ETHER MECHANICAL MODELS

Tala Mon
Tuesday, December 2, 2014
HI 3244 History of Light
Professor Jonathan Bain

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1. Introduction
In this essay, the mechanical models from the 19th century of electromagnetism and the
ether are discussed. I will claim that mechanical models aid in understanding the true nature of
electromagnetism by their failure to describe an ether by purely mechanical means. As Hunt
suggests, the exploration of these mechanisms could lead in turn to new laws, such as those
governing displacement currents and electromagnetic waves (1991, pg. 78). The different
mechanical models are tested based on empirical observations and known scientific laws.
In Section 2, I describe Maxwells vortex model of electromagnetism and how the model
accounted for electric and magnetic phenomena. In Section 3, I compare the Maxwells vortex
model with FitzGeralds wheel and rubber-band model. In Section 4, I discuss the difference of
the previously mentioned models with Lodges string and beads model. In Section 5, I show
what set FitzGeralds vortex sponge model apart from the other models.

2. Maxwells Vortex Model

Maxwell formed his model by asking what mechanical explanation can we give of this
inequality of pressures in a fluid or mobile medium? when describing magnetism by lines of
forces in a fluid (Maxwell 1861, pg. 165). Magnetic lines contract longitudinally and repel
laterally so Maxwell proposes the ether to have vortices along magnetic lines as centrifugal
forces cause vortices to contract longitudinally and expand laterally. In Maxwells model, the
vortices are represented by hexagons and in order to describe the flow of current, he included
idle wheels between the outside edges of the vortices. With

as the angular velocity of the

vortex, Maxwell describes the force on electric currents as regions where

are non-zero
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and the force on magnetic poles as regions where

are non-zero where

is the density of

the medium. When two vortices next to each other do not spin at the same speed, the idle wheels
are forced to shift and therefore, producing a current. The mechanism describes Amperes Law
by making the idle-wheel particle flux caused by the divergence of

analogous to the current

density. Unfortunately, charges cannot be accumulated based on the mechanics of this model, but
Maxwell circumvented this by adding a term to describe the displacements of idle wheels due to
elastic deformations of the medium as the flux of particles or idle wheels.
The tangential force of particles on the vortices describes the torque which is the time
derivative of angular momentum,
force

. The tangential force is analogous to the electromotive

which results in:

The equation above describes Faradays Law or induced currents by changes in the magnetic
field.

3. FitzGeralds Wheel and Rubber-band Model

FitzGeralds wheel and rubber-band model arose from his attempt to describe Poyntings
description of the flow in an electromagnetic field where the energy of an electric current
originates from its sides instead of being carried by the current. The wheel represented the
magnetic field and its rotational inertia represented self-inductance. The bands are wrapped
around a set of wheels and strains in the band represented an electric field.
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When two regions of bands are removed, perfect conducting plates are formed with the
two bands connecting the removed band regions turning in opposite directions. The strain on the
bands connecting the two regions describe the opposite charges when charging a condenser.
When the removed bands are reattached, the strain on the bands connecting the two regions are
conserved. To discharge the condenser, the bands connecting the two regions are loosen which
dissipate energy as friction through heat. The bands may also reverse directions in strain when
discharged causing other bands to oscillate in strain therefore producing an electromagnetic
wave.
FitzGeralds wheel and rubber-band model is a simplification of Maxwells vortex
model. The wheel and rubber-band more easily described electrostatics and the behavior of
conducting plates. The model also described energy originating and released from the sides of
the current as the bands were connected perpendicularly similarly to Maxwells model. As Hunt
states, mathematical reasoning could be transferred freely between Maxwells theory and
FitzGeralds model (1991, pg. 83).

4. Lodges String and Beads Model

To describe the behavior of dielectrics and conductors, Lodge proposed the string and
beads model. Dielectrics resisting displacement were modeled by buttons attached firmly to the
string and the elasticity of the bands fixing the strings described the inductive capacity.
Conductors were the buttons loosely attached to the string which allowed the buttons to move
but creating friction by the attached bands. The friction represented the electrical resistivity of
the conductor.

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Lodges model is a simplification of Maxwells model as it more easily describes the

behavior of dielectrics and conductors but mathematical treatment would have had little
meaning (Hunt 1991, pg. 89). The band affixed to the string also helped describe the properties
of dielectrics and conductors. In comparison to the wheel and rubber-band model, the string and
beads model does not expand on origin of the energy of the current or the means of producing it.

5. FitzGeralds Vortex Sponge Model

FitzGerald desired a purely mechanical theory for the ether, not an analogy but a true
likeness as he believed in physics to be purely mechanical. The vortex sponge model is described
as an enormous tangled sponge of vortex filaments with matter as closed vortex rings within
[the ether] (Hunt 1991, pg. 96). He chose this model because only a continuous ether was
capable of supporting shearing stresses. Maxwells model, along with the wheel and rubber-band
and beads and string models were composed of distinct closed entities instead of a continuous
liquid filled with vortices.
Unfortunately, as there were almost infinite possibilities in a vortex sponge, there were
also a great many difficulties (Hunt 1991, pg. 101, 103). Thomson showed that the sponge
model was unstable and could not support waves or exert forces. The ether model could not be
entirely mechanical.

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6. Conclusion
The mechanical models helped visualize the basic principles of Maxwells Theory, but
the models could not be a true likeness to an ether that supports electromagnetism. Even
Maxwell found his model to be somewhat awkward (Hunt 1991, pg. 77). The models that
aspired to be of true likeness to the ether such as the vortex sponge model were too complex and
riddled with too many possibilities. The failure of the mechanical models allowed for the rise of
mathematical models that better described and represented the true nature of electromagnetism.

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Bibliography

Hunt, Bruce J. (1991). Ether Models and the Vortex Sponge. The Maxwellians, pp. 73-107.

Maxwell, J.C. (1861). On Physical Lines of Force. The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, pp. 161-175.

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