Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 23
Continuous Systems and Fields
(Chapter 13)

Where Are We Now?

Weve finished all the essentials

Last two lectures: Classical Field Theory

Final will cover Lectures 1 through 22

Start with wave equations, similar to Physics 15c
Do it with Lagrangian, and maybe with Hamiltonian
Go into relativistic field theory

Not enough time to discuss everything

Lets see how much we can do

And take it easy!

Longitudinal Mechanical Waves

An infinite elastic rod is vibrating longitudinally

dx
x

Model this with a chain of masses and springs Did this in 15c
x
m k

i-th masss position is i relative to equilibrium

1
T = mi2
i 2

1
V = k (i +1 i ) 2
i 2

Lets build the

Lagrangian

Lagrangian
1
2
2
Lagrangian is L = mi k (i +1 i )
i 2
Rearrange
a little

m/x is the linear density (mass/unit length)

kx is the elastic modulus K (force/fractional elongation)

1 m 2
i +1 i
= i k x
x
x
i 2
x

Think about Hookes law Its not Youngs modulus

L
F = kL = K
How much the spring is stretched
L
relative to its natural length

and K remain constant as we shrink x 0

Continuous Limit
1 2
i +1 i
Now we have L = i K

2
x

Re-label i with the equilibrium position x i ( x)

Shrink!

1
( x + x) ( x)
2
L =  ( x) K
x
x

i 2

1
d
x 0
2

 K
dx
2
dx

Lagrangian per unit length

Lagrangian Density

We can write the Lagrangian as

1 d
d
L =
K

2 dt
dx

dx Ldx

L is the Lagrangian density in 1-dimension

2

We may generally extend this to 3-dimensions

2
2

1 d
d

L = L dxdydz where L =
Y

2 dt
dx

is the volume density /A (A is the rods cross section)

Y is Youngs modulus K/A

Lagranges Equations
2

1
i +1 i
2
First, start from L = i K
x
x
i 2

Do the usual
Lagranges equations

d L L
K i +1 i K i i 1
= 
+
x = 0

dt i i
x x x x
Shrink
x

d 2
 K 2 = 0
dx

Thats wave equation with velocity v =

We want to get this from the continuous Lagrangian

Lagranges Equations
L d L
In the discrete case, we had

=0
i dt i
i became (x)
L
d L
Simple analogy gives

=0

( x) dt  ( x)

But this doesnt work

We must go back to Hamiltons Principle

2

I = Ldt =
1

L dxdt = 0

for each i

Hamiltons Principle
1 d
d
Our Lagrangian density is L =
K

2 dt
dx
Lets get general
d d
L may depend on L = L , dx , dt , x, t
2

We need the path of and its variation

( x, t ; ) = ( x, t ;0) + ( x, t )
Nominal path

Variation

Set variation to zero at the boundaries

( x, t1 ) = ( x, t2 ) = ( x1 , t ) = ( x2 , t ) = 0

Initial

Will make 0

Final

OK, lets work

Edges

Dont really
matter for the
infinite rod

Hamiltons Principle
dI
d
=
d d
=

t2

t1

t2

x2

t1

x1

x2

x1

L , ddx , ddt , x, t dxdt

L d L d ddx L d ddt
+ d
+ d

dxdt
d dx d dt d

L d L d L d
dxdt
=
d d
t1 x1
dx dx dt dt d
Hamiltons Principle gives
L d L d L
t2 x2
dI
d d ( x, t )dxdt = 0

= t1 x1
d =0
dx dx dt dt
t2

x2

= 0!

Lagranges Equation

Lagranges equation for the 1-dim problem is

d L d L L
=0
d + d
dt dt dx dx

2
2

1 d
d
Lets try it with L =
K

2 dt
dx

d d d d
d 2
d 2

K
= 2 K 2 =0
dt dt dx dx
dt
dx

Yes, the right

wave equation

3-D Version

Easy to guess how it should look like in 3-dim.

L = L , ddx , ddy , ddz , ddt , x, y, z , t

I =

t2

t1

x2

y2

z2

x1

y1

z1

d L
d
dt dt

L , ddx , ddy , ddz , ddt , x, y, z , t dxdydzdt

d L d L d L L
=0
+ d + d + d
dx dx dy dy dz dz

Symmetric between time and space

Hope for relativistic formalism
Will look into this in the next lecture

Multi-Component Field

I defined as the displacement along x axis

General 3-dim. vibration may

be in any direction

= ( x , y , z )

We are now dealing with 3

functions of space and time

x , ddxx , ddyx , ddzx , ddtx ,

d y d y d y d y
y , dx , dy , dz , dt ,
L = L

d z d z d z d z
z , dx , dy , dz , dt ,

x, y , z , t

This is getting really tedious

Shorthand Notation

Lets use indices (0,1,2,3) instead of t, x, y, z

Similar to what we did in relativity

di d 2i
We need quantities like i
dx dx dx
Lets get lazy
d
d 2
d
,

,
and ,
etc.
dx
dx
dx dx

We can write, e.g.

L = L ( , , , x )

d
dx

L
=0

Conservation Laws

Lets try what we did with the energy function

Consider the total derivative of the Lagrangian density

d L L
L
L
, +
, +
=
L ( ,, , x )
,
x
dx
d
Using Lagranges equations:
dx

dL
d L
=

dx dx ,
d
=
dx

L
=0

L
L
, +
, +
,
x

L
L
, +

,
x

This is

d,
dx

Stress-Energy Tensor
d
We got
dx

L
, L

L
=
x

Stress-energy tensor
NB: T is not a tensor in the relativistic sense

Suppose L does not depend explicitly on x

For = 1, 2, 3, that means no external force

For = 0, that means no source/sink of energy

dT
dx

=0

What does this conservation

condition mean?

Free
field

Divergence of S-E Tensor

The condition
dT

dT 0

dT
dx

dTi

= 0 has a form of divergence

dT 0

+ T = 0

dx
dt
dxi
dt
Integrate over a fixed volume V and use Gausss Law
d
What escapes
=

T
=

S
T
dV
dV
d
0


from the surface
dt
Total T0
in the volume

This vector represents

the flow

Now we need to know what T0 and T are

Energy Density
L
First consider T00 =
 L


, L
,

Looks just like the energy function, doesnt it?

Think about the 1-dim. elastic rod example
2
2
2
2

1 d
1 d
d
d
L =
T00 =
+K

K

2 dt
2 dt
dx
dx

T0 should be the energy flow

L
d
T01 = d  = K

dx
dx

is it?

Kinetic
energy

Potential
energy

Energy Current Density

Consider a small piece

dx

Its stretched by

d
( x + dx) ( x) =
dx
dx
( x) ( x + dx)
This gives the Hookes law force
d
F = K
dx
The work done by this piece to the next piece is
d
d
F = K
 equals to T01 = K 
dx
dx

Momentum Density
T

L d
First consider Ti 0 =
 dxi

Again with the 1-dim. elastic rod example

1 d
d
L =
K

dx
2 dt

, L
,

This isnt so obvious

T10 =

d d
dt dx

Momentum Density

How much mass is there between x and x + dx?

d d
T10 =
dt dx

dx to the zeroth order

dx

To the first order

d
1 dx
dx
( x) ( x + dx)
Its velocity is  ,
d
d

dx
so the momentum is 1

dx dt
d d
= T10
Density of excess momentum is
dt dx

T10 may be considered as the momentum density

Stress-Energy Tensor

We can interpret the stress-energy tensor T as

T00 = energy density

T0i = energy current density
Ti0 = momentum density
Tij = momentum current density

The divergence condition

dT
dx

= 0 represents

conservation of energy and momentum

Summary

Built Lagrangian formalism for continuous system

Lagrangian L = L dxdydz
Lagranges equation
Derived simple wave equation

d
dx

L
=0

Energy and momentum conservation given by the

dT
L
energy-stress tensor
T

, L

,
dx
Conservation laws
take the form of (time derivative) = (flux into volume)

=0