Slope Stability 2011: International Symposium on Rock Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering,

Vancouver, Canada (September 18-21, 2011)

Geotechnical Design of the Jwaneng Mine Cut 8

A.B. Tunono Debswana Diamond Company, Gaborone, Botswana
M. Ruest De Beers Global Mining Services, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa
L. Dimbungu Debswana Diamond Company, Gaborone, Botswana
M. Brook Debswana Diamond Company, Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract
Jwaneng Mine in Botswana is the richest diamond mine in the world by value and a major contributor to the
Gross Domestic Product of the country. The mine was established in 1981 and has a capacity to process 10.5
Mtonnes of ore per annum. Ore is exposed by mining a series of waste cut backs following a split shell strategy
with each cut exposing enough ore for 3 to 5 years of supply. The Cut 8 project follows the current Cut 6 and 7
push backs and will deepen the mine to 622 meters extending the life of Jwaneng Mine to 2024. The project
represents a major historical step for the operation as the stripping ratio increases from the current 4:1 to 10:1.
Waste stripping will be 713 million tonnes and will expose 75million tonnes of ore containing 95million carats.
This paper describes the rock mechanics and hydrogeological investigations and analyses required for
designing a stable Cut 8 slope. Strict acceptance criterion for safety factors and probability of failures to ensure
an optimized design and stability of plant infrastructure that will be located in the vicinity of the proposed pit
crest was followed whilst maintaining industry accepted guidelines on risk. Given the importance of Jwaneng
Mine to Debswana Diamond Company and to the country of Botswana as a whole, a rigorous design and review
process was followed.

Introduction and context

Jwaneng Mine is located in the southern part of Botswana about 130km due west from Gaborone. Figure 1
shows the location of Jwaneng Mine and other Debswana Diamond Companys mine sites.

Figure 1. Location of Jwaneng Mine and other Debswana Diamond Company (Pty) mine operations.

Jwaneng mine is owned by Debswana Diamond Company (Debswana) which is part owned by the Botswana
government and De Beers Socity Anonyme. It is the largest producer of diamonds by value for Debswana and
produces the worlds best gem diamonds. Diamonds account for 40% of Botswana foreign reserves earning,
hence the importance of the mine to the company and the country. It has been in operation since 1981.
The pit dimensions are approximately 2.4km in the long axis (NE-SW) and 1.8km wide in the short axis (NWSE). The open pit is developed using the split shell mining sequence. The current pit depth is at 360m and is
intended to reach 536m in the Cut 7 pushback. The next mining pushback will be Cut 8 and this will go down to
a depth of 622m with waste mining increasing from the current 40Mtpa to a peak of over 122Mtpa.
The Cut 8 pushback will encroach on existing plant infrastructure that will need to be relocated. The Main
Treatment Plant (MTP) will be located at about 220m from the proposed Cut 8 pit crest and hence the
geotechnical design will need to ensure its stability. Figure 2 below shows the Cut 8 pit crest and location of
plant infrastructure.

Affected Infrastructure
Re-crush plant belts
Slimes pipeline
In-pit crusher
Belts to surface crusher
Primary and secondary stockpiles
Workshops (service equipment)

Cut 8 Pit Crest

Figure 2.

Jwaneng Mine Cut 8 pit crest showing affected plant infrastructure.

Geology

There are four diamondiferous kimberlite pipes at Jwaneng Mine that have intruded package of sedimentary rock
formations comprised of dolomites, shales and quartzites of the Pretoria group of the Transvaal super group,
deposited during Proterozoic times. The sequence is broken up by extensional shears, thrusts and steep block
faults. Dolerite sills and dykes also intrude the country rock. Due to this complex geology, the dip angle of the
strata in the vicinity of the mine varies between 10- 40 towards the northwest and is bounded by major faults
that dip steeply into the south east wall.
Bench and inter-ramp scale stability on the south east wall is therefore predominantly controlled by the
foliation/bedding which daylights into the mine slopes and forms planar failures. In the more fissile units of the
sedimentary packages, breakback occurs along foliation planes as mining progresses whilst in the more massive
units the deterioration progresses with the aid of blasting. This causes rock falls which are hazardous to
operating conditions as mining progresses to lower benches (Figures 3).

Figure 3. Cut 8 Pushback south east wall rock fall hazard due to undercut foliation/bedding.
2.1

Regional geology

The stratigraphy of Jwaneng Mine begins with a cover of about 60m of Kalahari sequence comprised of sand
and calcrete followed by Laminated and Carbonaceous Shales of the Timeball Hill Formation. The Laminated
Shales are thinly bedded and occasionally have intercalations of Sandstone. The Carbonaceous Shale is a 30m
thick unit that consists of graphitic shale interbedded with felsic volcanic tuff.
The Rooihoogte Quartzites beneath the shales form the bulk of the Jwaneng Cut 8 slopes. They are as thick as
375m and consist of Siltstone and Sandstone beds. A thin marker horizon of conglomerates called the Bevets
splits the quartzites into two units. The lower Quartzitic Shale is almost the same as that above though it is more
ferruginous and coarser grained. The lower Rooihoogte Formation is another Carbonaceous Shales unit that is
less than 10m thick.
Dolomites of the Malmani Subgroup are at the bottom of the mine sequence and though there has been less
intersection from drill holes they are thought to be massive. They comprise of a greyish conglomerate with clasts
of Dolomite and this has a sharp contact with the underlying cherty dolomites. Lenses of Carbonaceous Shale
occur in places.
Intrusions of Syenites, Dolerites and Quartz-porphyry also cut into the sedimentary sequence to form sills and
dykes. A stratigraphic column of the Jwaneng Mine is shown in Table 1.
2.2

Structural geology

The structural setting of the Jwaneng Mine is a result of four phases of deformations. The D1 phase was
extensional and resulted in the formation of north east to south west striking normal faults that are down thrown
to the south east. The D2 phase was a compressional strike slip phase that led to the north east to south west
steep structures. This has caused tectonic shortening resulting in duplication of the stratigraphic and local
variations of the rock fabric within the domains.
The third phase (D3) was that of dolerite intrusions and the D4 phase was the re-activation of the D2 and D3
phases. These phases of deformations have led to a complex structural geologic framework that is characterised
by major faults that have compartmentalised the bounding blocks into domains each with a unique rock fabric.
The isometric view of the Jwaneng Mine country rock model is shown in Figure 4.

Table 1.

Figure 4.

Jwaneng Mine Stratigraphic Column.

Stratigraphic Name

Rock Type (Mine Rock Code)

Typical Thickness (m)

Kalahari Sequence

Sand & Calcrete

55-60

Timeball Hill Formation

Laminated Shale (LS)

Residual

Lower Timeball Hill Formation

Carbonaceous Shale (CS)

30

Rooihoogte Formation

Quartzitic Shale (QS)

135

Chert Pebble Conglomerate

Bevets (BVT)

0-4

Rooihoogte Formation

Quartzitic Shale (QS)

375

Lower Rooihoogte Formation

Carbonaceous Shale (CS)

10

Malmani Subgroup

Dolomite (DM)

Residual

Isometric view of the Jwaneng Mine County Rock Model (SRK, 2009).

Of consequence to the geotechnical design therefore is the rock fabric (foliation) and its relation to the south
east wall slopes. Rock fabric data has been collected from face mapping, oriented core and acoustic televiewing
(ATV). It has been observed in the existing slopes that stability and the risk of rock falls increases as the
foliation dip gets steeper due to planar failures resulting from undercut the planes. Stability analysis have been
conducted to determine the critical foliation dip at which the planes cannot be undercut without affecting
stability of the slope. The results of this analysis have been used as design guides for the mine planners.
The faults in Cut 8 south east wall pushback generally dip away from the pit wall and they are not anticipated to
cause any stability related concerns apart from acting as conduits of water into the slope.

Geotechnical model

3.1

Rock mass properties

The rock mass at Jwaneng Mine can be classified mostly as fair to good. The Quartzitic Shale that forms the
bulk of the slope is massive. The laminated shale is thinly bedded whilst the carbonaceous shales are fissile and
graphitic along the main contacts. Tables 2 and 3 below give a summary of the rock mass and the deformation
properties for the rock units that comprise the south east wall slopes of Cut 8.
Table 2.

Jwaneng Mine Cut 8 Pushback rock mass properties (SRK, 2009).

DENSITY

CODE
(Kg/m3)
CS

Charecterisation
UCS (Mpa)

RMR

GSI

mi

115

54

47

214

66

222

2616

DM
DOL

2880

KIM

Deep Rock Mass (>50m)

Strength
Shallow Rock Mass (<50m)

c(kPa)

()

c(kPa)

()

4.9

654

32

-173

354

37

-148

54

12.6

1,467

50

-357

903

54

-315

61

49

8.9

1,168

44

-346

694

48

-301

36

55

50

437

30

-46

174

36

-3.9

LS

2615

56

44

39

3.3

296

20

-118

130

23

-98

QS

2742

173

60

47

5.2

864

36

-350

508

40

-302

Table 3.

Jwaneng Mine Cut 8 rock mass deformation properties (SRK, 2009).

Deformation
CODE

3.2

MR

Ei (GPa)

CS

310

DM

ERM (GPa)

Deep

Shallow

28

2.3

1.7

0.25

431

96

12.7

9.2

0.24

DOL

325

76

7.8

5.7

0.25

KIM

273

10

0.7

0.25

LS

446

39

2.1

1.6

0.26

QS

350

61

5.3

3.9

0.25

Joint strength properties

The host rock of the Jwaneng Mine is characterised by a strong anisotropy developed during the tectonic
displacements that led to the occurrence of the faults and extensional shear planes mentioned previously. The
foliation is generally welded while the sub-vertical joints are open. The joint surfaces are fresh to slightly
weathered. The large scale joint expression is generally planar and the joints are dry. The small scale joint
expressions are smooth, planar to slickensided, due to the displacements that have occured as a result of the
intense tectonic acitivity. They are generally clean joint surfaces but occassionally have calcite infilling.

Laboratory shear tests were conducted on both closed and open joints and the Barton-Bandis methodology was
used to scale the determined strength to field properties. The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters are then
determined from the Barton-Bandis shear strength. The maximum shear strength was derived by assessing the
potential load on failure surfaces. To estimate the load the lithostatic load has been used. In the case of the
Jwaneng slopes, it has been determined as 0.5MPa for shallow failure planes occurring within 50m of the slope
face, and up to 2MPa for deep seated rock mass failure.
A summary of the shear strength of joints in the Jwaneng Cut 8 south east slopes are shown in Table 4.
Table 4.

Summary of joint strength peak values for Cut 8 foliation discontinuities (SRK , 2009).
CODE

CS

3.3

Strength
Foliation
Open Joints
Deep Rock Mass (>50m)
Shallow Rock Mass (<50m) Deep Rock Mass (>50m) Shallow Rock Mass (<50m)
c(kPa)
c(kPa)
c(kPa)
c(kPa)
()
()
()
()
80.8

34

21

35

20.2

34

5.3

35

DM

25

34

6.7

36

DOL

22

37

5.7

38

KIM

20

33

5.1

34

LS

80.3

34

20.9

35

20.1

34

5.2

35

QS

84.6

36

22.1

37

21.1

36

5.5

37

Hydrogeology properties

The Kalahari Sands occur above the water table and hence do not have an impact on the hydrogeological regime
of Jwaneng Mine. The Shales (Laminated Shales, Carbonaceous Shales and the thicker Quartzitic Shales) are
variably fractured and transmit water, though the porosity is low at approximately 0.1% or less. Surface water
mostly from the slimes dams and district scale groundwater recharges the slopes. Pore pressure dissipation is
anticipated to be achieved by stopping the recharge of the upper parts of the slopes by water from the slimes
dams. Pumping water on the crest through scavenger holes has been shown to contribute to the reduction of
pore pressures in the slopes. If the external recharge source to the pit can be cut off by pumping, it is also
expected that unloading will cause significant pressure dissipation in the shale sequence, though this will have an
impact of ground deformation in the plant due to subsidence.
The available information for the dolomites indicates that, although they can be locally fractured and permeable,
the groundwater is compartmentalized by the numerous high angle fault zones in the area. The available
evidence indicates the compartments do not appear to be connected to the regional groundwater flow system.
Fractures are evident to varying degrees at the contact between the kimberlite and the shale, and also at the
deeper contact between the kimberlite and the dolomite. The Kimberlites exhibit higher porosity than the
surrounding country rocks and it is likely that the rock mass will show good depressurization when fracture
zones are drained.
Pumping scenarios in hydrogeological models indicate that depressurization of the slope could be achieved using
vertical boreholes of approximately 500m depth and horizontal drains (Golder, 2009). An extraction rate of
105m3/hr was considered appropriate and the phreatic surface achieved was assumed as the input into the slope
stability models. Figure 5 below shows a typical cross-section and the assumed phreatic surface.

Figure 5.

Jwaneng Mine geotechnical section line A6 and assumed phreatic surface (Itasca, 2009).

Cut 8 slope design

4.1

Slope design process and acceptance criteria

Given the importance of the revenue from Jwaneng Mine to Botswana and the risk of Cut 8 incapacitating the
Main Treatment Plant (MTP), a rigorous design and review process was followed. Field investigations were
conducted under the supervision of the mine geotechnical department. Two different design techniques (Limit
Equilibrium and Distinct Element) were independently conducted and then compared and contrasted (SRK,
2009, Itasca, 2009). Internal reviews were conducted first by Debswana and then by Debswana shareholders De
Beers and its majority shareholder Anglo American. External reviews were conducted on the geotechnical
design by Stacey Mining Geotechnical and on the hydrogeological models by Water Management Consultants.
De Beers and its Family of Companies (FOC) have adopted the acceptance criteria for slope design outlined in
the Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design (Read & Stacey, 2009). This criterion was also used for the Jwaneng
Mine Cut 8 pushback and is shown in Table 5. For the first time in the history of the FOC, the acceptance
criterion was provided to the design consultant rather than the acceptance criterion recommended by the
consultant to Debswana.
Table 5.

Slope design acceptance criteria (adapted from Read & Stacey, 2009).
Acceptance Criteriaa

Slope Scale

Consequences of Failureb

FoS (min)
(Static)

FoS (min)
(Dynamic)

PoF (max)
P[FoS1]

Bench

Low - high

1.1

NA

25% - 50%

Low

1.15 - 1.2

1.0

25%

Medium

1.2

1.0

20%

High

1.2 1.3

1.1

10%

Low

1.2 1.3

1.0

15% - 20%

Medium

1.3

1.05

5% - 10%

High

1.3 1.5

1.1

5%

Inter-ramp

Overall

Notes: a. Needs to meet all acceptance criteria; b. Semi-quantitatively evaluation

In summary, the Cut 8 slope design process was intended to meet world class standards.

4.2

Limit equilibrium (SRK, 2009)

Limit Equilibrium analysis was conducted using Slide (Rocscience, 2008). Rock mass properties used in the
models are as shown in Section 3.1. Anisotropy was assumed for the shales to account for the lower strength
along foliation. The dip of the foliations in the different domains was taken as the geotechnical mean determined
from the maximum contour of poles for bench scale and inter-ramp stability whereas in the global scale analysis,
the modeled dip was used. The modeled dip was the mean dip for all the formation within the domain. A
phreatic surface for the 105m3/hr total abstraction scenario was used.
Before conducting slope stability analysis for the optimized pit design, a back analysis was carried out on the
existing pit profiles and Factors of Safety (FoS) were found to be consistent with the Acceptance Criteria in
Table 5. An optimized pit design, which was a result of extensive slope design evaluations dating back to 2003,
was used for the feasibility level slope design. Bench configuration was 16m bench height, 90 bench face angles
and inter-ramp angles ranging from 40 in the Laminated Shales to 60 in the Dolomites. Figure 6 shows the
location of the analytical section lines used in the slope analysis and Figure 7 shows a typical section line for the
slope stability model.
Stability analysis results are shown in Table 6. They indicate that the Factors of Safety (FoS) and Probabilities of
Failure (PoF) are acceptable, based on the criteria outlined in Table 5.
Slope stability at Jwaneng Mine is controlled by the rock fabric. It is evident in the pit that for shallower dipping
bedding/foliation, stability is generally good. In areas where the dip of bedding/foliation is steep, there is an
increased risk of rock fall due to the difficult of maintaining catchment benches once the bedding/foliation
planes are undercut.

C6

B6
A6

Figure 6.

Jwaneng mine plan showing analytical section lines.

Figure 7. Typical section for the Cut 8 Pushback. Also indicated are the geotechnical dips of foliation/bedding
in the domains (SRK, 2009).
Table 6.

Stability analysis results for the Jwaneng Mine Cut 8 Pushback (SRK, 2009).
F oS
( An isot rop ic )

PoF
(An iso trop ic )

Q S, KI M
LS , K IM

1 .22
1 .76
1 .32

0
6
12

O vera ll
L owe r thi rd
M iddle thi rd
Up per third

Q S , CS
QS
LS

1 .37
1 .39
1 .58
1 .37

0
10
0
0

O vera ll
L owe r thi rd
M iddle thi rd
Up per third

Q S , K IM , D M
QS, DM
QS, DOL

1.6
2 .04
1 .54
1 .96

0
0
1
1

S e ction

S c ale

M ater ial

A6

O vera ll
L owe r ha lf
U pper hal f

B6

C6

A sensitivity analysis was conducted to determine the cut-off orientation of the bedding/foliation planes. The
foliation/bedding plane dip and the stack angle were varied and the Factor of Safety determined. Figure 8 shows
results of the sensitivity analysis conducted for the stack stability in the Quartzitic Shales (QS). The critical
foliation dip is 40 at which the Factor of Safety is 1.2. It has therefore been recommended that for domains with
orientation of bedding/foliation more than 40 the inter-ramp angle should be 40. This is the case for Domain 7a
where bedding/foliation dip is at 48 .

Figure 8.
4.3

Results of stack stability sensitivity analysis for the Quartzitic Shale (SRK March 2010).

Numerical modeling (Itasca, 2009)

Distinct Element Models have the capability to model geological discontinuities explicitly or implicitly in spatial
location and estimate anticipated deformations as mining progresses (the deformations calculated by UDEC are
provided in Section 5). Hence, it is a suitable tool to determine the effect that mining of Cut 8 will have on plant
infrastructure due to the adversely dipping bedding/foliation planes exposed in the pit wall below. The Itasca
numerical modeling code UDEC was used to estimate the deformations along three sections through the
infrastructure area and the pit wall below. Rock strength and hydrogeological input parameters were as discussed
in Section 3. Figure 9 below shows a typical geotechnical model for numerical modeling of the Cut 8 pushback
with the velocity contours at failure displayed. The velocity field is a meaningful indicator of the state of failure
in a model because the rock mass is in a plastic condition.

Figure 9.

Typical south east wall geotechnical section line showing velocity contours B6 (Itasca 2009).

Slope stability results of the Itasca numerical models for the feasibility level mine design are shown in Table 7.
The Factor of Safety or the Probability of Failure for the critical anisotropic case falls within the acceptance
criterion for the FOC.
Table 7.

Cut 8 slope design Numerical modelling results (Itasca 2010).

Section

Current Pit Slope

FoSoverall dx (m)

Cut 8 Pit Slope

FoSoverall dx (m)

A6

1.7

60

1.3

165

B6

>1.8

1.5

100

C6

>1.8

1.4

240

FoS = Factor of Safety

dx = distance of failure surface from pit crest

Impact of mining Cut 8 on existing infrastructure

The Main Treatment Plant (MTP) is infrastructure that cannot be compromised in a diamond mine. Given the
proximity of the plant to the planed crest of Cut 8, analyses were conducted to determine the risk associated with
the pushback. There are two scenarios that must be considered. The first scenario is catastrophic slope failure
resulting in the loss of the plant. The second is differential settlement caused by pit wall displacements.
The risk of catastrophic slope failure is assessed by determining the risk of overall slope failure. The acceptable
Factor of Safety for slopes with critical infrastructure is 1.3 - 1.5 and the cut-off Probability of Failure is <5%.
Based on the two independent stability analyses using different methodologies described in Section 4, the Cut 8
slope design overall slope Factor of Safety either fall within or exceed this criteria. It is noted From Figure 8
that the distance from the crest of the failure limit is less than 100m (this is the distance from the crest to the end
of large scale movement in the plot) while the distance to the MTP is greater than 220m. In the unlikely event of
a large scale slope failure, the failure limits are therefore anticipated to be far closer to the crest than the MTP.
In order to assess the risk of debilitating the plant by differential settlement, the UDEC model is used to provide
displacements along the ground from the crest to beyond the plant location. Section line B6 passes through the
proximity of the MTP. The risk of exceeding the acceptance criteria for settlement is quantified by determining
the movement when the strength properties in the model are divided by the safety factor. In other words, for an
FoS of 1.7, the cohesion and Tangent of the friction angle are divided by 1.7 and the displacements in the model
are checked against minimum acceptable movement. Results from the analyses are shown in Figure 10.
The left-hand graph in Figure 10 shows vertical displacement at distances behind the crest of Cut 8. The various
curves represent the sensitivity of the results to assumed water pressures and foliation angle in the rockmass.
The curve representing vertical displacements at a safety factor of 1.7 is highlighted and it clearly shows
instability in the pillar between the crest and 200m behind it.
The right-hand graph in Figure 10 shows the horizontal strain at distances behind the crest. The predicted strain
at a safety factor of 1.0 is less than 0.1%. A horizontal strain of 0.1% is cited as a threshold limit for failure of
buried pipelines (Singh, 1992). This criterion is equal to or lower than other commonly cited threshold limits
(e.g. cosmetic damage to brick and masonry structures, functional damage to brick and masonry structures,
cosmetic damage to wood frame structures, cosmetic damage to paved roads, severe damage to aquifers, severe
damage to unlined ponds, etc.) (Itasca, 2009). At a safety factor of 1.7, strain values less than 0.5% are predicted
but only at distances less than 200m behind the crest. Values of 0.5% are normally assumed as a threshold limit
for tensile cracking (Cavieres et al., 2003).

Figure 10. Graphs showing horizontal strain and vertical displacements along section line B6 due to Cut 8
mining (strain is calculated as the difference in displacements of adjacent grid points divided by the original
distance between the points).

Conclusions

Jwaneng Mine is the richest diamond mine in the world by value and a major contributor to the Gross Domestic
Product of Botswana. Because of its importance and because of the step change in the magnitude of waste
stripping Cut 8, an exceptionally rigorous design process was undertaken to ensure mine and plant stability.
Limit equilibrium and distinct element analyses were conducted by two independent consulting houses and slope
geometry was adjusted so that acceptance criteria adopted by the De Beers Family of Companies were met. The
acceptance criteria are considered industry standard and for the first time in the history of the FOC, the mining
house provided the design consultant with the minimum and equally important, maximum allowable Factors of
Safety and Probability of Failure. Internal and External review was undertaken for assurance and corporate
governance.
The stability of the Main Treatment Plant at Jwaneng was assessed for two scenarios. The risk of catastrophic
failure was calculated and was found to meet the corporate acceptance criterion. The risk of debilitation from
differential strain was assessed and checked against threshold values commonly used in civilian applications and
it was found to meet an acceptable high safety factor.
Not discussed in this paper is the ongoing verification and validation plans implemented at Jwaneng Mine.
Their focus is on assuring the validity of the inputs to the numerical models and the model results.

References

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Associates, RSA.
Itasca Consulting Group Inc. (2006). UDEC (Universal Distinct Element Code). Version 4.0. Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Read, J., Stacey, P. (2009). Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
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