button. This opens a dialog to input the initial value. Several options to assign initial values are
available. In order to assign a pore pressure distribution that increases with depth, check the Variation
box and enter the variation according to Eq. (3.2) in the Users Guide. When a spatial variation is
assigned, an arrow will appear over the selected gridpoints; the arrow points in the direction of the
most positive value. A downward arrow is shown in Figure 1.54 for the variation specified in the
dialog. This corresponds to an increasing pore pressure with depth in the model.
Initial
tool
Note that if a variable is to be assigned initial values for all gridpoints in the model, press Assign
immediately after highlighting the variable name. It is not necessary to drag the mouse over all
of the gridpoints. Also, note that once the gridpoints are selected to initialize one variable, those
gridpoints and the selected value and variation will be remembered for the next variable assignment.
* Note that gridpoint pore pressures are initialized when GWFlow is selected in the Model Options dialog.
When GWFlow is not selected, then pore pressures are initialized as zone quantities.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 55
Assigning an initial value for zone variables is performed in the same way as for gridpoint variables.
In this case, zones are highlighted when the mouse is dragged across the model, as shown in
Figure 1.55. This figures illustrates the assignment of a yy-stress distribution, ranging from -107 at
the bottom of the model to zero at the top. The variation is prescribed in accordance with Eq. (3.2)
in the Users Guide. The arrow now points upward in the direction of the most positive value.
Two additional radio buttons are provided on the value assignment dialog. The Add option allows
the specified value, including the variation given, to be added to the existing values at the selected
gridpoints or zones. The Mul option allows the existing value at the gridpoint or zone to be multiplied
by the specified value (including any variations).
When the OK button is pressed in the dialog, an INITIAL command (with optional add or multiply
keywords) is added to the Changes pane. These commands are then sent to FLAC when Execute is
pressed.
Initial
tool
After you have assigned initial values in the FLAC model, you can return to the Initial tool and
check this assignment. By highlighting the variable name and then pressing Plot values , a contour
plot of the values assigned for that variable will be plotted. For example, Figure 1.56 shows the
pore pressure contours for the distribution assigned previously in Figure 1.54.
1 - 56
Plot values
in the
Initial
tool
A Displmt & Velocity button is also provided in the bottom-right corner of this tool. Press this button whenever you wish to initialize displacements and velocities in a model. This creates two
commands: INITIAL xdisp 0 ydisp 0 and INITIAL xvel 0 yvel 0 to send to FLAC.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.4.4
Interior
1 - 57
Tool
The Interior tool is used to apply mechanical, groundwater and thermal conditions to any interior
gridpoint or zone in the model. Note that these are fixed conditions within the model. The gridpoint
interior conditions and zone interior conditions are grouped separately in expandable trees shown
in Figures 1.57 and 1.58. The application is similar to that for the APPLY tool. Select the interior
condition to be applied and then click and drag the mouse over the selected gridpoints or zones to
apply the condition. Then press Assign to open a dialog to assign the value for the interior condition.
Figure 1.57 illustrates the application of an x-acceleration at one gridpoint in the model, and
Figure 1.58 shows the application of a groundwater well over two zones. Note that the dialog is
identical to that for the APPLY tool. In Figure 1.57, the acceleration is applied with a history multiplier.
In Figure 1.58, the well is applied with a time-varying FISH function. See the discussion for the
APPLY
tool in Section 1.2.4.1 for use of the history and FISH multipliers.
Figure 1.57
Interior
1 - 58
Figure 1.58
Interior
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.5
Structure
1 - 59
Tools
The Structure tools define the geometry, properties, and element and nodal conditions for structural
elements. These tools are activated when the Include Structural Elements? box is checked in the Model
Options dialog. Note that the Structure tool tab can be activated at any time in an analysis; click on
File / Model options to open the Model Options dialog and activate the Structure tools. There are
ten Structure tools. Seven tools, Beam , Liner , Cable , Pile , Rockbolt , Strip and Support , are used to define
the geometry of the structural elements. The Segment tool sets conditions for structural element
segments, and the Node tool sets conditions for structural element nodes. The SEProp tool assigns
properties to the structural elements.
1 - 60
The Add mode is used to create a new structural element or to add nodes/segments to an existing
structural element. Figure 1.59 shows a pile with 30 segments that has been created by defining
four nodes. Each of the four nodes was clicked while the <Ctrl> button was pressed, which
causes the node to snap to the nearest gridpoint. This is indicated by the X that appears inside
the node box. Note that the Segments property is set to 10, which results in 10 segments appearing
between each of the defined nodes.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 61
The Delete mode is used to delete one or more nodes; intermediate nodes between defined nodes
are not available to delete. The delete mode works on sections of the element rather than on the
nodes themselves. Hovering over a section of an element will cause that section to be highlighted,
indicating that it will be removed when it is clicked in delete mode (shown in Figure 1.60).
Individual structural element segments can be deleted after the structural element is created. See
the Segment tool in Section 1.2.5.9.
Figure 1.60 Deleting mode: the middle section of the pile element is highlighted as the mouse hovers over it to indicate that it will be removed when the mouse is clicked
1 - 62
The Prop ID mode causes the elements property ID to be displayed when the mode is activated.
Clicking on the segment associated with an ID number will open a dialog that may be used to
assign a new number. In Figure 1.61, the identification number P1 corresponds to pile property
identification number 3001. Clicking on the segment allows the identification number to be changed
to P2, which will correspond to ID 3002 identification numbers are added sequentially.
PropID
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 63
The Move mode is used to move a defined element. The element may be moved by click and dragging
an endpoint or by click and dragging on any part of the element. In Figure 1.62, pile P2 from
the previous figure has been moved by dragging its top node to the location of P1s bottom node.
Holding <Ctrl> while doing so causes the node to snap to the gridpoint at its new location. Since
this position already contains a node, a dialog appears as shown, asking whether the two nodes
should be merged into one. Answering no to the dialog will leave two nodes situated at that
location.
1 - 64
The Pin mode is used to establish pin connections. By default, moments develop at nodes connecting
multiple segments of a beam, liner, pile or rockbolt element or elements. As with the Delete mode,
the mouse operation is performed on the segment between nodes rather than directly on the nodes.
Hovering over a segment causes it to be highlighted. Clicking on the segment causes an arrow to
be drawn, indicating a pin connection; a corresponding STRUCT node n pin command is created.
The denoted connection can be removed by clicking on the arrow. Note that structural moments are
not transmitted to gridpoints; thus an element connected to the grid is pin-jointed to the gridpoint
at each connection point. In Figure 1.63, a pin connection is created between the two nodes in the
same location from the previous figure. When one node is pinned to another, the nodes are slaved.
Nodes may also be slaved using the Node tool, described below in Section 1.2.5.10.
Pin
mode
As mentioned above, the Pile elements may be removed by pressing the Clear button; a new element
may be described numerically in dialogs using the NewInput button. It is important to note that all of
the actions performed in a structural element tool apply to the currently created elements(s). These
actions result in commands that are sent to FLAC when Execute is pressed. It is not possible to return
to the tool and perform operations on previously created elements of that type. The only exception
is that you can create a new element and connect the new end-node to a previously created element
node.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.5.3
The
Beam
Beam
1 - 65
Tool
tool creates beam elements. The tool has two base forms:
Lining
and
Free
In free form, a beam is created, defined by one segment and two nodes, when the mouse is pressed,
dragged and released. Each node, by default, is positioned in x-y space, and a STRUCTURE node n x
y command is generated when the mouse is clicked. Nodes attached to gridpoints using the <Ctrl>
key (as described in the previous section) will generate STRUCTURE node n grid i j commands. It
is possible to change the attachment condition of the node by right-clicking a node. This opens a
Node Parameters dialog that allows you to change the node condition to either free or attach to grid ,
depending on the selected radio button.
Figure 1.64 The Node Parameters dialog is used to change the attachment
condition of a node in the Beam tool
When the beam commands are executed, a series of STRUCTURE node commands are sent to FLAC,
followed by a series of STRUCTURE beam begin node n1 end node n2 prop 1001 commands which
connect all beam nodes to create the beams (the property identification number 1001 is assigned,
by default, to the beam; this may be changed using the PropID mode of the Beam tool).
Multiple beams can be created and connected together, or connected to existing beams or other
elements. If the node of a new element is defined at the location of existing element node, the
existing node will be defined as an end-node for the new beam.
In lining form, a beam may be created along some or all of an internal or external grid boundary. In
addition, this form contains a range of switches that may be set to further define a lining beam.
1 - 66
Nodes may be attached in one of three ways: to the grid; to an interface; or to an existing liner or
beam. In the case of a beam lining attached to an interface, it is also possible to create a gap from
the grid at a specified distance. If either to an interface or to a liner/beam is selected, the specification
of the new element will cause an Interface properties dialog to appear to provide the properties
for the interface that is created along with the beam element (this is shown in Figure 1.65). This
dialog is the same as that described in Section 1.2.2.4. When the beam with interface connection
is executed, INTERFACE commands will be generated in addition to the STRUCT beam commands.
Beam
tool
Using the to an interface mode for assignment of a beam (the option also appears in the liner tool)
is a quick, automatic way to generate both the structural element and the interface. However, it is
possible to separately specify a liner or beam element and an interface and then connect the two.
This process is described in detail in the following section, Section 1.2.5.4.
Toggling the Long check box will cause the tool to define an element using the longest path between
starting point and endpoint. As a result, a single click on a point will specify a lining along the
entire boundary selected. Clicking on a point and dragging will first line the entire boundary and
then erase the element along the direction of the dragging motion.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 67
Beam
tool
After creating the wall with beam elements, the soil/wall interface is created with the Alter / Interface
tool. Note that the connection of the structural element nodes to the interface nodes is orderdependent. The active side of the beam elements is on the left of the direction in which the
interface nodes are assigned. In other words, the contacting grid must be approaching from the left.
In this example, the A-side of the interface is attached to the beam nodes. In Figure 1.67, A-side and
Beam
are selected. Clicking and dragging from the top beam segment to the bottom beam segment
causes a circle to appear over the beam segments to indicate that the beam is being connected to
the interface. When the mouse button is released, a hatched pattern will appear on one side of the
1 - 68
beam elements; this indicates the active side of the beam. (Note that the direction of the active side
can be reversed by pressing the Reverse Beam button.)
Interface
tool
The B-side is connected to the grid by checking the B-side and Grid buttons and clicking and dragging
the mouse from the top gridpoint to the bottom gridpoint that will be interacting with the beam. A
bar will appear along the grid when the mouse button is released, as shown in Figure 1.68. Finally,
press the Assign button to assign interface properties, and then Execute to send the created INTERFACE
commands to FLAC.
If the wall is embedded on both sides within the grid (e.g., an embedded sheetpile wall), then
interfaces must be attached to both sides of the beam element. The same procedure as before is
followed to attach the interface between the beam nodes and the gridpoints. Remember that the
active side of the beam is reversed when the second interface is connected. It is recommended that
the Retaining wall, 2 interfaces in the Build / Library tool be used as a template to create a model with
an embedded wall.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Liner
1 - 69
Interface
tool
Tool
The liner tool behaves in all respects like, and contains identical controls to, the Beam tool when it is
in the lining form. The difference between the tools is the difference between the element types:
beam elements and liner elements have different element behaviors and have different methods of
interacting with the FLAC grid. See Sections 1.2 and 1.3 in Structural Elements to understand
the differences between these element types.
1 - 70
1.2.5.6
Cable
Tool
A cable is specified by defining two end-nodes positioned in x-y space; and the cable consists of 10
segments according to the tools default segments setting. It is recommended that the number of
segments be chosen such that there is approximately one cable node located within every zone along
the length of the cable. For example, Figure 1.69 shows a cable consisting of five segments, passing
though five zones in the model. When the cable is created, STRUCT node commands define the
cable end-nodes, and a STRUCTURE cable begin node n1 end node n2 seg m prop 2001 command
defines the cable. The property identification number 2001 is assigned, by default, to the cable.
Figure 1.69
Cable
tool
In addition to the common Add , PropID , Move and Delete modes, the cable tool may be pre-tensioned
by checking the Tension radio button and then clicking on the element. This will cause a Pretension
cable dialog to open so that a pre-tension axial force can be assigned.
Cables can be connected to each other, or connected to other existing elements. When cables are
connected to other elements they share the same node.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.5.7
Pile
Rockbolt
1 - 71
, and
Strip
Tools
As was seen earlier with the Liner tool and the Beam tool in Lining form, the Pile , Rockbolt , and
Strip
tools behave the same in all respects and contain identical controls. The tools are different
because they define different element types: pile, rockbolt, and strip elements have different element
behaviors and have different methods of interacting with the FLAC grid. See Sections 1.5, 1.6 and
1.7 in Structural Elements to understand the differences between these element types. The use of
the Pile tool is described below but the description is fully applicable to the Rockbolt and Strip tools
as well.
A pile is specified by defining two end-nodes positioned in x-y space; the pile consists of 10 segments
according to the tools default segments setting. It is recommended that the number of segments
be chosen such that there is approximately one pile node located within every zone along the length
of the pile. For example, Figure 1.70 shows two piles, each consisting of 10 segments, passing
though 11 zones in the model. When the pile is created, STRUCT node commands define the pile
end-nodes, and a STRUCTURE pile begin node n1 end node n2 seg m prop 3001 command defines
the pile. The property identification number 3001 is assigned, by default, to the pile.
Figure 1.70
Pile
tool
Piles, rockbolts, and strips can be connected to each other or to other elements. When one of these
elements is connected to another element, they share the same node. Pile, rockbolt, and strip nodes
cannot be connected to existing cable nodes.
1 - 72
1.2.5.8
Support
Tool
The Support tool creates support elements. Supports are added to the FLAC model by positioning
and left-clicking the mouse at the location corresponding to the central point of the support. The
left-click will open a Support Geometry Parameters dialog that allows the user to change the
geometry (i.e., inclination angle, position, width and segment number) of the support. It should be
noted that certain conditions must be satisfied to generate support elements. Otherwise, a warning
message will be issued from the GIIC. Detailed constraints on support creation can be found in the
Command Reference for the STRUCT support command.
Figure 1.71
Support
tool
When the geometry dialog is confirmed, the support will be generated virtually. At this point,
mouse-dragging or right-clicking on the support to open the geometry dialog again can change the
support geometry and position, if the Move radio button has been selected. Support elements may be
deleted by left-clicking the support with the Delete radio button selected. The support property ID
can be changed by checking the PropID radio button and right-clicking on the support. When Execute
is pressed, a series of STRUCT support (xc, yc) width value seg ns angle value prop np commands
will be sent to FLAC.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.5.9
Segment
1 - 73
Tool
The Segment tool allows you to either delete individual structural element segments or define plastic
hinges at nodes connecting element segments. Element segment numbers are shown when you
enter this tool. Check the Delete radio button and click on the element segments you wish to delete.
Check the Hinge button and click and drag the mouse over the segments to be connected by plastic
hinges. For example, in Figure 1.72, the mouse is dragged from segment 21 to segment 23 to assign
plastic hinges to the connecting nodes. Note that the STRUCT hinge 21 23 command is created as a
result of this operation.
Figure 1.72
Segment
tool
1 - 74
1.2.5.10
Node
Tool
Structural node conditions are specified with the Node tool. Structural node numbers are shown when
you enter this tool. Click on a node number to open a dialog of conditions for that number. The
translational and rotational velocity components can be initialized (set values under Initial Velocity )
and fixed (check boxes under Fix ). Loads and moments can be assigned (set values under Load ),
and nodes can be slaved to other nodes (check boxes under Slave ).
For example, in Figure 1.73, a vertical load is applied to node 25 and node 26. The dialog for
Node:26 is shown in the plot.
Figure 1.73
Node
tool
In Figure 1.73, node 23 is slaved to node 1. Note that a + sign is shown with the node numbers
in the Node tool if two nodes are slaved e.g., 1 + 23. The Node tool dialog may be used to
slave nodes together (using the Slave section of the dialog). Nodes may also be slaved together
when the structural element containing the node is defined, using the Pin mode described earlier in
Section 1.2.5.2.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 75
The operations described above are for the Individual mode. The modes Range and All allow
the user to change or initialize conditions for many nodes in one operation. For example, the Node
Range Edit dialog (shown in Figure 1.74) can be opened by clicking nodes 12 and 16 sequentially
in Figure 1.73. Any subsequent confirmed changes in this dialog will apply to nodes 12 through 16.
Mode All will bring out Node Range Edit with all existing structural nodes and apply subsequent
operations to all of them.
1 - 76
1.2.5.11
SEProp
Tool
Structural element properties are assigned with the SEProp tool. Property identification numbers (by
default, B1 for beams, L1 for liners,C1 for cables, P1 for piles, R1 for rockbolts, T1
for strips, and S1 for supports) are shown over all structural element segments when you enter
this tool. Click on any identification number to open a properties dialog. The properties dialog for
every tool (except support elements) contains two tabbed property sets, Geometric and Mechanical . Use
the controls in the dialog to enter or change structural element properties. For example, the Geometric
tab for the element with a property identification number is shown in Figure 1.75; the Mechanical tab
for the same element is shown in Figure 1.76.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 77
New property identification numbers can be created by pressing the New button in the dialog. For
example, in Figure 1.77, a new pile material property number, P2, is created, and properties can
be specified for this number. The highlighted property number will be assigned to the selected
structural element segment when OK is pressed. Using the Clone button in the dialog will create a
new property number with its properties set identically to the currently selected property number.
The New and Clone commands allow properties to be varied along portions of a beam, liner, cable,
pile, rockbolt or strip element.
1 - 78
1.2.6
Utility
Tools
The Utility tools provide access to utilities in FLAC that facilitate model generation and monitoring.
Four tools are provided. The History tool accesses model variables in order to monitor their response
during the calculation cycling. The Table tool sets up a table of x- and y-values for use by FLAC.
The Info tool prints output to the Console pane. The FishLib tool provides direct access to execute
FISH functions.
1.2.6.1
History
Tool
The History tool accesses FLAC variables to monitor during the calculation cycling. A variable type
and location in the model are selected with the tool. A HISTORY command is then generated to send
to FLAC. The variables are divided into six categories: General , GP , Zone , GW Flow Track , Struct Element
and Struct Node , as shown in the Mode pane in Figure 1.79. By selecting the radio button for each
category, the History Information pane will change to access specific variables. For example, Zone
is selected in Figure 1.79 and a list of zone variables appears in the History Information pane. Select
the name of the variable to be monitored, and then select a zone in the model in which the history
will be recorded. In Figure 1.79, the yy-stress is monitored in zone i = 10, j = 20. The HISTORY
1 syy i=10 j=20 command is created, as shown in the Changes pane in the figure, when the zone is
selected.
Figure 1.79
History
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 79
In a similar manner, gridpoint variables can be monitored by selecting GP , and variables associated
with structural element segments and structural nodes can be monitored by selecting Struct Element
and Struct Node , respectively.
The General category monitors global variables such as the unbalanced force ratio. For these variables, the Add button should be pressed to create the appropriate HISTORY command to monitor the
change in the variable.
The GW Flow Track category permits monitoring of particle transport during a groundwater flow calculation. A dialog opens when the Add button is selected for this category, and parameters can then
be specified for creating the TRACK command.
Only those histories that correspond to variables that are active for the FLAC model will be made
available in the History tool. For example, if the groundwater flow configuration is not selected in
the Model Options dialog, then the GW Flow Track category will be disabled, and groundwater-related
variables will not be shown in the History Information pane. In Figure 1.79, the Struct Element and
Struct Node
categories are disabled because structural elements have not been included in the model
options.
Histories are assigned history numbers sequentially. Numbers can be specified manually using
the ID box. The step size at which the variable is recorded can be changed by clicking on the
Step
button. (This applies to all histories previously-defined as well as to-be-defined histories.)
Histories can be erased and history numbering reset by pressing the Reset button.
A history can be written to a table by pressing the History->Table button. This opens a dialog to
select an existing history to write its record to a table. The HISTORY write nh table nt command is
generated.
A history can be recorded for a FISH variable by pressing the Fish->History button. This opens a
scroll-down list of all existing FISH variables in the model. When the FISH variable is highlighted
and OK is pressed, a HISTORY command will be generated for that variable.
A history can be written in ASCII format to a file, named FLAC.HIS by default, if the Save button
is pressed. This opens a Save history to a file dialog; the file name can be changed and the history
range can be limited in this dialog. This tool generates the HISTORY write command.
The Read button is used to read in a history file to a FLAC model. Once a history is read into FLAC,
it is available for use with the APPLY command, or for conversion to a table.
1.2.6.2
Table
Tool
The Table tool sets up a table of x- and y-values for use by FLAC. This tool is mainly intended for
generation of geometric tables, for example, to locate boundaries within the model grid for use by
the Table mode in the Alter / Shape tool (see Section 1.2.2.2), or to locate a water table for use in the
Settings GW
/ tool (see Section 1.2.7.3).
In order to create a geometric table, select Add/move points in the Mode pane, and point and click
at different locations within the model view. With each click, a line connects the previous table
point to the current table point. After you have created a table point, you can right-click on the
1 - 80
point to open a Table dialog to enter x- and y-coordinate values to locate the point more precisely.
Figure 1.80 shows a table created by a series of points located across a grid.
Table points can also be moved when Add/move points is selected by click-and-dragging the point. Table
points can be deleted from the current table by selecting Delete points and clicking on the point(s) to
be deleted. The last table point entered can also be deleted by pressing the Delete Last button.
If the Closed? box is checked, the table line will be made into a closed loop by adding a point that
coincides with the starting point for the table.
All table points for the current table can be cleared and the table removed by pressing the
button.
Figure 1.80
Table
Reset
tool
A TABLE command, with the corresponding x- and y-values, is sent to FLAC when the Execute
button is pressed. Note that the table can be viewed in the model view of the GIIC main window by
right-clicking the mouse within the model view. This opens a pop-up menu (see Section 1.4.1.1);
select Tables and the table line will appear in the model view.
Existing tables can be edited or deleted by returning to the Table tool. Check the Pick Table box and
click on the table line to be edited. The active table line will be highlighted. Press the Edit Table
button and table points can be added, moved or deleted as before.
The currently active table data can be saved as a TABLE command with associated points by pressing
the Save button.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 81
It is also possible to type in a table of x- and y-values using the Edit Table points (x y pairs) dialog
(Figure 1.81) by pressing Edit numerically . This dialog can be used to import x- and y-value pairs by
cut-and-pasting text or by opening a file with pair values (using the File / Open menu item in the
dialog). The dialog contents can also be saved by using the File / SaveAs menu item. Figure 1.81
shows the dialog with 10 x-y pairs. Note that the text must be in the format of xy values (with a
space for a separator between values) on each text line.
A dialog of this type is used for other applications of tables in FLAC, such as assigning a variation in
strength properties versus plastic strain for the softening models in the Material / Model tool, assigning
a variation in porosity or permeability versus volume strain for these groundwater properties using
the Material / GWProp tool, or assigning histories for boundary conditions using either the In Situ / Apply
or In Situ / Interior tool.
Note that if the Tables menu item is selected in the model view pop-up menu, then all tables will be
visible. If you only wish to view the geometric tables, you can restrict the view to a range of table
ID numbers. For example, if the geometric tables have ID numbers ranging from 1 to 10, select
the File / Preference Settings menu item, click on the View tab and specify the minimum and
maximum table ID numbers of 1 and 10. Now, only tables with ID numbers in this range will be
visible on the model view.
1 - 82
1.2.6.3
Info
Tool
The Info tool is used to print output of FLAC variables to the Console pane. The variables are grouped
into four categories: General , Structures , GPs and Zones , as shown in the Mode pane in Figure 1.82.
An expandable list of the variables associated with each group will appear when the radio button is
selected for the category. Select the variable for output. If a GPs variable is selected, then the output
range can be specified for selected gridpoints by checking the Rectangle radio button. Then, click
and drag the mouse over the gridpoints selected for output. These gridpoints will be highlighted.
Press the Output button and a PRINT command will be generated for the selected variable and range.
The output will then be printed in the Console pane. For example, in Figure 1.82, the y-positions
of gridpoints along the left boundary of the model are selected, and a PRINT y i=1 j=1,21 command
is generated to print these positions in the Console pane. The Save Console Pane option on the Console
tab in the Preferences Settings dialog must be selected for proper operation of this tool.
Note that if the All button is selected in the Range pane, the value selected will be output for all
gridpoints in the model.
Output for zone variables is generated in the same manner as that for gridpoints. In addition, a
Region
can be selected for output. If the model contains regions (i.e., groups of zones delineated by
marked gridpoints) then the Region button can be used. A highlight will be drawn around all regions
in the model when this radio button is pressed. Click the mouse on one zone in the selected region,
and the output will be printed for all zones within that region.
If structural element output is required, press the Structures radio button and select the output type.
For example, if beam information is requested, click on the struct beam list item. When Output is
pressed, a PRINT struct beam command will be generated, and beam information will be printed in
the Console pane.
The General button allows output of global variables, such as general model settings (e.g., PRINT
info general) or boundary parameters (e.g., PRINT apply or PRINT interface). Click and highlight the
selected general variable and press Output to print the values.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.82
1 - 83
Info
tool
1 - 84
1.2.6.4
FishLib
Tool
FISH functions generated with the FISH Editor (see Section 1.5) can be executed using the FishLib
tool. Once a FISH function is created, it should be stored in the ITASCA\FLAC500\GUI\Fishlib
directory. When the FishLib tool is opened, a list of all FISH functions in this directory is provided
in a tree structure. The structure is shown in the left pane of the tool in Figure 1.83. (Note that if
you place a new FISH function in this directory, the structure will be updated with the new function
name by pressing the Refresh button at the bottom of the pane.)
Several commonly used FISH functions are provided in the FishLib library. In order to access a FISH
function in the library, select the function from the list. A pane will open in the tool explaining
the operation of the function. For example, in Figure 1.83, the gentableinterface name
is highlighted. As explained in the figure, this function is used to transform the grid to create a
nonlinear, horizontal interface defined by a table.
Figure 1.83
FishLib
tool
In order to use this FISH function, a grid must first be defined, without null zones, and a table line
created, beginning at the left boundary of the grid and ending at the right boundary. The table line
shown in Figure 1.80 satisfies this condition. When the OK button is pressed in the FishLib tool, a
Fish Call Input dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.84. This dialog contains notes and an optional
diagram to help explain the function, plus a list of input parameters associated with the function.
The generation of these components for the FISH function is described in Section 1.5.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 85
1 - 86
1.2.7
Settings
Tools
Global conditions for the FLAC model are set or changed by using the tools in the Settings tool
bar. Eight tools are provided. Five tools are shown in the tool bar by default. The Gravity tool
adds gravity to the model; the Mech tool specifies mechanical analysis settings; the GW tool specifies
groundwater settings; the Solve tool sets criteria for the SOLVE command; and the Misc tool specifies
miscellaneous global settings.
The last three tools are only provided when the associated model configuration is selected in the
Model Options dialog. The Dyna tool specifies dynamic analysis settings; the Creep tool specifies
creep analysis settings; and the Therm tool specifies thermal analysis settings.
1.2.7.1
Gravity
Tool
The gravitational acceleration vector is specified in the FLAC model by clicking on the Gravity tool.
This opens a Gravity Settings dialog, as shown in Figure 1.86. Gravity is specified in terms of a
magnitude and direction angle (measured counterclockwise from the negative y-axis). The gravity
magnitude, corresponding to the system of units selected in the Model Options dialog, can also be
specified automatically by clicking on the World button shown in the Gravity Settings dialog. The
angle can be specified by clicking and dragging the mouse on the x-y axis arrow image.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.7.2
Mech
1 - 87
Tool
Global mechanical settings are specified with the Mech tool. By pressing this button, the Mechanical
Settings dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.87. Mechanical calculations are turned on and off by
checking the Perform mechanical calculations? box in this dialog. The damping type for static solution
(local or combined) is selected, and the damping value is specified, in the Grid Static Damping settings.
The choice of small-strain or large-strain solution mode is made in the Coordinate Update settings. Also,
if large-strain solution is checked, a bad geometry zone limit can be specified (corresponding to
the SET geometry command), and a geometry update frequency (corresponding to the SET update
command) can be given.
1 - 88
1.2.7.3
GW
Tool
Groundwater settings are specified from the GW tool. If the groundwater configuration is not selected
in the Model Options dialog, then the GW (Noflow) Settings dialog will open when GW is selected, as
shown in Figure 1.89. In this case, the water density can be specified in the dialog, if gravitational
loading is applied to the model. Also, if a water table line is created using the Utility / Table tool, then
the table number ID is given in the GW (Noflow) Settings dialog. This corresponds to the WATER
table command. A water table file (in TABLE format) can be called into FLAC by pressing the ?
button.
If the automatic adjustment of total stress (CONFIG ats) is active, then the Biot coefficient of effective
stress can be specified in this dialog.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 89
1 - 90
The automatic adjustment of total stresses for external pore-pressure change can be turned on and
off in the ATS scheme tab pane. With the groundwater configuration, the Biot coefficient of effective
stress can also be taken into consideration in the automatic total stress update scheme, as seen in
Figure 1.92.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 91
If the two-phase flow configuration is selected in the Model Options dialog, then the GW (Twophase flow) Settings dialog opens when the GW button is pressed, as shown in Figure 1.94. The
two-phase flow calculation is turned on and off by checking the Two-phase flow calculation box in this
dialog. The wetting density, the non-wetting density and the minimum relative saturation are also
set in the dialog. These property settings correspond to the WATER density, WATER ndensity and
WATER secap commands.
1 - 92
1.2.7.4
Solve
Tool
Limiting conditions for the automatic detection of a steady-state solution for mechanical calculations
are specified in the Solve Settings dialog opened from the Solve tool. The dialog is shown in
Figure 1.95. The timestep limit, the computer clock time limit, the equilibrium (unbalanced force)
ratio limit and the unbalanced force limit are set in this dialog. See the SOLVE command.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.7.5
Misc
1 - 93
Tool
Several miscellaneous settings are given in the Miscellaneous Settings dialog opened from the
Misc
tool. See Figure 1.96. The seed for randomly generated items can be set (see the SET seed
command). The PCX output mode and settings can be specified (see the SET pcx command). The
interval at which cycling information is written to the screen can be changed (see the SET ncwrite
command), and the beep issued when a calculation is complete is controlled (see the SET beep
command).
1 - 94
1.2.7.6
Dyna
Tool
If the dynamic analysis configuration option is selected in the Model Options dialog, then the
Dyna
tool will be available. When this is selected, a Dynamic Settings dialog opens, as shown in
Figure 1.97. The settings are divided into four groups. The dynamic analysis mode is turned on
and off in the General settings for dynamics group. The multi-stepping option is set on or off (see SET
multistep), the dynamic timestep is adjusted (see SET dydt), and the initial dynamic time is specified
(see SET dytime) in this settings group.
The settings group out of plane damping applies 3D radiation damping to damp energy radiated in
the out-of-plane direction. This facility is turned on or off, and related conditions set, with these
settings. See the SET 3d damping command.
Dynamic damping conditions for the FLAC grid are set with the in plane damping - Grid settings selections. These include the local damping, combined damping, Rayleigh damping and artificial
viscosity damping settings, which are described for the SET dy damping command.
If structural elements are included in the model options, two additional settings groups appear.
The in plane damping - Settings for structural elements selections specify damping settings for structural elements. These include the local damping, combined damping and Rayleigh damping settings,
which are described for the SET dy damping struct command.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.7.7
Creep
1 - 95
Tool
If the creep analysis configuration option is selected in the Model Options dialog (note that the
advanced constitutive models option must be selected first), then the Creep tool will be available.
When this is selected, a Creep Settings dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.98. Either the creep
timestep can be specified manually (SET crdt dt), or the timestep can be set to update automatically
(SET crdt auto). The parameters controlling the automatic creep timestep calculation are also set in
this dialog. These correspond to the maxdt, mindt, latency, fobl, lmul, fobu and umul keywords for
the SET command. The creep time can also be initialized; see SET creeptime.
1 - 96
1.2.7.8
Therm
Tool
The Therm tool is active if the thermal analysis option is selected in the Model Options dialog. When
this button is pressed, a Thermal Settings dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.99. The thermal
analysis mode is turned on and off in this dialog. When thermal analysis is on, the thermalmechanical calculation settings can be specified for the number of thermal steps (SET nther) and
the number of mechanical sub-steps (SET nmech) to be performed within each thermal-mechanical
calculation cycle. The implicit thermal solution scheme can be specified (SET implicit) when the
thermal calculation mode is on, and a thermal timestep can be specified (SET thdt). If the creep
analysis mode is also active, the thermal and creep timesteps can be synchronized (SET synchronize).
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.8
Plot
1 - 97
Tools
All plotting facilities in FLAC are accessed through the Plot tools. Nine tools are provided in the
Plot
tool bar. The Model , Table , History , Profile , Fail and Quick tools are all used to create plot views
that are added to the model-view pane. The ScLine , Color and DXF tools are used to provide special
settings for the plot views.
1.2.8.1
Model
Tool
The Model tool accesses FLAC variables as plot items that can be overlayed to create a model plot.
When the Model button is pressed, a Plot items dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.100. On the left
side of the dialog is a list of items currently added for plotting as overlays. Items are added to the
list by selecting an item from the elements in the Plot items tree on the right and pressing the Add
button (or double-clicking on the element).
The items are plotted in the order they appear in the list. For example, in Figure 1.100, a filled
contour plot of y-displacement values is plotted first and then a plot of the FLAC grid is plotted.
The order in which the plot items are plotted can be changed by using the UP and Down buttons. An
item can be removed from the list by highlighting the item and pressing Delete , and the list can be
removed completely by pressing Clear .
1 - 98
On the top of the Plot Items dialog is a tool bar with buttons for common plot items for quick
insertion of these items to the plot list. A plot-view name can be added; if left blank, a default name
of Plot # is given, in which # is the plot number beginning with Plot 1.
By pressing the Edit button, a Plot Item Switches dialog opens to make modifications to a selected
plot item. Figure 1.101 shows the dialog corresponding to the y-displacement contour plot. All of
the names in this dialog correspond to plot-switch keywords associated with the PLOT command,
as described in Section 1 in the Command Reference. For example, to change the y-displacement
plot from a filled contour plot to a line contour plot, click on the Line radio button and press OK .
The ll switch will be removed from the ydisp keyword in Figure 1.100, and a contour line plot will
be created.
When all required plot items are added to the list, press OK to create the plot view. The view will be
shown and a tab with the plot-view name will be added to the model-view pane. If it is necessary to
edit the plot again, right-click the mouse over the plot view. This opens a plot-view pop-up menu
(see Section 1.4.2.1). Click on the Edit menu item, and the Plot Item dialog for this plot view will
open.
Model
Tool
When the structural elements or interfaces folder items are opened on the plot items list, items
added that include # (interfaces) or * (structural elements) will open a dialog. The dialog is used
to choose specific structural element group IDs, or interface IDs, to plot. Figure 1.102 shows the
dialog for selection of cable elements. By default, all elements are plotted. The group ID numbers
are associated with each connected set of structural elements with the same property number. If you
select Include elements and highlight one ID number, the plot for only that ID number will be made.
If you wish to plot a range of elements, hold <Shift> and select an upper and lower bound; all
IDs within the bounds are selected. Hold <Ctrl> and singly select IDs to obtain a non-contiguous
range. If you select All except elements and select one or more ID numbers, all elements except the
selected ID(s) will be plotted. In order to identify ID numbers for structural elements, click on the
struct
tool tab in the Plot items dialog and press OK ; a plot view with all structural elements and ID
numbers will be made.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 99
1 - 100
Figure 1.104 Moment plot for tunnel lining composed of three structures, #1,
#2 and #3
The sense of the moments is confusing in this figure, especially the change in sense between structure
#3 (roof beam) and structure #2 (right haunch beam). The max plot switch can be used to change
the sense of the moments. Each structure is selected for plotting independently in the Plot Items
dialog. The Edit button is pressed to assign a maximum magnitude for each moment plot based
upon the maximum magnitude in the plot (in this case, 6.2 105 ). The magnitude is given with a
negative sign in order to reverse the sense of the moment plot. Figure 1.105 shows the Plot Items
dialog with the sense reversed for structures #1 and #2. The resulting moment plot is shown in
Figure 1.106.
The sense of filled area plots for interfaces can be changed in the same manner as that described
above for structural elements.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 101
Figure 1.105 Plot items dialog showing max switch used to change sense of
moments
Figure 1.106 Moment plot with sense reversed for structures #1 and #3
1 - 102
1.2.8.3
Table
Tool
A plot view of one or more tables is made using the Table tool. By pressing the Table button, a Table
Plot dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.107. Highlight the table number and press OK to create a
table plot view. Selected tables can be plotted by holding the <Ctrl> key while selecting the table
numbers, and a range of tables can be selected by holding the <Shift> key while selecting the
starting and ending table numbers. The table plot switches shown in Figure 1.107 correspond to
the switch keywords given for the PLOT table command in Section 1 in the Command Reference.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.8.4
History
1 - 103
Tool
A plot view of one or more histories is made using the History tool. By pressing the History button,
a History Plot dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.108. Highlight the history number and press OK
to create a history plot view. Selected histories can be plotted by holding the <Ctrl> key while
selecting the history numbers, and a range of histories can be selected by holding the <Shift>
key while selecting the starting and ending history numbers.
1 - 104
1.2.8.5
Profile
Tool
The Profile tool is used to create a plot view of a profile line plot for a selected variable along a
specified path. When the Profile button is pressed, a Profile tool opens, as shown in Figure 1.109.
A profile plot can be made for gridpoint, zone, interface or structural element variables. Use the
Mode radio buttons to select the variable category. A tree list of the variables associated with each
category will appear. For example, in Figure 1.109, gridpoint and zone variables are listed when
Grid
is selected.
The profile line can be drawn with line segments or crosses, or both lines and crosses. Select the
line type in the Draw mode. A vertical line, a horizontal line or a line at an arbitrary orientation
can be selected to specify the path. Use the Orientation mode to select the path orientation.
In order to create a profile, select the Mode variable category and highlight the variable to be plotted,
select the Draw line type and the path Orientation. Then click and drag the mouse on the model
view to create the path. A line with handles will appear. This line defines the location of the path.
You can right-click the mouse on the handles to locate the path at exact positions. For example, in
Figure 1.109, a vertical line is shown on the model view. This is the path along which yy-stress
values will be plotted.
Figure 1.109
Profile
tool
Press Create Profile to create the profile plot view. The result for a yy-stress profile is shown in
Figure 1.110. This plot cannot be edited further; however, it is possible to rename, clone, copy or
close the plot by opening the plot-view pop-up menu (as shown in Section 1.4.2.1).
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 105
A filled contour plot can be made of any of the variables in the Profile tool by pressing the Show Plot
button. This may be useful in defining the profile path. This contour plot can be cleared by pressing
the Reset Plot button.
Note that the model-view pane is not available when the Profile tool is open. Be sure to click on the
Profile
tab and Cancel the Profile tool to return to the model-view pane.
Profile
tool
1 - 106
1.2.8.6
Fail
Tool
A failure envelope is plotted in either shear/normal stress space or principal stress space with the
Fail
tool. Zone stresses are shown on the plot. Compressive stresses are shown as positive values.
These are effective stresses and include the zz-stress component. The stress points correspond to
the point on the Mohr-Coulomb circle that is closest to the shear failure surface.
When the Fail tool is entered, the Parameters button should be pressed to open a dialog to enter
strength parameters to define the failure envelope. The dialog for the Mohr-Coulomb properties,
cohesion, friction angle and tensile strength limit, is shown in the Fail tool, given in Figure 1.111.
When the Create button is pressed, a plot view is created showing the failure envelope and stress
points (see Figure 1.112).
By default, all zones are plotted when the failure envelope plot is created. A range of zones to
include in the plot can be selected by using Rectangle and dragging the mouse over the selected
zones. Alternatively, a zone region can be selected by using Region .
The Mohr-Coulomb envelope is plotted by default. A Hoek-Brown or ubiquitous-joint envelope
can also be plotted by pressing the appropriate button. The Parameters button should be used to enter
new properties when the failure envelope is changed. See the PLOT fail command in Section 1 in
the Command Reference for further information.
A contour plot of strength/stress ratios can also be plotted, either based on the Mohr-Coulomb
criterion or the Hoek-Brown criterion using the Show Contours button, after the parameters are specified.
See the PLOT mohr or PLOT hoek commands in Section 1 in the Command Reference for further
information.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.111
1 - 107
Fail
tool
Fail
tool
1 - 108
1.2.8.7
Quick
Tool
After a plot view has been created, it can be added to a quick-plot list if the plot is needed on
different projects. The quick-plot list is obtained by using the Quick tool. This opens the menu shown
in Figure 1.113. By choosing Add current plot , the current plot view will be added to the quick-plot
list. When File / Save Preferences is selected in the main menu, the plot views currently in the
quick-plot list will be saved and made available whenever FLAC is executed.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.8.8
ScLine
1 - 109
Tool
The ScLine tool allows contour labels to be drawn on line contour plots. The tool is shown in
Figure 1.114. This tool produces a scan line along which the values of contours are displayed.
Select a variable name from the plot Keywords list, a line Orientation and a line number, #. Then
drag the mouse over the plot view to create the scan line. The line is shown in Figure 1.114. The
handles can be used to drag the line, or right-click inside the handles to specify coordinates for the
endpoints.
Once the line is positioned, press Create Scanline . A SCLINE command will be created, and the line
will be drawn in the model view for the tool. Press Show Contours to display the line contour plot with
the scan line. The view is shown in Figure 1.115.
1 - 110
Figure 1.114
ScLine
tool
ScLine
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.8.9
Color
1 - 111
Tool
There are three sets of color palettes that can be used for filled contour plots. The Color tool opens
the Plot Contour Color Settings dialog shown in Figure 1.116. Select the Red-Blue , Blue-Red or EGA
button in the dialog to change the palette. The default palette is Red-Blue . When each button is
pressed, the color boxes in Palette (1-13) will change to correspond to the selected palette. When
OK
is pressed, a SET lcolor command will be sent to FLAC to change the palette used for the filled
contour plots. The palette colors can also be changed individually by selecting a color from the
Custom pull-down list and then clicking on a color in the Palette (1-13) color boxes.
Figure 1.116
Color
tool
1 - 112
1.2.8.10
DXF
Tool
DXF-format files can be superimposed on FLAC plots. The Geometry / dxf item in the Plot items
dialog is used to import the DXF file to overlay the FLAC plot. The DXF tool, shown in Figure 1.117,
is used to orient the DXF plot to fit the FLAC grid. Draw plane radio buttons are used in the dialog
to change the axes of the DXF plot to coincide with the axes of the FLAC model. For example,
by pressing y under X-Axis and X under Y-Axis, the DXF plot y-axis will be made to coincide
with the FLAC plot x-axis, and the DXF plot x-axis will be made to coincide with the FLAC plot
y-axis. The DXF coordinates can also be shifted and scaled. In Figure 1.118, the DXF plot of a
mine plan is shifted in the x-direction by -3800.0, and in the y-direction by -5900.0, to fit within
the coordinate dimensions defined for the FLAC model. Note that this tool is also used to orient a
DXF image on the model view (see Section 1.4.1.2).
Figure 1.117
DXF
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.9
Run
1 - 113
Tools
The tools provided in the Run tool bar are associated with the solution phase of the FLAC model.
The tool bar contains eight tools. The SaveState and RestoreState tools save and restore a model state.
The Call tool loads and executes a FLAC data file. The Solve tool performs a FLAC calculation
to determine a steady-state solution, while the Cycle tool performs a calculation for a specified
number of cycles. The SolveFoS and PlotFos tools are used specifically for solving and plotting a
factor-of-safety calculation.
1.2.9.1
RestoreState
Tool
Previously saved states can be restored by using the RestoreState tool. Saved states can also be restored
from the Record pane. See Section 1.3.1. Note that if a saved-state is opened using the RestoreState
button and is not in the Project Tree of the Record pane, it will be added as a new branch node in
the tree.
1.2.9.2
Call
Tool
FLAC data files can be called into FLAC and immediately executed by using the Call tool. FISH
function files can also be called into FLAC with this tool. Note that if the data file includes PLOT
commands, then command-line mode FLAC plots will be created.
The File / Import Record menu item can be used to call data files into FLAC without executing the
file. In this case, the different stages of the analysis can be executed individually. See Section 1.6.1
for further information.
1.2.9.3
Movie
Tool
Command-line mode screen plots can be captured and replayed as a movie. The movie file is a
set of PCX images that are strung together in a .DCX file, which also contains an index to the
images. The Movie tool opens a dialog, shown in Figure 1.119, that provides control for the movie
feature. A movie file name can be specified (the extension must be .DCX), the frequency of
screen captures can be set, and the size of the movie image (in pixels) can be given.
Once the settings are given and the movie facility is enabled, the plot view selected for the movie
must be made the active view. Then the Solve or Cycle tool can be used to run the model and create
the movie. (The movie facility cannot be used with the SolveFoS tool.) The command-line mode
plots will appear over the GIIC window at the selected step frequency while the model is running.
1 - 114
When execution is complete, the movie file can be viewed using the movie utility (MOVIE.EXE)
contained in the ITASCA\Shared\Utility directory. See the MOVIE command in Section 1 in the
Command Reference for further information.
Figure 1.119
1.2.9.4
Solve
Movie
tool
Tool
The Solve tool enables the automatic detection of the steady-state solution for static, mechanical
analysis. The Solve dialog is shown in Figure 1.120. When OK is pressed, the calculation is
performed until the limiting conditions as defined in Settings / Solve are reached. A Model cycling
dialog will open and display the cycle count, the unbalanced force magnitude and the unbalanced
force (equilibrium) ratio while cycling progresses. By default, this dialog is refreshed every 10
steps; the frequency can be changed with the Settings / Misc tool. Note that the calculation can be
interrupted at any time by pressing the Stop button in the Model cycling dialog.
If the Update interval check box is selected in the Solve dialog, the currently active model view or plot
view will automatically refresh at a user-selected clock-time interval during the calculation process.
The minimum clock-time interval is 5 seconds, to prevent the plot updating from dominating the
calculation time. The active plot can also be updated manually by pressing the Refresh plot button in
the Model cycling dialog.
If the File name check box is selected and a save file name is given, the state will automatically be
saved with this name when the calculation stops.
If the Solve initial equilibrium as elastic model check box is selected, the calculation will automatically be
performed in two steps: first, assuming elastic behavior; and then, using the actual strength values of
the material. See the SOLVE elastic command in Section 1 in the Command Reference for further
information. Note that this mode only applies for Mohr-Coulomb and ubiquitous-joint materials at
present. Also, plot updating cannot be performed when this calculation mode is used.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.120
1 - 115
Solve
The Solve tool can be applied for creep, dynamic, thermal or groundwater analysis, and also for
coupled analysis. If any of these optional configurations are selected in the Model Options dialog,
then the Solve tool will open the Solve dialog shown in Figure 1.121. The dialog displays the active
calculations mode(s) e.g., Mechanical-Groundwater in Figure 1.121. The modes can be turned
on or off by selecting the appropriate check boxes. The time limit for the dynamic, creep, thermal
or groundwater analysis can be specified in the dialog. The automatic coupled calculation for the
mechanical-groundwater analysis can also be selected (see the SOLVE auto on command).
Plot updating, automatic save file name selection, and the SOLVE elastic calculation can also be
performed in this dialog.
When OK is pressed for the Solve dialog shown in Figure 1.121, the Model cycling dialog will
include additional information related to the active analysis modes.
Figure 1.121
1 - 116
1.2.9.5
Cycle
Tool
The Cycle tool executes a user-specified number of steps (cycles). When Cycle is pressed, a Cycle
dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.122. The number of steps, as well as the plot update interval
and the automatic save file name, can be specified in the dialog. This tool implements the CYCLE
(or STEP) command in FLAC.
Figure 1.122
1.2.9.6
SolveFoS
Cycle
tool
Tool
The SolveFoS tool performs an automatic search for a factor of safety, based on the procedure described
in Section 3.8 in the Users Guide (Note 12), and applies only when the Mohr-Coulomb model
and/or ubiquitous-joint model are assigned to all non-null zones. This tool opens the Factorof-Safety parameters dialog shown in Figure 1.123. By default, the factor-of-safety failure-state
solution will be stored in FoSmode.fsv and this state can be renamed in the dialog. Check boxes
can be selected to choose which items will be included in the factor-of-safety calculation. See the
SOLVE fos command in Section 1 in the Command Reference for a description of these items.
Note that the model state must be saved before the SolveFoS tool can be implemented.
Figure 1.123
SolveFoS
tool
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.2.9.7
PlotFoS
1 - 117
Tool
After the factor-of-safety calculation is completed, a factor-of-safety plot, which includes a failure
surface plot and the calculated value for factor of safety, can be produced by pressing the PlotFoS
button. An example plot is shown in Figure 1.124. Various plot items can be added to this plot, as
listed on the right side of the figure. A hardcopy output can be created by pressing the Print button.
Figure 1.124
PlotFoS
tool
1 - 118
* When specifying a working directory, avoid blank spaces in the directory name or in any directories
in the path for the working directory. FLAC can only recognize one blank space in a directory
name. If more than one space exists, the path will not be recognized.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 119
1 - 120
pane. If you open a saved state from the RestoreState button in the Run tool, the state name is added
to the Project List Record pane and the commands associated with that state are displayed in the
Project List Record.
1.3.1.2 Project Tree Record Mode
If the Tree radio button is pressed in the Model Options dialog, then the record pane will appear
in Project Tree Record mode, as shown in Figure 1.127. This mode is recommended for complex
models with several saved-states, such as parametric analyses, because it allows the user to branch
the model from a common point into different sub-branches.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 121
An arrow indicates the active state of the model and the position where the next save-state will be
placed within the project tree. In Figure 1.128, the model from Figure 1.127 has been assigned a
20 20 grid and a material model. Note that the Save button now appears. The arrow is positioned
below the new command with no text next to it (nothing has yet been saved).
1 - 122
When the Save button is pressed, a Save State File dialog allows the user to specify the file name,
as in Figure 1.129. Upon saving, the specified name appears on the project tree (Figure 1.130). In
addition, the commands associated with the saved state are now inactive; they appear disabled in
the lower pane of the Project Tree Record. Also note that the Save button is once again hidden: as
no commands have been given since the last save-state, there is nothing to save.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 123
The Edit button at the bottom of the Project Tree Record is used to activate these commands for
editing. If this is done, a Rebuild button and a Save button appear; these are used to re-create the
save-state with the edits/additions that have been made, or to simply save (without executing) the
save-state. In Figure 1.131, the Edit button has been pressed, and comment has been added to the
bottom of the command list. If the Cancel button is pressed at this point, the edit will be canceled
and the save file will return to its state before the Edit button is pressed. Use of the Edit button is
discussed further in the next section.
Figure 1.131 Using the edit control of the Project Tree pane
1 - 124
After a model state is saved and the commands associated with it are made inactive, new commands
that will replace the inactive commands in the lower pane are issued. In Figure 1.132, a circular
tunnel has been added to the model, and the zones within it have been nulled. The associated
commands now appear in the lower pane; the Save button is once again visible; and the arrow is
positioned next to an empty label, indicating that the commands currently listed have not been
saved. When this new state is saved, its name will appear underneath state P2 1.sav, as indicated
by the arrow. Until branching occurs, save states will appear on a simple list in the project tree.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 125
It is possible to return the model to a previous state by double-clicking on that state in the project
tree. The arrow is positioned to indicate the selected state, and the model view is changed to
represent that state, as needed. At this point, if commands are executed and saved, and if there is
already a save state following the active state, the model is branched. For instance, if the state
in Figure 1.132 is saved as P2 2.sav, and the model is restored to the P2 1.sav state, it would
appear as in Figure 1.133.
1 - 126
At this point, a new set of commands (differing from the tunnel created by P2 2.sav) can be
executed on the model. In Figure 1.134, a semicircular region is added to the top of the model,
and the zones within it are nulled. Note the result: as soon as the first commands are executed,
the project tree now lists Branch A (containing the tunnel from P2 2.sav), and Branch B, which
contains the arrow with no text label (as before, indicating that the current commands have not yet
been saved). At this point, commands might be saved as P2 3.sav under Branch B; alternatively,
the Cancel button could be used to remove these commands and return the model to its unbranched
state.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 127
By default, branches are named branch A, branch B, and so on. Both branches and saved-states
may be renamed, cloned, or deleted by right-clicking on them in the project tree (savedstates may also be restored; branches may not). In Figure 1.135, the state P2 3.sav has been
saved (containing the semicircular surface excavation), and the initial state, P2 1.sav has been
right-clicked.
Figure 1.135 Project Tree Record pane operations on branches and savedstates
1 - 128
When the clone state command is selected, the model is branched from the start (that is, from
the new command). The original model is stored in Branch for P2 1.sav branch, and the
clone is created as clone Branch for P2 1.sav, as seen in Figure 1.136. Note that the cloned
states are not yet executed or saved. This is indicated by a dot that appears next to the state label;
saved-states are indicated by a disk icon. Double-clicking on an unexecuted/unsaved state will
result in a dialog that gives the option to execute the commands and save that state.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 129
Alternatively, the Project options tool at the top of the project tree may be used to rebuild all unsaved
states at once, as seen in Figure 1.137. This tool may also be used to expand/collapse all branches
on the project tree, and to delete all save files. The other tools on this toolbar are, from left to
right: Restore state at cursor, Delete selected state(s), Restore last state, and Restore next
state. Restore state at cursor will restore the currently selected state; this is the equivalent of:
a) double-clicking on the item in the tree; or b) right-clicking on the item in the tree and choosing
Restore state from the resulting pop-up menu. Delete selected state(s) will delete branches
and saved-states with along with any sub-branches and/or sub-states that appear beneath them.
Restore last state and Restore next state are other means for traversing the tree (in addition to
those already mentioned).
RestoreState
button in
1 - 130
Figure 1.138 Project Tree Record pane editing commands at a selected state
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 131
1 - 132
Images / No Images
Images / Bitmap Load bitmap image as background. (See Section 1.4.1.2 for an
example application.)
Images / Dxf
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 133
Outline zones.
Grid Boundary
Marked GPs
Fixed GPs
Interfaces
Applied B.C.
History
Draw the gravity icon, which shows the magnitude and direction of gravity
vector.
1 - 134
Figure 1.141 FLAC grid overlays a bitmap image of a slope step 1: reposition
the grid
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 135
After the grid is aligned with the image, the View / Fix(Lock) View menu item is checked to lock
the grid and image views together while the grid is conformed to the image.
/ Table tool is used to draw a table line to match the slope boundary. The Table mode in the
/
tool is then used to conform the grid to the table line. The zones above the slope boundary
are made null using the Material / Assign tool. The final model geometry is shown in Figure 1.142.
The
Alter
Utility
Shape
Figure 1.142 FLAC grid overlays a bitmap image of a slope step 2: use the
Alter Shape
/
tool to conform the grid to the image
1 - 136
Edit labels and overlay for the current plot. See Figure 1.144
and the LABEL and SET overlay commands in Section 1 in the Command Reference.
Copy to Clipboard
Refresh
Clone
Close
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 137
1 - 138
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 139
The Input / Define parameters menu item in the FISH Editor brings up a dialog that allows users
to define input parameters for the FISH function. The dialog, with parameters for HOLE.FIS, is
shown in Figure 1.146. Parameters can be added, deleted or edited in this dialog. When parameters
are added or edited, an Input Parameter Data dialog opens, as shown in Figure 1.146. The input
parameter is defined by four descriptors: a variable name; a data type (integer, floating point or
string); a default value; and a description of the parameter (in string format). When the parameter
is created, a comment string is added to the FISH function of the form:
;Input: name/type/value/description
Figure 1.146 Input Parameters dialog and Input Parameter Data dialog
In addition, notes can be added to the FISH function using the Input / Define notes menu item.
Notes are added to the FISH function via the comment line:
;Note:
1 - 140
When the FISH function is complete, the function must be saved (by clicking on the File / Save
As menu item) before the function can be run. When the file is saved, the appropriate comment
lines are added to the file in order for the function to be executed in the FISH Editor, or from the
Utility Fishlib
/
tool. The comments added to HOLE.FIS are listed below.
;Name:hole
;Diagram:hole.gif
;Input:rmin/float/1.0/Radius of the excavation (greater than zero!)
;Input:rmul/float/10.0/Number of radii to the boundary (greater than 1!)
;Input:gratio/float/1.1/Radial grid ratio
;Input:xcenter/float/0.0/x-coordinate center
;Input:ycenter/float/0.0/y-coordinate center
;Input:izone/int/10/Zones in radial direction
;Input:jzone/int/40/Zones in polar direction
;Input:minangle/float/0/Starting angle(degrees)
;Input:deltaangle/float/360/Angle range, 90=quarter, 360=full
;Note:This will fail if a grid already exists.
The FISH function is run in the FISH Editor by selecting the Run / Execute menu item. This brings
up a Fish Call Input dialog, as shown in Figure 1.147. This dialog displays the notes, listed in
an Information pane, the input parameters, listed in a Parameters pane, and the graphical image.
Parameters can be redefined from this dialog. Press OK to run the function. The FISH file will be
called into FLAC, any parameters will be specified via the SET command, and then the function
will be executed.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 141
1.6 Menus
The GIIC contains five menus in the main menu bar. The items in each of the menus are described
in the following sections.
1.6.1 File Menu
Model Options
extension .PRJ.
New Project This menu item starts a new project. The existing project is closed, and
the Model Options dialog opens to begin a new project.
If a project (.PRJ) file has previously been created for the current
project, the project file will be updated. Project files are updated automatically whenever
a model state is saved.
Save Project
1 - 142
This menu item saves the current project in a file with extension
.PRJ. If the new PRJ file is saved in the same directory as the original PRJ, they
will share the same saved model state (SAV) files. If the new PRJ file is saved in a
different folder than the original, the project is created but the projects SAV files are
not. However, if you try to return to any existing saved state in the new project, FLAC
will prompt you to rebuild the state (and all prior saved states on which it depends).
Save Project As
This menu item imports a project record data file, which is a listing
of the FLAC commands that have been created for this project. The commands are read
into the GIIC but are not executed. In Project Tree Record format, any save-file names in
the record will be listed in the project tree. By double-clicking on a save-file name in the
project tree, all commands up to this saved state will be executed and the save file will
be created. If other saved states precede the state that is double-clicked, these states will
also be saved. If a saved state already exists, the state will be opened when the name is
double-clicked. Note that a disk icon is shown in the project tree if the state exists. Any
record file composed of FLAC commands can be imported using this menu item.
Import Record
Export Record This menu item exports a project record data file. Comments are
added to the data file to identify project-tree branch states.
Create Report An HTML-formatted file will be created listing the project tree for
the current project. The user has the option to include all FLAC commands associated
with each saved-state branch of the project tree.
Print Plot Setup This menu item opens a Print setup dialog to select the graphics
hardcopy output format for the plot in the currently active plot view (or model view).
The dialog is shown in Figure 1.149. See the SET plot command for a description of the
output types and settings.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 143
Print Plot This menu item generates the plot in the format, and to the designation
specified by Print Plot Setup. An optional title can be added to the plot. The window
1 - 144
Preference Settings A selected number of settings can be user-controlled by pressing this menu item. These settings are divided into five categories, designated by tabs.
The View tab, shown in Figure 1.152, allows for the specification of a range of table
numbers that will be shown in the model view when the Tables item is selected in the
Model-view Pop-up Draw menu (see Section 1.4.1.1). The Confirm tab, shown in Figure 1.153, turns the confirmation messages on or off when a new project is started, when
the program is exited, when structural element nodes are to be merged, or if a warning
message from FLAC is to be suppressed. The Plot tab, shown in Figure 1.154, sets the
font size for text shown in plot views and captions; it also sets the control box radius. The
Browser & PDF Viewer
tab, shown in Figure 1.155, allows user selection of the browser to view
the Help dialog provided in the GIIC. The options are to use the built-in JAVA browser or
to specify a different browser on the system. To do the latter, the full path to the system
browsers executable must be entered on the Application line. It also enables the user
to locate the Acrobat Reader executable (Version 5.0 and above) and specify the PDF
documentation to be opened from the Help/PDF Documentation menu. The full paths
for the PDF and Manual lines are required. The Console tab, shown in Figure 1.156,
allows the user to specify whether the text output in the Console pane is to be saved in
the save files. The Do not save console pane option also prevents FLAC text output from being
written to the Console pane.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 145
1 - 146
Save Preferences
Customer Title Information Allows the user to add/change the users Company
Exits the GIIC mode and enters the command-line mode of FLAC.
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 147
The View menu item in the Main menu can also be shown as a tool bar.
The tool bar can be displayed or hidden. See Section 1.6.4 for information on the View
Toolbar.
Viewbar
Resources
View
Statusbar
Fish Editor
1 - 148
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 149
Mouse Tool Off Turn off the mouse view control. (The behavior of the next six tools
is persistent. Those tools will remain active until Mouse Tool Off is selected.)
Zoom box
Translate
1 - 150
Scale Mouse-drag the radius from the view center point (increases or decreases view
size).
Rotate Mouse-drag the view orientation. (Rotation changes the aspect ratio for independent x-y axis scaling.
Scale&Rotate
Fix(Lock) View Hold view fixed even if view size changes. (This is useful for
aligning the model view to a background image.)
In addition to these tools, the View Toolbar contains single-step view change buttons
(also available from the keyboard) to magnify, rotate and translate the view:
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 151
Components This item contains separate descriptions on the Model tools, Resource
panes, Model-view/plots menus and the status bar.
FAQ
PDF Documentation
Index
About Itasca
About FLAC
Use this item to determine the version number of both FLAC and the
GIIC.
1 - 152
18 - 1
(*10^3)
1.500
LEGEND
30-Mar-04 10:41
step
0
-8.793E+01 <x< 1.888E+03
-4.472E+02 <y< 1.529E+03
1.100
0.900
0.700
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
(*10^3)
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
18 - 2
Example Applications
Embankment
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 1
Soil 2
125
12,757
0.3
83.5
40
0
0.3
3.3 106
125
12,757
0.3
160
40
0
0.3
3.3 107
113
6,838
0.3
120
35
0
0.3
3.3 106
120
6,838
0.3
120
35
0
0.3
3.3 107
The dynamic characteristics of all of the soils in this model are assumed to be governed by the
modulus reduction factor (G/Gmax ) and damping ratio () curves, as shown in Figures 18.2 and
18.3, and denoted by the Shake91 legend. These curves are considered to be representative
of clayey soils with an average unit weight of 125 pcf and an average shear modulus of 6270
ksf; the data are derived from the input file supplied with SHAKE91 (for more information see
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/software/shake91/).
The earth dam is subjected to seismic loading representative of the 1987 Loma Prieta earthquake
in California. The earthquake input motion for this model is taken from that recorded at the left
abutment of the Lexington Dam during the Loma Prieta earthquake and, for this analysis, the record
is assumed to correspond to the acceleration at elevation 400 ft, directly beneath the dam.* The
record is provided in the file named ACC.HIS. The estimated peak acceleration is approximately
5.5 ft/sec2 (or 0.17 g), and the duration is approximately 40 sec. The record is shown in Figure 18.4.
A Fast Fourier Transform analysis of the acceleration record (using FFT.FIS in Section 3 in the
FISH volume) results in a power spectrum as shown in Figure 18.5. This figure indicates that the
highest frequency is less than 10 Hz.
* It is assumed that the input acceleration record has been modified to account for the propagation
from rock, where the record is recorded, to the depth it is applied in the model. This can be obtained
from a FLAC or SHAKE analysis, for example.
18 - 3
The purpose of this example is to demonstrate the recommended procedure to perform a seismic
analysis of this embankment dam. This analysis is divided into four stages:
1. Establish the initial state of stress of the embankment dam and foundation after initial
construction.
2. Establish the state of stress with the reservoir level raised to its full height.
3. Perform a seismic calculation assuming the soils do not liquefy (represented as a MohrCoulomb material).
4. Perform a seismic calculation assuming the soils can liquefy (represented as a Byrne
material).
Each stage is described separately in the modeling procedure in the next section. A listing of the
data record for this model, EARTHDAM.DAT, is given in Section 18.6.
18 - 4
Example Applications
Figure 18.2 Modulus reduction curve for clayey soils (from SHAKE91 data)
Figure 18.3 Damping ratio curve for clayey soils (from SHAKE91 data)
18 - 5
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
Acceleration Record
(ft/sec2 vs sec)
2.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
26-Mar-04 10:13
step
0
Power Spectrum
(power vs frequency in Hz)
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
18 - 6
Example Applications
Figure 18.6 Model options selected for the embankment dam example
The mesh size for the FLAC model is selected to ensure accurate wave transmission. Based upon
the elastic properties listed in Table 18.1, embankment soil 2 has the lowest shear wave speed
(840 ft/sec). If the largest zone size in the FLAC model is set to 10 ft. in order to provide reasonable
runtimes for this example, then the maximum frequency that can be modeled accurately is
f =
Cs
8.4 Hz
10 l
(18.1)
Before applying the seismic input record, it is filtered to remove frequencies above 5 Hz (by using
the FISH function FILTER.FIS described in Section 3 in the FISH volume). This filtering value
is selected to account for the reduction in shear wave speed that may occur in some of the materials
during the dynamic loading stage, as indicated in Figure 18.2. The acceleration history filtered at 5
Hz is shown in Figure 18.7, and the power spectrum for the filtered wave is shown in Figure 18.8.
Note that the difference between the unfiltered and filtered waves is minor (compare Figures 18.4
and 18.7).
18 - 7
JOB TITLE : .
4.000
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
2-Apr-04 14:59
step
0
Power Spectrum
(power vs frequency in Hz)
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
10
15
20
25
18 - 8
Example Applications
The filtered wave is also checked for baseline drift (i.e., continuing residual displacement after the
motion has finished). The FISH function INT.FIS, described in Section 3 in the FISH volume, is
used to integrate the filtered acceleration record to produce the velocity and displacement waveforms
related to this acceleration. The resulting residual displacement is found to be approximately 0.3 ft.
A baseline correction is performed by adding a low frequency sine wave to the velocity record;
the sine wave parameters are adjusted so that the final displacement is zero. The uncorrected and
corrected resultant displacement histories are shown in Figure 18.9. (See Section 18.9.)
The data file INPUT.DAT, listed in Section 18.8, includes the different steps performed in filtering
the input acceleration record, integrating this record to produce velocity and displacement histories,
and correcting for baseline drift. The resultant, corrected velocity record, stored in table 104 in this
data file, is the input motion for this analysis.
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
27-May-04 10:24
step
0
Table Plot
uncorrected disp.
3.000
2.000
corrected disp.
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
18 - 9
overlaid sets of sub-zones, which provide a more accurate calculation for materials undergoing
plastic yield. (See Sections 1.3.2 and 1.3.3.2 in Theory and Background.)*
A special FISH tool is provided in the Utility/FishLib library to assist with the creation of a mesh for
this model. The gentabletop tool, shown in the Fish Library dialog in Figure 18.10, is used to
transform a grid to fit an irregular upper surface defined by a table. The grid beneath the table is
adjusted to provide a uniform spacing of quadrilateral zones below the table surface.
* If a badly distorted zone causes a calculation to stop prematurely in a mesh containing a few
triangular zones, it may be possible to prevent this by increasing the strength of the individual zone.
This should not significantly affect the model results, provided that the strengths of only a few zones
are changed.
18 - 10
Example Applications
The grid zoning is defined first using the Build/Simple tool. The grid parameters selected for this
model are shown in the Edit Grid dialog of the Simple tool, in Figure 18.11. The number of zones
corresponds to a zone size of 10 ft.
Simple
dialog
After this grid is created, the Utility/Table tool is used to define the slope of the embankment dam.
Figure 18.12 shows the pairs of x- and y-values that are entered in the Edit Table Points dialog to
define the surface.
After this table is defined, the gentabletop tool is executed from the Utility/FishLib library to
create the grid. The resulting mesh is shown in Figure 18.13. Note that the grid is totally composed
of quadrilateral-shaped zones.
Figure 18.12 Edit Table Points dialog showing x- and y-values defining embankment dam surface
18 - 11
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.500
LEGEND
9-Apr-04 13:01
step
0
-8.800E+01 <x< 1.888E+03
-4.480E+02 <y< 1.528E+03
1.100
0.900
User-defined Groups
Grid plot
0
0.700
5E 2
0.500
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
(*10^3)
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
18 - 12
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.500
LEGEND
7-Apr-04 10:00
step
0
-9.938E+01 <x< 1.899E+03
-4.594E+02 <y< 1.539E+03
1.100
0.900
0.700
0.500
5E 2
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
0.300
0.500
0.700
0.900
(*10^3)
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
Figure 18.14 Embankment dam model with foundation and embankment soils
assigned
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
7-Apr-04 10:00
step
0
5.628E+02 <x< 9.772E+02
3.978E+02 <y< 8.122E+02
7.250
6.750
6.250
5.750
1E 2
5.250
4.750
4.250
6.500
7.000
7.500
(*10^2)
8.000
8.500
9.000
9.500
18 - 13
18 - 14
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
1.000
0.600
0.200
-0.200
5E 2
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
31-Jan-05 12:33
step
3502
-1.000E+02 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.600E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
Y-displacement contours
-3.00E-01
-2.50E-01
-2.00E-01
-1.50E-01
-1.00E-01
-5.00E-02
0.00E+00
0.600
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
18 - 15
Note that the model is run in small-strain mode up to this stage and, consequently, the gridpoint
positions are not changed. This is done so that the embankment crest elevation (680 ft.) does not
change. If significant deformation occurs during embankment construction, making it necessary
to perform this stage in large-strain mode, then the initial embankment crest elevation for the
embankment zones (prior to construction) would need to be raised in order to obtain a specified
elevation after construction.
18.2.2 Stage 2: Establish the State of Stress with the Reservoir Level Raised
The earthquake motion is considered to occur when the reservoir level is at full pool (i.e., at its
full height at elevation 670 ft.). For Stage 2 of the analysis, the pore pressure distribution through
the embankment and foundation soils is calculated for the reservoir raised to this height. The
In Situ/Apply
tool is used to set the pore pressure distribution on the upstream side of the embankment,
corresponding to the reservoir elevation at 670 ft. The mouse is dragged in this tool along the
upstream boundary starting from the 670 elevation (at gridpoint i = 70, j = 29) and ending at the
400 elevation at the bottom left corner of the model (at gridpoint i = 1, j = 1). The distribution
parameters, shown in the Apply value dialog displayed in Figure 18.18, produce a pore-pressure
distribution along this boundary that ranges from zero at elevation 670 ft. to 16,866.36 psf at
elevation 400 ft.
Figure 18.18 Pore pressure distribution parameters corresponding to a reservoir elevation of 670 ft. on the upstream side of the embankment
This calculation is first run in flow-only mode. The groundwater-flow calculation is turned on,
and a water bulk modulus of 4.1 106 psf is assigned, in the Settings/GW tool. The water modulus
corresponds to water with entrained air. The fast unsaturated-flow calculation funsat and water
bulk scaling with permeability and porosity fastwb are set in order to speed the calculation to
steady state flow. The mechanical calculation mode is turned off in the Settings/Mech tool. In the
In Situ/Fix
tool, the pore pressures are fixed at gridpoints along the downstream slope to allow
flow across this surface, and the pore-pressure fixity condition is removed for gridpoints at the
18 - 16
Example Applications
foundation/embankment interface inside the model. The porosity and permeability values are also
specified for the embankment materials, in the Material/GwProp tool.
Figure 18.19 plots pore pressure histories at different locations in the model, indicating that constant values are reached for the equilibrium ratio limit. Figure 18.20 displays the pore-pressure
distribution through the embankment and foundation at steady state. The saved state at steady-state
flow is named EDAM5.SAV.
JOB TITLE : .
03
LEGEND
31-Jan-05 12:51
step 13669
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
6.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Pore pressure ( 48, 24)
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
10
12
14
(10
08
18 - 17
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
31-Jan-05 12:51
step 13669
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
-1.000E+02 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.600E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
0.600
0.200
5E 2
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
Figure 18.20 Pore-pressure distribution at steady state flow for reservoir raised
to 670 ft.
The static equilibrium state is now calculated for the new pore-pressure distribution. A pressure
distribution is applied along the upstream slope to represent the weight of the reservoir water. This
time a mechanical pressure is assigned in the In Situ/Apply tool. The pressure ranges from zero at
elevation 670 ft. (at gridpoint i = 70, j = 29) to 8120.8 psf at elevation 550 ft. at the toe of the
slope (at gridpoint i = 1, j = 29); the dialog is displayed in Figure 18.21. The groundwater-flow
calculation is turned off, and the water bulk modulus is set to zero (in the Settings/GW tool). The
mechanical calculation is turned on (in the Settings/Mech tool). The model is now solved for this
applied condition, and the resulting total vertical-stress contour plot for the model at this stage is
shown in Figure 18.22. The saved state at this stage is named EDAM6.SAV.
18 - 18
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
31-Jan-05 12:52
step 15076
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
-1.000E+02 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.600E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
YY-stress contours
-3.50E+04
-3.00E+04
-2.50E+04
-2.00E+04
-1.50E+04
-1.00E+04
-5.00E+03
0.00E+00
0.600
0.200
5E 2
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
Figure 18.22 Total vertical-stress distribution at steady state flow for reservoir
raised to 670 ft.
18 - 19
18 - 20
Example Applications
18 - 21
The model state is saved at this point, with these dynamic conditions set, and named EDAM7.SAV.
This will provide a convenient starting state for the dynamic analysis when damping is added.
The dynamic boundary conditions are now applied in the In Situ/Apply tool. First, the free-field
boundary is set for the side boundaries, by selecting the Free-Field button.
Next, the dynamic input is assigned to the bottom boundary. In this model, the foundation materials
are assumed to extend to a significant depth beneath the dam. Therefore, it is necessary to apply a
quiet (viscous) boundary along the bottom of the model to minimize the effect of reflected waves
at the bottom.
In order to apply quiet boundary conditions along the same boundary as the dynamic input, the
dynamic input must be applied as a stress boundary, because the effect of the quiet boundary will
be nullified if the input is applied as an acceleration (or velocity) wave. The filtered and baselinecorrected velocity record (in table 104) is converted into a shear stress boundary condition using a
two-step procedure:
1. Convert the velocity wave into a shear stress wave using the formula
s = 2( Cs ) vs
where:
Cs
vs
=
=
=
=
(18.2)
Note that the factor of two in Eq. (18.2) accounts for the input energy dividing into
downward and upward propagating waves.
2. Monitor the x-velocity at the base of the model during the dynamic run to compare this
velocity to the input velocity (in table 104). If the model is shallow, the free surface can
cause an increase in the velocity at the base.* Some adjustment to the input stress wave
may be required in order to produce a velocity at the base that corresponds to the input
velocity.
This two-step procedure is applied as follows to prescribe the dynamic wave as a shear stress
boundary condition along the base for this example.
* This is a result of the velocity-doubling effect of the free surface. Note that the effect of a free
surface on the velocity extends beneath the surface to, approximately, a depth of one-fourth of the
wavelength of the wave transmitted through the medium. (This can be shown simply by applying the
wave to the base of a column of zones with a free surface, and monitoring the maximum amplitude
experienced by each zone as the wave travels through the column.)
18 - 22
Example Applications
First, the Stress/sxy boundary condition type is selected in the In Situ/Apply tool, and the mouse is
dragged from the bottom-left corner of the model (gridpoint i = 1, j = 1) to the bottom-right corner
(i = 180, j = 1). The Assign button is pressed, which opens the Apply value dialog. The velocity
record, in table 104, is considered a multiplier, vs , for the applied value. The velocity record is
applied by checking the Table radio button, and selecting table number 104 as the multiplier.
The applied value for sxy in the Apply value dialog is first set to 2 Cs (from Eq. (18.2)), in which
and Cs correspond to the properties for foundation soil 2. In this example, this value produces
x-velocities at the base that are greater than the input velocities in table 104. By reducing the
value to 1.75 Cs , the calculated peak velocities along the base are found to approximate the input
velocity more closely. The input selections for the Apply value dialog are shown in Figure 18.25.
The bottom of the model is considered to be a soft foundation. Quiet boundary conditions are
assigned in both the x- and y-directions by first selecting the xquiet button and dragging the mouse
along the bottom boundary, and then selecting the yquiet button and repeating the procedure.
The model state is saved again at this point and named EDAM8.SAV.
Figure 18.25 Apply shear stress boundary condition in Apply value dialog
The model calculation is performed for a dynamic time period of 20 seconds, which is sufficient to
identify the dominant natural frequency of the model. A representative plot of one of the x-velocity
histories is shown in Figure 18.26. This plot indicates that the dominant natural frequency is
approximately 1.25 Hz. This is also shown by performing a Fast Fourier Transform analysis of this
velocity record. The velocity history is first converted into a table (using the History -> Table button in
the Utility/History tool). Then the FFT.FIS function, described in Section 3 in the FISH volume,
is used to calculate the power spectrum. The result is shown in Figure 18.27. The undamped
calculation is saved as EDAM9.SAV.
18 - 23
JOB TITLE : .
0.800
0.400
0.000
-0.400
-0.800
10
12
14
16
18
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
31-Jan-05 13:20
step 54454
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 2.0000E+01
Power Spectrum - yvel(80,18)
(power vs frequency in Hz)
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
0.400
10
12
14
18 - 24
Example Applications
Additional damping is now prescribed for the model in order to damp the natural oscillation modes
identified from the undamped simulation. Hysteretic damping is applied corresponding to the
dynamic characteristics represented by the (G/Gmax ) and () curves shown in Figures 18.2 and
18.3. These figures also show a comparison of the (G/Gmax ) and () variations to those computed
using the default hysteretic model in FLAC. The selected parameters (L1 = -3.156 and L2 = 1.904)
for the default model produce the FLAC curves shown in these figures.
The damping is applied at the model state EDAM7.SAV by double-clicking on this state name
in the Project Tree. Hysteretic damping is assigned in the In Situ/Initial tool. The dialog shown in
Figure 18.28 is opened by selecting the Zones type, checking the Hysteretic Damping menu item, and
then Assign , to assign the same values for all zones in the model.
Hysteretic damping does not completely damp high frequency components, so a small amount of
stiffness-proportional Rayleigh damping is also applied. A value of 0.5% at the dominant frequency
(1.25 Hz) is assigned in the Rayleigh damping parameters dialog shown in Figure 18.29. Note that
Rayleigh damping is applied by selecting the GPs type, and then Dynamic Damping in the In Situ/Initial
tool.
18 - 25
After Execute is pressed in the In Situ/Initial tool, a new branch is created in the project tree to
perform a calculation including the additional hysteretic damping (and the small amount of stiffnessproportional Rayleigh damping). The dynamic boundary conditions must be applied again from the
In Situ/Apply
tool. The free-field is applied on the side boundaries, and sxy-stress history and quiet
boundaries are applied at the base, in the same way as for the undamped simulation. The model
state is saved at this stage as EDAM10.SAV.
A new simulation is now made for a dynamic time of 40 seconds. Note that the dynamic timestep
used for this calculation is approximately 3.1 104 seconds. Movement of the embankment on the
upstream slope is identified at 40 seconds in this simulation. This is shown in the x-displacement
contour plot, in Figure 18.31, and the shear-strain increment contour plot, in Figure 18.33. Note
that the maximum shear strain is less than 1% along the upstream slope face at 40 seconds. The
movement of gridpoint (62,29) along the upstream slope is shown in Figure 18.35.* The upstream
slope at this point settles approximately 2.5 in., and shifts horizontally upstream approximately 4.5
in.
The pore pressure and effective vertical stress histories in Figure 18.37, recorded at (i = 49, j =
23) near the upstream face, illustrate the minor pore-pressure change in the embankment materials
during the seismic loading. The model state is saved at this stage as EDAM11.SAV.
The dynamic simulation stage is now repeated using only Rayleigh damping. The center frequency
for Rayleigh damping is 1.25 Hz, as determined from the undamped analysis (see Figure 18.27).
The fraction of critical damping is determined by running simple element tests with the different
foundation and embankment soil properties for the dynamic loading, as defined by Figure 18.7. The
fraction of critical damping is adjusted in these tests to approximate the shear modulus and damping
ratio at the cyclic strain levels for clayey soils, as defined by the SHAKE91 data in Figures 18.2 and
18.3. For this case, the fraction of critical damping is estimated to be 0.05. The Rayleigh damping
parameters are specified as shown by the dialog in Figure 18.30.
18 - 26
Example Applications
Note that one set of Rayleigh damping parameters are assumed for all the soils in this model. In
general, different damping parameters may be needed to represent different damping behavior of
the different materials and positions within the foundation and embankment. The spatial variation
in damping can be prescribed with the INITIAL dy damp command.
Also note that, for this case, with mass- and stiffness-proportional Rayleigh damping of 5% at the
natural frequency of 1.25 Hz, the limiting timestep is approximately 5.2 105 seconds. This
timestep is approximately six times smaller than that for hysteretic damping. The model state is
saved at this stage as EDAM12.SAV.
If Rayleigh damping alone is used, the results are very similar. Figure 18.32 plots the xdisplacement contours at 40 seconds for Rayleigh damping. Figure 18.34 shows the shear-strain
increment contours at this time. Both plots compare reasonably well with those using hysteretic
damping (compare to Figures 18.31 and 18.33). Figure 18.36 plots the relative movement at gridpoint (62,29). The relative vertical displacement component is approximately 1.5 in. downward,
and the horizontal component is approximately 2.5 in. in the upstream direction at this position,
which is somewhat less than that for hysteretic damping (compare to Figure 18.35).
Pore pressure and effective vertical stress histories for the Rayleigh damping run are also similar to
those for the hysteretic damping run (compare Figure 18.38 to Figure 18.37).
The Rayleigh damping run at 40 seconds is saved as EDAM13.SAV.
This comparison demonstrates the substantial benefit of hysteretic damping. The results are comparable to those using Rayleigh damping for similar damping levels, and the runtime with hysteretic
damping is greatly reduced.
18 - 27
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 11:52
step 142640
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
2.205E+02 <x< 9.219E+02
1.851E+02 <y< 8.865E+02
7.000
6.000
X-displacement contours
-2.00E-01
-1.00E-01
0.00E+00
1.00E-01
2.00E-01
5.000
4.000
2E 2
3.000
2.000
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^2)
6.500
7.500
8.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
2-Feb-05 7:27
step 812615
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
2.205E+02 <x< 9.219E+02
1.851E+02 <y< 8.865E+02
7.000
6.000
X-displacement contours
-2.00E-01
-1.00E-01
0.00E+00
1.00E-01
2.00E-01
5.000
4.000
2E 2
3.000
2.000
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^2)
6.500
7.500
8.500
18 - 28
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 11:52
step 142640
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
-1.000E+02 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.600E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
0.600
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
2-Feb-05 7:27
step 812615
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
-9.996E+01 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.599E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
0.600
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
18 - 29
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
5 reldispx
(FISH)
13 reldispy
-0.800
(FISH)
X-axis :
12 Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
5 reldispx
(FISH)
13 reldispy
-0.800
(FISH)
X-axis :
12 Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
18 - 30
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 11:52
step 142640
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
6 Pore pressure ( 49, 23)
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 18.37 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and hysteretic damping
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
2-Feb-05 7:27
step 812615
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
6 Pore pressure ( 49, 23)
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 18.38 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and Rayleigh damping
18 - 31
Figure 18.39 Model finn properties dialog w/ properties for embankment soil 1
The model is now ready for the dynamic analysis. The water bulk modulus is assigned as
4.1 106 psf using the Settings/GW tool. The value for latency of the embankment soils is reduced to
50 in the Material/Property tool. The dynamic conditions are now set again in the same manner as for
Stage 3. The model state is EDAM15.SAV before damping and dynamic boundaries are applied;
it is EDAM16.SAV after they are applied.
The model is now run for a dynamic time of 40 seconds. The results in Figures 18.40 through 18.43
show the effect of pore pressure generation in the embankment soils. There is now a substantial
movement along the upstream face, as shown by figures Figures 18.40 through 18.42. The relative
vertical settlement at gridpoint (62,29) is now approximately 8 in. and the relative shift upstream
is approximately 1.8 ft., as shown in Figure 18.42.
18 - 32
Example Applications
A significant increase in pore pressure (and decrease in effective stress) is calculated in the upstream
region, as indicated in Figure 18.43. The location of the pore pressure/effective stress measurement
is at gridpoint (49,23), which is at a depth of approximately 45 ft. below the upstream slope face,
and 135 ft. from the toe of the upstream slope. Note that the normalized excess pore pressure ratio,
(or cyclic pore pressure ratio) ue / c ,* at this location is approximately 0.80 at 40 seconds. (ue =
1.58 ksf and c = 1.98 ksf)
The final state is EDAM17.SAV.
18.3 Comments
This simple example assumes that the shear strength parameters of the liquefiable soils do not
change. It has been shown (e.g., Olson et al., 2000) that if the effective stress goes to zero, the shear
strength reduces to a strain-mobilized (liquefied) shear strength, which implies a residual cohesion.
There are several ways to incorporate a change of strength envelope in the FLAC model, such that
residual cohesion is developed as the material liquefies. For example, a FISH function can be used
to adjust the strength parameters as a function of change in the effective confining stress. A more
rigorous approach is to modify a bilinear strength model (such as the strain-softening bilinear model,
MODEL subi) to include the liquefaction behavior (e.g., the Byrne model). The existing MODEL nn
in FLAC incorporates the pore pressure generation effect into the Mohr-Coulomb model. This can
also be done with other models using either the FISH constitutive model facility (see Section 2.8
in the FISH volume) or C++ DLL model facility (see Section 4 in Optional Features) to create a
user-defined model.
* where ue is the excess pore pressure and c is the initial effective confining stress. Note that a
liquefaction state is reached when ue / c = 1.
18 - 33
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 10:32
step 142728
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
2.205E+02 <x< 9.219E+02
1.851E+02 <y< 8.865E+02
7.000
6.000
X-displacement contours
-1.50E+00
-1.00E+00
-5.00E-01
0.00E+00
5.00E-01
1.00E+00
5.000
4.000
2E 2
3.000
2.000
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^2)
6.500
7.500
8.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^3)
1.400
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 10:32
step 142728
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
-1.001E+02 <x< 1.900E+03
-4.598E+02 <y< 1.540E+03
1.000
0.600
0.200
-0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
1.800
(*10^3)
18 - 34
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
5 reldispx
(FISH)
13 reldispy
-0.800
(FISH)
X-axis :
12 Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
JOB TITLE : .
04
LEGEND
1-Feb-05 10:32
step 142728
Flow Time
1.5168E+09
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01
0.800
0.600
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
6 Pore pressure ( 49, 23)
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 18.43 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Byrne (liquefaction) material and hysteretic damping
18 - 35
18.4 Acknowledgment
This example is derived from data provided by Dr. Nason McCullough of CH2MHill. His assistance
and critical review of this document are gratefully acknowledged.
18.5 Reference
Byrne, P. A Cyclic Shear-Volume Coupling and Pore-Pressure Model for Sand, in Proceedings:
Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
and Soil Dynamics (St. Louis, Missouri, March, 1991), Paper No. 1.24, 47-55.
Olson, S. M., T. D. Stark, W. H. Walton and G. Castro. 1907 Static Liquefaction Flow Failure of
the North Dike of Wachusett Dam, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
126(12), 1184-1193 (2000).
18 - 36
Example Applications
18 - 37
18 - 38
set funsat=on
set fastwb=on
solve
save edam5.sav
;... STATE: EDAM6 ....
apply pressure 0.0 var 0.0 8120.8 from 70,29 to 1,29
set mechanical=on
set flow=off
water bulk=0.0
set step 10000000
solve
save edam6.sav
;*** BRANCH: MOHR COULOMB ****
;... STATE: EDAM7 ....
water bulk=4100000.0
set dyn=on
set =large
hist 100 read acc.his
hist write 100 table 100
call filter.fis
set filter in 100
set filter out 101
set fc = 5.0
filter
call int.fis
set int in 101
set int out 102
integrate
set echo off
call baseline.fis
set itab unc=102 itab corr=120 drift=0.3 ttime=40.0
set npnts=2048 itab cvel=104
baseline
initial xdisp 0 ydisp 0
initial xvel 0 yvel 0
history 6 pp i=49, j=23
history 7 pp i=80, j=15
history 8 pp i=125, j=20
history 9 esyy i=49, j=23
history 10 esyy i=80, j=15
history 11 esyy i=125, j=20
history 12 dytime
history 101 xvel i=49, j=24
Example Applications
18 - 39
18 - 40
Example Applications
18 - 41
save edam13.sav
;*** BRANCH: FINN HYST DAMP ****
restore edam6.sav
;... STATE: EDAM14 ....
model finn region 59 24
prop density=3.51 bulk=5.698E6 shear=2.630e6 cohesion=120.0 friction=35.0 &
ff latency=1000000 ff c1=0.2947 ff c2=1.357 ff switch=1 region 59 24
model finn region 91 25
prop density=3.51 bulk=5.698E6 shear=2.630e6 cohesion=120.0 friction=35.0 &
ff latency=1000000 ff c1=0.2947 ff c2=1.357 ff switch=1 region 91 25
model finn region 73 22
prop density=3.73 bulk=5.698E6 shear=2.630e6 cohesion=120.0 friction=35.0 &
ff latency=1000000 ff c1=0.2947 ff c2=1.357 ff switch=1 region 73 22
solve
save edam14.sav
;... STATE: EDAM15 ....
water bulk=4100000.0
set dyn=on
set =large
prop ff latency 50 region 66 23
prop ff latency 50 region 78 26
prop ff latency 50 region 98 21
hist 100 read acc.his
hist write 100 table 100
call filter.fis
set filter in 100
set filter out 101
set fc = 5.0
filter
call int.fis
set int in 101
set int out 102
integrate
set echo off
call baseline.fis
set itab unc=102 itab corr=120 drift=0.3 ttime=40.0
set npnts=2048 itab cvel=104
baseline
initial xdisp 0 ydisp 0
initial xvel 0 yvel 0
history 6 pp i=49, j=23
history 7 pp i=80, j=15
history 8 pp i=125, j=20
18 - 42
Example Applications
18 - 43
save edam17.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: pp
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: ssi
plot hold ssi fill
;plot name: disp
plot hold xdisp fill inv bound
;plot name: pp esyy hist
plot hold history 6 9 vs 12
;plot name: rel. disp
plot hold history 5 13 line vs 12
;plot name: base disp hist
plot hold history 116 line vs 12
;plot name: excess pp
plot hold history 14 line vs 12
;plot name: corrected velocity
plot hold table 104 line
;plot name: vel hist
plot hold history 102 vs 12
18 - 44
INIPP.FIS
;Name:inipp
;Diagram:
def inipp
ppini
= pp(49,23)
end
EXCPP.FIS
;Name:excpp
;Diagram:
def excpp
excpp = pp(49,23) - ppini
end
Example Applications
18 - 45
18 - 46
Example Applications
integrate
set echo off
call INT.FIS
set int in=102 int out=103
integrate
save inp4.sav
;*** BRANCH: CORRECTED ****
restore inp3.sav
;... STATE: INP5 ....
set echo off
call INT.FIS
set int in=101 int out=102
integrate
set echo off
call baseline.fis
set itab unc=102 itab corr=120 drift=0.3 ttime=40.0 npnts=2048
set itab cvel=104
baseline
set echo off
call INT.FIS
set int in=104 int out=103
integrate
save inp5.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: input acc
plot hold table 100 line
;plot name: fft
plot hold table 110 line
;plot name: input disp
plot hold table 103 line
;plot name: input vel
plot hold table 102 line
18 - 47
18 - 48
Example Applications
17 - 1
17 - 2
Example Applications
Figure 17.1 Conditions and sequence for the lined tunnel construction
17 - 3
17 - 4
Example Applications
Figure 17.3
Build
/ Library tool
17 - 5
Figure 17.4 Grid tool for the Single tunnel-refined region grid type
17 - 6
Example Applications
Figure 17.6 Grid created for lined tunnel example close-up view of tunnel
region
The material properties for the rock are entered using the MATERIAL / Assign tool. The properties are
displayed in the Define Material dialog shown in Figure 17.7. The groundwater properties (porosity
= 0.3, and permeability (i.e., mobility coefficient) = 1010 m2 /(Pa-sec)) are also assigned, using the
MATERIAL GWProp
/
tool (see Figure 17.8). Units for groundwater properties in FLAC are discussed in
Section 1.7 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction.
Figure 17.7 Define Material dialog with rock properties for lined tunnel example
17 - 7
FIX
tool
17 - 8
Example Applications
Initial
tool
The gravitational magnitude is entered using the Settings / Gravity tool, and the groundwater flow
calculation is turned off using the Settings / GW tool. The Run / Solve tool is now used to calculate the
initial stress state. The model should be very close to an equilibrium state. In order to ensure that
a uniform stress distribution is developed in the model, the Solve Initial Equilibrium as Elastic Model check
box is selected.
After the equilibrium state is calculated, the initial stress distribution is checked. Note that, by
default, stress contours do not extend to the model boundaries because stress is calculated at zone
centroids. However, the FISH function EXTRAP.FIS can be used to extrapolate the zone-based
variable to gridpoints. We first copy the stress values we wish to plot into an extended array. The
FISH function shown in Figure 17.11 is entered in the FISH Editor and executed to write the yystress components into grid variable ex 1. Then, the EXTRAP.FIS function is opened in the FISH
Editor from the ITASCA\FLAC500\FISH\3-LIBRARY directory. (The function is described
in Section 3 in the FISH volume.) This function is executed from the FISH Editor by clicking
on the Run / Execute menu item. The extrapolated yy-stress values are calculated and stored in
grid variable ex 2. The yy-stress contours are plotted from the Plot / Model tool using the ContourGP / Extra menu item and selecting the ex 2 plot item. Figure 17.12 displays the resulting plot of the
initial vertical stress distribution. The contour plot is generated for a simple average extrapolation
(gp avg = 0). Figure 17.13 shows the same result presented in a Postscript format. Different
output formats can be selected from the File / Print Plot Setup menu item.
17 - 9
Figure 17.11 FILL EX1 SYY.FIS FISH function to copy stresses to an extended array (for use with EXTRAP.FIS)
17 - 10
Example Applications
(*10^2)
LEGEND
0.500
15-Sep-04 9:50
step
12
-3.667E+01 <x< 1.567E+02
-1.042E+02 <y< 8.917E+01
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
5E 1
-0.500
-0.700
-0.900
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^2)
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.400
17 - 11
Assign
tool
If the Solve tool is executed at this point, the calculation corresponds to instantaneous excavation of
the tunnel. In this exercise, we wish to simulate the installation of the temporary shotcrete liner after
some change in the tunnel load has occurred due to the tunnel advancement. The effect of tunnel
advancement is simulated by relaxing the tractions acting along the tunnel periphery incrementally.
The relaxation tractions can be related to tunnel closure, which, in turn, can be related to the distance
from the face of an advancing tunnel e.g., see Panet (1979).
For this example, the tunnel tractions are relaxed by 30% before the shotcrete liner is installed. A
relaxation FISH function, relax hist, is used to control the rate of relaxation. The function
is shown in Figure 17.15. Three FISH variables are input for this function: ninc specifies the
step increment over which the tractions are relaxed; rstart is the starting multiplier for traction
values; and rstop is the multiplier for traction values after ninc steps are completed. For a 30%
relaxation, rstart = 1.0, rstop = 0.7 and we reduce the tractions over an interval of ninc =
100. The increment value is chosen such that inertial effects are minimized. (See Section 3.5.4 in
the Users Guide for further discussion on minimizing inertial effects.)
17 - 12
Example Applications
17 - 13
Figure 17.16 APPLY RF.FIS FISH function to apply tractions to tunnelboundary gridpoints
We solve for the equilibrium solution at 30% relaxation of the tunnel tractions by invoking the
Run Solve
/
tool. The APPLY commands implemented in apply rf relax the tunnel tractions during
the calculation, and a new equilibrium state is found. The reduction is indicated by the appliedforces plot shown in Figure 17.19 compare to Figure 17.18.
17 - 14
Example Applications
Figure 17.18 Applied forces added to tunnel-boundary gridpoints from apply rf FISH function
17 - 15
Figure 17.20 Shotcrete liner installed as liner elements attached to tunnelboundary gridpoints
Because only one-half of the liner is modeled, the structural nodes along the line of symmetry must
be fixed from translation in the x-direction and from rotation. The fixity conditions for these nodes
(node numbers 1 and 45) are set in the Structure / Node tool.
17 - 16
Example Applications
17 - 17
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 16:32
step
4568
-0.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
4 X displacement( 56, 19)
-0.400
5 vert_closure (FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
-0.600
-0.800
-1.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
02
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:32
step
4568
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
Liner Plot
2.000
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
4.076E+06
Boundary plot
0
0.000
5E 0
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
Figure 17.23 Axial forces in shotcrete after 100% relaxation of tunnel loads
17 - 18
Example Applications
Figure 17.24 Concrete liner elements installed and connected to the grid using
an interface
* Note that the concrete liner is connected to the grid via an interface, and not to the shotcrete liner.
This is done because the shotcrete liner will be deleted later in the analysis (in Step 6). If the
concrete and shotcrete liners are connected with an interface, and the shotcrete liner is deleted,
then the interface is also deleted. A new interface would need to be created between the concrete
liner and grid at Step 6. Because the shotcrete liner and grid are rigidly attached, it is sufficient to
connect the concrete liner to the grid with the interface at Step 4.
17 - 19
In order to assign material properties for the concrete liner different from those for the shotcrete,
a different property ID number must be prescribed for the new liner elements. The PropID radio
button is selected while still in the Structure / Liner tool. An L1 symbol will appear over the newly
created liner elements. By clicking on this symbol, a dialog opens to rename the symbol, as shown
in Figure 17.25. Select L2 and all the new segments are assigned L2.
The material properties for the concrete liner are assigned using the Structure / SEProp tool. Click on
one of the L2 symbols to open the dialog, as shown in Figure 17.26. (Note that L2 property
should be highlighted in the dialog.) The weight of the concrete liner is included for the concrete
liner by assigning the mass density in this dialog. It is only necessary to assign the properties for
one L2 element; all elements with L2 IDs will then be prescribed these properties.
The translation and rotation fixity conditions for the concrete-liner nodes along the centerline (nodes
46 and 90) must also be set, using the Structure / Node tool. This satisfies the symmetry condition as
done previously for the shotcrete liner.
17 - 20
Example Applications
17 - 21
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:40
step 11796
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
2.000
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.000
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
Figure 17.27 Normal stresses along interface after concrete liner settles onto
grid at tunnel invert
17 - 22
Example Applications
17 - 23
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
0.500
17-Jan-05 16:40
step 11796
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-3.667E+01 <x< 1.567E+02
-1.042E+02 <y< 8.917E+01
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
5E 1
-0.700
-0.900
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
(*10^2)
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.400
17 - 24
Example Applications
17 - 25
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:44
step 15639
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
2.000
0.000
5E 0
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 16:44
step 15639
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
6.000
5.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
4 X displacement( 56, 19)
4.000
5 vert_closure (FISH)
X-axis :
Number of steps
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
(10
03
17 - 26
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:44
step 15639
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
2.000
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
3.338E+06
# 2 (Liner)
3.824E+06
Boundary plot
0.000
-2.000
5E 0
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:44
step 15639
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
2.000
Boundary plot
0
5E 0
0.000
Liner Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner) -1.568E+04
# 2 (Liner)
3.706E+05
Normal Stress (alternate)
on Interface # 1
Max Value = 8.340E+05
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
Figure 17.34 Moments in concrete liner and normal stress along interface after
raising water table
17 - 27
Structure
/ Segments tool
17 - 28
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
8.000
LEGEND
6.000
17-Jan-05 16:47
step 18251
Flow Time
1.2066E+04
-2.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-9.000E+00 <y< 9.000E+00
4.000
2.000
Liner Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Liner)
6.692E+06
Boundary plot
0
0.000
5E 0
-2.000
-4.000
-6.000
-8.000
0.100
0.300
0.500
0.700
(*10^1)
0.900
1.100
1.300
1.500
Figure 17.36 Axial force in concrete liner after deleting shotcrete liner
17.3 Reference
Panet, M. Time-Dependent Deformations in Underground Works, in Proceedings of the 4th
ISRM Congress (Montreux), Vol. 3, pp. 279-289. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema and the Swiss
Society for Soil and Rock Mechanics, 1979.
17 - 29
17 - 30
Example Applications
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
end
end
end
end
end
end
end
node
node
node
node
node
node
node
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
17 - 31
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
5001
17 - 32
Example Applications
17 - 33
17 - 34
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
struct
Example Applications
node 83 2.9960687,5.1266155
node 84 2.6694071,5.30218
node 85 2.2167227,5.504829
node 86 1.7150635,5.6798687
node 87 1.3936529,5.7666674
node 88 1.0678986,5.8353524
node 89 0.54044735,5.907067
node 90 -0.010000001,5.931989
liner begin node 46 end node 47
liner begin node 47 end node 48
liner begin node 48 end node 49
liner begin node 49 end node 50
liner begin node 50 end node 51
liner begin node 51 end node 52
liner begin node 52 end node 53
liner begin node 53 end node 54
liner begin node 54 end node 55
liner begin node 55 end node 56
liner begin node 56 end node 57
liner begin node 57 end node 58
liner begin node 58 end node 59
liner begin node 59 end node 60
liner begin node 60 end node 61
liner begin node 61 end node 62
liner begin node 62 end node 63
liner begin node 63 end node 64
liner begin node 64 end node 65
liner begin node 65 end node 66
liner begin node 66 end node 67
liner begin node 67 end node 68
liner begin node 68 end node 69
liner begin node 69 end node 70
liner begin node 70 end node 71
liner begin node 71 end node 72
liner begin node 72 end node 73
liner begin node 73 end node 74
liner begin node 74 end node 75
liner begin node 75 end node 76
liner begin node 76 end node 77
liner begin node 77 end node 78
liner begin node 78 end node 79
liner begin node 79 end node 80
liner begin node 80 end node 81
liner begin node 81 end node 82
liner begin node 82 end node 83
liner begin node 83 end node 84
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
seg
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
prop
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
5002
17 - 35
17 - 36
Example Applications
17 - 37
17 - 38
Example Applications
n2depth=y wtab-n2ycord
n2pp = -ygrav*n2depth*wdens
n2fmag = shlength * n2pp
n2xforce
= n2fmag * unx
n2yforce
= n2fmag * uny
fmem(pn2+$kndlo1)=fmem(pn2+$kndlo1)+n2xforce
fmem(pn2+$kndlo2)=fmem(pn2+$kndlo2)+n2yforce
end if
end if
sp = imem(sp)
end loop
end
17 - 39
;add xforce
;add yforce
17 - 40
Example Applications
16 - 1
16 - 2
Example Applications
The properties assumed for the foundation and embankment materials are listed in Tables 16.1
and 16.2. Note that both saturated and dry densities are shown for the foundation materials. The
embankment materials are assumed to remain dry. The FLAC simulation is an undrained analysis
using the groundwater configuration mode. Consequently, the drained material bulk modulus and
strength properties and the dry mass densities are input for this calculation mode, because the effect
of water is incorporated in the FLAC calculation.
Table 16.1 Properties for foundation soils
Saturated unit weight (N/m3 )
Porosity (%)
Dry density (kg/m3 )
Drained Youngs modulus (MPa)
Drained Poissons ratio
Drained bulk modulus (MPa)
Shear modulus (MPa)
Drained cohesion (Pa)
Drained friction angle (degrees)
Dilation angle (degrees)
Horizontal permeability (m/day)
Vertical permeability (m/day)
muck
silty sand
11,100
90
231
0.3
0.49
5.0
0.1
3500
0
0
0.003
0.001
13,560
80
582
0.5
0.45
1.67
0.17
5000
0
0
0.0003
0.0001
18,840
30
1620
15.0
0.3
12.5
5.77
0
32
0
2.4
0.8
foamed concrete
earth fill
640
30
600.0
0.15
286.0
261.0
50,000
0
0
1.2
0.4
1920
30
10.0
0.3
8.33
3.85
2400
30
0
1.2
0.4
Treated timber piles are located on a 2.5 m by 2.5 m rectangular spacing beneath the embankment
materials. The length of each pile is 12.8 m (42 ft), and the average pile diameter is 0.3048 m (12
in). The properties of the timber piles are listed in Table 16.3.
16 - 3
10.0
250.0
16 - 4
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 16:23
step
0
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-6.294E+01 <y< 2.594E+01
0.500
-0.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
-4.500
-5.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
16 - 5
16 - 6
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 16:25
step
2210
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
-4.444E+00 <x< 8.444E+01
-6.433E+01 <y< 2.456E+01
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
-3.500
-5.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
(*10^1)
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
16 - 7
16 - 8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 17:47
step 76054
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 1, 41)
-1.000
2 Y displacement( 6, 41)
-2.000
-3.000
X-axis :
Number of steps
-4.000
-5.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
03
Figure 16.6 Vertical displacements along base of embankment for unsupported embankment construction
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.000
17-Jan-05 17:47
step 76054
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
-3.588E+00 <x< 6.343E+01
-4.508E+01 <y< 2.194E+01
0.000
X-displacement contours
0.00E+00
1.00E-01
2.00E-01
3.00E-01
4.00E-01
5.00E-01
6.00E-01
7.00E-01
8.00E-01
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
2E 0
-4.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
Figure 16.7 Displacement vectors and x-displacement contours for unsupported embankment construction
16 - 9
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 17:47
step 76054
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
1.200
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
5 Grid-point pp ( 1, 40)
1.000
8 Grid-point pp ( 1, 30)
0.800
9 Grid-point pp ( 1, 23)
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(10
03
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.000
18-Jan-05 8:45
step 181132
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
-3.588E+00 <x< 6.343E+01
-4.508E+01 <y< 2.194E+01
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
5E -6
-4.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
Figure 16.9 Factor of safety and failure surface plot for unsupported embankment
16 - 10
Example Applications
The pile-supported embankment construction is simulated by first installing pile elements in the
FLAC model. The model state at P4.SAV (the initial equilibrium state) is restored, and seven
piles of 12.8 m length are positioned at a 2.5 m spacing within the foundation soils. Before the
piles are placed in the model, the first foamed concrete lift is added. This is done so that the top of
the piles can be connected to the embankment materials. Then, the piles are positioned as shown
in Figure 16.10.
In order to represent the three-dimensional effect of the 2.5 m pile spacing, we scale the pile
properties by dividing by the pile spacing. This is done automatically by specifying the spacing
property when assigning pile properties. In this analysis only the elastic modulus and the endbearing capacity are scaled to account for the spacing. Note that we neglect the weight of the piles;
the pile density would also be scaled if this weight is included. (See Section 1.9.4 in Structural
Elements for additional information on scaling properties to simulate the three-dimensional effect.)
The properties of the pile coupling springs are selected to simulate an end-bearing capacity and zero
skin friction. The cohesive strengths of the shear coupling springs at the top and bottom elements
of each pile are set to 2.5 MN/m, while all other shear and normal coupling-spring strength values
are set to zero. The value for cohesive strength is derived from a simulation of axially loaded
piles at 2.5 m spacing to produce an end-bearing ultimate capacity of 250 KN in the silty-sand
foundation material. The value for coupling-spring shear stiffness is selected at approximately ten
times the equivalent stiffness of the stiffest neighboring zone. By doing this, the deformability at
the pile/soil interface will have minimal influence on both the compliance of the total model and
the calculational speed (see Section 4.4.1 in Theory and Background). The properties used for
the pile elements in this model are summarized in Table 16.4. The model is saved at this stage as
P11.SAV.
16 - 11
middle segments
10.0
0.1524
0.976
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
0.1524
0.976
2.5
1.0
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
The embankment construction steps are now performed following the same sequence as for the
unsupported case. Each of the pile-supported stages are saved as separate save states in P12.SAV
through P17.SAV.
The vertical displacements are monitored as before; the histories are shown in Figure 16.11. The
maximum vertical displacement beneath the embankment is now approximately 0.03 m (1 in).
Also, we note that for this case there is an insignificant change in pore pressures in the muck and
very soft clay, as seen in Figure 16.12.
16 - 12
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 20:15
step 63680
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
1.000
0.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
1 Y displacement( 1, 41)
-1.000
2 Y displacement( 6, 41)
3 Y displacement( 12, 41)
-2.000
-3.000
-4.000
-5.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
03
Figure 16.11 Vertical displacements along base of the embankment for pilesupported embankment construction
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
17-Jan-05 20:15
step 63680
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
5 Grid-point pp ( 1, 40)
0.800
8 Grid-point pp ( 1, 30)
9 Grid-point pp ( 1, 23)
0.600
X-axis :
Number of steps
0.400
0.200
10
20
30
40
50
60
(10
03
16 - 13
We are also interested in the axial loading that develops in the piles. When the spacing property is
assigned, the axial force values that are printed and plotted output are the actual values (i.e., they
account for the pile spacing). We plot the actual axial forces in the piles in Figure 16.13. (The 21 pile
numbers shown in the plot legend correspond to the top, middle and bottom pile segments, which
are assigned different material property numbers.) The maximum pile loading is approximately
210 KN.
A factor-of-safety calculation is also performed at this stage. The calculated factor is 1.46, and the
failure surface is shown by the plot in Figure 16.14. Note that the critical failure surface for the
supported embankment is now at the toe of the earthfill berm. The safety factor for the foundation
material beneath the embankment is greater than 1.46, as a result of the support provided by the
piles.
Finally, we note that this project can be re-created by importing the data file PEMBANK.DAT
listed in Section 16.3, using the File / Import Record menu item. After the record is imported to
the GIIC, each save state can be created by first clicking on that state in the Record pane, and then
clicking on the restore state button at the top of the pane. The commands associated with that state
will then be called into FLAC. Note that the Project Tree Record format must be enabled (from the
Model Options dialog) to import this record.
16 - 14
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
2.000
18-Jan-05 13:00
step 166424
Flow Time
1.9620E+06
-3.588E+00 <x< 6.343E+01
-4.508E+01 <y< 2.194E+01
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
-3.000
5E -5
-4.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
Figure 16.14 Factor of safety and failure surface plot for supported embankment
16 - 15
16 - 16
Example Applications
16 - 17
&
&
&
&
&
16 - 18
Example Applications
save p4.sav
;*** Branch: Unsupported ****
;... State: p5.sav ....
model mohr group foamed concrete1
prop density=640.0 bulk=2.85999936E8 shear=2.61E8 cohesion=500000.0 &
friction=0.0 dilation=0.0 tension=0.0 group foamed concrete1
initial saturation 0.0 i 1 18 j 41 42
fix saturation i 1 18 j 41 42
set flow=off
water bulk=2.0E8
set =large
fix x i 1 j 41 42
history 1 ydisp i=1, j=41
history 2 ydisp i=6, j=41
history 3 ydisp i=12, j=41
history 4 ydisp i=17, j=41
history 5 gpp i=1, j=40
history 8 gpp i=1, j=30
history 9 gpp i=1, j=23
history 10 gpp i=1, j=14
initial xdis 0.0 ydis 0.0
solve
save p5.sav
;... State: p6.sav ....
model mohr group foamed concrete2
prop density=640.0 bulk=2.85999936E8 shear=2.61E8 cohesion=500000.0 &
friction=0.0 dilation=0.0 tension=0.0 group foamed concrete2
fix x i 1 j 42 43
fix saturation i 1 16 j 42 43
initial saturation 0.0 i 1 16 j 42 43
solve
save p6.sav
;... State: p7.sav ....
model mohr group foamed concrete3
prop density=640.0 bulk=2.85999936E8 shear=2.61E8 cohesion=500000.0 &
friction=0.0 dilation=0.0 tension=0.0 group foamed concrete3
fix x i 1 j 43 44
fix saturation i 1 15 j 43 44
initial saturation 0.0 i 1 14 j 43 44
solve
save p7.sav
16 - 19
16 - 20
Example Applications
16 - 21
16 - 22
Example Applications
14 - 1
14 - 2
Example Applications
The drained material properties associated with the two material types are summarized in Table 14.1.
The soil/wall interface is relatively smooth; strength properties are lower than those of the adjacent
soils. The interface friction angle is 12.5 and the interface cohesion is 2500 Pa.
Table 14.1 Drained properties for sand and clay layers
(kg/m3 )
Dry density
Youngs modulus (MPa)
Poissons ratio
Cohesion (Pa)
Friction angle (degrees)
Dilation angle (degrees)
Mobility coefficient (m2 /(Pa-sec))
Porosity
Sand layer
Clay layer
1700
40.0
0.3
1000
32
2
1010
0.3
1600
10.0
0.35
5000
25
0
1010
0.3
The properties selected in this example to simulate the behavior of the diaphragm wall and the struts
are listed in Tables 14.2 and 14.3. Note that for the two-dimensional FLAC analysis, the Youngs
modulus of the wall should be divided by (1 2 ) to represent the plane-stress formulation for the
structural elements in the plane-strain condition of a continuous wall. Thus, a value of 5.95 GPa is
input to FLAC for the wall elastic modulus.
The strut properties are listed in Table 14.3. Note that the spacing of the struts is 2 m. A simple
way to simulate the three-dimensional effect of the strut spacing in the FLAC model is with linear
scaling of the material properties of the struts by dividing by the strut spacing. For this example,
by using elastic beam elements, it is only necessary to scale the elastic modulus and the density of
the struts. This is done in FLAC automatically when the parameter, spacing, is specified.
Table 14.2 Properties of the diaphragm wall
Equivalent thickness (m)
Density (kg/m3 )
Youngs modulus (GPa)
Poissons ratio
Moment of inertia (m4 )
1.26
2000
5.712
0.2
0.167
1.0
2.0
3000
4.0
0.083
14 - 3
14 - 4
Example Applications
14 - 5
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
4.000
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:39
step
0
-5.044E+00 <x< 5.004E+01
-7.544E+00 <y< 4.754E+01
3.000
Grid plot
0
1E 1
interface id#s
Beam plot
2.000
102
1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
(*10^1)
3.000
4.000
14 - 6
Example Applications
Next, we assign material properties for the soils and soil/wall interface. The interface properties are
prescribed using the Alter / Interface tool. We click on the Property radio button in this pane and then
click on the circled number at one end of the interface highlighted in the model plot. An Interface
Properties dialog will appear, as shown in Figure 14.5. We select the Unbonded button and then enter
the interface properties.
K + 43 G
zmin
(14.1)
where:K & G are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively; and
zmin is the smallest width of an adjoining zone in the normal direction
The max [ ] notation indicates that the maximum value over all zones adjacent to the interface is
to be used (e.g., there may be several materials adjoining the interface).
In this example, the smallest grid width adjacent to the interface is 1 m, and the maximum equivalent
stiffness is approximately 55 MPa. Therefore, we select a representative value of 550 MPa/m for
the normal and shear stiffnesses.
14 - 7
The soil properties are assigned in the Material / Assign tool. We store the material properties in the
GIIC material database. This database can then be utilized by other projects if needed. We click
on the Database button to open the Material list dialog. We then click on the Edit tab to create two
materials and assign properties. Figure 14.6 shows the Material list dialog that is edited to contain
the properties for stiff sand. After the properties for both soils are added to the database, they can
be saved in a file (e.g., EXCAVATE.GMT) that can be loaded for other analyses. We click OK to
select these materials for assignment in the present model.
14 - 8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:39
step
0
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
User-defined Groups
Excavation:sand
Excavation:clay
Grid plot
2.000
1E 1
1.000
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
14 - 9
14 - 10
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
1E 1
Fixed Gridpoints
X X-direction
B Both directions
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
B BBBBBBBBBB
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
14 - 11
14 - 12
Example Applications
The vertical stresses, yy , are equal to -gz (i.e., gravitational acceleration times mass density times
depth). For this example with two soil layers of different densities, and the coordinate axes origin
at the bottom of the model, the vertical stresses are defined by the following equations:
(y ys )
(ye ys )
(0 y 20)
(14.2)
(y ys )
(ye ys )
(20 y 40)
(14.3)
where ys and ye are the starting and ending y-coordinates for each layer.* We use these equations to
enter the vertical stress variation in the yy-component of stress dialog. After clicking on syy in the
Zone Info/Stress menu, we click and drag the mouse over the zones corresponding to (0 y 20)
and then press the Assign button. The yy-component of stress dialog opens, and we enter the values
from Eq. (14.2). We repeat the process for Eq. (14.3). Figure 14.12 shows the dialog for Eq. (14.3).
14 - 13
The initial stress state should now be in equilibrium for the applied gravitational loading. We
confirm this by using the Run / Solve tool to begin the calculation process. When we click on Solve ,
a Solve options dialog opens and informs us that a mechanical-only calculation will be performed.
We select the Solve initial equilibrium as elastic model radio button* and press Execute . The model takes a
few steps and stops. (A few steps are needed to make a small adjustment to the equilibrium state,
to account for the effect of the stiffnesses of the beam elements and the interfaces.) We save this
state as EX02.SAV in our project tree. The vertical stress contours for the initial unsaturated state
are shown in Figure 14.13. The output plots for this model, such as that shown in Figure 14.13,
are generated from the Plot / Model tool. This opens a Plot items dialog in which we can select one
or more plot items to add to a plot view. For example, Figure 14.13 contains the yy total stress
zone-contour plot item and the boundary plot item. Note that the contour interval is changed to
5 104 in this figure by using the Edit button in the Plot items dialog. The grayscale for the filled
contour plot is also reversed by selecting the Inverse switch in the Plot Item Switches dialog.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:39
step
51
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
YY-stress contours
-6.50E+05
-5.50E+05
-4.50E+05
-3.50E+05
-2.50E+05
-1.50E+05
-5.00E+04
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
* This option performs the initial calculation in two steps: first the calculation uses high values for
strength properties to provide an elastic solution; and then it uses the actual strength values. By
following this approach, a uniform stress distribution is ensured. See Section 3.4.6 in the Users
Guide for further discussion on this topic.
14 - 14
Example Applications
(14.4)
which corresponds to the given gravitational acceleration, water density and model depth.
We enter the value and variation from this equation in the dialog, as shown in Figure 14.14.
* See Eq. (3.2) in the Users Guide for a description of the general equation to assign pressure
gradients in a FLAC model.
14 - 15
14 - 16
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:40
step
2158
Flow Time
1.2642E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
14 - 17
Figure 14.16 INI HORSTR.FIS FISH function to initialize effective horizontal stresses
We also change the strength properties of the soils and interfaces back to their actual
values and continue the mechanical calculation to determine the final initial stress state.
We use the Material / Assign tool to re-assign the actual clay and sand materials, and we
use the Alter / Interface tool to reset the cohesion and friction angle for the interfaces. We
also turn off the fluid flow calculation and set the fluid bulk modulus to zero using the
Settings GW
/ tool. We set the modulus to zero because we do not wish to generate pore
pressures as a result of mechanical deformation. We solve for the mechanical equilibrium
state with the Solve tool. The saturated stress state determined by this coupled approach
is illustrated by the contour plots of total vertical stress in Figure 14.17, effective vertical
stress in Figure 14.18, and effective horizontal stress in Figure 14.19. We save this state
in our project tree with the name EX04.SAV.
14 - 18
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:41
step
3572
Flow Time
1.2642E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
YY-stress contours
-7.50E+05
-6.50E+05
-5.50E+05
-4.50E+05
-3.50E+05
-2.50E+05
-1.50E+05
-5.00E+04
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.17 Total vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
coupled analysis
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:41
step
3572
Flow Time
1.2642E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.18 Effective vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
coupled analysis
14 - 19
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:41
step
3572
Flow Time
1.2642E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.19 Effective horizontal stress contours for initial saturated state
coupled analysis
The total number of calculational steps reported at this stage of the analysis is approximately 3,600. Note that when the coupled analysis stage is being performed, only the
fluid-flow steps are reported; the mechanical steps are considered sub-steps. This is
because the fluid timestep is typically much larger than the mechanical timestep (in other
words, mechanical effects occur instantaneously when compared to fluid diffusion effects), and in this case, the flow step is considered the master step. It is possible that
even one fluid step can put the system considerably out of equilibrium and, hence, several
mechanical sub-steps may be required so that the system remains in equilibrium during
the diffusion process. If we believe that the system is considerably out of equilibrium
during the flow calculation (e.g., by monitoring the unbalanced forces), then we can
increase the number of mechanical sub-steps within each fluid step to keep the system in
equilibrium. This can either be done manually by increasing the number of mechanical
sub-steps (using the Settings / GW tool), or automatically (by clicking on the Auto check box
in the Run / Solve tool), in which case the sub-stepping for both mechanical and fluid steps
are adjusted automatically to keep the maximum unbalanced force ratio below a preset
value.
In our example, the default condition of alternating between one fluid step and one
mechanical step is reasonable because high unbalanced forces are not produced. For
comparison purposes with the other analysis approaches, it should be noted that the total
number of (fluid and mechanical) calculational steps at this stage is approximately 6,000.
14 - 20
Example Applications
14 - 21
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
3633
Flow Time
1.2000E+05
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
YY-stress contours
-7.50E+05
-6.50E+05
-5.50E+05
-4.50E+05
-3.50E+05
-2.50E+05
-1.50E+05
-5.00E+04
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.20 Total vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
uncoupled analysis
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
3633
Flow Time
1.2000E+05
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.21 Effective vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
uncoupled analysis
14 - 22
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
3633
Flow Time
1.2000E+05
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.22 Effective horizontal stress contours for initial saturated state
uncoupled analysis
3. Automatic Initialization with the ININV.FIS FISH Function A FISH function can
be written to automatically calculate the pore pressures and stresses that are compatible
for a model containing a phreatic surface. The calculation can become quite complicated,
however, if there are multiple, non-uniform layers of materials. An example FISH
function that applies for the specific case of horizontally layered media is provided in the
FISH library (see ININV.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH volume). We use this function
here to calculate the saturated stress state directly.
We begin at the unsaturated stress state (EX02.SAV). We set the flow calculation mode
on and specify the fluid bulk modulus and density as before, using the Settings / GW tool.
We now call in the FISH function ININV.FIS from the FISH library by clicking on
the Utility / FishLib tool. We click on the Library/Groundwater/ininv menu item in the
FISH/Library dialog, and press OK . This opens the FISH Call Input dialog, as shown in
Figure 14.23. We enter the phreatic surface height (wth = 40) and the Ko ratios (k0x =
0.5 and k0z = 0.5) in the dialog, and press OK . The FISH function will then be called
into FLAC and executed. The pore pressure distribution and total stress adjustment is
calculated automatically. After the pore pressure distribution is calculated, we use the
In Situ Fix
/
tool to fix the pore pressures along the top and side boundaries, and saturation
along the top boundary, to satisfy the flow conditions, as we did for the coupled and
uncoupled analyses. We now solve for the new equilibrium state, using Run / Solve .
14 - 23
The saturated stress state at equilibrium is illustrated by the contour plots of total vertical
stress in Figure 14.24, effective vertical stress in Figure 14.25, and effective horizontal
stress in Figure 14.26. The total step count at this stage is 700 steps (5,300 steps fewer
than the coupled analysis). We save the model at this state in EX08.SAV.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
696
Flow Time
3.8700E+07
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
YY-stress contours
-7.50E+05
-6.50E+05
-5.50E+05
-4.50E+05
-3.50E+05
-2.50E+05
-1.50E+05
-5.00E+04
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.24 Total vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
automatic initialization with ININV.FIS
14 - 24
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
696
Flow Time
3.8700E+07
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.25 Effective vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
automatic initialization with ININV.FIS
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:43
step
696
Flow Time
3.8700E+07
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.26 Effective horizontal stress contours for initial saturated state
automatic initialization with ININV.FIS
14 - 25
By comparing Figures 14.17, 14.20 and 14.24, we see that the total stress results are nearly identical
with less than a 0.2% difference in values. The same is true if we compare effective stress profiles.
The slight difference may be attributed to the normal stiffness of the interfaces. In the first two
approaches, the interfaces have to deform to develop stresses; in the last approach, the stresses are
initialized. In this example, it is obvious that the last approach is the most efficient. However,
for different problem conditions, the coupled or uncoupled approaches may be more suitable. The
guidelines given in Section 1.8.2 in Fluid-Mechanical Interaction should be reviewed to help
select the appropriate analysis approach.
14.2.2.3 Step 3: Install Diaphragm Wall
The next stage of the analysis is the installation of the diaphragm wall. This is simulated by adding
the weight of the wall in the model. We begin at EX08.SAV, and include the weight of the wall
by specifying a mass density for the beam elements. We use the Structure / SEProp tool to enter the
density in the Beam Elements Properties dialog. We also turn off the flow mode and set the water
bulk modulus to zero because we do not wish to generate pore pressures during this stage. We press
Run Solve
/
again to find the equilibrium state with the wall weight included. We save this state as
EX09.SAV. Figure 14.27 shows the total vertical stress distribution at this stage.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:45
step
4016
Flow Time
3.8700E+07
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
YY-stress contours
-8.00E+05
-7.00E+05
-6.00E+05
-5.00E+05
-4.00E+05
-3.00E+05
-2.00E+05
-1.00E+05
0.00E+00
Contour interval= 5.00E+04
Boundary plot
0
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.27 Total vertical stress contours for initial saturated state
weight of wall included
14 - 26
Example Applications
In Situ/Initial
tool
The total stress is adjusted automatically when we impose this change in the pore pressures. This
is a result of selecting the Adjust Tot. Stress box in the Model Options dialog. We can check that
this adjustment to total stress has been made by plotting effective stresses before and after these
commands are issued: the effective stresses are unchanged in the model when the instantaneous
pore pressure change is imposed.
We can now solve for the coupled response that results from the dewatering. In the Settings / GW tool,
we set groundwater flow on, and set the water bulk modulus to 10,000 Pa. This is an unsaturated flow
analysis, so we can use the fast-unsaturated flow scheme to speed the calculation to steady state. (See
* For a more realistic solution, FLAC can calculate the time-dependent evolution of the phreatic
surface and stress state, due to pumping.
14 - 27
We free the saturation condition for gridpoints along the top boundary outside the excavation,
and along the left boundary below the excavation. The region near the ground surface can now
become unsaturated if the water level drops. We initialize the displacements in the model to zero
so that we can monitor the displacement change that occurs due only to the dewatering. Press the
Displmt & Velocity
button in the In Situ / Initial tool to initialize displacements and velocities. Then click
Run/Solve
on
to solve for the equilibrium state with dewatering.
The steady-state pore pressure distribution after dewatering is shown in Figure 14.29. Figure 14.30
plots the vertical displacement contours and displacement vectors at equilibrium. This indicates
the amount of settlement induced by the dewatering. We save the model state as EX10.SAV at
this stage.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:49
step 11191
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
1E 1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
14 - 28
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:49
step 11191
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
Y-displacement contours
-6.00E-02
-5.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-2.00E-02
-1.00E-02
2.000
1.000
2E -1
0.000
1.500
2.500
(*10^1)
3.500
4.500
14 - 29
MaterialAssign
tool
14 - 30
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:50
step 14529
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
Y-displacement contours
-5.00E-03
5.00E-03
1.00E-02
1.50E-02
2.00E-02
2.50E-02
3.00E-02
3.50E-02
2.000
1.000
0.000
1E -1
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:50
step 14529
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
2.000
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
4.056E+05
Beam Plot
1.000
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
14 - 31
StructureBeam
tool
The strut is not rigidly connected to the wall in this exercise. We define a pin connection (which
permits free rotation at the strut/wall connection) by selecting the Pin radio button in the Modes list
and clicking the mouse over the connecting node. An arrow is drawn at the node, denoting this as
a pin connection (see Figure 14.35).
* When the mouse is positioned to create a new node at the same location as an existing node, the
existing node is used to define the end-node of the new structural element. If two separate nodes
are required at the same position, first offset the mouse slightly to create the new node and then
reposition the new node at the same location as the existing node, using the Move mode.
14 - 32
Example Applications
StructureBeam
tool
We also prescribe a different material property number to the strut in the Beam tool so that we can
assign the strut properties. We click on the PropID radio button in the Modes list, and the identification
number B1 appears over the beam elements in the model plot. We click on the strut element, and a
dialog opens to allow us to rename the property ID to B2.
We now press Execute to send these commands to FLAC to create the strut, pin the strut to the wall,
and assign the property number. Two nodes (1531 and 1532) are created, connected as a single
beam element and assigned property number 1002. A pin connection is defined between node 1532
and wall node 1501.
We enter the Structure / Node tool to assign fixity conditions for the strut. Node 1531 is located along
the centerline of the excavation. We click on this node to open a Node: 1531 dialog, as shown in
Figure 14.36. We fix this node from movement in the x-direction, and from rotating (which are
appropriate conditions for a node located along a line of symmetry), by clicking on the X-velocity
and Rotation check boxes in the dialog. We click OK and then Execute to send the node condition
commands to FLAC.
14 - 33
StructureNode
tool
We assign the strut properties using the Structure/SEProp tool. We click on the strut element in this
tool and open the Beam Element Properties dialog, as we did previously for the wall properties, to
enter the strut properties as listed in Table 14.3.
We are now ready to perform the second excavation step. We use the MaterialAssign tool and change
the zones within the range 0 x 10, 30 y 38 to null material. We press Run / Solve to
calculate the equilibrium state with this second excavation. We save this state as EX12.SAV.
The total deformation induced by the excavation to the 10 m depth is illustrated in Figure 14.37;
the moment distribution in the wall and axial force in the strut are shown in Figure 14.38.
14 - 34
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:53
step 20620
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
Y-displacement contours
-2.50E-02
2.50E-02
5.00E-02
7.50E-02
1.00E-01
1.25E-01
1.50E-01
2.000
1.000
5E -1
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 9:53
step 20620
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
Boundary plot
0
1E 1
2.000
Beam Plot
Moment
on
Structure
Max. Value
# 1 (Beam )
1.806E+06
Beam Plot
Axial Force on
Structure
Max. Value
# 2 (Beam )
3.887E+05
1.000
0.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.38 Moment distribution in wall and axial force in strut after excavation to 10 m depth
14 - 35
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 11:12
step 43384
Flow Time
4.3050E+08
-4.167E+00 <x< 4.917E+01
-6.667E+00 <y< 4.667E+01
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
0
2E -4
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
Figure 14.39 Failure surface plot for Step 6; failure surface defined by shearstrain contours and velocity vectors
14 - 36
Example Applications
0.0,320000.0
0.0,170000.0
0.0,160000.0
0.0,170000.0
0.0,160000.0
14 - 37
j
j
j
j
j
21 40
1 20
21 40
1 20
21 40
14 - 38
Example Applications
14 - 39
14 - 40
solve
save ex09.sav
;... State: ex10.sav ....
initial xdisp 0 ydisp 0
initial xvel 0 yvel 0
initial saturation 0.0 i 1 11 j 21 41
initial pp 0.0 i 1 11 j 21 41
fix saturation i 1 11 j 21 41
free pp i 1 j 1 20
free pp i 13 46 j 41
free saturation i 13 46 j 41
set flow=on
water bulk=10000.0
history 1 gpp i=3, j=19
history 2 gpp i=12, j=9
history 3 gpp i=17, j=22
history 4 gpp i=17, j=40
history 5 gwtime
set gwtime=0.0
set funsat=on
solve
save ex10.sav
;... State: ex11.sav ....
set flow=off
water bulk=0.0
initial xdisp 0 ydisp 0
initial xvel 0 yvel 0
model null i 1 10 j 39 40
group null i 1 10 j 39 40
group delete null
solve
save ex11.sav
;... State: ex12.sav ....
model null i 1 10 j 31 38
group null i 1 10 j 31 38
group delete null
struct node 1531 0.0,40.0
struct node 1532 10.0,40.0 pin slave x y 1501
struct beam begin node 1531 end node 1532 prop 1001
struct node 1531 fix x r
struct prop 1002 density 3000.0 e 4.0E9 area 1.0 I 0.083
struct chprop 1002 range 31 31
solve
Example Applications
14 - 41
save ex12.sav
;... State: ex12.fsv ....
;FoS save state:
solve fos no restore file ex12.fsv
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: total syy contours
plot hold syy fill int 50000.0 inv bound
;plot name: effective syy contours
plot hold esyy fill inv bound
;plot name: effective sxx contours
plot hold esxx fill inv bound
;plot name: pp contours
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: structure moment & force
plot hold bound struct beam moment 1 fill white struct beam axial 2 fill &
lcyan
;plot name: displacements
plot hold ydisp fill zero displacement bound
;plot name: FOS
plot hold fos ssr fill velocity bound
;plot name: pp histories
plot hold history 1 line 2 line 3 line 4 line vs 5
14 - 42
Example Applications
15 - 1
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 11:05
3.500
2.500
User-defined Groups
wharf:soil1
wharf:soil2
wharf:soil3
wharf
1.500
piles
0.500
Boundary plot
0
2E 1
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
15 - 2
Example Applications
The wharf is constructed on a waterfront embankment that is 11 m high and has a slope angle of
approximately 27 degrees. The wharf is supported by two rows of piles that are 3 m apart and 16
m in length. The piles extend through Soils 2 and 3 and into Soil 1, as shown in Figure 15.1. Each
row of piles has a spacing of 2 m along the length of the wharf.
The following (drained) material properties are assigned to the soils.
Table 15.1 Drained properties for Soils 1, 2 and 3
Dry density (kg/m3 )
Youngs Modulus (MPa)
Poissons ratio
Cohesion (Pa)
Friction angle (degrees)
Dilation angle (degrees)
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
2009
610.9
0.3
4000
40
0
1813
163.7
0.3
1000
35
0
1715
163.7
0.3
1000
30
0
The liquefaction condition is estimated for the upper two layers, Soils 2 and 3, in terms of Standard
Penetration Test results. A normalized Standard Penetration Test value, (N1 )60 , of 20 is selected
as representative for Soil 2 and Soil 3. This value is used to determine the parameters C1 , C2
and C3 in the liquefaction model in FLAC (selected by setting the property ff switch = 1 for
the Finn-Byrne model). For a normalized SPT blow count of 20, the Byrne model parameters are
C1 = 0.2062, C2 = 1.940 and C3 = 0.0. See Byrne (1991) for a discussion on the derivation of these
parameters.
The dynamic characteristics of all of the soils in this model are assumed to be governed by the
modulus reduction factor (G/Gmax ) and damping ratio () curves, as shown in Figures 15.2 and
15.3, and denoted by the Shake91 legend. These curves are considered to be representative of
sandy soils with an average mass density of 1800 kg/m3 , and an average shear modulus of 150
MPa; the data are derived from the input file supplied with SHAKE91 (for more information see
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/software/shake91/).
15 - 3
Figure 15.2 Modulus reduction curve for sandy soils (from SHAKE91 data)
Figure 15.3 Damping ratio curve for sandy soils (from SHAKE91 data)
15 - 4
Example Applications
The structural properties for the wharf are listed in Tables 15.2 and 15.3. The properties listed in
Table 15.2 are assigned to the wharf beam and pile elements, and the properties listed in Table 15.3
are assigned to represent the behavior at the pile-soil interface.
Moment of
Inertia
(m4 )
Cross Sect.
Area
(m2 )
Mass
Density
(kg/m2 )
Pile
Perimeter
(m)
2.0
2.0
2.364103
1.302106
0.305
0.025
2000
2000
0.63
Beams
Piles
Soil 1
Soils 2 & 3
Normal
Stiffness
(GPa/m)
Shear
Stiffness
(GPa/m)
Normal
Cohesion
(Pa/m)
Shear
Cohesion
(Pa/m)
Normal
Friction
(degrees)
Shear
Friction
(degrees)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4000
1000
4000
1000
40
30
40
30
The wharf is subjected to an earthquake motion with a peak acceleration of approximately 0.3 g
and duration of 40 sec. Figure 15.4 shows the acceleration time history. This history is assumed to
be recorded near the wharf site. A reduction factor of 0.5 is applied to the acceleration to correlate
the motion to that at a depth of 11 m beneath the toe of the waterfront embankment.* A Fast
Fourier Transform analysis of the acceleration record (using FFT.FIS in Section 3 in the FISH
volume) results in a power spectrum as shown in Figure 15.5. This figure indicates that the highest
frequency is less than approximately 15 Hz, and that the majority of the frequencies are less than
10 Hz. The data file INPUT.DAT listed in Section 15.5 contains the commands to generate the
power spectrum.
* Note that a FLAC or SHAKE analysis can be used to determine an input acceleration at the depth it
is applied in a model, accounting for propagation of the wave from the location where it is recorded.
15 - 5
JOB TITLE : .
-01
LEGEND
10-Jun-04 11:46
step
0
Acceleration Record
(gs vs sec)
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
10-Jun-04 11:46
step
0
1.000
Power Spectrum
(power vs frequency in Hz)
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
15 - 6
Example Applications
(*10^1)
LEGEND
22-Sep-04 10:25
step
1993
-4.500E+00 <x< 8.550E+01
-3.400E+01 <y< 5.600E+01
3.500
2.500
User-defined Groups
wharf:soil1
wharf:soil2
wharf:soil3
Grid plot
0
1.500
2E 1
0.500
Marked Gridpoints
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
f =
15 - 7
Cs
12 Hz
10 l
(15.1)
Before applying the seismic record, it is filtered to remove high frequencies. The FISH function
FILTER.FIS, described in Section 3 in the FISH volume, is used to remove frequencies above
10 Hz (which is selected slightly lower than the value in Eq. (15.1) to account for reduction in shear
wave speed that may occur in the liquefiable materials during the dynamic loading). The acceleration
history, converted to m/sec2 versus seconds, and filtered at 10 Hz, is shown in Figure 15.7, and the
power spectrum for the filtered wave is shown in Figure 15.8. Note that the original acceleration
record is converted to m/sec2 versus seconds, using the FISH function CONVERT.FIS, before
filtering. This is the form of the record that will be applied as the dynamic input at the base of the
model.
The properties in Table 15.1 are entered into a material database by clicking the Materials button in
the lower-right corner of the Material/Assign tool. The three material types, Soil1, Soil2 and Soil3, are
created in a material class named wharf, and their properties are assigned by editing the dialog for
each material. The materials are then stored in a separate database file, named WHARF.GMT,
which can be accessed at any time in subsequent analyses. The three materials are made available
for the present model by clicking the OK button in the Material List dialog; the materials will then
be listed when the Material radio button is pressed in the Material/Assign tool. By clicking on the Region
radio button, then highlighting each material and clicking on one zone in each of the three regions of
the model plot, the selected region of zones will change color, corresponding to that of the selected
material. Once all three materials have been assigned, the Execute button is pressed to send the
commands to FLAC. The resulting model with the assigned materials is shown in Figure 15.6.
JOB TITLE : .
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
-1.500
-2.000
-2.500
10
15
20
25
30
35
15 - 8
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
-02
LEGEND
23-Sep-04 10:16
step
0
1.000
Power Spectrum
(power vs frequency in Hz)
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
15
20
25
15 - 9
Stage 2
The wharf structure is added in Stage 2, using the Structure/Beam tool to create the wharf deck and the
Structure/Pile
tool to create the supporting piles. Note that each pile is divided into 16 segments. This
ensures that at least one pile node is located within each zone along the length of the pile. The wharf
beam and piles share the same nodes at their intersection. This provides a rigid connection between
the wharf and piles. The structural properties for the wharf structure, as listed in Tables 15.2 and
15.3, are specified using the Structure/Prop tool. Note that the 2 m spacing is entered with the pile
properties. The different pile-soil interface properties listed in Table 15.3 are assigned by specifying
a structural property ID number for the pile segments within Soil 1 different from that for segments
within Soils 2 and 3.
The model is brought to an equilibrium state with the wharf in place. Figure 15.9 shows the model
geometry with the wharf structure. The initial pore pressure contours are also plotted.
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Oct-04 13:26
step
6759
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
-4.500E+00 <x< 8.550E+01
-3.400E+01 <y< 5.600E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
2E 1
wharf
-2.500
piles
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
15 - 10
Example Applications
Stage 3
For Stage 3, it is necessary to specify a realistic value for the water bulk modulus in order to evaluate
the liquefaction condition of the embankment. To avoid excessive runtimes, this value is selected
using the formula
4
Kw = 20n(K + G)
3
(15.2)
where n is the porosity, and K and G are the bulk and shear moduli of the unsaturated soil. For this
problem, Kw is calculated to be approximately 1.0 GPa. (Note that the actual water bulk modulus
of pure water is 2.0 GPa.)
We begin the dynamic loading stage by turning on the dynamic calculation mode from the Settings/Dyna
tool. The original acceleration record (shown in Figure 15.4) is designated as ACC1.HIS, and
is loaded into FLAC using the Read button in the Utility/History tool. The Execute button should be
pressed to execute the command and load the record into FLAC. The record is converted into m/sec2
versus seconds via CONVERT.FIS, which is executed from the Fish Editor. The record is then
filtered at 10 Hz using FILTER.FIS, which is executed from the Utility/FishLib tool. The filtered
record is stored in table 111.
We monitor histories of selected model variables during the dynamic calculation. These are chosen
using the Utility/History tool. In particular, pore pressures are monitored at two locations: at the toe
of the slope; and in the interior of the embankment. These histories, along with the dynamic time,
are recorded to evaluate the potential for generation of pore pressure (and liquefaction) during the
dynamic calculation.
The dynamic boundary conditions are now assigned in the In Situ/Apply tool. The free-field boundary
is set for the side boundaries by selecting the Free-Field button. The filtered acceleration record is
applied along the bottom boundary by first selecting the Dynamic/xacc boundary condition type and
then dragging the mouse along the bottom boundary. The Apply value dialog opens when the
Assign
button is pressed, an x-acceleration value of 0.5 is entered as a reduction factor for the input
acceleration, and the record in table 111 is applied by selecting the Multiplier/Table button. The
acceleration record will now be multiplied by 0.5 and applied along the bottom boundary when the
OK
button is pressed. The factor of 0.5 corresponds to the adjusted acceleration at the bottom of the
model.
The bottom of the model is fixed from movement in the y-direction to represent the presence of
the bedrock base. This boundary condition is assigned by selecting the Velocity/yvelocity boundary
condition type and dragging the mouse along the bottom boundary. The Apply value dialog opens
when the Assign button is pressed, and a y-velocity value of 0.0 is entered to fix the boundary from
movement in the y-direction.
Before performing the liquefaction calculation, runs are made with Mohr-Coulomb material assigned to all three soils in order to evaluate the amount of additional mechanical damping required
for the wharf model. We first determine the dominant natural frequencies associated with this
model; these are required for Rayleigh damping. An undamped run is performed for a dynamic
15 - 11
loading time period of 10 seconds. Velocities are monitored at gridpoints in the different materials
and at structural element nodes. Fast Fourier Transform analyses are then performed on these
velocity records in order to determine the dominant frequencies. Figure 15.10 presents one FFT
result recorded at a gridpoint in Soil 2. For this example, all of the recorded velocities in the grid
and wharf structure indicate that the dominant frequency is approximately 0.8 Hz, as shown in Figure 15.10. In general, values may vary in different materials, requiring different Rayleigh damping
parameters for different regions in a model.
JOB TITLE : .
-03
LEGEND
7-Oct-04 4:26
step 136381
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
Table Plot
Table 206
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
10
12
14
16
18
15 - 12
Example Applications
The same Rayleigh damping (mass- and stiffness-proportional damping of 1% at the dominant
frequency of 0.8 Hz) is applied for the wharf structure and the grid in the first damping case.
Rayleigh damping is assigned in the Settings/Dyna tool. A dynamic run is made for 5 seconds while
monitoring the displacements of the grid and wharf structure. The limiting timestep for this case is
approximately 3.7 106 seconds.
The dynamic run of 5 seconds is repeated for the second damping case, with Rayleigh damping
applied only for the grid. The displacement results are nearly identical to the first case; this time
the timestep is approximately 2.1 105 seconds. The agreement between the two cases indicates
that it is not necessary to include structural damping in this analysis. Damping for the grid alone is
sufficient to damp the natural oscillation modes identified from the undamped simulation.
In the third damping case, hysteretic damping corresponding to the dynamic characteristics represented by the (G/Gmax ) and () curves shown in Figures 15.2 and 15.3 is applied. These figures
show a comparison of the (G/Gmax ) and () variations to those computed using the default hysteretic model in FLAC. The selected parameters (L1 = -3.325 and L2 = 0.823) for the default model
produce the FLAC curves shown in these figures. Hysteretic damping is assigned in the In Situ/Initial
tool. Hysteretic damping does not completely damp high frequency components, so a small amount
of stiffness-proportional Rayleigh damping is also applied, at 0.5% at the dominant frequency (0.8
Hz). The limiting timestep for the hysteretic damping case is approximately 4.0 105 seconds.
The results from the hysteretic damping case and the Rayleigh damping case are comparable,
as indicated by the plots in Figures 15.11 through 15.14. Rayleigh damping is shown to induce
somewhat greater material damping over the given range of cyclic strains, as indicated by the smaller
displacements and lower pile moments for the Rayleigh-damping case compared to the hystereticdamping case. In both cases, though, the wharf structure and slope are stable, and motion essentially
ceases after roughly 20 seconds of shaking.
15 - 13
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 17, 14)
X Displacement (Nd
-0.800
1)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
12
14
16
18
20
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 17, 14)
X Displacement (Nd
-0.800
1)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
12
14
16
18
20
15 - 14
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Oct-04 15:44
step 500413
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
Dynamic Time 2.0000E+01
-4.500E+00 <x< 8.555E+01
-3.400E+01 <y< 5.605E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
on
Max. Value
5.084E+04
5.084E+04
-5.422E+04
4.644E+04
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
13-Oct-04 11:49
step 959337
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
Dynamic Time 2.0000E+01
-4.500E+00 <x< 8.554E+01
-3.400E+01 <y< 5.604E+01
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
on
Max. Value
3.706E+04
3.703E+04
-3.301E+04
2.893E+04
-1.500
-2.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
15 - 15
The liquefaction simulation is performed by changing Soils 2 and 3 to Finn model materials, using
the Material/Model tool. The Byrne (1991) liquefaction model is assigned to these soils, and properties
are prescribed corresponding to a normalized SPT blow count of 20. For example, Figure 15.15
displays the dialog to enter properties for Soil 2. Note that the latency property is set to a high value
at this stage. This is done to check that the model is still at equilibrium when changing Soils 2 and
3 from Mohr-Coulomb to Finn material. When Run/Solve is issued, only a few steps are taken, which
ensures the model is still in equilibrium.
15 - 16
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
14-Oct-04 16:34
step 75218
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
15-Oct-04 9:57
step 143410
3.500
2.500
1.500
0.500
-0.500
-1.500
-2.500
0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
(*10^1)
5.500
6.500
7.500
15 - 17
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
14-Oct-04 16:34
step 75218
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
Dynamic Time 5.0000E+00
1.000
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 9, 6)
0.950
0.900
X-axis :
Dynamic time
0.850
0.800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
Figure 15.18 Pore pressure histories at toe of slope in soil 1, zone (9,6), and
within slope in soil 2, zone (20,8) soils 2 and 3 can liquefy
JOB TITLE : .
05
LEGEND
13-Oct-04 15:05
step 129980
Flow Time
3.2501E+06
Dynamic Time 5.0000E+00
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Pore pressure ( 9, 6)
Pore pressure ( 20, 8)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
1.100
1.050
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
0.800
0.750
0.700
0.650
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(10
-01
Figure 15.19 Pore pressure histories at toe of slope in soil 1, zone (9,6), and
within slope in soil 2, zone (20,8) soils 2 and 3 cannot liquefy
15 - 18
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
0.000
-0.400
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
X displacement( 17, 14)
X Displacement (Nd
-0.800
1)
X-axis :
Dynamic time
-1.200
-1.600
-2.000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(10
-01
15.3 References
Byrne, P. A Cyclic Shear-Volume Coupling and Pore-Pressure Model for Sand, in Proceedings:
Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
and Soil Dynamics (St. Louis, Missouri, March, 1991), Paper No. 1.24, 47-55.
15 - 19
15 - 20
Example Applications
15 - 21
solve
save wf5.sav
;*** BRANCH: M-C MODEL ****
;... STATE: WF6 ....
set echo off
call savepp.fis
savePP
water bulk=1e9
set dyn=on
set =large
hist 100 read acc1.his
hist write 100 table 100
set echo off
call convert.fis
set tab in=100 tab out=101 npnts=4000 cfactor=10.0
convert
set echo off
call Filter.fis
set filter in=101 filter out=111 fc=10
filter
history 1 dytime
history 2 pp i=9, j=6
history 3 pp i=20, j=8
history 4 pp i=27, j=8
history 5 xvel i=9, j=3
history 6 xvel i=32, j=3
history 7 xvel i=31, j=10
history 8 xvel i=27, j=16
history 9 node 19 xvelocity
history 10 node 13 xvelocity
history 11 xdisp i=17, j=14
history 12 node 1 xdisplace
history 13 ssi i=32, j=4
history 14 ssi i=30, j=11
history 15 ssi i=27, j=16
history 16 sxy i=32, j=4
history 17 sxy i=30, j=11
history 18 sxy i=27, j=16
history 19 xaccel i=13, j=1
history 20 xaccel i=32, j=1
set step=10000000
save wf6.sav
;*** BRANCH: UNDAMPED ****
15 - 22
Example Applications
15 - 23
fftransform
save wf7 c.sav
;*** BRANCH: PILE IN SOIL1 ****
restore wf7.sav
;... STATE: WF7 D ....
hist write 9 vs 1 table 106
set echo off
call tab ind.fis
set fft inp1=106 fft inp2=206
tab ind
set echo off
call Fft.fis
fftransform
save wf7 d.sav
;*** BRANCH: PILE IN SOIL2 ****
restore wf7.sav
;... STATE: WF7 E ....
hist write 10 vs 1 table 106
set echo off
call tab ind.fis
set fft inp1=106 fft inp2=206
tab ind
set echo off
call Fft.fis
fftransform
save wf7 e.sav
;*** BRANCH: W/ RAYLEIGH DAMP GRID AND STRUCTURE ****
restore wf6.sav
;... STATE: WF8S ....
set dy damping rayleigh=0.01 0.8
set dy damping struct rayleigh=0.01 0.8
apply ffield
apply xacc 0.5 hist table 111 from 1,1 to 41,1
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,1 to 41,1
solve dytime 5.0
save wf8s.sav
;*** BRANCH: W/ RAYLEIGH DAMP GRID ONLY2 ****
restore wf6.sav
15 - 24
Example Applications
15 - 25
15 - 26
Example Applications
15 - 27
group wharf:soil1 i 40 j 7 18
model mohr group wharf:soil1
prop density=2009.0 bulk=5.09083E8 shear=2.34962E8 cohesion=4000.0 &
friction=40.0 dilation=0.0 tension=0.0 group wharf:soil1
ini dy damp hyst default -3.325 0.823
set dy damping rayleigh=0.005 0.8
apply ffield
apply xacc 0.5 hist table 111 from 1,1 to 41,1
apply yvelocity 0.0 from 1,1 to 41,1
save wf6f2.sav
;... STATE: WF8F ....
solve dytime 5.0
save wf8f.sav
;... STATE: WF9F ....
solve dytime 10.0
save wf9f.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: shear strain
plot hold ssi fill int 0.15 struct pile moment fill iwhite beam alias &
wharf white
;plot name: input gs
plot hold history 100
;plot name: fft
plot hold table 206 line end 200
;plot name: pp hist
plot hold history 2 line 3 line vs 1
;plot name: pp
plot hold pp fill bound
;plot name: plasticity
plot hold displacement bound plasticity no past
;plot name: xdisp hist
plot hold history 11 line 12 line vs 1
;plot name: input acc
plot hold table 111 line
;plot name: xacc base
plot hold history 19 line 20 vs 1
15 - 28
Example Applications
15 - 29
tab ind
set echo off
call Fft.fis
set cd back
fftransform
save fft2.sav
;*** plot commands ****
;plot name: input acc. (hist 100)
plot hold history 100 line
;plot name: input acc gs (table 100)
label table 100
(gs/sec2 vs sec)
plot hold table 100 line alias Acceleration Record
;plot name: input acc m/s2 (table 101)
label table 101
(m/sec2 vs sec)
plot hold table 101 line alias Acceleration Record
;plot name: vel m/s (table 102)
label table 102
uncorrected velocity
label table 104
corrected velocity
plot hold table 102 line alias Velocity Record
;plot name: disp m (table 103)
label table 106
uncorrected disp.
label table 105
corrected disp.
label table 103
uncorrected displacement
plot hold table 103 line alias Displacement Record
;plot name: fft
label table 110
(power vs frequency in Hz)
label table 201
(power vs frequency in Hz)
plot hold table 201 line alias Power Spectrum
15 - 30
Example Applications
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Users Guide
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
28-Mar-05 14:31
step
5000
-1.967E+00 <x< 4.097E+01
-1.347E+01 <y< 2.947E+01
2.000
1.500
Grid plot
0
1E 1
1.000
XY-stress contours
Contour interval= 2.50E+05
Minimum: -5.00E+05
Maximum: 5.00E+05
Boundary plot
0
0.500
1E 1
0.000
-0.500
-1.000
0.750
1.250
1.750
(*10^1)
2.250
2.750
3.250
3.750
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
JOB TITLE : .
LEGEND
6.000
19-Nov-04 11:23
step
475
Flow Time
2.3427E+08
-4.833E-01 <x< 9.183E+00
-1.833E+00 <y< 7.833E+00
5.000
4.000
Boundary plot
0
2E 0
Flow vectors
max vector =
0
3.000
1.338E-06
2.000
2E -6
Beam plot
1.000
0.000
-1.000
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
6.500
7.500
8.500
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Structural Elements
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC/Slope
Users Guide
a mini-version of FLAC * to calculate factor of safety for slopes
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
* Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua FLAC is a general-purpose Itasca program for numerical
modeling of continuous materials.
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
FLAC-GIIC REFERENCE
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Command Reference
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
FISH in FLAC
JOB TITLE : .
0.175
LEGEND
0.125
12-Apr-04 9:32
step
0
-2.089E-01 <x< 2.004E-01
-2.082E-01 <y< 2.011E-01
0.075
Grid plot
0
0.025
1E -1
-0.025
-0.075
-0.125
-0.175
-0.125
-0.075
-0.025
0.025
0.075
0.125
0.175
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Theory and Background
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
15-Apr-04 15:57
step
1520
-3.333E+00 <x< 6.333E+01
-1.083E+01 <y< 5.583E+01
3.500
Grid plot
0
2E 1
2.500
X-displacement contours
Contour interval= 2.50E-04
Minimum: -1.25E-03
Maximum: 1.25E-03
1.500
0.500
-0.500
1.500
2.500
3.500
4.500
5.500
(*10^1)
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Optional Features
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
28-Feb-05 12:39
step 289472
Creep Time 3.1558E+07
-1.000E+00 <x< 1.600E+01
-1.000E+01 <y< 7.000E+00
0.300
0.100
-0.100
-0.300
-0.500
-0.700
5E 0
-0.900
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
(*10^1)
1.000
1.200
1.400
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Example Applications
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^2)
LEGEND
14-Jan-05 18:00
step 25225
-5.000E+01 <x< 1.500E+02
-8.000E+01 <y< 1.200E+02
0.600
0.200
-0.200
5E 1
-0.600
0.200
0.600
1.000
1.400
(*10^2)
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Command and FISH Reference Summary
JOB TITLE : Earthquake Analysis of a Tailings Dam
(*10^2)
1.700
1.500
12-Oct-04 13:42
step 44181
Flow Time
4.0598E+11
Dynamic Time 1.0000E+01
7.500E+01 <x< 2.500E+02
0.000E+00 <y< 1.750E+02
1.300
1.100
0.900
0.700
5E 1
0.300
0.100
1.100
1.300
1.500
1.700
1.900
2.100
2.300
(*10^2)
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
FLAC
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua
Verification Problems
JOB TITLE : .
(*10^1)
LEGEND
29-Mar-04 11:33
step 14284
-2.222E+01 <x< 2.222E+01
-1.222E+01 <y< 3.222E+01
2.250
1.750
Grid plot
0
1E 1
1.250
Plasticity Indicator
X elastic, at yield in past
o at yield in tension
Net Applied Forces
max vector =
0
0.750
6.862E+06
0.250
2E 7
-0.250
-0.750
-1.250
-0.750
-0.250
(*10^1)
0.250
0.750
1.250
1.750
2005
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Mill Place
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA
Phone:
Fax:
E-Mail:
Web:
(1) 612-371-4711
(1) 6123714717
software@itascacg.com
www.itascacg.com
Users Guide
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison with Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Basic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Optional Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Modeling Physical Processes and Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Updates from Version 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Improved Fluid-Flow Calculation and Coupled Mechanical-Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Hysteretic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Hoek-Brown Constitutive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 New Structural Element Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Thermal Advection Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6 Network Key Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.7 New Features in FISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.8 New Utility Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.9 New Example Applications and Verification Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fields of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guide to the FLAC Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-4
1-5
1-5
1-7
1-8
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 13
1 - 14
1 - 16
1 - 21
1 - 22
1 - 23
2 GETTING STARTED
2.1
2-3
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2 - 10
2 - 11
Contents - 2
Users Guide
Running FLAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Running FLAC in Menu-Driven Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.1 Entering the GIIC and Selecting Analysis Options . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.2 Changing GIIC Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.3 Modeling-Stage Tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 A Simple Tutorial Use of the GIIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Running FLAC in Command-Driven Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 A Simple Tutorial Use of Common Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 The Finite Difference Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Command Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Mechanics of Using FLAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Assigning Material Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 Applying Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.4 Stepping to Initial Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.5 Performing Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.6 Saving/Restoring Problem State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.7 Summary of Commands for Simple Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Systems of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Precision Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
2 - 13
2 - 13
2 - 13
2 - 15
2 - 16
2 - 17
2 - 34
2 - 35
2 - 44
2 - 48
2 - 51
2 - 52
2 - 54
2 - 59
2 - 61
2 - 63
2 - 67
2 - 69
2 - 70
2 - 72
2 - 75
2 - 77
2 - 78
2 - 81
General Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Step 1: Define the Objectives for the Model Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Step 2: Create a Conceptual Picture of the Physical System . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Step 3: Construct and Run Simple Idealized Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4 Step 4: Assemble Problem-Specific Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5 Step 5: Prepare a Series of Detailed Model Runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.6 Step 6: Perform the Model Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.7 Step 7: Present Results for Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2
3-3
3-3
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-5
3-5
Users Guide
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Contents - 3
Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Fitting the Grid to a Problem Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Creating Internal and External Boundary Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Connecting Sub-grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Localization and Grid Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Continuity of Displacement in a Nonuniform Grid the Patch Test . .
3.2.6 Axisymmetric Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.7 Grids for Plane-Stress Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Stress Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.1 Applied Stress Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.2 Changing Boundary Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.3 Printing and Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.4 Advice and Words of Caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Displacement Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Real Boundaries Choosing the Right Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Artificial Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4.1 Symmetry Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4.2 Boundary Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4.3 Infinite Elastic Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 Axisymmetric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6 Interior Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Uniform Stresses: No Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Stresses with Gradients: Uniform Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 A Caution about Specifying Variations for INITIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Stresses with Gradients: Nonuniform Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5 Stress Initialization in a Nonuniform Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.6 Compaction within a Nonuniform Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.7 Initial Stresses Following a Model Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.8 Stress and Pore Pressure Initialization with a Phreatic Surface . . . . . . . .
3.4.9 Initialization of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loading and Sequential Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Recommended Approach to Sequential Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Effect of Changing Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Effect of Excavating Material on Response at the Ground Surface . . . .
3.5.4 Minimizing Inertial Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 Modeling Time-Dependent Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-6
3-6
3-7
3 - 18
3 - 20
3 - 29
3 - 30
3 - 31
3 - 32
3 - 32
3 - 33
3 - 34
3 - 35
3 - 35
3 - 39
3 - 42
3 - 42
3 - 43
3 - 43
3 - 49
3 - 50
3 - 52
3 - 53
3 - 53
3 - 54
3 - 55
3 - 56
3 - 57
3 - 60
3 - 62
3 - 63
3 - 64
3 - 66
3 - 67
3 - 75
3 - 79
3 - 83
3 - 88
Contents - 4
Users Guide
3 - 91
3 - 91
3 - 95
3 - 98
3 - 99
3 - 100
3 - 100
3 - 100
3 - 103
3 - 106
3 - 106
3 - 108
3 - 111
3 - 118
3 - 120
3 - 120
3 - 124
3 - 126
3 - 131
3 - 140
3 - 140
3 - 140
3 - 141
3 - 142
3 - 143
3 - 143
3 - 143
3 - 145
3 - 147
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 1
Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 2
Users Guide
Contents - 5
5 MISCELLANEOUS
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5-1
5-3
5-3
5-3
5-3
5-7
5-8
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Contents - 6
Users Guide
TABLES
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6
Table 2.7
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.8
Table 3.9
Table 3.10
Table 4.1
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
2-7
2 - 61
2 - 62
2 - 71
2 - 75
2 - 75
2 - 76
3-3
3 - 94
3 - 101
3 - 102
3 - 103
3 - 104
3 - 105
3 - 107
3 - 123
3 - 127
4-4
5-2
5-7
Users Guide
Contents - 7
FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
Figure 2.30
Figure 2.31
Figure 2.32
Figure 2.33
Figure 2.34
Figure 2.35
Figure 2.36
2-5
2-6
2-8
2-9
2-9
2 - 12
2 - 12
2 - 14
2 - 16
2 - 18
2 - 18
2 - 19
2 - 20
2 - 20
2 - 21
2 - 22
2 - 23
2 - 24
2 - 25
2 - 25
2 - 26
2 - 27
2 - 27
2 - 28
2 - 29
2 - 30
2 - 30
2 - 31
2 - 32
2 - 33
2 - 34
2 - 39
2 - 41
2 - 41
2 - 42
2 - 44
Contents - 8
Figure 2.37
Figure 2.38
Figure 2.39
Figure 2.40
Figure 2.41
Figure 2.42
Figure 2.43
Figure 2.44
Figure 2.45
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Figure 3.23
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.25
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
Figure 3.28
Users Guide
2 - 48
2 - 49
2 - 53
2 - 58
2 - 65
2 - 65
2 - 72
2 - 73
2 - 73
3-2
3-9
3 - 10
3 - 10
3 - 12
3 - 12
3 - 13
3 - 15
3 - 16
3 - 16
3 - 17
3 - 17
3 - 18
3 - 19
3 - 22
3 - 23
3 - 24
3 - 26
3 - 27
3 - 27
3 - 28
3 - 30
3 - 31
3 - 35
3 - 37
3 - 37
3 - 39
3 - 41
Users Guide
Figure 3.29
Figure 3.30
Figure 3.31
Figure 3.32
Figure 3.33
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
Figure 3.36
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.38
Figure 3.39
Figure 3.40
Figure 3.41
Figure 3.42
Figure 3.43
Figure 3.44
Figure 3.45
Figure 3.46
Figure 3.47
Figure 3.48
Figure 3.49
Figure 3.50
Figure 3.51
Figure 3.52
Figure 3.53
Figure 3.54
Figure 3.55
Figure 3.56
Figure 3.57
Figure 3.58
Figure 3.59
Figure 3.60
Figure 3.61
Contents - 9
3 - 46
3 - 47
3 - 47
3 - 48
3 - 58
3 - 59
3 - 60
3 - 62
3 - 68
3 - 68
3 - 70
3 - 72
3 - 72
3 - 74
3 - 74
3 - 76
3 - 78
3 - 79
3 - 80
3 - 81
3 - 82
3 - 84
3 - 85
3 - 87
3 - 87
3 - 88
3 - 96
3 - 97
3 - 99
3 - 107
3 - 111
3 - 114
3 - 116
Contents - 10
Figure 3.62
Figure 3.63
Figure 3.64
Figure 3.65
Figure 3.66
Figure 3.67
Figure 3.68
Figure 3.69
Figure 3.70
Users Guide
3 - 117
3 - 117
3 - 119
3 - 120
3 - 125
3 - 130
3 - 137
3 - 138
3 - 144
Users Guide
Contents - 11
EXAMPLES
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
Example 2.6
Example 2.7
Example 2.8
Example 2.9
Example 2.10
Example 2.11
Example 2.12
Example 3.1
Example 3.2
Example 3.3
Example 3.4
Example 3.5
Example 3.6
Example 3.7
Example 3.8
Example 3.9
Example 3.10
Example 3.11
Example 3.12
Example 3.13
Example 3.14
Example 3.15
Example 3.16
Example 3.17
Example 3.18
Example 3.19
Example 3.20
Example 3.21
Example 3.22
Example 3.23
Example 3.24
Example 3.25
Example 3.26
2 - 54
2 - 55
2 - 56
2 - 56
2 - 56
2 - 57
2 - 60
2 - 62
2 - 64
2 - 67
2 - 68
2 - 70
3-8
3 - 11
3 - 13
3 - 19
3 - 21
3 - 23
3 - 25
3 - 29
3 - 34
3 - 36
3 - 36
3 - 38
3 - 40
3 - 40
3 - 42
3 - 43
3 - 50
3 - 51
3 - 52
3 - 54
3 - 54
3 - 55
3 - 56
3 - 57
3 - 57
3 - 60
Contents - 12
Example 3.27
Example 3.28
Example 3.29
Example 3.30
Example 3.31
Example 3.32
Example 3.33
Example 3.34
Example 3.35
Example 3.36
Example 3.37
Example 3.38
Example 3.39
Example 3.40
Example 3.41
Example 3.42
Example 3.43
Example 3.44
Example 3.45
Example 3.46
Example 3.47
Example 3.48
Example 4.1
Example 4.2
Example 4.3
Example 4.4
Example 4.5
Example 4.6
Example 4.7
Example 4.8
Example 4.9
Example 4.10
Example 4.11
Example 4.12
Example 4.13
Example 4.14
Example 5.1
Users Guide
3 - 62
3 - 63
3 - 65
3 - 67
3 - 70
3 - 71
3 - 73
3 - 75
3 - 77
3 - 79
3 - 83
3 - 86
3 - 95
3 - 96
3 - 109
3 - 112
3 - 115
3 - 118
3 - 124
3 - 128
3 - 129
3 - 136
4-2
4-3
4-3
4-4
4-4
4-6
4-7
4-7
4-8
4-9
4 - 10
4 - 11
4 - 11
4 - 13
5-1
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION SINGLE FLUID PHASE
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Mathematical Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Continuum Expression of the Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.1 Transport Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.2 Balance Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.3 Constitutive Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.4 Compatibility Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.5 Fluid Flow Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Fluid Flow Formulation Basic Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Constitutive Law: Derivation of Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Unsaturated Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Continuity at Partially Saturated Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Numerical Stability: Fluid Timestep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Verification of the Basic Fluid-Flow Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Fluid Flow Formulation Fast-Flow Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Fully Saturated Fast Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.1 Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.2 Control of a Saturated Fast-Flow Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.3 Verification of the Saturated Fast-Flow Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Unsaturated Fast Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.1 Partially Saturated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.2 Unsaturated Fast-Flow Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.3 Low and High Fluid Bulk Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.4 Verification of the Unsaturated Fast-Flow Scheme . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Fluid Bulk Modulus Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3.1 Verification of the Fluid Bulk Modulus Scaling Logic . . . . . . . .
Calculation Modes and Commands for Fluid-Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Grid Not Configured for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Grid Configured for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 ATS Mode Adjust Total Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid Flow Boundary Conditions, Initial Conditions, Sources and Sinks . . . . . .
1-1
1-5
1-5
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 13
1 - 14
1 - 14
1 - 15
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 18
1 - 19
1 - 19
1 - 19
1 - 20
1 - 21
1 - 21
1 - 22
1 - 22
1 - 23
1 - 23
1 - 24
1 - 27
1 - 28
Contents - 2
1.7
1.8
1.9
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
1 - 30
1 - 30
1 - 31
1 - 31
1 - 32
1 - 32
1 - 32
1 - 33
1 - 34
1 - 34
1 - 34
1 - 36
1 - 36
1 - 41
1 - 41
1 - 42
1 - 42
1 - 44
1 - 47
1 - 47
1 - 48
1 - 55
1 - 57
1 - 60
1 - 60
1 - 64
1 - 65
1 - 71
1 - 76
1 - 82
1 - 88
1 - 88
1 - 89
1 - 99
1 - 100
1 - 106
1 - 108
1 - 109
1 - 111
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Contents - 3
1 - 113
1 - 114
1 - 117
1 - 126
1 - 128
1 - 130
1 - 132
1 - 138
1 - 141
1 - 146
1 - 146
1 - 149
1 - 150
1 - 150
1 - 150
1 - 151
1 - 156
1 - 160
1 - 161
1 - 162
2 TWO-PHASE FLOW
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Nodal Formulation of the Fluid Balance Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Nodal Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Timestep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Mechanical Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Commands and FISH Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 FLAC Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.5 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6 FISH Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-3
2-3
2-8
2-9
2-9
2 - 11
2 - 11
2 - 12
2 - 13
2 - 13
2 - 13
2 - 15
2 - 16
2 - 17
2 - 18
Contents - 4
2.5
2.6
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
2 - 19
2 - 20
2 - 20
2 - 25
2 - 31
2 - 36
2 - 41
2 - 53
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Contents - 5
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6
1-2
1 - 24
1 - 45
2 - 13
2 - 14
2 - 15
2 - 16
2 - 18
2 - 18
Contents - 6
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.22
Figure 1.23
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Figure 1.26
Figure 1.27
Figure 1.28
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.30
1-7
1-8
1 - 11
1 - 48
1 - 49
1 - 50
1 - 51
1 - 52
1 - 52
1 - 56
1 - 56
1 - 58
1 - 58
1 - 59
1 - 62
1 - 63
1 - 66
1 - 66
1 - 67
1 - 68
1 - 73
1 - 73
1 - 74
1 - 75
1 - 76
1 - 77
1 - 78
1 - 78
1 - 79
1 - 87
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Figure 1.31
Figure 1.32
Figure 1.33
Figure 1.34
Figure 1.35
Figure 1.36
Figure 1.37
Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39
Figure 1.40
Figure 1.41
Figure 1.42
Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.46
Figure 1.47
Figure 1.48
Figure 1.49
Figure 1.50
Figure 1.51
Figure 1.52
Figure 1.53
Figure 1.54
Figure 1.55
Figure 1.56
Figure 1.57
Figure 1.58
Figure 1.59
Figure 1.60
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Contents - 7
1 - 87
1 - 90
1 - 91
1 - 92
1 - 93
1 - 94
1 - 96
1 - 100
1 - 102
1 - 106
1 - 118
1 - 119
1 - 119
1 - 122
1 - 122
1 - 123
1 - 132
1 - 134
1 - 135
1 - 140
1 - 141
1 - 143
1 - 148
1 - 152
1 - 152
1 - 153
1 - 153
1 - 157
1 - 157
1 - 158
2-4
2-5
2 - 21
2 - 21
2 - 26
2 - 26
Contents - 8
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Saturation histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC grid and monitoring points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors at 140 seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative permeability laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capillary pressure law, Pc /P0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contour of pore pressure and flow vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow vectors and seepage face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contours of saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure contours and flow vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 2 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 2 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 4 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 4 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 6 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 6 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 8 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 8 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 12 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 12 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saturation contours and flow vectors t = 18 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnified grid t = 18 105 s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 - 27
2 - 28
2 - 28
2 - 31
2 - 32
2 - 33
2 - 33
2 - 37
2 - 37
2 - 42
2 - 42
2 - 43
2 - 43
2 - 44
2 - 44
2 - 45
2 - 45
2 - 46
2 - 46
2 - 47
2 - 47
2 - 48
2 - 48
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Contents - 9
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
Example 1.3
Example 1.4
Example 1.5
Example 1.6
Example 1.7
Example 1.8
Example 1.9
Example 1.10
Example 1.11
Example 1.12
Example 1.13
Example 1.14
Example 1.15
Example 1.16
Example 1.17
Example 1.18
Example 1.19
Example 1.20
Example 1.21
Example 1.22
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
1 - 53
1 - 55
1 - 59
1 - 61
1 - 68
1 - 71
1 - 79
1 - 82
1 - 96
1 - 99
1 - 103
1 - 108
1 - 110
1 - 111
1 - 123
1 - 130
1 - 135
1 - 140
1 - 143
1 - 147
1 - 154
1 - 159
2 - 22
2 - 29
2 - 34
2 - 38
2 - 49
Contents - 10
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Structural Elements
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1.1
1.2
1.3
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Types of Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2.1 Beam, Liner, Cable, Pile, Rockbolt and Strip Elements . . . . . . .
1.1.2.2 Beam and Liner Elements Created along Boundaries . . . . . . . .
1.1.2.3 Support Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Connection of Structural Elements to Each Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Linkage of Structural Elements to the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7 Plastic Moments and Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Beam-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Commands Associated with Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.1 Simple Beam Two Equal Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.2 Cantilever Beam with Applied Moment at Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.3 Plastic Hinge Formation in a Beam Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.4 Braced Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.5 Cross-Braced Structure on Soil Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.6 Shaft Excavation with Structural Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.7 Modeling Geotextiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.8 Tunnel with Yielding Steel Arch and Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Liner Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Liner-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Commands Associated with Liner Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4.1 Reinforced Beam Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4.2 Plastic Hinge Formation in a Liner Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4.3 Tunnel with Unreinforced Shotcrete Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-3
1-3
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-9
1 - 11
1 - 13
1 - 15
1 - 15
1 - 19
1 - 21
1 - 25
1 - 25
1 - 30
1 - 32
1 - 38
1 - 39
1 - 42
1 - 44
1 - 46
1 - 48
1 - 48
1 - 49
1 - 51
1 - 55
1 - 55
1 - 59
1 - 64
Contents - 2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Structural Elements
Cable Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.1 Axial Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.2 Shear Behavior of Grout Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.3 Normal Behavior at Grout Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Cable-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Mean Effective Confining Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Pre-tensioning Cable Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Commands Associated with Cable Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6.1 Reinforced Beam with Vertical Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6.2 Soil Nailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pile Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1.1 Behavior of Shear Coupling Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1.2 Behavior of Normal Coupling Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Pile-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Commands Associated with Pile Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4.1 Axially Loaded Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4.2 Laterally Loaded Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4.3 Softening Plastic Hinge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4.4 Determining Coupling-Spring Pile Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2 Rockbolt-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3 Commands Associated with Rockbolt Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4.1 Rockbolt Pull-out Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4.2 Rockbolt Shear Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2 Strip-Element Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3 Commands Associated with Strip Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4.1 Strip Pull-out Test No Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4.2 Strip Pull-out Test with Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 68
1 - 68
1 - 68
1 - 70
1 - 74
1 - 74
1 - 78
1 - 78
1 - 79
1 - 82
1 - 82
1 - 84
1 - 87
1 - 87
1 - 88
1 - 89
1 - 91
1 - 93
1 - 97
1 - 97
1 - 110
1 - 115
1 - 120
1 - 129
1 - 129
1 - 130
1 - 131
1 - 135
1 - 135
1 - 144
1 - 148
1 - 148
1 - 150
1 - 151
1 - 155
1 - 155
1 - 159
Structural Elements
Contents - 3
Support Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.2 Support-Member Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.3 Commands Associated with Support Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.4 Example Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.4.1 Support of Faulted Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Modeling Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.2 Symmetry Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.3 Equilibrium Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.4 2D/3D Equivalence Property Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.5 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.6 Numerical Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 FISH and Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.2 The Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.3 Obtaining and Using Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.4 FISH-Controlled Force-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
1 - 162
1 - 162
1 - 162
1 - 163
1 - 164
1 - 164
1 - 167
1 - 167
1 - 167
1 - 168
1 - 168
1 - 174
1 - 174
1 - 177
1 - 177
1 - 178
1 - 178
1 - 179
1 - 181
Contents - 4
Structural Elements
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 1.4
Table 1.5
Table 1.6
Table 1.7
Table 1.8
1 - 12
1 - 22
1 - 52
1 - 80
1 - 94
1 - 132
1 - 152
1 - 163
Structural Elements
Contents - 5
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.22
Figure 1.23
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Figure 1.26
Figure 1.27
Figure 1.28
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.30
Figure 1.31
Figure 1.32
Figure 1.33
1-4
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 25
1 - 26
1 - 28
1 - 28
1 - 29
1 - 29
1 - 30
1 - 31
1 - 32
1 - 34
1 - 34
1 - 35
1 - 35
1 - 37
1 - 39
1 - 41
1 - 41
1 - 43
1 - 45
1 - 47
1 - 48
1 - 50
1 - 57
1 - 57
1 - 58
1 - 60
1 - 60
1 - 61
1 - 61
Contents - 6
Figure 1.34
Figure 1.35
Figure 1.36
Figure 1.37
Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39
Figure 1.40
Figure 1.41
Figure 1.42
Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.46
Figure 1.47
Figure 1.48
Figure 1.49
Figure 1.50
Figure 1.51
Figure 1.52
Figure 1.53
Figure 1.54
Figure 1.55
Figure 1.56
Figure 1.57
Figure 1.58
Figure 1.59
Figure 1.60
Figure 1.61
Figure 1.62
Figure 1.63
Structural Elements
1 - 63
1 - 66
1 - 67
1 - 67
1 - 69
1 - 70
1 - 71
1 - 73
1 - 83
1 - 86
1 - 86
1 - 88
1 - 90
1 - 91
1 - 97
1 - 102
1 - 102
1 - 108
1 - 108
1 - 109
1 - 109
1 - 113
1 - 113
1 - 114
1 - 114
1 - 119
1 - 119
1 - 121
1 - 122
1 - 127
Structural Elements
Figure 1.64
Figure 1.65
Figure 1.66
Figure 1.67
Figure 1.68
Figure 1.69
Figure 1.70
Figure 1.71
Figure 1.72
Figure 1.73
Figure 1.74
Figure 1.75
Figure 1.76
Figure 1.77
Figure 1.78
Figure 1.79
Figure 1.80
Figure 1.81
Figure 1.82
Figure 1.83
Figure 1.84
Figure 1.85
Figure 1.86
Figure 1.87
Figure 1.88
Contents - 7
Displacement of pile (beams) and zone of shear and tensile yielding at the
maximum normal load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt element in grid; velocity applied at end node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single
25 mm grouted rockbolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single
25 mm grouted rockbolt with displacement weakening . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single
25 mm grouted rockbolt with uniform 5 MPa confinement . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single
25 mm grouted rockbolt with 5 MPa in-plane confinement and zero outof-plane confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt pull force (N) versus rockbolt axial displacement (meters) for a single
25 mm grouted rockbolt with tensile rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt shear force (N) versus rockbolt shear displacement (meters) for a
single 25 mm grouted rockbolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformed shape of 25 mm diameter rockbolt at end of shear test . . . . . . . . . .
Rockbolt shear force (N) versus rockbolt shear displacement (meters) for a
single 25 mm grouted rockbolt with tensile rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformed shape of 25 mm diameter rockbolt following rupture at end of shear
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cut-away view of a typical reinforced earth retaining wall showing strip reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip element in grid: x-velocity applied at end node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip pull force versus axial displacement strip/interface shear failure . . .
Strip pull force versus axial displacement displacement weakening . . . . .
Strip pull force versus axial displacement tensile rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip element in grid: vertical confining pressure and x-velocity applied at end
node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip axial force versus axial displacement sigc0 = 120 kPa . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strip axial force versus axial displacement sigc0 = 70 kPa . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Support members before loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Force-displacement relation specified for support in example
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Support members after loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Actual axial forces in vertically loaded piles at 2 m spacing
(spacing given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scaled axial forces in vertically loaded piles at 2 m spacing
(spacing not given) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 128
1 - 135
1 - 139
1 - 140
1 - 141
1 - 142
1 - 143
1 - 146
1 - 146
1 - 147
1 - 147
1 - 148
1 - 157
1 - 157
1 - 158
1 - 158
1 - 160
1 - 161
1 - 161
1 - 165
1 - 166
1 - 166
1 - 173
1 - 173
1 - 177
Contents - 8
Structural Elements
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
Example 1.3
Example 1.4
Example 1.5
Example 1.6
Example 1.7
Example 1.8
Example 1.9
Example 1.10
Example 1.11
Example 1.12
Example 1.13
Example 1.14
Example 1.15
Example 1.16
Example 1.17
Example 1.18
Example 1.19
Example 1.20
Example 1.21
Example 1.22
Example 1.23
Example 1.24
Example 1.25
Example 1.26
Example 1.27
Example 1.28
Example 1.29
Example 1.30
Example 1.31
Example 1.32
1-5
1 - 27
1 - 30
1 - 33
1 - 36
1 - 38
1 - 39
1 - 42
1 - 43
1 - 44
1 - 46
1 - 55
1 - 59
1 - 62
1 - 64
1 - 82
1 - 84
1 - 99
1 - 105
1 - 106
1 - 110
1 - 115
1 - 123
1 - 136
1 - 144
1 - 155
1 - 159
1 - 164
1 - 172
1 - 178
1 - 179
1 - 180
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 FLAC/SLOPE
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Guide to the FLAC/Slope Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Summary of Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Analysis Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 User Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6 FLAC Mini-Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Installation and Start-Up Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 A Simple Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Details on Using FLAC/Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Selecting Model Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Setting Up the Slope Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Creating a Slope Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Adding Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Assigning Materials and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Adding a Weak Plane (Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.7 Locating a Water Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.8 Applying Surface Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.9 Installing Structural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.10 Excluding Regions from the Factor-of-Safety Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.11 Solving for a Factor of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.11.1Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.11.2Factor-of-Safety Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.11.3Factor-of-Safety Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.12 Producing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.13 Building More Complex Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.13.1Building a Benched Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.13.2Building a Dam Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.13.3Building a Nonlinear-Shaped Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stability Analysis Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Homogeneous Embankment at Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Comparison to Fredlund and Krahn (1977) Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Slope with a Thin, Weak Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Slope with Geogrid Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Rock Slope with Benches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-2
1-3
1-5
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-9
1 - 20
1 - 20
1 - 21
1 - 22
1 - 25
1 - 28
1 - 31
1 - 34
1 - 38
1 - 41
1 - 46
1 - 49
1 - 49
1 - 52
1 - 53
1 - 54
1 - 58
1 - 58
1 - 59
1 - 60
1 - 64
1 - 64
1 - 67
1 - 70
1 - 75
1 - 78
Contents - 2
1.5
1.6
Contents - 3
TABLES
Table 1.1
1 - 69
Contents - 4
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.22
Figure 1.23
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Figure 1.26
Figure 1.27
Figure 1.28
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.30
Figure 1.31
Figure 1.32
Figure 1.33
Figure 1.34
Figure 1.35
Figure 1.36
Figure 1.37
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 13
1 - 14
1 - 14
1 - 15
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 17
1 - 18
1 - 19
1 - 19
1 - 20
1 - 21
1 - 22
1 - 22
1 - 23
1 - 24
1 - 25
1 - 26
1 - 27
1 - 27
1 - 29
1 - 30
1 - 31
1 - 32
1 - 32
1 - 33
1 - 34
1 - 35
1 - 36
Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39
Figure 1.40
Figure 1.41
Figure 1.42
Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.46
Figure 1.47
Figure 1.48
Figure 1.49
Figure 1.50
Figure 1.51
Figure 1.52
Figure 1.53
Figure 1.54
Figure 1.55
Figure 1.56
Figure 1.57
Figure 1.58
Figure 1.59
Figure 1.60
Figure 1.61
Figure 1.62
Figure 1.63
Figure 1.64
Figure 1.65
Figure 1.66
Figure 1.67
Figure 1.68
Figure 1.69
Figure 1.70
Figure 1.71
Figure 1.72
Figure 1.73
Figure 1.74
Contents - 5
1 - 37
1 - 37
1 - 38
1 - 39
1 - 39
1 - 40
1 - 42
1 - 42
1 - 43
1 - 45
1 - 46
1 - 47
1 - 48
1 - 48
1 - 50
1 - 50
1 - 51
1 - 51
1 - 52
1 - 53
1 - 54
1 - 56
1 - 57
1 - 57
1 - 58
1 - 58
1 - 59
1 - 59
1 - 60
1 - 60
1 - 61
1 - 62
1 - 62
1 - 63
1 - 63
1 - 64
1 - 65
Contents - 6
Figure 1.75
Figure 1.76
Figure 1.77
Figure 1.78
Figure 1.79
Figure 1.80
Figure 1.81
Figure 1.82
Figure 1.83
Figure 1.84
Figure 1.85
Figure 1.86
Figure 1.87
Figure 1.88
Figure 1.89
Figure 1.90
Figure 1.91
Figure 1.92
Figure 1.93
Figure 1.94
Figure 1.95
Figure 1.96
1 - 66
1 - 67
1 - 68
1 - 68
1 - 69
1 - 70
1 - 71
1 - 71
1 - 72
1 - 73
1 - 73
1 - 74
1 - 75
1 - 76
1 - 76
1 - 77
1 - 77
1 - 78
1 - 79
1 - 80
1 - 81
1 - 81
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.1
1.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Start-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 GIIC Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Model Options Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Changing and Saving GIIC Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Modeling-Stage Tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Model-Tool Panes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Build
1.2.1
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.1 Grid Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.2 Simple , Block and Radial Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.3 Slope Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.4 Library Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alter
1.2.2
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.1 Mark Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.2 Shape Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.3 Attach Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.4 Interface Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Material
1.2.3
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.1 Assign Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.2 Material Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.3 Cut&Fill Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.4 GWProp Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.5 Model Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.6 Property Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.7 FISH Constitutive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.8 LoadModel Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.9 Thermal Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In Situ
1.2.4
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.1 Apply Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.2 Fix Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.3 Initial Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4.4 Interior Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure
1.2.5
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5.1 Common Attributes and Behaviors of Structural Element Tools
1.2.5.2 Common Modes for Defining Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5.3 Beam Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5.4 Connecting Beams to Grids Using an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5.5 Liner Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-5
1-5
1-7
1-7
1-7
1-7
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 13
1 - 24
1 - 32
1 - 34
1 - 36
1 - 39
1 - 41
1 - 42
1 - 43
1 - 44
1 - 46
1 - 48
1 - 49
1 - 50
1 - 50
1 - 53
1 - 54
1 - 57
1 - 59
1 - 59
1 - 59
1 - 65
1 - 67
1 - 69
Contents - 2
1.2.6
1.2.7
1.2.8
1.2.9
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 70
1 - 71
1 - 72
1 - 73
1 - 74
1 - 76
1 - 78
1 - 78
1 - 79
1 - 82
1 - 84
1 - 86
1 - 86
1 - 87
1 - 88
1 - 92
1 - 93
1 - 94
1 - 95
1 - 96
1 - 97
1 - 97
1 - 98
1 - 102
1 - 103
1 - 104
1 - 106
1 - 108
1 - 109
1 - 111
1 - 112
1 - 113
1 - 113
1 - 113
1 - 113
1 - 114
1 - 116
1 - 116
1 - 117
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Contents - 3
Resource Panes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Record Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.1 Project List Record Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.2 Project Tree Record Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.3 Editing Commands in the Record Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Console Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Model-View/Plots Panes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Model View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.1 Model-view Pop-up Draw Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.2 Overlaying Images on the Model View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Plot Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.1 Plot-View Pop-up Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FISH Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1 File Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2 Show Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3 Tools Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4 View Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.5 Help Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 118
1 - 118
1 - 119
1 - 120
1 - 130
1 - 131
1 - 132
1 - 132
1 - 132
1 - 134
1 - 136
1 - 136
1 - 138
1 - 141
1 - 141
1 - 147
1 - 148
1 - 149
1 - 151
Contents - 4
FLAC-GIIC Reference
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.22
Figure 1.23
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Figure 1.26
Figure 1.27
Figure 1.28
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.30
Figure 1.31
Figure 1.32
1-2
1-4
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 13
1 - 14
1 - 15
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 18
1 - 18
1 - 19
1 - 21
1 - 21
1 - 23
1 - 23
1 - 24
1 - 25
1 - 26
1 - 26
1 - 27
1 - 27
1 - 29
1 - 29
1 - 30
1 - 30
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.33
Figure 1.34
Figure 1.35
Figure 1.36
Figure 1.37
Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39
Figure 1.40
Figure 1.41
Figure 1.42
Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.46
Figure 1.47
Figure 1.48
Figure 1.49
Figure 1.50
Figure 1.51
Figure 1.52
Figure 1.53
Figure 1.54
Figure 1.55
Figure 1.56
Figure 1.57
Figure 1.58
Figure 1.59
Figure 1.60
Figure 1.61
Figure 1.62
Figure 1.63
Figure 1.64
Figure 1.65
Figure 1.66
Figure 1.67
Figure 1.68
Figure 1.69
Contents - 5
1 - 31
1 - 33
1 - 33
1 - 36
1 - 37
1 - 38
1 - 39
1 - 40
1 - 41
1 - 42
1 - 43
1 - 45
1 - 45
1 - 46
1 - 47
1 - 48
1 - 49
1 - 50
1 - 51
1 - 52
1 - 53
1 - 54
1 - 55
1 - 56
1 - 57
1 - 58
1 - 60
1 - 61
1 - 62
1 - 63
1 - 64
1 - 65
1 - 66
1 - 67
1 - 68
1 - 69
1 - 70
Contents - 6
Figure 1.70
Figure 1.71
Figure 1.72
Figure 1.73
Figure 1.74
Figure 1.75
Figure 1.76
Figure 1.77
Figure 1.78
Figure 1.79
Figure 1.80
Figure 1.81
Figure 1.82
Figure 1.83
Figure 1.84
Figure 1.85
Figure 1.86
Figure 1.87
Figure 1.88
Figure 1.89
Figure 1.90
Figure 1.91
Figure 1.92
Figure 1.93
Figure 1.94
Figure 1.95
Figure 1.96
Figure 1.97
Figure 1.98
Figure 1.99
Figure 1.100
Figure 1.101
Figure 1.102
Figure 1.103
Figure 1.104
Figure 1.105
Figure 1.106
Figure 1.107
Figure 1.108
Figure 1.109
FLAC-GIIC Reference
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Segment
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Node
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Node Range Edit dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beam Element Geometric Properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beam Element Mechanical Properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pile Element Properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Support Element Properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edit Table Points dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Info
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FishLib
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FISH Call Input dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grid with interface produced by gentableinterface function . . . . . . . .
Gravity Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Settings dialog (with structural elements) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Noflow) Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Flow) Settings dialog standard flow schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Flow) Settings dialog fast flow schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Flow) Settings dialog ATS scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Flow) Settings dialog properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GW (Two-phase flow) Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creep Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Settings dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot Items dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot Item Switches dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural plot selection dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interface selection dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moment plot for tunnel lining composed of three structures, #1, #2 and #3 .
Plot items dialog showing max switch used to change sense of moments . . .
Moment plot with sense reversed for structures #1 and #3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table Plot dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History Plot dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Profile
tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pile
Support
1 - 71
1 - 72
1 - 73
1 - 74
1 - 75
1 - 76
1 - 76
1 - 77
1 - 77
1 - 78
1 - 80
1 - 81
1 - 83
1 - 84
1 - 85
1 - 85
1 - 86
1 - 87
1 - 87
1 - 88
1 - 89
1 - 89
1 - 90
1 - 90
1 - 91
1 - 92
1 - 93
1 - 94
1 - 95
1 - 96
1 - 97
1 - 98
1 - 99
1 - 99
1 - 100
1 - 101
1 - 101
1 - 102
1 - 103
1 - 104
FLAC-GIIC Reference
Figure 1.110
Figure 1.111
Figure 1.112
Figure 1.113
Figure 1.114
Figure 1.115
Figure 1.116
Figure 1.117
Figure 1.118
Figure 1.119
Figure 1.120
Figure 1.121
Figure 1.122
Figure 1.123
Figure 1.124
Figure 1.125
Figure 1.126
Figure 1.127
Figure 1.128
Figure 1.129
Figure 1.130
Figure 1.131
Figure 1.132
Figure 1.133
Figure 1.134
Figure 1.135
Figure 1.136
Figure 1.137
Figure 1.138
Figure 1.139
Figure 1.140
Figure 1.141
Figure 1.142
Figure 1.143
Figure 1.144
Figure 1.145
Figure 1.146
Figure 1.147
Figure 1.148
Contents - 7
1 - 105
1 - 107
1 - 107
1 - 108
1 - 110
1 - 110
1 - 111
1 - 112
1 - 112
1 - 114
1 - 115
1 - 115
1 - 116
1 - 116
1 - 117
1 - 118
1 - 119
1 - 120
1 - 121
1 - 122
1 - 122
1 - 123
1 - 124
1 - 125
1 - 126
1 - 127
1 - 128
1 - 129
1 - 130
1 - 131
1 - 132
1 - 134
1 - 135
1 - 136
1 - 137
1 - 138
1 - 139
1 - 140
1 - 141
Contents - 8
Figure 1.149
Figure 1.150
Figure 1.151
Figure 1.152
Figure 1.153
Figure 1.154
Figure 1.155
Figure 1.156
Figure 1.157
Figure 1.158
Figure 1.159
Figure 1.160
Figure 1.161
FLAC-GIIC Reference
1 - 142
1 - 143
1 - 143
1 - 144
1 - 145
1 - 145
1 - 145
1 - 145
1 - 147
1 - 148
1 - 149
1 - 149
1 - 151
Command Reference
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 COMMAND REFERENCE
1.1
1.2
1.3
1-2
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-7
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 12
1 - 12
1 - 13
1 - 13
1 - 15
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 16
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 17
1 - 17
1 - 18
1 - 18
Contents - 2
Command Reference
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 1.4
Table 1.5
Table 1.6
Table 1.7
Table 1.8
Table 1.9
Table 1.10
Table 1.11
Table 1.12
Table 1.13
Table 1.14
Table 1.15
Table 1.16
Table 1.17
Table 1.18
Table 1.19
Table 1.20
1-3
1-4
1 - 28
1 - 53
1 - 108
1 - 134
1 - 136
1 - 162
1 - 185
1 - 187
1 - 195
1 - 195
1 - 223
1 - 226
1 - 228
1 - 231
1 - 234
1 - 237
1 - 240
1 - 249
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Interface nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beam-, liner-, pile- or rockbolt-element segment (3 degrees of freedom at each
end node) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grout material properties for cable elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable material properties for cable elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coupling spring-shear interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coupling spring-normal interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 78
1 - 241
1 - 250
1 - 250
1 - 251
1 - 251
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
FISH in FLAC
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 FISH BEGINNERS GUIDE
1.1
1.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 1
Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
2 FISH REFERENCE
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2-1
2-2
2-2
2-3
2-7
2-7
2-9
2 - 10
2 - 11
2 - 13
2 - 14
2 - 14
2 - 16
2 - 19
2 - 21
2 - 21
2 - 23
2 - 26
2 - 27
2 - 32
2 - 32
2 - 36
2 - 38
2 - 38
2 - 39
2 - 42
2 - 47
2 - 49
2 - 51
Contents - 2
FISH in FLAC
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2 - 53
2 - 54
2 - 56
2 - 59
2 - 59
2 - 60
2 - 62
2 - 66
2 - 68
2 - 77
2 - 77
2 - 78
2 - 79
2 - 81
2 - 82
2 - 85
2 - 86
2 - 88
2 - 90
2 - 90
2 - 90
2 - 91
2 - 91
2 - 92
4-1
4-2
FISH in FLAC
Contents - 3
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 4.1
1-4
2-4
2 - 29
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
4-1
Contents - 4
FISH in FLAC
FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
FISH in FLAC
Contents - 5
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
Example 1.3
Example 1.4
Example 1.5
Example 1.6
Example 1.7
Example 1.8
Example 1.9
Example 1.10
Example 1.11
Example 1.12
Example 1.13
Example 1.14
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
Example 2.6
Example 2.7
Example 2.8
Example 2.9
Example 2.10
Example 2.11
Example 2.12
Example 2.13
Example 2.14
Example 2.15
Example 2.16
Example 2.17
Example 2.18
Example 2.19
Example 2.20
Example 2.21
Example 2.22
Example 2.23
Example 2.24
1-2
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-4
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 13
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-8
2-9
2 - 12
2 - 13
2 - 17
2 - 24
2 - 25
2 - 25
2 - 27
2 - 30
2 - 36
2 - 48
2 - 56
2 - 57
2 - 57
2 - 60
2 - 64
2 - 67
2 - 67
2 - 69
2 - 69
Contents - 6
Example 2.25
Example 2.26
Example 2.27
Example 2.28
Example 2.29
Example 2.30
Example 2.31
Example 2.32
Example 4.1
Example 4.2
FISH in FLAC
2 - 72
2 - 78
2 - 79
2 - 80
2 - 83
2 - 84
2 - 85
2 - 87
4-2
4-3
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 BACKGROUND THE EXPLICIT FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-9
1-9
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 14
1 - 15
1 - 16
1 - 16
1 - 17
1 - 21
1 - 24
1 - 27
1 - 29
1 - 35
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Null Model Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Null Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elastic Model Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Elastic, Isotropic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Elastic, Transversely Isotropic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-4
2-4
2-5
2-5
2-6
Contents - 2
2.4
2 - 12
2 - 13
2 - 13
2 - 14
2 - 16
2 - 19
2 - 19
2 - 21
2 - 21
2 - 22
2 - 25
2 - 27
2 - 27
2 - 34
2 - 34
2 - 42
2 - 42
2 - 43
2 - 45
2 - 47
2 - 48
2 - 48
2 - 52
2 - 55
2 - 55
2 - 57
2 - 58
2 - 59
2 - 61
2 - 62
2 - 62
2 - 67
2 - 68
2 - 72
2 - 72
2 - 77
2 - 78
2 - 80
2 - 80
2 - 80
2 - 81
2.5
Contents - 3
2 - 81
2 - 86
2 - 93
2 - 93
2 - 95
2 - 97
2 - 98
2 - 98
2 - 109
3 GRID GENERATION
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generation of Simple Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More Advanced Use of the GENERATE Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grid Generation with Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Several Sub-Grids Attached Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special-Purpose Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3-3
3-8
3 - 14
3 - 16
3 - 23
4 INTERFACES
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creation of the Required Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Choice of Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Interface Used to Join Two Sub-Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Real Interface Slip and Separation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Real Interface All Properties Have Physical Significance . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Initial Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3 Use of Interfaces with Null Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4 Overlapping and Intersecting Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.5 Tolerances: Differences between Large- and Small-Strain Operation . .
4.5.6 Use of Interfaces with Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.7 Interfaces and Groundwater Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.8 Access to Interface Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4-2
4-5
4 - 11
4 - 11
4 - 15
4 - 16
4 - 23
4 - 23
4 - 23
4 - 24
4 - 24
4 - 25
4 - 26
4 - 34
4 - 34
4 - 35
Contents - 4
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
1-4
1 - 27
Contents - 5
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
velocity, u,
and displacement, u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Overlaid quadrilateral elements used in FLAC
(b) Typical triangular element with velocity vectors
(c) Nodal force vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mohrs circle of strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum unbalanced force for the problem of sudden end-load application
to a column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
y-displacement at the center of the column for the problem of sudden end-load
application to a column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numbering scheme for elements and gridpoints in a bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity histories at three locations in the bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Displacement histories at two points: gravity loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Displacement profile at the final state of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transverse isotropy coordinate axes convention
(xz-direction is plane of isotropy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planes of elastic anisotropy oriented at an angle from the x-axis . . . . . . . . .
Drucker-Prager failure criterion in FLAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drucker-Prager model: domains used in the definition of the flow rule . . . . .
Drucker-Prager and von Mises yield surfaces in principal stress space . . . . .
Mohr-Coulomb and Tresca yield surfaces in principal stress
space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion in FLAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mohr-Coulomb model: domains used in the definition of the flow rule . . . . .
Boundary conditions for oedometer test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oedometric test comparison of numerical and analytical predictions for 10
dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oedometric test comparison of numerical and analytical predictions for 0
dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A weak plane oriented at an angle to the global reference frame . . . . . . . . .
Weak-plane failure criterion in FLAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ubiquitous-joint model: domains used in the definition of the weak-plane flow
rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example stress-strain curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of cohesion (a) and friction angle (b) with plastic strain . . . . . . . . .
Approximation by linear segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction (a), cohesion (b), dilation (c) and tensile strength (d) defined by two
linear segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC bilinear matrix failure criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC bilinear joint failure criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3
1-6
1-9
1 - 11
1 - 19
1 - 19
1 - 25
1 - 28
1 - 30
1 - 31
2-7
2 - 10
2 - 15
2 - 16
2 - 20
2 - 20
2 - 22
2 - 24
2 - 28
2 - 33
2 - 33
2 - 34
2 - 36
2 - 37
2 - 45
2 - 45
2 - 46
2 - 47
2 - 49
2 - 52
Contents - 6
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
Figure 2.30
Figure 2.31
Figure 2.32
Figure 2.33
Figure 2.34
Figure 2.35
Figure 2.36
Figure 2.37
Figure 2.38
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
2 - 60
2 - 68
2 - 71
2 - 74
2 - 76
2 - 77
2 - 85
2 - 87
2 - 91
2 - 92
2 - 92
2 - 99
2 - 100
2 - 101
2 - 102
2 - 102
2 - 103
2 - 103
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-6
3-7
3-9
3 - 10
3 - 11
3 - 12
3 - 14
3 - 16
3 - 18
3 - 20
3 - 21
3 - 21
Figure 3.16
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.19
Figure 4.20
Figure 4.21
Contents - 7
3 - 24
4-2
4-6
4-6
4-7
4-8
4 - 10
4 - 12
4 - 13
4 - 13
4 - 14
4 - 16
4 - 19
4 - 22
4 - 22
4 - 24
4 - 25
4 - 27
4 - 29
4 - 31
4 - 31
4 - 33
Contents - 8
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
Example 1.3
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
Example 2.6
Example 3.1
Example 3.2
Example 3.3
Example 3.4
Example 3.5
Example 3.6
Example 3.7
Example 3.8
Example 3.9
Example 3.10
Example 3.11
Example 3.12
Example 3.13
Example 3.14
Example 3.15
Example 3.16
Example 3.17
Example 3.18
Example 3.19
Example 4.1
Example 4.2
Example 4.3
Example 4.4
Example 4.5
Example 4.6
Example 4.7
Example 4.8
Example 4.9
Example 4.10
1 - 13
1 - 31
1 - 33
2 - 32
2 - 44
2 - 46
2 - 69
2 - 88
2 - 104
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3 - 10
3 - 11
3 - 11
3 - 12
3 - 14
3 - 15
3 - 15
3 - 15
3 - 16
3 - 17
3 - 19
3 - 23
4-7
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-9
4 - 12
4 - 14
4 - 15
4 - 19
4 - 27
Example 4.11
Example 4.12
Example 4.13
Contents - 9
4 - 28
4 - 29
4 - 32
Contents - 10
Optional Features
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 THERMAL OPTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mathematical Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Conventions and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.1 Energy-Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.2 Transport Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.3 Mechanical Coupling: Thermal Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.4 Fluid Coupling: Thermally Induced Pore Pressures . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.5 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.1 Energy Balance for Convective-Diffusive Heat Transport . . . . .
1.2.3.2 Fluid Mass Balance (Slightly Compressible Fluid) . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.3 Transport Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.4 Thermal-Mechanical-Pore Pressure Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.5 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.1 Finite-Difference Approximation to Space Derivatives . . . . . . .
1.3.1.2 Nodal Formulation of the Energy-Balance Equation . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.3 Explicit Finite-Difference Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.4 Implicit Finite-Difference Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.5 Thermal-Stress Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1.6 Thermal-Pore Pressure Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2.1 Stability and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solving Thermal-Only and Coupled-Thermal Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Thermal Conduction-Only Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Thermal Advection-Conduction Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.1 Steady-State Conduction Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.2 Forced Advection and Free Advection Simulations . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.3 Synchronization of Fluid and Thermal Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Thermal-Mechanical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Thermal-Mechanical-Pore Pressure Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Input Instructions for Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 FLAC Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 FISH Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Systems of Units for Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-4
1-5
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-7
1-7
1-7
1-8
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 12
1 - 14
1 - 17
1 - 17
1 - 18
1 - 19
1 - 20
1 - 20
1 - 21
1 - 22
1 - 22
1 - 22
1 - 23
1 - 25
1 - 26
1 - 26
1 - 36
1 - 37
Contents - 2
1.7
1.8
Optional Features
Verification Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1 Thermal Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1.1 Conduction through a Composite Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1.2 Steady-State Temperature Distribution along a Rectangular Fin
1.7.1.3 Thermal Response of a Heat-Generating Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1.4 Transient Temperature Distribution in an Orthotropic Bar . . . .
1.7.1.5 Spherical Cavity with Applied Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2 Thermal Conduction Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2.1 Semi-Infinite Slab with Applied Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2.2 Infinite Line Heat Source in an Infinite Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3 Thermal Conduction Poro Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3.1 Thermal-Pore Pressure Coupled Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3.2 Heating of a Half-Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4 Thermal Conduction-Advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4.1 One-Dimensional Solution of Thermal Transport by Forced Convection and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4.2 Steady-State Convection in a Saturated Porous Medium Heated
from above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4.3 Steady-State Convection in a Saturated Porous Medium Heated
from below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 39
1 - 39
1 - 39
1 - 45
1 - 51
1 - 58
1 - 66
1 - 72
1 - 72
1 - 80
1 - 92
1 - 92
1 - 95
1 - 110
1 - 110
1 - 123
1 - 126
1 - 159
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description of Creep Constitutive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Classical Viscoelasticity (Maxwell Substance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 The Two-Component Power Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 A Reference Creep Law for Nuclear-Waste Isolation Studies . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 The Burger-Creep Viscoplastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 The WIPP-Creep Viscoplastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 A Crushed-Salt Constitutive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6.2 Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6.3 Viscous Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6.4 Viscous Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6.5 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.7 FISH Creep Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-2
2-2
2-4
2-7
2 - 10
2 - 16
2 - 20
2 - 20
2 - 21
2 - 22
2 - 23
2 - 23
2 - 23
Optional Features
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Contents - 3
2 - 37
2 - 37
2 - 37
2 - 39
2 - 40
2 - 40
2 - 44
2 - 47
2 - 47
2 - 53
2 - 54
2 - 54
2 - 58
2 - 60
2 - 70
2 - 75
2 - 80
2 - 86
2 - 88
2 - 90
2 - 107
2 - 107
2 - 113
2 - 119
2 - 123
3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.1
3.2
3.3
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relation to Equivalent-Linear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Characteristics of the Equivalent-Linear Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Characteristics of the Fully Nonlinear Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Dynamic Multi-stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3-2
3-2
3-3
3-6
3-9
Contents - 4
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Optional Features
3 - 13
3 - 13
3 - 13
3 - 17
3 - 19
3 - 20
3 - 25
3 - 26
3 - 28
3 - 30
3 - 34
3 - 36
3 - 39
3 - 41
3 - 41
3 - 46
3 - 63
3 - 66
3 - 66
3 - 71
3 - 75
3 - 75
3 - 81
3 - 81
3 - 86
3 - 88
3 - 89
3 - 89
3 - 93
3 - 102
3 - 112
3 - 120
3 - 127
3 - 130
3 - 133
3 - 138
Optional Features
Contents - 5
4.3
4.4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Base Class for Constitutive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Registration of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Information Passed between Model and FLAC during Cycling . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Effect of Various Symmetry Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.1 Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.2 Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.3 Axisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.5 Illustration of the Difference between Plane Strain and Plane
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Utility Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Example Constitutive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 FISH Support for Constitutive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Creating User-Written Model DLLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5 Loading and Running User-Written Model DLLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4-2
4-2
4-3
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-8
4-8
4-8
4-9
4 - 10
4 - 10
4 - 10
4 - 14
4 - 15
4 - 16
4 - 16
Contents - 6
Optional Features
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 1.4
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
1 - 37
1 - 38
1 - 39
1 - 45
2-9
2 - 92
2 - 92
3 - 52
3 - 89
3 - 90
3 - 90
3 - 127
3 - 128
3 - 133
Optional Features
Contents - 7
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.22
Figure 1.23
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Figure 1.26
Figure 1.27
Figure 1.28
Figure 1.29
Figure 1.30
Figure 1.31
Figure 1.32
Figure 1.33
Figure 1.34
Figure 1.35
Figure 1.36
Composite wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Idealization of the wall for the FLAC model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zone distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steady-state temperature distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature vs distance comparison between FLAC (Table 1) and analytical
solution (Table 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution of a rectangular fin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC model showing history locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution at steady state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC (Table 1) and analytical (Table 2) temperature distributions at steady
state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat-generating slab showing initial and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC model of slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC zone distribution and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distributions for different times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature evolution in the center of the slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution at steady state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Model for FLAC analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC zone distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC and analytical temperature distribution through the bar . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution after 500 hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution after 1000 hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC grid and applied flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution at 2500 seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC and analytical temperature histories at three locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Semi-infinite slab with applied heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC conceptual model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC zone distribution and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution process by alternately turning thermal and mechanical logic on and
off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature distribution after 1 second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC and analytical temperature distribution at 0.2 second and 1 second . .
Vertical stress distribution after 1 second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC and analytical vertical stress distribution at 0.2 second and 1 second .
FLACs conceptual axisymmetric model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC grid for infinite line heat source (note window distortion) . . . . . . . . . .
Close-up view of FLAC grid near source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 39
1 - 42
1 - 43
1 - 44
1 - 44
1 - 45
1 - 47
1 - 49
1 - 50
1 - 50
1 - 51
1 - 53
1 - 53
1 - 57
1 - 57
1 - 58
1 - 59
1 - 60
1 - 64
1 - 65
1 - 65
1 - 66
1 - 68
1 - 71
1 - 71
1 - 72
1 - 73
1 - 74
1 - 77
1 - 78
1 - 78
1 - 79
1 - 79
1 - 82
1 - 86
1 - 86
Contents - 8
Figure 1.37
Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39
Figure 1.40
Figure 1.41
Figure 1.42
Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.46
Figure 1.47
Figure 1.48
Figure 1.49
Figure 1.50
Figure 1.51
Figure 1.52
Figure 1.53
Figure 1.54
Figure 1.55
Figure 1.56
Figure 1.57
Figure 1.58
Figure 1.59
Figure 1.60
Figure 1.61
Figure 1.62
Figure 1.63
Figure 1.64
Figure 1.65
Figure 1.66
Figure 1.67
Optional Features
1 - 88
1 - 88
1 - 89
1 - 89
1 - 90
1 - 90
1 - 91
1 - 91
1 - 97
1 - 97
1 - 107
1 - 107
1 - 108
1 - 108
1 - 109
1 - 109
1 - 121
1 - 121
1 - 122
1 - 122
1 - 125
1 - 127
1 - 127
1 - 128
1 - 129
1 - 129
1 - 130
1 - 130
1 - 131
1 - 132
1 - 132
Optional Features
Figure 1.68
Figure 1.69
Figure 1.70
Figure 1.71
Figure 1.72
Figure 1.73
Figure 1.74
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
Figure 2.30
Figure 2.31
Contents - 9
1 - 133
1 - 139
1 - 140
1 - 144
1 - 148
1 - 149
1 - 149
2 - 25
2 - 41
2 - 43
2 - 46
2 - 55
2 - 58
2 - 60
2 - 62
2 - 67
2 - 67
2 - 68
2 - 68
2 - 69
2 - 69
2 - 74
2 - 75
2 - 78
2 - 79
2 - 79
2 - 80
2 - 83
2 - 84
2 - 84
2 - 85
2 - 85
2 - 89
2 - 90
2 - 91
2 - 93
2 - 94
2 - 95
Contents - 10
Figure 2.32
Figure 2.33
Figure 2.34
Figure 2.35
Figure 2.36
Figure 2.37
Figure 2.38
Figure 2.39
Figure 2.40
Figure 2.41
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Optional Features
Contours of strength parameter kshear after one year of creep note localized
band in roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Room closure histories: vertical convergence at two locations (vclo and
vcloq); and horizontal convergence (hclo) at the room mid-height (xaxis units are years, and y-axis units are inches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical and analytical predictions for fractional density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical and analytical predictions for fractional density for uniaxial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical and analytical predictions for fractional density for biaxial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Histories of axial and lateral displacement for uniaxial compression . . . . . . .
Histories of axial and lateral displacement for biaxial compression . . . . . . . .
Vertical displacement versus time, for Burgers model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical displacement versus time, for Maxwell section only active . . . . . . . .
Vertical displacement versus time, for Kelvin section only active . . . . . . . . . .
Modulus and damping ratio versus cyclic strain for elastic/plastic model . . .
Flow chart for determination of gridpoint multiplier, Mgp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocities at model base (i = 11, j = 1), and top of wall (i = 11, j = 21) . . . . .
Types of dynamic loading boundary conditions available in FLAC . . . . . . . .
Primary and reflected waves in a bar: stress input through a quiet boundary
The baseline correction process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Model for seismic analysis of surface structures and free-field mesh . . . . . . .
x-velocity histories at top of model with free-field boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of normalized critical damping ratio with angular frequency . . . . .
Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly applied to a
square grid (no damping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly applied to a
square grid (mass and stiffness damping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly applied to a
square grid (mass damping only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for gravity suddenly applied to a
square grid (stiffness damping only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot of velocity spectrum versus frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of fundamental wavelengths for bars with varying end conditions
Displacement history 5% Rayleigh damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Displacement history 5% local damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity histories at a free surface for spatial variation in damping . . . . . . . . .
Velocity wave with sharp front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x-velocity histories for plane-strain model without artificial viscosity . . . . . .
x-velocity histories for plane-strain model with artificial viscosity . . . . . . . . .
x-velocity histories for axisymmetry model with artificial viscosity . . . . . . . .
2 - 95
2 - 96
2 - 108
2 - 117
2 - 117
2 - 118
2 - 118
2 - 121
2 - 121
2 - 122
3-5
3-9
3 - 12
3 - 15
3 - 17
3 - 18
3 - 21
3 - 25
3 - 29
3 - 32
3 - 32
3 - 33
3 - 33
3 - 34
3 - 36
3 - 38
3 - 38
3 - 40
3 - 44
3 - 44
3 - 45
3 - 45
Optional Features
Figure 3.23
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.25
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
Figure 3.28
Figure 3.29
Figure 3.30
Figure 3.31
Figure 3.32
Figure 3.33
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
Figure 3.36
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.38
Figure 3.39
Figure 3.40
Figure 3.41
Figure 3.42
Figure 3.43
Figure 3.44
Figure 3.45
Figure 3.46
Figure 3.47
Figure 3.48
Figure 3.49
Figure 3.50
Figure 3.51
Figure 3.52
Contents - 11
Modulus reduction curve for sand (Seed & Idriss 1970 upper range).
The data set was taken from the input file supplied with the SHAKE91
code download. (See
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/software/shake91/ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear stress vs shear strain, with one reversal to show the effect of memory
(Example 3.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for sig3 model secant modulus
values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss data also shown. . . .
Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for sig3 model damping values
versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss data also shown. . . . . . . . . .
Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model secant modulus values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss data also shown.
Results of several cyclic FLAC simulations for default model damping
values versus cyclic shear strain in %. Seed & Idriss data also shown. . . .
Shear stress vs shear strain for base of the layer; default FLAC hysteretic
model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear stress vs shear strain for middle of the layer; default FLAC hysteretic
model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acceleration history for base of layer vs time (sec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acceleration history for middle of layer vs time (sec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acceleration history for surface of layer vs time (sec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unfiltered velocity history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unfiltered power spectral density plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Filtered velocity history at 15 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results of filtering at 15 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Locus in strain space using typical earthquake histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure (top) and effective stress (bottom) for shaking table, using
Eq. (3.61) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure (top) and effective stress (bottom) for shaking table, using
Eq. (3.62) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initial equilibrium of structure on soil slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity history, used to estimate lowest natural frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slope failure resulting from dynamic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity histories at base, slope face and remote from slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dam resting on foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformation after 10 sec. of shaking Mohr-Coulomb model . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure history at zone (4,3) Mohr-Coulomb model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformation after 10 seconds of shaking finn model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure history at zone (4,3) finn model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pore pressure history at zone (4,3) finn model, with dissipation . . . . . . .
Input acceleration at bottom of model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One-dimensional model containing two materials (history locations are also
shown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 - 46
3 - 49
3 - 55
3 - 55
3 - 58
3 - 58
3 - 60
3 - 60
3 - 61
3 - 61
3 - 62
3 - 64
3 - 64
3 - 65
3 - 65
3 - 69
3 - 73
3 - 74
3 - 77
3 - 79
3 - 80
3 - 80
3 - 81
3 - 85
3 - 85
3 - 87
3 - 87
3 - 88
3 - 93
3 - 94
Contents - 12
Figure 3.53
Figure 3.54
Figure 3.55
Figure 3.56
Figure 3.57
Figure 3.58
Figure 3.59
Figure 3.60
Figure 3.61
Figure 3.62
Figure 3.63
Figure 3.64
Figure 3.65
Figure 3.66
Figure 3.67
Figure 3.68
Figure 3.69
Figure 3.70
Figure 3.71
Figure 3.72
Figure 3.73
Figure 3.74
Figure 3.75
Figure 3.76
Figure 3.77
Figure 3.78
Figure 3.79
Figure 3.80
Optional Features
3 - 96
3 - 96
3 - 97
3 - 97
3 - 98
3 - 102
3 - 108
3 - 109
3 - 110
3 - 110
3 - 111
3 - 111
3 - 114
3 - 114
3 - 115
3 - 116
3 - 120
3 - 122
3 - 123
3 - 128
3 - 129
3 - 129
3 - 130
3 - 131
3 - 131
3 - 132
3 - 132
3 - 134
Optional Features
Contents - 13
EXAMPLES
Example 1.1
Example 1.2
Example 1.3
Example 1.4
Example 1.5
Example 1.6
Example 1.7
Example 1.8
Example 1.9
Example 1.10
Example 1.11
Example 1.12
Example 1.13
Example 1.14
Example 1.15
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
Example 2.6
Example 2.7
Example 2.8
Example 2.9
Example 2.10
Example 2.11
Example 2.12
Example 2.13
Example 2.14
Example 2.15
Example 2.16
Example 2.17
Example 2.18
Example 2.19
Example 2.20
Example 3.1
1 - 40
1 - 47
1 - 54
1 - 60
1 - 68
1 - 74
1 - 82
1 - 93
1 - 98
1 - 111
1 - 123
1 - 134
1 - 140
1 - 145
1 - 150
2 - 16
2 - 26
2 - 29
2 - 38
2 - 41
2 - 44
2 - 56
2 - 59
2 - 62
2 - 70
2 - 76
2 - 77
2 - 81
2 - 86
2 - 88
2 - 97
2 - 106
2 - 108
2 - 114
2 - 119
3 - 11
Contents - 14
Example 3.2
Example 3.3
Example 3.4
Example 3.5
Example 3.6
Example 3.7
Example 3.8
Example 3.9
Example 3.10
Example 3.11
Example 3.12
Example 3.13
Example 3.14
Example 3.15
Example 3.16
Example 3.17
Example 3.18
Example 3.19
Example 3.20
Example 3.21
Example 3.22
Example 3.23
Example 3.24
Example 3.25
Example 3.26
Example 3.27
Example 3.28
Example 3.29
Example 3.30
Example 3.31
Example 3.32
Example 3.33
Example 3.34
Example 3.35
Example 3.36
Example 4.1
Example 4.2
Example 4.3
Example 4.4
Optional Features
3 - 16
3 - 24
3 - 30
3 - 37
3 - 37
3 - 39
3 - 43
3 - 49
3 - 53
3 - 56
3 - 59
3 - 71
3 - 75
3 - 78
3 - 81
3 - 82
3 - 82
3 - 83
3 - 83
3 - 84
3 - 86
3 - 91
3 - 91
3 - 92
3 - 92
3 - 98
3 - 101
3 - 104
3 - 116
3 - 119
3 - 119
3 - 124
3 - 125
3 - 134
3 - 136
4-2
4-5
4-6
4 - 10
Optional Features
Example 4.5
Example 4.6
Contents - 15
Contents - 16
Optional Features
Example Applications
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Slope Stability for a Cohesive and Frictional Soil
1.1
1.2
1.3
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Initial Model State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Slope Collapse: Dry Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Effective Stress Analysis with WATER table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Effective Stress Analysis with CONFIG gw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File SLOPE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-1
1-4
1-7
1-8
1 - 11
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File POSTP. DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-1
2-1
2 - 10
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File SAND. DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3-1
3-2
3-8
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File CAV.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4-1
4-3
4-6
4-7
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File PILL. DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1
5-1
5-3
5-6
5-7
Contents - 2
5.6
Example Applications
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File WALL. DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File WALL. FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6-3
6-6
6-9
6 - 10
6 - 16
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File PRESSTUNNEL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1
7-3
7-6
7 - 13
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File SHAX.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1
8-3
8-4
8-7
8-8
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File PULL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1
9-3
9 - 10
9 - 11
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File ROCKSL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 - 1
10 - 2
10 - 5
10 - 7
10 - 8
Example Applications
Contents - 3
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File DIAP.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File WALL DISP.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File INIT STRUT TABLE.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File STRUT AX LOAD.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 - 1
11 - 3
11 - 8
11 - 15
11 - 16
11 - 28
11 - 29
11 - 30
12 - 1
12 - 3
12 - 3
12 - 5
12 - 7
12 - 8
12 - 12
12 - 13
12 - 27
12 - 27
12 - 28
12 - 28
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File EMC.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 - 1
13 - 2
13 - 3
13 - 9
Contents - 4
Example Applications
14 - 1
14 - 3
14 - 4
14 - 11
14 - 11
14 - 14
14 - 25
14 - 26
14 - 29
14 - 31
14 - 35
14 - 36
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File WHARF.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File INPUT.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 - 1
15 - 6
15 - 18
15 - 19
15 - 28
17 - 1
17 - 3
17 - 4
17 - 11
17 - 15
17 - 18
17 - 21
17 - 27
17 - 28
17 - 29
17 - 38
Example Applications
Contents - 5
18 - 1
18 - 6
18 - 13
18 - 15
18 - 19
18 - 31
18 - 32
18 - 35
18 - 35
18 - 36
18 - 44
18 - 45
18 - 47
Contents - 6
Example Applications
TABLES
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 9.1
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 11.3
Table 14.1
Table 14.2
Table 14.3
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Table 15.3
Table 16.1
Table 16.2
Table 16.3
Table 16.4
Table 18.1
5-2
6-2
6-2
9-2
11 - 2
11 - 2
11 - 3
14 - 2
14 - 2
14 - 2
15 - 2
15 - 4
15 - 4
16 - 2
16 - 2
16 - 3
16 - 11
18 - 2
Example Applications
Contents - 7
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
1-3
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
1 - 10
2-2
2-3
2-3
2-4
2-4
2-5
2-5
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-8
2-8
2-9
2-9
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-4
3-5
3-5
3-6
3-6
3-7
4-2
4-2
Contents - 8
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.12
Example Applications
4-4
4-5
4-6
5-1
5-3
5-4
5-4
5-5
5-5
6-1
6-4
6-4
6-6
6-7
6-7
6-8
6-8
7-1
7-4
7-7
7-7
7-8
7-8
7-9
7-9
7 - 10
7 - 10
7 - 11
7 - 11
Example Applications
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.14
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6
Contents - 9
Effective principal stress distribution, pore pressure contours and tensile stress
region after tunnel excavation (mechanical generation of pore pressure included) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effective principal stress distribution, pore pressure contours and tensile stress
region after liner installed and pressurized (mechanical generation of pore
pressure included) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem geometry and excavation steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zone geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zone geometry (detail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of radial displacements (mm) as a function of the distance to the
face (m) for the unlined shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of radial displacements (mm) as a function of the distance to the
face (m) for the lined shaft versus the unlined shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformed grid for the unlined shaft (magnification factor = 50) . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformed grid for the lined shaft (magnification factor = 50) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field results for pull-tests on various types of cables for a bond length of 0.5
m and a water/cement ratio of 1/3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schematic of geometry of FLAC model for a pull test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable pull force in N/m versus cable displacement in meters for the case of a
single 15.2 mm grouted cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot of axial force and cable bond yield points for pull-test simulation on a
15.2 mm cable bolt (Note that cable-bond-slip progresses rapidly after peak
strength is reached at the first cable element.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evolution of the final axial force distribution (in tons/m) for a pull-test simulation on 26 mm cables in a single borehole (Note that the last three points
in each table are outside the grid and should be neglected.) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pull-out test on 15.2 mm cable p = 105 N/m2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pull-out test on 15.2 mm cable p = 106 N/m2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pull-out test on 15.2 mm cable p = 107 N/m2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure surface solution from Bishops method for a rock slope [Hoek and Bray
(1981)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC model grid with water table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure surface and initial zone stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure surface in slope indicated by shear strain contours and zero tension
zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure surface in slope indicated by velocity vectors and plasticity indicators
Cross section through diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Settings in Model Options dialog for concrete diaphragm wall example . . . .
Build Block
/
dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC grid for the analysis of a concrete diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural beam nodes in upper part of wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical displacement contours in grid and moment distribution in diaphragm
wall induced by first dewatering step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 - 12
7 - 12
8-1
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-5
8-6
8-6
9-1
9-4
9-5
9-7
9-8
9-9
9-9
9 - 10
10 - 1
10 - 3
10 - 4
10 - 6
10 - 6
11 - 2
11 - 3
11 - 4
11 - 4
11 - 5
11 - 7
Contents - 10
Figure 11.7
Figure 11.8
Figure 11.9
Figure 11.10
Figure 11.11
Figure 11.12
Figure 11.13
Figure 11.14
Figure 11.15
Figure 11.16
Figure 11.17
Figure 11.18
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Figure 12.3
Figure 12.4
Figure 12.5
Figure 12.6
Figure 12.7
Figure 12.8
Figure 12.9
Figure 12.10
Figure 13.1
Figure 13.2
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5
Figure 13.6
Figure 13.7
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
Example Applications
11 - 9
11 - 9
11 - 10
11 - 10
11 - 11
11 - 11
11 - 12
11 - 12
11 - 13
11 - 13
11 - 14
11 - 14
12 - 2
12 - 4
12 - 4
12 - 6
12 - 6
12 - 8
12 - 9
12 - 9
12 - 10
12 - 11
13 - 2
13 - 4
13 - 4
13 - 5
13 - 5
13 - 6
13 - 6
13 - 7
13 - 7
Example Applications
Figure 13.10
Figure 13.11
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.4
Figure 14.5
Figure 14.6
Figure 14.7
Figure 14.8
Figure 14.9
Figure 14.10
Figure 14.11
Figure 14.12
Figure 14.13
Figure 14.14
Figure 14.15
Figure 14.16
Figure 14.17
Figure 14.18
Figure 14.19
Figure 14.20
Figure 14.21
Figure 14.22
Figure 14.23
Figure 14.24
Figure 14.25
Figure 14.26
Figure 14.27
Figure 14.28
Contents - 11
13 - 8
13 - 8
14 - 1
14 - 4
14 - 5
14 - 5
14 - 6
14 - 7
14 - 8
14 - 9
14 - 9
14 - 10
14 - 11
14 - 12
14 - 13
14 - 15
14 - 16
14 - 17
14 - 18
14 - 18
14 - 19
14 - 21
14 - 21
14 - 22
14 - 23
14 - 23
14 - 24
14 - 24
14 - 25
14 - 26
Contents - 12
Figure 14.29
Figure 14.30
Figure 14.31
Figure 14.32
Figure 14.33
Figure 14.34
Figure 14.35
Figure 14.36
Figure 14.37
Figure 14.38
Figure 14.39
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.2
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.6
Figure 15.7
Figure 15.8
Figure 15.9
Figure 15.10
Figure 15.11
Figure 15.12
Figure 15.13
Figure 15.14
Figure 15.15
Figure 15.16
Figure 15.17
Figure 15.18
Figure 15.19
Figure 15.20
Example Applications
14 - 27
14 - 28
14 - 29
14 - 30
14 - 30
14 - 31
14 - 32
14 - 33
14 - 34
14 - 34
14 - 35
15 - 1
15 - 3
15 - 3
15 - 5
15 - 5
15 - 6
15 - 7
15 - 8
15 - 9
15 - 11
15 - 13
15 - 13
15 - 14
15 - 14
15 - 15
15 - 16
15 - 16
15 - 17
15 - 17
15 - 18
Example Applications
Figure 16.1
Figure 16.2
Figure 16.3
Figure 16.4
Figure 16.5
Figure 16.6
Figure 16.7
Figure 16.8
Figure 16.9
Figure 16.10
Figure 16.11
Figure 16.12
Figure 16.13
Figure 16.14
Figure 17.1
Figure 17.2
Figure 17.3
Figure 17.4
Figure 17.5
Figure 17.6
Figure 17.7
Figure 17.8
Figure 17.9
Figure 17.10
Figure 17.11
Figure 17.12
Figure 17.13
Figure 17.14
Figure 17.15
Figure 17.16
Figure 17.17
Figure 17.18
Figure 17.19
Contents - 13
16 - 1
16 - 4
16 - 5
16 - 6
16 - 7
16 - 8
16 - 8
16 - 9
16 - 9
16 - 10
16 - 12
16 - 12
16 - 13
16 - 14
17 - 2
17 - 3
17 - 4
17 - 5
17 - 5
17 - 6
17 - 6
17 - 7
17 - 7
17 - 8
17 - 9
17 - 10
17 - 10
17 - 11
17 - 12
17 - 13
17 - 13
17 - 14
17 - 14
Contents - 14
Example Applications
Figure 17.20 Shotcrete liner installed as liner elements attached to tunnel-boundary gridpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.21 Shotcrete properties assigned in the Liner Element Properties dialog . . . . . .
Figure 17.22 Vertical and horizontal closures around tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.23 Axial forces in shotcrete after 100% relaxation of tunnel loads . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.24 Concrete liner elements installed and connected to the grid using an interface
Figure 17.25 Re-assigning liner property ID numbers to L2 for the concrete liner elements
Figure 17.26 Concrete liner properties assigned in Liner Element Properties dialog . . . . .
Figure 17.27 Normal stresses along interface after concrete liner settles onto grid at tunnel
invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.28 Assign pore-pressure distribution corresponding to raising water table . . . . .
Figure 17.29 Pore-pressure distribution after raising water table to y = 60 m . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.30 Apply pressure to shotcrete liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.31 Exaggerated grid distortion after raising water table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.32 Tunnel closure/opening after raising water table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.33 Axial forces in liners after raising water table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.34 Moments in concrete liner and normal stress along interface after raising water
table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.35 Delete shotcrete-liner elements in Structure / Segments tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.36 Axial force in concrete liner after deleting shotcrete liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.1 Embankment dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.2 Modulus reduction curve for clayey soils (from SHAKE91 data) . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.3 Damping ratio curve for clayey soils (from SHAKE91 data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.4 Horizontal acceleration time history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.5 Power spectrum of input acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.6 Model options selected for the embankment dam example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.7 Horizontal acceleration time history with 5 Hz filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.8 Power spectrum of horizontal acceleration time history (with 5 Hz filter) . . .
Figure 18.9 Uncorrected and corrected displacement histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.10 gentabletop FISH function in TABTOP.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.11 Grid parameters entered in the Simple dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.12 Edit Table Points dialog showing x- and y-values defining embankment dam
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.13 Mesh created with gentabletop tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.14 Embankment dam model with foundation and embankment soils assigned .
Figure 18.15 Close-up view of embankment dam model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.16 Pore pressure distribution in foundation soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.17 Displacements induced by embankment construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.18 Pore pressure distribution parameters corresponding to a reservoir elevation
of 670 ft. on the upstream side of the embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.19 Pore-pressure histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 - 15
17 - 16
17 - 17
17 - 17
17 - 18
17 - 19
17 - 20
17 - 21
17 - 22
17 - 23
17 - 24
17 - 25
17 - 25
17 - 26
17 - 26
17 - 27
17 - 28
18 - 1
18 - 4
18 - 4
18 - 5
18 - 5
18 - 6
18 - 7
18 - 7
18 - 8
18 - 9
18 - 10
18 - 10
18 - 11
18 - 12
18 - 12
18 - 14
18 - 14
18 - 15
18 - 16
Example Applications
Contents - 15
Figure 18.20 Pore-pressure distribution at steady state flow for reservoir raised to 670 ft. .
Figure 18.21 Mechanical pressure distribution parameters corresponding to a reservoir elevation of 670 ft. on the upstream side of the embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.22 Total vertical-stress distribution at steady state flow for reservoir raised to 670
ft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.23 Copy history into a table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.24 Input for filter FISH function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.25 Apply shear stress boundary condition in Apply value dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.26 x-velocity time history at gridpoint (80,18) undamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.27 Power spectrum of x-velocity time history at gridpoint (80,18) undamped
Figure 18.28 Hysteretic damping parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.29 Rayleigh damping parameters used with hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.30 Rayleigh damping parameters for Rayleigh damping simulation . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.31 x-displacement contours at 40 seconds
Mohr-Coulomb material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.32 x-displacement contours at 40 seconds
Mohr-Coulomb material and Rayleigh damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.33 Shear-strain increment contours at 40 seconds
Mohr-Coulomb material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.34 Shear-strain increment contours at 40 seconds
Mohr-Coulomb material and Rayleigh damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.35 Relative displacements at gridpoint (62,29) along upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.36 Relative displacements at gridpoint (62,29) along upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and Rayleigh damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.37 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.38 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Mohr-Coulomb material and Rayleigh damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.39 Model finn properties dialog w/ properties for embankment soil 1 . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.40 x-displacement contours at 40 seconds
Byrne (liquefaction) material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.41 Shear-strain increment contours at 40 seconds
Byrne (liquefaction) material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.42 Relative displacements at gridpoint (62,29) along upstream slope
Byrne (liquefaction) material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.43 Pore-pressure and effective vertical stress near upstream slope
Byrne (liquefaction) material and hysteretic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18 - 17
18 - 18
18 - 18
18 - 20
18 - 20
18 - 22
18 - 23
18 - 23
18 - 24
18 - 24
18 - 25
18 - 27
18 - 27
18 - 28
18 - 28
18 - 29
18 - 29
18 - 30
18 - 30
18 - 31
18 - 33
18 - 33
18 - 34
18 - 34
Contents - 16
Example Applications
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 COMMAND SUMMARY
1.1
FLAC Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Specify Program Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Specify Special Calculation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Input Problem Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Delimit Regions in the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Assign Constitutive Models and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6 Assign Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7 Apply Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8 Specify Structural Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.9 Specify Interfaces or Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.10 Specify User-Defined Variables or Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.11 Monitor Model Conditions during the Solution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.12 Solve the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.13 Generate Model Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.14 Other Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-6
1-6
1-8
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 13
FISH Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Specification Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 FLAC Command Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Modified FLAC Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 FLAC-Specific Scalar Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6 General Scalar Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.7 FLAC-Specific Model Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.8 FLAC Constitutive Model Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.9 Intrinsic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.10 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.11 Special Array Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.12 Special Functions to Access Memory Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.13 FLAC I/O Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.14 Socket I/O Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.15 User-Defined Constitutive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.16 State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-7
2-7
2 - 11
2 - 17
2 - 18
2 - 19
2 - 19
2 - 19
2 - 19
2 - 20
2 - 20
Contents - 2
2 - 21
Verification Problems
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Elastic Medium
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File HOLE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File TABM1.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-6
1 - 13
1 - 14
1 - 20
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File TIHOLE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File M2 PRO.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-3
2-8
2 - 15
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File MHOLE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3-2
3-4
3-7
3 - 16
3 - 17
Contents - 2
Verification Problems
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File HOEKHOLE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File HB SOLUTION.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
4-1
4-3
4-5
4-8
4-9
4 - 11
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File SPHERE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File TABM5.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1
5-1
5-2
5-4
5-7
5-8
5 - 12
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytical Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File FOOTING.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-5
6-9
6 - 10
Verification Problems
Contents - 3
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File JROCK.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File JROCKB.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-6
7 - 10
7 - 11
7 - 18
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File LTUNNEL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-8
9 One-Dimensional Consolidation
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File 1DCONS.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File 1DCONS.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-5
9 - 11
9 - 12
9 - 18
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File FREESURFACE.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 - 1
10 - 2
10 - 2
10 - 4
10 - 5
10 - 9
Contents - 4
Verification Problems
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File RIVERBANK.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 - 1
11 - 2
11 - 3
11 - 5
11 - 7
11 - 8
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File WELL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 - 1
12 - 2
12 - 4
12 - 5
12 - 5
12 - 7
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File PUNCH.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 - 1
13 - 2
13 - 3
13 - 5
13 - 6
14 - 1
14 - 2
14 - 5
14 - 7
14 - 9
14 - 10
14 - 16
14 - 17
14 - 18
14 - 19
Verification Problems
Contents - 5
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed-Form Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File CAM.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File YIELD.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 - 1
15 - 2
15 - 6
15 - 7
15 - 8
15 - 16
15 - 26
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File CFOOT.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 - 1
16 - 1
16 - 2
16 - 3
16 - 5
16 - 6
17 Brazilian Test
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File BRAZIL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 - 1
17 - 2
17 - 3
17 - 5
17 - 5
17 - 8
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File MANDEL.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File FROOT.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18 - 1
18 - 2
18 - 4
18 - 5
18 - 6
18 - 9
18 - 17
Contents - 6
Verification Problems
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nature of the Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Strategy for Bracketing the Limit Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File LIMITS.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19 - 1
19 - 1
19 - 2
19 - 4
19 - 4
19 - 6
19 - 7
19 - 8
20 - 1
20 - 3
20 - 6
20 - 9
20 - 11
20 - 12
20 - 15
20 - 16
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File EBANK.DAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 - 1
21 - 2
21 - 3
21 - 5
21 - 6
Verification Problems
Contents - 7
TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 4.1
Table 9.1
Table 13.1
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Table 20.1
Table 20.2
1 - 13
4 - 10
9-7
13 - 5
15 - 7
15 - 7
20 - 6
20 - 11
Contents - 8
Verification Problems
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
1-2
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-9
1 - 10
1 - 11
1 - 11
1 - 12
1 - 12
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-4
2-5
2-5
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-7
3-4
3-5
3-5
3-6
3-7
Verification Problems
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Contents - 9
3-8
3-8
3-9
3-9
3 - 10
3 - 10
3 - 11
3 - 12
3 - 12
3 - 13
3 - 13
3 - 14
3 - 15
3 - 15
3 - 16
4-4
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-6
4-7
4-7
5-2
5-3
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-5
5-6
5-6
Contents - 10
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Verification Problems
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-4
6-6
6-6
6-7
6-7
6-8
6-9
7-2
7-4
7-5
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-8
7-9
7-9
7 - 10
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6
8-6
8-7
9-1
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-6
Verification Problems
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
Figure 10.8
Figure 10.9
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6
Figure 11.7
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Figure 12.3
Figure 12.4
Figure 12.5
Figure 13.1
Figure 13.2
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5
Figure 13.6
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2
Contents - 11
9-8
9-8
9-9
9 - 10
9 - 10
10 - 1
10 - 3
10 - 4
10 - 6
10 - 6
10 - 7
10 - 7
10 - 8
10 - 8
11 - 1
11 - 2
11 - 3
11 - 4
11 - 5
11 - 6
11 - 6
12 - 1
12 - 4
12 - 5
12 - 6
12 - 6
13 - 1
13 - 2
13 - 3
13 - 4
13 - 4
13 - 5
14 - 1
14 - 6
Contents - 12
Verification Problems
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.4
Figure 14.5
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.2
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.6
Figure 15.7
Figure 15.8
Figure 15.9
Figure 15.10
Figure 15.11
Figure 15.12
Figure 15.13
Figure 15.14
Figure 15.15
Figure 15.16
14 - 7
14 - 8
14 - 9
15 - 3
15 - 4
15 - 6
15 - 9
15 - 9
15 - 10
15 - 10
15 - 11
15 - 11
15 - 12
15 - 12
15 - 13
15 - 13
15 - 14
15 - 14
15 - 15
15 - 15
16 - 2
16 - 4
16 - 5
17 - 1
17 - 4
17 - 4
17 - 6
17 - 6
17 - 7
17 - 7
18 - 1
18 - 7
18 - 7
18 - 8
18 - 8
Verification Problems
Contents - 13
19 - 2
19 - 5
19 - 6
20 - 1
20 - 2
20 - 4
20 - 7
20 - 7
20 - 8
20 - 9
20 - 11
20 - 12
20 - 13
20 - 14
20 - 14
21 - 1
21 - 2
21 - 4
21 - 4
Contents - 14
Verification Problems