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Acta Universitatis
Lappeenrantaensis 514
Supervisor
Reviewers
Opponents
ISBN 978-952-265-399-4
ISBN 978-952-265-400-7 (PDF)
ISSN-L 1456-4491
ISSN 1456-4491
Lappeenrannan teknillinen yliopisto
Yliopistopaino 2013
ABSTRACT
Markku Pirinen
The effects of welding heat input on the usability of high strength steels in
welded structures.
Lappeenranta 2013
174 pages plus 4 appendices at 4 pages
This thesis consists of two parts, the first of which part introduces the research
topic and discusses welded HSS structures by characterizing the most
important variables. In the second part of the thesis, the usability of welded HSS
structures is examined through a set of laboratory tests.
The results of this study explain the differences in the usability of the welded
HSSs made by the three different methods. The results additionally indicate that
usage of different HSSs in the welded structures presumes that manufacturers
know what kind of HSS they are welding. As manufacturers use greater
strength HSSs in welded structures, the demands for welding rise as well.
i
Therefore, during the manufacturing process, factors such as heat input, cooling
time, weld quality, and more must be under careful observation.
Keywords: high strength steel, usability, heat input, cooling time, high strength
steel filler metal
UDC 678.029.43:621.791:624.078.45:624.014.2
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis has been carried out in the Department of Mechanical Engineering
at Lappeenranta University of Technology.
I would like first to thank Professor Jukka Martikainen for his guidance
throughout this process. Your support in the major point of my work gave me
bottom line that I can clarify in this journey.
I want to express my utmost gratitude to Dr. Paul Kah, Dr. Mika Lohtander and
Professor Timo Bjrk. You have given me a positive example to follow and
great advice to help me to finish this thesis. Timo, you always supported me in
my endeavors despite that fact that you were often very busy.
I offer my sincere thanks to my colleagues for their friendly support and for our
pleasant working atmosphere. Special thanks go to Harri Rtk, Antti
Heikkinen, Antti Khknen and Esa Hiltunen. You have done great work in the
laboratory during test processes. I also wish to thank the department
secretaries, Ms. Kaija Tammelin and Anna-Kaisa Partanen, for all their support
in administrative issues. I also cannot forget the work of all the steel structures
laboratory staff. You are all professional and I am proud that I have had
opportunity to research with you.
There are also many other people from Lappeenranta University of Technology
that have not been mentioned, but I believe they know their contribution to this
dissertation. Thank You.
I thank my proofreader Miss Jennifer Riley. You have worked hard to correct my
thesis into flowing English.
Despite the distance between our homes, my children, their spouses, and my
grandchildren are always on my mind. Your comments and lovely support
during this process have been the power which has seen me through this work.
iii
My dearest Pirjo- thank you for your affection and patience during this journey.
Without you, this never would have been possible.
iv
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Standards ......................................................................................................... xii
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 14
1.1. Background............................................................................................ 14
2. STATE OF ART ............................................................................................ 16
2.1. What is HSS? ........................................................................................ 17
2.2. Effects of alloying elements in HSS and in its weld ............................... 19
2.2.1. Aluminium and Silicon...................................................................... 22
2.2.2. Niobium............................................................................................ 23
2.2.3. Vanadium......................................................................................... 24
2.2.4. Titanium ........................................................................................... 25
2.2.5. Zirconium ......................................................................................... 27
2.2.6. Boron and Copper............................................................................ 27
2.2.7. Manganese and Nickel .................................................................... 28
2.2.8. Rare-earth elements ........................................................................ 28
2.3. Microstructure of welded HSS structure ................................................ 29
2.3.1. Microstructure and physical features of the HAZ ............................. 31
2.3.2. Microstructure of weld ...................................................................... 34
2.4. Undermatched, matched and overmatched filler metal.......................... 37
2.5. Heat input and cooling time ................................................................... 42
3. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH ...................................................................... 47
4. AIM OF THE RESEARCH............................................................................. 50
5. RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................................... 52
6. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................... 53
6.1. Experimental arrangement..................................................................... 53
6.1. Joint geometries and preparation .......................................................... 55
6.3. Test set up ............................................................................................. 58
6.4. Material properties ................................................................................. 61
6.5. Standard tests........................................................................................ 69
6.6. Additional material test .......................................................................... 71
6.6.1. CTOD test ........................................................................................ 72
6.6.2. Compared microstructure examination ............................................ 81
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...................................................................... 83
7.1. Visual test .............................................................................................. 83
7.2. Macro photography ................................................................................ 83
7.3. Micro photography ................................................................................. 92
7.4. Radiographic tests ............................................................................... 103
7.5. Surface crack detection ....................................................................... 103
7.6. Transverse tensile test ......................................................................... 104
7.7. Transverse bend test ........................................................................... 112
7.8. Impact test ........................................................................................... 115
7.9. Hardness test....................................................................................... 123
7.9. CTOD tests .......................................................................................... 129
v
vi
Abbreviations
Explanation
9R Cu
Ampere
Austenitising
A5
Elongation at break %
AC1
Ac3
AcC
Accelerated-Cooled
AF
Acicular Ferrite
AHSS
Al
Aluminium
APFIM
ASTM
a/W
Boron
BH
Bake Hardenable
Bs
Carbon
CCT
Continue-Cooling-Temperature (diagram)
CEV
CET
CGHAZ
CJP
CMn
Carbon Manganese
Cr
Chromium
CTOD
Cu
Copper
DP-CP
DQ
Direct Quenching
vii
DQ&T
Welding Energy
EN
European Standard
exp
Exponent
Fe
Iron
FCAW
FGHAZ
FSP
GBF
GMA
GMAW
HAZ
HB
Brinell Hardness
HBW
HIZ
HSLA
HSS
HV
Vickers Hardness
HY
ICCGHAZ
ICHAZ
IF-HS
IIW
IS
Isotropic
ISO
Joule
lHAZ/e
Kelvin
kg
Kilogram
kJ/mm
Thermomechanically rolled
viii
M-A, M/A
Martensite-Austenite
MAG
Mg
Magnesium
MIG
min
Minute
ML
Lath Martensite
mm
Millimeter
Mn
Manganese
MnS
Manganese Sulphate
Mo
Molybdenum
MPa
MegaPascal
MS
Martensitic
Ms
Nitrogen
Normalized
Newton
Nb
Niobium, Columbium
NDT
Non-destructive Testing
Ni
Nickel
Nital
HNO3 + ethanol
Oxygen
Phosphorus
P180, P400
Degree of coarseness
PCM
pf
polygonal ferrite
PF
PJP
ppm
pWPS
Quenched
Heat amount
QL
QT
Sulphur
Second
Plate Thickness
SA-Weld
SE(B)
SFS
Si
Silicon
SiC
Silicon carbide
SMA
Sn
Tin
StPSPU
Tempered
t8/5
t8/5
Ta
Tantalum
TEM
Ti
Titanium
TiN
Titanium Nitride
TiO
Titanium Oxide
TM
Thermomechanical
TMCP
Tp
Peak Temperature
TRIP
Transformation-Induced Plasticity
TTT
Time-Temperature-Transformation (diagram)
U.S.Navy
Vanadium
Voltage
Watt
Tungsten
Wf
Windmanstatten ferrite
WM
Weld Metal
WPS
wt%
Mass fraction
X-ray
Rntgen radiation
Zr
Zirconium
YAG
Yttrium-Aluminium-Garnetlaser
-Cu
epsilon copper
micrometer
alpha
ferrite
gamma
austenite
pi
mu
delta
lambda
sigma
Infinite
percent
delta
eta
xi
Standards
ASTM E 1290-2
ASTM E 112-10
SEW 088:1993
SFS-EN 10204
SFS-EN 1321
SFS-EN 1435
SFS-EN 571-1
SFS-EN ISO 148-1 Metallic materials. Charpy pendulum impact test. Part 1:
Test method (ISO 148-1:2009)
SFS-EN ISO 15164-1Specification and qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials. Welding procedure test. Part 1: Arc and
gas welding of steels and welding of nickel and nickel
alloys.
SFS-EN ISO17637 Non-destructive testing of welds. Visual testing of fusionwelded joints (ISO 17637:2003)
SFS-EN ISO 23277 Non-destructive testing of welds. Penetrant testing of welds.
Acceptance levels (ISO 23277:2006)
SFS-EN ISO 5173 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Bend tests
(ISO 5173:2009)
SFS-EN ISO 4063 Welding and allied processes. Nomenclature of processes
and reference numbers (ISO 4063:2009, Corrected version
2010-03-01)
SFS-EN ISO 4136 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Transverse
tensile test (ISO 4136:2001)
xii
xiii
1. INTRODUCTION
Welding is the most commonly used method to join different types of structures.
In many respects, joints are the most critical components of a load-bearing steel
structure. In order for the final product to be properly developed, a number of
factors must be considered when manufacturing individual components,
including design, processes, inspection and quality control of structure. At low
service temperatures, questions about the ductility of the welded joint can arise,
as the welded structure tends to low transition temperatures. This is especially
the case if the joint is produced from high strength steels (HSSs).
HSS has been in use in workshops since the 1980s. At the time, the
significance of the term HSS differed from the modern conception because
maximum yield strength of HSSs has increased nearly every year. During the
1980s, the maximum yield strength of weldable HSS was 500 MPa, whereas
today it is at least 1000 MPa or more. In the beginning, only a few
manufacturers had HSS, which was represented through a limited assortment
of products. Today, HSS is constructed worldwide with most of the modern
global production consisting of structural steel which is measured in tons with
an approximate yield strength 355 MPa.
1.1. Background
The need of utilization of HSS grows continuously. Currently, HSSs are used
more frequently and in a diverse number of industries. Primarily, HSS was just
used in the car industry, but today the material is used in a more diverse
assortment of industries and locations including the arms of cranes and the
frames of lumber carriers, although this list is by no means extensive.
14
To date, HSS has not been formally standardized. At the lower end, structure
steels have a yield strength in the range of 235-355 MPa. Recent literature has
stated that strong steels should have yield strength of at least 460 MPa, while
steels with a yield strength of more than 550 MPa should be categorized as
ultra HSSs. Today, the yield strength of some steel has increased to 1100 MPa,
while in the commercial sector, steel with a rating of up to 1300 MPa (1500
MPa) is sold.
There are three different ways to make HSS. First, the oldest method is the QT
method
(quenched
and
tempered
method),
followed
by
the
TMCP
Before starting to use HSS in old structures, the entire structure must be
redesigned. Simply thinning the structures is not enough as buckling, springing,
or bending can easily occur. In their publication from GMA-welded AHSS
structure, Kaputska et al. (2008) explained that it is important for designers and
15
There are three different popular and widely available HSSs on the market
including those manufactured through the QT, TMCP and DQ processes. QT
has been available the longest and DQ HSS has only recently been developed
and acquirable on the market. Consequently, most of the research has focused
on QT steels, however DQ steel research has emerged in the 2000s and
recently, comparing all three HSSs has been an emerging field of investigation.
16
Conventional HSSs (HSS) have a yield strength lower than 550 MPa. Included
in this group of steels are IF-HS (High Strength Interstitial Free) steels, BH
(Bake Hardenable) steels, IS (Isotropic steels), CM (Carbon Magnanese) steels,
and HSLA (High Strength Low Alloy) steels (World Auto Steel 2009).
Advanced HSSs (AHSS) have yield strengths greater than 550 MPa. Some
steels that fit into this category are TRIP (Transformation-Induced Plasticity)
steels, DP-CP (Dual Phase or Complex Phase) steels, and MS (Martensitic)
steels. MS steels are used in many different industries and can be found in
cranes, earth-movers, harvesters, and more.
Traditional HSSs, such as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA), have more than three
decades of shop experience upon which to build a technology base. In contrast,
users of AHSS demanded a fast track accumulation of knowledge and
dissemination as they implemented these new steels. A considerable challenge
arises along the total elongation and yield strength axes, as the trend shows
that higher strengths steels have decreasing total elongation percentages.
Manufacturers are currently looking for ways to maintain the total elongation
percentages with steels of increased yield strength.
17
Figure 1. Relationship between yield strength and total elongation for various
types of steels (World Auto Steel 2009).
Fig. 2 depicts the developmental history of HSS for commercial use. The first
HSS, S355, was developed in the 1940s with a yield strength of 355 MPa. By
the 1970s, HSSs with a yield strength of up to 690 MPa had been created. By
1990, the maximum MPa had been increased to 960 MPa, and currently, HSSs
with a yield strength of up to 1300 MPa can be found (Kmi 2009).
Hardness, HBW
Figure 2. The history of ultra HSS (modified from Jukka Kmi figure 2009,
Rautaruukki Ltd).
18
HSSs have been used in the war industry since 1946. The U.S. Navy has used
high yield (HY) strength steel, including HY-80, HY-100, and HY-130 steels
(Moon et al. 2000 according to Holsberg, P.W. et al. 1989). However, these
steels were originally quite expensive to make and additionally, the knowledge
of this new generation of steel was kept within the government and therefore
the private sector was, for a time, excluded from this new industry. The HYstrength steel corresponds with the ISO system, where the tensile strength of
HY-70 (70 ksi) corresponds to 490 MPa, HY-80 (80 ksi) corresponds to 700
MPa, HY-100 (100 ksi) corresponds to 780 MPa, HY-120 (120 ksi) corresponds
to 840 MPa and HY-130 (130 ksi) corresponds to 910 MPa.
19
Titanium, niobium, zirconium, and vanadium are also effective grain growth inhibitors during reheating. However, for steels that are heat treated (QT, TMCP
and DQ steels) these four elements may have adverse effects on hardenability
because their carbides are quite stable and difficult to dissolve in austenite prior
to quenching (Metal Handbook 1990).
In many research projects alloying elements of HSSs and its welds have been
under examination. For example, Kou (2003) reported that increasing the
alloying content of weld metal increases its hardenability by pushing the nose of
continuous cooling curves to longer times. Moon et al. (2000) noticed that the
microhardness variations in the weld and HAZ areas can be examined to
correspond with the microstructure of the weldment. At the same time they
concluded that the HAZ of the base metal was the hardest region in each
weldment examined, regardless of filler metal type, base metal, or heat input.
Maximum hardness was reached about midway through the HAZ of each
20
weldment studied. Fig. 4 describes hardness areas with different heat inputs
(4.33 kJ/mm, 2.17 kJ/mm and 1.18 kJ/mm) using HSSs HSLA100 and HY80.
Figure 4. Microhardness maps of welds made with three different filler metals
and different welding parameters. The corresponding microhardness scale is
included at the bottom of this figure (Moon et al. 2000).
heated to more than the AC3 transformation point, are determined by the
composition of the steel along welding conditions, as seen in fig 5.
Toughness deterioration is one of worst things that can happen when welding
HSSs. Caballero et al. (2009) investigated HS bainite steel and concluded that
a high degree of microstructural banding, as a result of an intense segregation
of manganese during dendritic solification, leads to a dramatic deterioration in
toughness in these advanced bainitic steels. They concluded that the stress
concentration associated with heterogeneous hardness distribution in the
microstructure can be considered a possible factor contributing to premature
crack nucleation.
With regard to Al, Kaputska et al. (2008) have also observed that while Al has
many effects in steel making, the CEV does not consider Al in its calculation.
Si is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steel making. Killed steels may
contain moderate amounts of Si, from 0 to a 0.6 % maximum (Metal Handbook
1990). Low-alloy steels are reinforced by Si, but Si does not affect the features
of low carbon steels (Harrison & Wall 1996).
2.2.2. Niobium
As an alloying element, Nb has an important role in HSS. The effects of niobium
on steel and HAZ are not solely derived from niobium. Niobium affects steel and
HAZ when it is combined with other alloying elements, such as Ti and V, and
precipitations. In the welded joints of HS steels, the effects of niobium depend
upon the heat input. If welding and using a low heat input, this will increase
impact toughness, while if a high heat input is used it will decrease the impact
toughness in the HAZ. In these HSSs, as carbon content increases, there in an
inverse relationship as the impact toughness decreases (Tian 1998; Hatting &
Pienaar 1998).
increase the yield strength of carbon steel. The addition of 0.02 % Nb can
increase the yield strength of medium-carbon steel from 490 MPa to 700 MPa.
This increased strength may be accompanied by considerably impaired notch
toughness unless special measures are used to refine grain size during rolling.
Grain refinement during rolling involves special thermomechanical processing
techniques such as controlled rolling practices, low finishing temperatures for
final reduction passes, and accelerated cooling after rolling is completed (Metal
Handbook 1990).
In HSLA steel with niobium, granular bainite is dominant within a wider cooling
rate range. In addition, martensite is observed at high cooling rates with Nb
0.026 %, but is not produced in the same steel without Nb (Zhang et al. 2009).
Zhang also reports that at lower cooling rates, under 32 C/s, Nb addition
suppresses grain boundary ferrite transformation and promotes the formation of
granular bainite. Li et al. (2001) have reported that the addition of 0.031 % Nb to
low carbon micro alloyed steel produced the largest size and greatest area of
M-A phase.
2.2.3. Vanadium
Vanadium (V) increases the austenite recrystallization temperature in HS steels.
It provides room temperature strengthening by forming VN, V(C,N) and (V,Ti)N
precipitates in ferrite (Sampath 2005). V also strengthens HSLA steels in two
ways. First, the precipitation hardens the ferrite and secondly, the precipitation
refines the ferrite grain size. The precipitation of V carbonitride in ferrite can
develop a significant increase in strength that depends not only on the rolling
process used, but also on the base composition. Carbon content above 0.13 to
0.15 % and Mn content of 1 % or more enhances the precipitation hardening,
particularly when nitrogen content is at least 0.01 %. Grain size refinement
depends on thermal processing (hot rolling) variables, as well as V content
(Metal Handbook 1990).
24
Chen et al. (2006) have reported that there is a correlation between V content
and the size of M-A particles. This is a direct correlation as the size of M-A
particles increase with increased V content from 0 % to 0.151 %. When
increasing V content, there is a decrease in the impact toughness in HSS. The
coarse austenite and ferrite grain and M-A constituent were thought to be the
main factors resulting in impact toughness deterioration.
Both Chen et al. (2006) and Zhang et al. (2009) reported after their experiments
on that the concentration of V should be limited to a low level, near 0.05 %. If
the V content is 0.1 % or more, this results in a greater area fraction of the M-A
phase, larger average and maximum sizes of M-A particles, and deterioration in
toughness.
2.2.4. Titanium
When considering the welding of steel, Ti is most important micro alloying
element. Stable Ti nitrides that form in high temperatures inhibit grain growth in
the HAZ. Consequently, because of this grain size CGHAZ cannot grow
destructively (Liu & Liao 1998).
Ti can react with nitrogen in liquid condition. Large TiN precipitates will grow in
steel and their formation is easier when the Ti/N ratio is large. These kinds of
precipitates cannot prevent grain growth as the precipitates which form in lower
temperature. Precipitates which are big and angular can nucleate cracks and
decrease fatigue durability (Lee & Pan 1995). The size of some inclusions are
explained in fig. 6.
Figure 6. The nucleation ability of various inclusions (Lee & Pan 1995).
26
2.2.5. Zirconium
Zirconium can also be added to killed high-strength low-alloy steels to improve
inclusion characteristics. This occurs with sulfide inclusions, where the changes
in inclusion shape improve ductility in transverse bending (Metal Handbook
1990).
According to Moon et al. (2008), the addition of B to high strength low alloy
plate steel makes a fine martensite microstructure, which increases
hardenability by making the prior austenite grain boundary more stable.
The results published by Moon et al. (2008) indicate that Cu addition is not
useful to improve the toughness of the HAZ in high strength low alloy plate
steel. Hwang at al. (1998) studied that the structure of low-carbon (C 0.04 %)
copper-bearing (Cu 1.8 %) alloy steel plate manufactured by the DQ&T process
has been transformed into a fine structure with high dislocation density. During
tempering, fine NbC and -Cu particles are precipitated in large amounts, which
27
do not get coarsened even when the tempering temperatures rise, resulting in
excellent mechanical properties. The results of Hwang et al. (1998) indicate
that the addition of alloying elements and the application of the DQ&T process
to low-carbon alloy steel plates contribute to the production of plates with
excellent strength and toughness.
In his study, Keehan (2004) investigates the effects of Ni and Mn in weld metal.
TEM investigations in conjunction with APFIM (Atom Probe Field Ion
Microscopy) concluded a mixed microstructure of martensite, bainitic and
retained austenite at an alloying level where a fully martensite microstructure
would normally be expected. For increased levels of Mn, a harder and more
brittle mainly martensite microstructure formed. At lower levels of Mn a softer,
tougher and more easily tempered microstructure with greater amount of bainite
is formed. Ni reduction with Mn levels at 2 wt% lead to an increase in
toughness. Hardness results showed that lower Mn and Ni levels lead to a
softer weld metal (Keehan 2004).
Figure 7. Microstructure of TMCP HSS (own image 2010). Aspect ratio is 1:500.
29
Fig. 8 shows the schematic description from the HAZ area temperature during
steel welding. The width of the HAZ depends on heat input and cooling time. A
large proportion of inclusions and precipitations dissolve when the temperature
is high. When this happens, there are no nether inclusions or precipitations in or
near the fusion line.
Temperature
Liquid
Liquid +
Austenite
A1-boundary 723 C
Martensite
Bainite
Weld 20
HAZ area
HAZ area
proportions,
reflecting
very
complex
deoxidation
product.
Near the fusion zone, the phase structure of base metal is coarse as a result of
the high temperature of the base metal during welding. In multi-run welding,
ICCGHAZ (intercritically reheated coarse grained heat affected zone) is the
worst area in the base metal (Li et al. 2001; Kim et al. 1991; Davis & King
1993).
Both heat input and t8/5 (cooling time from 800 C to 500 C) time change the
microstructure of the welded base metal and these two factors must be under
control
while
welding.
There
are
numerous
recommendations
from
manufacturers regarding heat input and t8/5 time. The main differences between
recommendations relate to preheating and post-heating. In specifications,
however, there are also differences in spotheating temperature. Using
recommended values, it is possible to successfully weld HSS.
In the study done by Kaputska et al. (2008), it was concluded that the fusion
zone microstructure and hardness were found to be affected by the base metal
chemistry, the cooling rate conditions, and the filler metal composition.
The elongation of the welded structure decreases as the yield strength of HSS
grows. Yasuyama et al (2007) compares steels with yield strengths ranging
from 270 MPa to 980 MPa. In the study, steels were welded by the YAG laser,
mash seam, and plasma arc methods. It was confirmed that the elongation of
the weldment declined compared to that of the base metal, regardless of the
base metal strength. This was determined by conducting a tensile test both
parallel and perpendicular to the weld line. It was therefore concluded, that the
elongation is very low in high strength welded structures (Yasuyama et al.
2007).
31
Moon et al. (2000) compared two new ultra-low-carbon matching filler metals,
with HY steel (High yield, quenched and tempered, steel) of HSLA steel.
Despite the low heat input, 1.2 kJ/mm, the fusion zone hardness of two of the
new ultra-low-carbon matching filler metals are comparable to the base metal
hardness. The results were achieved through researching the microhardness
variations in the weld and HAZ areas and corresponding this with the
32
microstructure of the weldment. In addition, the heat affected zone of the base
metal was the hardest region in each weldment examined, regardless of filler
metal type, base metal, or heat input. The maximum hardness occurs about
midway through the HAZ of each weldment studied, rather than adjacent to the
fusion boundary (Moon et al. 2000).
Additionally, Moon et al. (2000) studied that the fusion zone consists
predominantly of lath ferrite with varying amounts (depending on location) of
untempered fine lath martensite, as well as small amounts of interlath retained
austenite and oxide inclusions. No polygonal ferrite or solid-state precipitates
such as carbides or carbonitrides were observed in the fusion zone. The local
variations in microhardness correlate well with the local variations in the
microstructure.
Research carried out to study the research done by Mohandas et al. (1999) has
displayed that the high Ms and Bs temperatures of steel are also responsible for
low softening tendency. Steel, which has longer critical cooling time for full
martensite transformation, exhibited greater resistance for softening with high
heat inputs.
In the investigation of heat input it was realized that the number and
morphology of the ML (lath martensite) in the HAZ had some variations under
different weld heat inputs (E= 0.92 ~ 1.86 kJ/mm). The carbon gathers near the
grain boundary and then becomes a carbide with Fe, Mn, Mo etc. so that the
impact toughness decreases. The carbide has strong direction bonds with the
lath microstructure which provides the low energy passage for the impact
fracture and increases brittle crack sensitivity. The fine precipitate distributed
inside the grain or at the boundary is favorable to improve toughness. By
controlling weld heat input (E 2.0 kJ/mm), the presence of carbides in the HAZ
can be removed, and therefore the impact toughness in this zone can be
assured. It was also indicated from the test results of Juan at al. (2003) that the
cooling time (t8/5) should be controlled (t8/5 10-20 s) to improve toughness in the
HAZ. This is so, because the cooling time increases with larger weld heat
33
inputs, which increases the potential for the deterioration of impact toughness in
the HAZ (Juan et al. 2003).
When welding ultra HSS, with a yield strength of more than 900 MPa, with MAG
welding, it is important to precisely and accurately control heat input to the
lowest possible temperatures. Zeman (2009b) examined ultra HSS, with a yield
strength of 1100 MPa. In the case of the joint made by the MAG method, the
weld is characterized by its bainitic structure. In the HIZ (Heat Impact Zone),
Zeman observed a purely martensite structure or mixture of bainite and
martensite structures (Zeman 2009b). In the same study, Zeman (2009b)
noticed that ultra HSS requires the linear energy of welding to be precisely
adjusted. If the linear energy of welding is too low, there could be excessive
hardening of the HIZ, which increases the risk of cold cracking, whereas if the
linear energy of welding is too high, the strength properties can decrease.
34
400 ppm, the average inclusion size increases with an increase of both O and S
levels in the weld metal (Ramirez 2008).
Ramirez (2008) has stated that there are dozens of different inclusions in HSS
filler metal. Table 1 describes these inclusions, while fig. 9 a and b show the
acceptable shape of spherical and angular inclusions, respectively. Finally, Fig.
10 shows the phase structure of one inclusion. The chemical composition of the
inclusion in region a (fig.10) is 32.2O-0.5Al-1.3Si-0.9S-51.4Ti-13.7Mn (TiO2), in
region b (fig.10) MnS, and in region c (fig.10) Ti-oxide.
a)
b)
Figure 9. Inclusion of the weld in HSS (a) Spherical, (b) Angular (Ramirez
2008).
The weld microstructure can be formed from many starting values. Fig. 11
illustrates those elements which must be taken into consideration when
estimating the microstructure of a weld. Additionally, Mistra et al. (2005)
researched different types of inclusions as seen in Table 1.
35
CHEMISTRY
HARDENABILITY
ELEMENTS
JOINT DESIGN
PARAMETERS
WELD METAL
MICROSTRUCTURE
Plate thickness
Heat input
Thermal diffusivity
Joint geometry
Grain
Boundary
Ferrite
Pearlite
Ferrite
Ferrite
Site Plate
Acicular
Ferrite
INCLUSION
CONTENT
HEAT INPUT
Current
Speed
Voltage
Figure 11. The various factors that play a role in deciding weld microstructure
(Modified from Basu & Raman 2002).
36
2
3
INCLUSION CHARACTERISTIC
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Region a 50.1O-0.7Mg-1.6Al-3.9Si-2.8S19.6Ti-21.4Mn
Region b 48.2O-0.9Mg-1.6Al-3.4Si-2.3S22.2Ti-21.4Mn
51.4O-1.4Al-4.5Si-1.7S-18.1Ti-22.8Mn
Region a 32.2O-0.5Al-1.3Si-0.9S-51.4Ti13.7Mn (Ti-O2)
Region b MnS, Region c Ti-Oxide
Region a 32.3O-1.5Al-0.7Si-50.4Ti-15.1Mn
Region b 35.4O-3.2Al-6.1Si-0.8S-26.5Ti28.0Mn
Region c 35.3O-4.4Al-9.6Si-1.4S-3.6Ti45.8Mn
DESCRIPTION
O, Al, Si, S, Ti,
Mn rich
O, Al, Si, S, Ti,
Mn rich
Composite inclusion
Ti-Mn oxide
Table 2. Classification of precipitates of HSS with a yield strength 770 MPa into
type I IV based on size and morphology (Misra et al. 2005).
as base metals, and overmatched filler metals have yield strength greater than
the base metals. Generally, HSSs are welded by undermatched or matched
filler metal, and overmatched filler metal is infrequently used as confirmed by
Porter (2006). Welding HSS requires a high quality welding process, however, it
is not economical to use overmatched filler metal for HSS as it does not garnish
any additional benefits.
Structural steels, whose yield strength is between 235 MPa and 460 MPa, are
usually welded with overmatched or matched filler material. The yield strength
of structural steels is lower compared to HSSs, and there are more possibilities
when welding these steels. The flexibility has allowed for a greater variety of
filler material research to be carried out with regards to structural steels.
Only a few research projects have used undermatching filler metal when
welding HSSs. A maximum undermatching valve of 10 % can be accepted for
class 690 MPa yield strength HSS (Toyota 1986, Satoh & al. 1975). Pisarski
and Dolby (2003) found out that in assessing the toughness of softened HAZs,
the test specimen must match the practical situation in terms of yield strength,
mismatch between weld deposit, and parent metal. They explained that the
fracture toughness of softened HAZ regions depended on the mismatch in
strength between the weld deposit and parent plate. Their research confirmed
that the worst case fracture toughness of softened HAZs occurred when the
HAZ undermatched in strength both the weld deposit and parent metal. Higher
toughnesses were measured when either the weld metal or parent steel
undermatched the HAZ in strength.
Their conclusions also elaborated that the tolerance to flaws in softened HAZs
critically depends on the fracture toughness of the HAZ region where tolerance
reduces rapidly in a situation where the cleavage is the dominant failure
mechanism (Pisarski and Dolby 2003).
In a study carried out by Umekuni and Masubuchi (1997), the tensile strength
test showed that the tensile strength of the undermatched weld increases due to
38
restraint by surrounding matched welds and the base metal. Results of fatigue
testing showed that both undermatched and matched welds exhibited a similar
relationship between crack growth rates and the stress intensity factor.
Undermatched welds have proven to be effective with HSSs, reducing the need
for preheating. Undermatched welds lead to lower residual stresses than
matched welds, which has the potential to reduce crack initiation. The
properties of the weld metal are also a factor in the effectiveness of
undermatched welds on HSSs (Umekuni & Masubuchi 1997).
Welding high strength and high hardness QT steel involves HAZ softening and
is a characteristic feature of fusion welding processes and consumables used
(Rodrigues et al. 2004b).
39
Rodrigues et al (2004b) also wrote that the mechanical behaviour of the overall
joint depends on the plastic distribution inside the HAZ. They noticed that the
large undermatched tensile strength promotes strain localization in the HAZ
from the start of deformation. When the HAZ dimension is very small (width <
1/3 of the thickness), it was found that the soft material can achieve the base
plate strength. They further stated that if the undermatched level of yield stress
is large and the HAZ width is equal to the sample thickness, then the constraint
promotes premature failure in the soft zone and the overall strength of the joint
decrease even more. In the matched situation of tensile strength, the HAZ
constraint induces deformation to spread to the adjacent material, whereas the
soft HAZ material avoids deformation. There is an apparent increase in the
material strength in almost all the undermatched cases and for lHAZ/e (HAZ
width to sample thickness) ratios lower than unity, which is due to constraint
(Rodrigues et al. 2004b).
desirable alternative to matched welds. Duane (1997) also explained that when
welding higher strength steels with undermatched weld metal, it is important
that the level of diffusible hydrogen in the deposit weld metal is appropriate for
the higher strength steel that is being welded.
In dynamic tensile test results of the 780 MPa butt joint and of the DP780
steels, all of these specimens failed in the softened region of the HAZ
(Kapustka et al. 2008).
It is clear from a large amount of research that the lower the weld strength
mismatching, the higher the fracture toughness of the HAZ (Shi et al. 1998).
41
In earlier research (Vilpas et al. 1985) low heat input was under 2.0 kJ/mm, but
today low heat input correspond to values 0.5 kJ/mm or lower. When welding
ultra HSSs heat input must be very low according to the recommendations of
manufacturers.
42
Wang et al. (2003) and Juan et al. (2003) researched heat input of HSS and the
test results indicated that implementing a cooling time (t8/5 =10 - 20 s) improves
toughness in the HAZ (when corresponding weld heat input is 1.31 - 1.86
kJ/mm). This is true, because the larger the weld heat input, the longer the
cooling time and the easier it is for the deterioration of impact toughness in the
HAZ.
In another study carried out of Shi and Han (2008) on 800 MPa yield strength
HSLA steel it was reported that the presence of allotriomorphic ferrite, bainitic
ferrite and martensite exists for simulated HAZ of the test steel. This happens,
because at a temperature range of 800-1300 C, the austenite decomposes to
various ferrite morphologies. In the subsequent cooling process from 800 C to
300C, the austenite decomposes to various ferrite morphologies. The austenite
to ferrite decomposition starts with the formation of allotriomorphic ferrite at prior
austenite boundaries and eventual coverage of these boundaries. With the
continued cooling, the side plate ferrite may nucleate at the ferrite/ austenite
boundaries and extend into the untransformed austenite grain interiors. Further
cooling to even lower temperatures increases the possibility of bainitic ferrite or
acicular ferrite formation. When carbide-free bainitic ferrite is formed, the
remaining austenite is enriched into carbon and becomes stable. The carbon
content of remaining austenite may reach 0.5 0.8 wt%. With further cooling as
the temperature settles to room temperature, the remaining austenite may
completely or partially transform to martensite (Shi & Han 2008).
As the M/A constituent forms in the HAZ during bainite transformation, the
carbon-enriched, untransformed regions will partially transform into martensite
at low temperatures. The carbon-enriched austenite regions are formed by the
rejection of carbon from ferrite to austenite following the transformation of
bainite ferrite. The transformation of M/A constituent leads to the deterioration of
toughness in the HAZ (Shi & Han 2008).
Shi & Han (2008) also noticed that when the cooling time in simulated 800 MPa
yield strength HSS is 18 s, the fracture toughness in the simulated HAZ is
43
Liu et al. (2007) noticed in double thermal experiments that the impact
toughness decreases dramatically and obvious brittlement happens in the
intercritical region of CGHAZ. They investigated copper-bearing steel with a
tensile strength of no less than 685 MPa. The decreased toughness and
brittlement occurred, because pearlite is formed on the interface of original
austenite and coarse granular bainite, which can reduce the impact toughness.
The higher heat input, the more serious brittlement becomes. Thus, during
multilayer welding, it is proposed to strictly control heat input. Single thermal
cycle experiments show that the copper-bearing steel has a narrow range of
heat-input and brittlement can easily occur in the region of CGHAZ with higher
heat-input. Granular bainite transformed from austenite leads to brittlement, and
the softening starts when t8/5 time is more than 7 s. The dissolution of -Cu and
coarse lath bainite and more ferrite can cause softening of the CGHAZ.
The features of steel can vary with the cooling rate. Pacyna and Dabrovski
(2007) investigated CEV 0.39 low-C, Mn-Mo, Al killed steel using different
44
cooling time in the manufacturing process. They noticed that depending on the
rate of cooling, and within the air to water cooling temperature range, the new
steel can attain a tensile strength between 504 MPa and 1122 MPa. The
corresponding proof stress range is from 286 MPa to 478 MPa and the structure
of the air cooled steel consists of ferrite, pearlite, and bainite. This research
concluded that a low carbon equivalent allows for good weldability under any
conditions.
The increase to the heat input increases the yield and undermatched tensile
strength of the WM, and also produces an undermatched HAZ (Loureiro 2002).
When the heat input is greater (4.5 kJ/mm), the weld metal can undermatch,
despite the use of matching filler material (Nevasmaa & al. 1992a). If
undermatching is 10 % or less, then a maximum heat input 2.0 kJ/mm can be
accepted according to Nevasmaa et al. (1992a).
Figure 12. CCT-diagram of QT steel which yield strength is 690 MPa or more
(Modified from Dillinger Httenwerke AG 2008).
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1350
NESS
Martensite %
10
35
50
60
70
Bainite %
55
80
60
50
40
30
Ferrite %
40
10
HV10
227
223
275
313
328
319
11
12
10-11
2-3
Austenite grain
size (ASTM)
46
This research solely looks at butt weld joints; fillet welds are excluded.
Specifically, the study is focused on the V-joint and single-bevel butt welds.
These specific joints were selected because they are widely used in many kinds
of plate structures and the CTOD investigation of single-bevel butt welds were
useful because there is a perpendicular fusion face research gap. In addition,
Gleeble simulated tests were made to investigate CTOD in the CGHAZ.
All the welds were made using the MAG welding process, so the influence of
welding processes is outside the scope of this work. The heat input during
welding was controlled and good workmanship was applied in all construction
phases as the same technician performed all welding operations. Thus, the
potential influence in variations of weld quality was assumed to be excluded
from this research.
An extensive literature analysis was carried out during the preliminary period of
this research project. This literature review covered the study of the different
alloying elements that constitute the microstructure of different types of HSSs,
earlier studies of heat input and cooling time and different levels of matching
when welding various types of HSSs.
Fig. 13 highlights the main ideas of this research project. All three different
types of HSS must be carefully examined when planning and constructing
welded structures using these steels. The main body of fig. 13 shows the main
things that must be checked, such as cooling time, heat input, filler material,
and both operating and manufacturing conditions.
48
QT HIGH STRENGTH
STEELS
HEAT INPUT
- Between 0.5 to
1.7 kJ/mm
t8/5 time
- Between 5 to
20 s
OPERATING CONDITIONS
-Temperature
- Loading
-Working position
-Filler metal, etc.
DQ HIGH STRENGTH
STEELS
FILLER
MATERIAL
-Undermatched
-Matched
-Overmatched
MANUFACTURE
CONDITIONS
- Climate
- Machines and
Equipment
USABILITY OF
QT, TMCP, DQ
HIGH STRENGTH STEELS
Figure 13. Fundamentals for usability of HSSs.
49
1. The main aim of this research is to compare different HSS and their
usability in welded structures. These steels have minimum yield
strengths of 690 MPa (minimum yield strength of steel A was 650 MPa).
The experimental portion of this study included eight pieces of different
HSSs from six different factories, that were made through the QT, TMCP
and DQ processes. (DQ HSSs are studied in theoretical part using earlier
studies.) Some of the tests done on these HSS, such as impact energy
and CTOD test, were carried out in temperatures as low as -40 C.
2. The second aim of this research is to clarify the effects of three different
heat input, 1.0 kJ/mm, 1.3 kJ/mm and 1.7 kJ/mm, with a tolerance level
of 0.1 kJ/mm, in the HAZ on HSS which are made using QT, TMCP
and DQ methods. One again, the DQ method is covered through a
theoretical exercise. The hardened (martensite or/ and bainite) structure
of QT HSS is more prone to heat input effects in welding. Also, TMCP
HSS have different effects in welding, especially in the CGHAZ. The heat
input is limited as a consequence of the base material is being welding.
Additionally, the cooling time from 800 C to 500 C is important when
discussing the microstructure of the HAZ in the base material.
3. Brittleness of the base material and the drop of transition temperature
are two factors which will appear when the heat input and cooling time
t8/5 are not correct. Problems in these areas lead to a decrease in
ductility and impact toughness in the steel. Accordingly, one goal of this
study was to investigate these base material modifications.
50
4. The target mismatch level between the weld metal and parent metal was
0.72, where mismatch is defined as the ratio of room temperature weld
metal yield strength to parent steel yield strength. Therefore, the fourth
aim was to clarify the influence of high level of mismatch between filler
metal and base material to the usability of the welded structure.
51
5. RESEARCH METHODS
Firstly, state of art was clarified using basic scientific knowledge and the newest
scientific sources, including conference presentations and articles, journal
articles, and books from HSS and welding. The experimental research was
carried out using two research methods. In the first method, the structures were
welded just as they are in normal manufacturing conditions, whereas in the
second method the CGHAZ structure was simulated using Gleeble 3800
system. Standard SFS-EN ISO 15164-1, (Specification and qualification of
welding procedures for metallic materials, welding procedure test, Part 1; Arc
and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys), was used
as the research method in the welding tests. The Gleeble simulation was used
for pieces being subjected to the CTOD test, while the CTOD tests were made
using standard ASTM E1290-02, (Standard test method for crack-tip opening
displacement (CTOD) fracture toughness measurements).
optical
tests
were
performed
to
clarify
the
HAZ
A study was also carried out on the different elements and metals related to
HSSs on the basis of chosen relevance materials from various research.
6. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Experimental investigations in this study were carried out to clarify main factors
affecting the usability of high strength QT and TMCP steels. The steels used in
this research have been picked out among worldwide common HSSs, also used
in Finland today. On the eight different HSSs that were used as research
material, all but one had a yield strength of 690 MPa. (This other steel was
rated with a yield strength of 650 MPa.) These steels were made using different
manufacturing methods including the QT and TMCP processes. These methods
and the various steels have been elaborated on during the first part of this
study.
53
Speed adjust
Welding torch
54
WELDING TORCH
MECHANIZING MACHINE
PNEUMATIC FASTENERS
Fiberglass tape was used as a backing ring, as shown in figs. 18 and 19. The
groove was welded on one side with two welding beads, and the 12 mm HSS
was welded with three welding beads.
55
56
Weldable pieces were fixed between holders in the mechanized machine. The
welding torch was installed downright upon the welded groove. Fig. 21 shows
the plate and completed torch installation.
57
The equation used for t8/5 time was (two dimension heat conduction) according
to standard SFS-EN 1011-2
2 2
t8/5=(4300-4.3T0)105
where
(1)
(2)
58
= 1000
(3)
where
E = welding energy (kJ/mm)
U = arc voltage (V)
I = welding current (A)
v = welding speed (mm/min)
(4)
where;
t8/5 = cooling time between 800-500 C (s)
T0 = work temperature (C)
k = thermal efficiency (0.8 in MAG welding)
E = welding energy (kJ/mm)
F3 = Coefficient depending on the type of joint in three dimensional heat conduction (it is 1.0 when the cooling curve (t8/5) in three dimensional heat conduction is in the oblique area)
The welding parameters used in this study are shown below in table 4.
59
Table 5. Cooling times for heat inputs of 1.0 kJ/mm, 1.3 kJ/mm and 1.7 kJ/mm
when plate thickness is 8 mm, 12mm or 15 mm.
Heat input
Heat input
Heat input
1.0 kJ/mm
1.3 kJ/mm
1.7 kJ/mm
21
36
56
15
23
10
15
[s]
Plate thickness 8 mm
Cooling time t8/5
[s]
Plate thickness 12 mm
Cooling time t8/5
[s]
Plate thickness 15 mm
The root pass has a lower cooling time. The heat input of the root pass was
0.97 kJ/mm and it is the leader in cooling times with 8 mm plate in 17 s and with
12 mm plate in as low as 7 s.
Using equation 4 the maximum heat input will be 5.0 kJ/mm and the cooling
time will again be 21s the same as was used in the 8 mm thick plate with a
heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm. The three dimensional equation for heat input can be
used if the plate thickness is more than 46 mm. This plate thickness can be
60
calculated so that equations 1 and 4 will be set even and then the thickness of
plate will be calculated using a heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm. For example, if the
plate thickness is 20 mm then the heat input can be 2.7 kJ/mm using t8/5 21 s.
The mechanical properties of the steels in the research are not similar, as
shown in table 7. The tensile strength of these steels, which have the required
yield strength of 690 MPa, varies between 798 and 879 MPa. One of steels has
a tensile strength of 769 MPa, but the standard yield strength value of it is 650
MPa. The change of highest tensile strength is 10 % compared to the lowest
value, which is 798 MPa. Additionally, the elongation of HSS is lower than
structural steel, at yield strength 235 and 355 MPa, respectively. The change of
elongation in the steels used in the experiment is between 15 and 22 %. The
lowest elongation percentage was seen in steels B and D, at 15 %, while the
highest elongation percentage was found in steel F, at 22 %.
The impact ductility of the steels in this investigation changed between 40 and
194 J, at a temperature of -40 C, however steels A and C were tested at a
temperature of -20 C. An impact value of at least 27 J is needed for impact
ductility. That means that all the reported values in the material certificates are
quite exceptional compared material standards, however HSSs have larger
strength tolerance than structure steels.
61
Furthermore, table 6 presents the chemical properties of the steels that are
tested with in this research and illustrates that there are varied amounts of
alloying elements used in these different steels. For example, steels E and F
have the most alloying elements, as Sn is found in steel F and Zr is found is
steel E. Comparatively, steel H has much fewer alloying elements. The base
elements in HSS are C, Si, Mn, P and S. In addition to these five core elements,
steel H only includes two more elements, Cr and Mo. Mo is in all steels in this
investigation, while Cr has been used in all QT steels, and Ni has been used in
all irrespective of H steel. Carbon is used in the formation of all steel. Steels A
and C had the lowest amount of carbon, each with 0.05 % C. The carbon
content in the other steels used for the experiments was closer to 0.15 %.
However, this can be explained by the fact that steels A and C are made by the
TMCP method and all the others are made by the QT method. Steel B was
produced through the quenched and tempered method but additionally has a
low notch toughness temperature. The grade of this steel B was S690QL.
These manufacturing specifications emphasize the tough features of Steel B in
cold environments up to -40 C, according to standards SFS-EN 10025-6 + A1.
Aluminium is also found in HSSs and is used in the deoxidation process. Of all
the steels used in the scope of this research, only steels G and H do not have
any Al. Furthermore, another element found in HSSs is nitrogen, which plays a
role in making nitrides such as TiN. Of the steels used for this research,
nitrogen is found in five of the eight steels; namely A, C, D, E and F.
Boron is an important alloying element that aids to the hardness of the steel.
Only small amounts of B are needed to do an adequate job, mostly under 0.005
%. B is found in steel B, D, E and F, and the hardness of steels in this
investigations was between 270 HV5 and 290 HV5. Other micro alloying
elements used in these steels were Nb, V, Cu and Ti.
62
QT
QT
QT
QT
QT
12
0,160
0,140
0,140
0,137
0,130
0,049
0,159
0,052
C%
0,24
0,37
0,40
0,276
0,30
0,17
0,33
0,19
Si %
0,87
1,21
1,41
1,390
1,20
1,86
0,82
1,64
Mn
%
0,011
0,013
0,011
0,013
0,009
0,008
0,008
0,010
P%
0,001
0,004
0,004
0,0013
0,002
0,004
0,001
0,003
S%
10
20
20
+ 60 +
15
15
+ 40
++
++
= + 30 +
= +
= +
10
+ 5
0,037
0,061
0,044
0,025
0,049
0,029
Al %
M = TMCP
QL
Thickness
mm
Delivery
STEEL temper
0,35
0,07
0,02
0,052
0,26
0,3
63
0,001
0,02
0,066
0,04
0,05
0,22
0,11
0,002
0,029
0,148
0,008
0,223
0,009
Cr % Ni % Mo %
0,002
0,0021
0,002
0,0017
B%
Table 6. Chemical properties of various steels used in the research (wt %).
0,032
0,022
0,021
0,081
0,004
0,046
0,001
0,06
0,001
0,007
0,009
0,010
0,011
0,002
0,01
0,020
0,01
0,025
0,026
0,002
0,015
0,092
0,019
0,091
0,0046
0,0050
0,004
0,005
0,006
Nb % V % Cu % Ti % N %
0,002
Sn
%
0,0002
Zr %
(3)
(2)
(1)
0,419
0,38
0,393
0,39
0,42
0,38
0,41
0,34
CEV
0,29
0,28
0,28
0,28
0,28
0,24
0,28
0,22
CET
0,24
0,22
0,24
0,23
0,23
0,15
0,25
0,14
PCM
QL
QT
QT
QT
QT
QT
OF OBSERAVA-
RM
TEST
MPa
MPa
Av. J
650
700
15
40
-20 C
CERTIFICATE
701
769
20
99
-20 C
BROCHURE
690
770
14
30
-40 C
CERTIFICATE
804
841
15
194
-40 C
BROCHURE
700
750
15
40
-20 C
CERTIFICATE
761
821
20
98
-20 C
BROCHURE
700
780
14
27
-40 C
FORMATION
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
TION
REH
SOURCE OF IN-
BROCHURE
IMPACT
TEMPERATURE
THICKNESS mm
TEMPER
STEEL
DELIVERY
Rp
0,2
CERTIFICATE
818
852
15
47
-40 C
BROCHURE
690
770
14
27
-40 C
CERTIFICATE
793
835
16,3
103
-40 C
BROCHURE
690
790
18
27
-45 C
CERTIFICATE
740
798
22
40
-45 C
BROCHURE
685
780
16
40
-40 C
CERTIFICATE
840
879
20
145
-40 C
BROCHURE
700
770
14
27
-40 C
822
864
16
156
-40 C
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
CERTIFICATE
12
M = TMCP
QL= Quenched and Tempered + Low notch toughness temperature
QT= Quenched + Tempered
The filler metal for all these steels was ESAB 12.51. The chemical analysis of
which can be seen in table 8. It is an undermatched filler metal, because it has
64
a yield strength 470 MPa. The mechanical properties for this filler metal are in
table 9 and a 1.2 mm fillet solid wire was used in the welding. Additionally, the
shielding gas was an AGA mixing gas composed at 15 % CO2 and 85 % Ar.
Table 8. Chemical Analysis of filler material OK AUTROD 12.51 (ESAB 2008).
CHEMICAL
Mn
Cr
Ni
ANALYSIS C % Si % %
P% S% %
% Cu % N % Ti %
OK AUTROD
12.51
0.07 0.89 1.45 0.012 0.02 0.05 0.04 <0.30 0.005 0.01
To know the real content of the weld metal, the area of the first and second
pass must be measure from figure first and then calculated (figs. 22 and 23).
Every different alloying element will be calculated one to one. Dilution will
happen between the base material and the filler material.
The first pass has a weld metal area of 52 mm x 54 mm= 2808 mm2 (the
measurements 52 mm and 54 mm are measured from fig. 22). Smelted base
material areas are 7 mm x 71 mm= 497 mm2 and 6 mm x 53 mm= 336 mm2.
The sum of the smelted base material areas are 497 mm2 + 336 mm2 = 833
mm2. This is 30 % from all the weld area. A concentration of the alloy elements
can be calculated:
Cweld = Cbase material * 0.3 + Cfiller material * 0.7 = 0.137 *0.3 + 0.07 * 0.7 = 0.0901%.
65
The same equation was applied for all the alloy elements in the first pass. The
concentrations of the first pass to the welded TMCP HSS E are:
Si = 0.7058%, Mn = 1.432%, P = 0.0123%, S = 0.0144%, Cr = 0.0506%, Ni =
0.0478%, Cu = 0.216%, N = 0.005% and Ti = 0.0076%. Other alloy elements
are only in the base material. Then the content of the alloy elements in the weld
is 30 % of the base material content. It is likely that the content of Mo was 0.3 x
0.029 % = 0.0087 % in weld and the content of Al was 0.0183%, Nb = 0.0066
%, V = 0.00006 % and B = 0.00063%.
The second pass will be calculated between the base material, the first pass
and the filler material.
The second pass has the weld metal which will be calculated in four parts. The
first area is 39 mm x 118 mm= 4608 mm2. Two triangles, (22 mm * 22 mm)/ 2 =
242 mm2 and (22 mm * 27 mm)/ 2 = 297 mm2 and second rectangle 13 mm * 22
mm = 286 mm2. The sum of weld metal is 5433 mm2. Smelted base material
areas are 19 mm x 26 mm= 494 mm2 and 18 mm x 31 mm= 558 mm2. The sum
of the smelted base material areas are 494 mm2 + 558 mm2 = 1052 mm2.
Smelted first pass was 12 mm x 30 mm= 360 mm2. Filler metal was 5433 mm2
1052 mm2 360 mm2 = 4021 mm2. This is 74 % from all the weld area.
Smelted base material was 19 % and smelted first pass was 7 % from all weld
metal.
Cweld = Cbase material * 0.19 + Cfiller material * 0.74 + Cfirst pass * 0.07= 0.137 *0.19 +
0.07 * 0.74 + 0.09 *0.901 = 0.086%.
The same equation will be used for all alloy elements. All concentrations to
second pass of welded TMCP HSS E are:
66
Weld area
Smelted
base
material
Figure 22. Principle the figure to calculate the weld metal dilution of the first
pass. Aspect ratio of 1:500.
Surface of first
pass after
polishing
Second pass
Fusion line
Weld metal
First pass
a)
b)
Smelted first
pass
Smelted base
metal
c)
Figure 23. Principle figure to calculate weld metal dilution of the second pass. a)
fusion line and surface of the polished first pass before welding, b) weld metal
area, c) smelted base metal and first pass.
67
Table 10. Content of alloy element of QT HSS E in the first and second pass.
Dilution between base material and filler material has happened in all QT HSSs
in about the same proportion. This means that the content of alloy elements
were at the same levels. In TMCP HSS content of C was less of than in QT
HSS. It leads to smaller content of C in the weld of TMCP HSS. As in TMCP
HSS C, the C content was in the first pass was 0.3 * 0.05% + 0.7 * 0.07% =
0.064 %, while in the second pass of TMCP HSS C, the C content was 0.05
*0.19 + 0.07 * 0.74 + 0.09 *0.064 = 0.067%.
For all the other alloy elements, the content differences between TMCP and QT
HSSs were not large. The content of other alloying elements in the weld was at
same level in TMCP HSS as in QT HSS.
68
The first test to be conducted was a visual examination of all of the pieces.
Radiographic tests were made using an industrial X-ray machine, RUP-300.
Additionally, penetrant testing was made to all pieces using red penetrating
liquid and white development of dye.
Table 11. Examination and testing of the test pieces (standard SFS-EN ISO
15164-1).
69
Macro- and microscopic examinations were made to all the welded test pieces.
The test machine for the macro photography was Wild M400 macroscope and
an Olympus 4040 camera. In addition, microscopic examinations were made on
all of the weldments including the HAZ area. Microfilming was made using a
light microscope, Zeiss MC63, and the computer software was Isolution Lite.
Additionally, the impact toughness test was measured using the standard
Charpy V-notch impact test (standard SFS-EN ISO 148-1). The test
temperature
was
-40
and
test
machine
was
model
VEB
Vickers hardness tests were also performed on the welded specimens, to the
SFS-EN ISO 6057-1 standard, using a 5 kg load. Test machine was a Zwick
3202.
Four transverse bending tests were made using standard SFS-EN ISO 5173 to
all welded structures, two from the weld surface and two from the root, and the
machine used was a bend machine, WPN 20. The same WPN 20 machine was
used to make tensile tests with an extensometer. The standard used with the
tensile test was SFS-EN ISO 6892-1. The computer software used for this
information was PicoLog for windows PLW recorder, and two tests were made
to all welded structures.
70
When conducting a transverse bend test on HSSs, the diameter of pusher and
opening of drums must be considerably larger than when testing lower yield
strength steels. All of these values are found in standards SFS-EN ISO 5173
and SFS-EN ISO 15614-1. For example, an 8 mm thick plate must have a
pusher diameter 45 mm and a drum opening of 65 mm, while 12 mm thick plate
must have a pusher diameter 75 mm and a drum opening of 105 mm.
According to the standard SFS-EN ISO 5173, the bending angle at which to
conduct the bending test should be 180, however the bending machine that was
used was limited to a maximum 150 angle.
Equation is
d=(100 x ts)/A-ts and
(5)
(6)
where
d= diameter of pusher
A= minimum ultimate elongation of base metal
ts= plate thickness
l= opening of drums
71
Fig. 25 illustrates the welded pieces before they were separated by saw. The
beginning and end of the groove were made with assisting pieces. The test
pieces with dimension 5 mm width, 10 mm high and 50 mm long were made by
machining after cutting.
Figure 24. Used one side single bevel (-V) groove in CTOD tests.
72
In fig. 26 there is an etched CTOD test piece where the red line indicates the
fusion line, the blue line indicates the start notch, the yellow line indicates the
fatigue notch, and the green line indicates the test area. The groove was
welded with three or four beads according to the heat input. The same three
heat inputs (1.0; 1.3 and 1.7 kJ/mm) were used as in previous tests.
The CTOD test equipment was made by the Welding Technology Laboratory at
Lappeenranta University of Technology. Fig. 27 illustrates the pusher and its
counterpart, while fig. 28 is a picture of the actual machine used for the testing.
73
COMPUTER AND
SOFTWARE
COOLING UNIT
The testing temperature was -40C. Ethanol was used to guarantee the constancy of the temperature, while and temperature adjustments were made with
the application or removal of dry ice. Fig. 29 illustrates the equipment at the -40
C test temperature.
Figure 29. Isolated equipment at -40 C and liquid intermediate test agent.
As the size of the CGHAZ is quite small, a study of this region is particularly
difficult in real welds. Therefore, a thermal simulation was used to generate a
relatively large region of CGHAZ, which allowed the notch to be reliably located
in the correct microstructure. The steels were subjected to a welding thermal
simulation. Thermal simulation test blanks were cut from the surface position of
each plate, with the test piece axis transverse to the rolling direction, in T-L
direction. Fig. 30 shows the test blanks, 8 x 17 mm in size. After the thermal
simulation, these blanks were machined down to a 5 x 10 mm size appropriate
for CTOD test pieces. The weld HAZ thermal simulations were performed on a
Gleeble 3800 simulator, as the one shared in fig. 31, which is owned by the
StPSPU.
75
OPERATION CHAMBER
MECHANICAL CABIN
MECHANICAL CAPIN
Current,
Voltage,
Welding
Gross
Net
Net heat
Cooling
speed,
power,
power,
input,
time t8/5,
mm s
J mm-1
cycle
Thermal
-1
230
25.6
4.533
5888
4710
1039
21.0
268
29.0
4.517
7772
6218
1376
36.5
258
30.6
3.713
7895
6316
1701
55.6
The thermal cycles were calculated depending on the welding conditions (Table
12). When calculating of the temperature field, the following assumptions were
made: a point heat source on the plate surface moves along the x-axis with
76
constant speed v, the origin of coordinates is fixed to the source, the plate
surfaces are heat impermeable, and the plate is infinitely wide and long. Then
the steady state of the temperature field T(x,y,z) in the moving reference frame
is expressed by the following formula:
T ( x, y, z ) = T0 +
q
2
exp(
vR
vx 1
)
exp( n )
2a n = Rn
2a
(7)
Rn = [ x 2 + y 2 + ( z 2ns ) 2 ]1/ 2
(8)
where T0 is the ambient temperature (T0 = 20C), q is the net power, is the
heat conductivity ( = 0.035 W mm-1 K-1), a is the thermal diffusivity (a = 7.0
mm2 s-1), s is the plate thickness (s = 8 mm). The vertical z - axis is directed
through the plate thickness and changes from coordinate x to time t is made
according to the equation: t = - x/v. Then the thermal cycle of any point y, z at
any time t can be calculated:
T ( y, z , t ) = T0 +
q
2
exp(
vR
v 2t 1
)
exp( n )
2a n = Rn
2a
(9)
(10)
This formula was used to calculate the thermal cycle of the point having peak
temperature Tmax = 1350C at the top surface (z = 0). Three cycles are shown in
Fig. 32 a - c.
a) Q= 1.0 kJ/mm.
b) Q= 1.3 kJ/mm.
thermal cycles.
77
c) Q= 1.7 kJ/mm.
The first heat input was 1.0 kJ/mm and was applied to an 8 mm thick plate. This
involved heating to a peak temperature (Tp1) of 1350 C at a rate of
approximately 450 C/s and holding the peak temperature for less than 2 s,
followed by a cooling time from 1350 C to 800 C for 10 seconds, between 800
C to 500 C (t8/5) in 20s, and from 500 C to ambient temperature in 40
seconds.
The second heat input was 1.3 kJ/mm and was applied to an 8 mm thick plate.
This involved heating to a peak temperature (Tp1) of 1350 C at a rate of
approximately 450 C/s and holding at the peak temperature for less than 2 s,
followed by a cooling time from 1350 C to 800 C in 15 seconds, between 800
C to 500 C (t8/5) in 35 s and from 500 C to ambient temperature in 65
seconds.
Finally, the third heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm and was applied to an 8 mm thick
plate. This involved heating to a peak temperature (Tp1) of 1350 C at a rate of
approximately 450 C/s and holding at the peak temperature for less than 2 s,
followed by cooling time from 1350 C to 800 C in 20 seconds, between 800 C
to 500 C (t8/5) in 55 s and from 500 C to ambient temperature in 80 seconds.
In simulation, which occurred in a Gleeble 3800 machine between watercooled
copper made grip jaws, the non-standard Gleeble specimen has been heated
and cooled, as seen in figs. 33 a and b.
a)
b)
Figure 33. The 5x10 grips jaws (a) and non-standard Gleeble specimen (b).
78
CTOD test pieces were produced from the thermal simulated test blanks with a
2.5 mm deep through-thickness notch cut in the sample. The position of the
notch was in the center of the etched HAZ. The notch orientation was such that
the crack propagation direction was parallel to the plate rolling direction, as
seen in fig. 26, T-L direction. A fatigue crack of 2.5 mm nominal depth was then
grown into the specimen, giving a nominal a/W (overall crack depth/ specimen
width) value of 0.5. The CTOD samples were then tested at -40 C, following
ASTM E 1290-02 standard, to produce impact toughness.
The equation in standard ASTM E 1290-02 for CTOD value is given as:
2 (12 )
+
(0) (1+(+)
(11)
0.80 +0.2
+
2
79
(12)
(13)
2
6 0 1.99 0 1 0 2.153.93 0 +2.7 0
3
1+2 0 1 0
(14)
where
6.098
8.326
3.965
(15)
(16)
where
(17)
80
(18)
Figure 34. Types of Force versus Clip Gage Displacements Records (ASTM E
1290-02).
Buehler Phoenix 4000 was used for grinding and polishing of the specimens.
Grinding was undertaken with a set of SiC abrasive papers starting out with the
roughest (P180) and gradually introducing the finest (P400). Polishing materials
were the diamond suspensions with particles ranging from 9 to 1 m, alumina
suspension 0.01 m.
81
82
Heat input has the ability to effect the weld, with bigger heat inputs displaying
greater degrees of mixing between the base and filler metals. Similar Basu and
Raman (2002), this study reports, that different weld cooling rates lead to
different weld microstructure features and inclusion parameters, which further
leads to different values in mechanical properties. This is clearly seen from
different tensile test results that were included in this study. The fusion (mixing)
zone is seen from macro photographs, however, micro photographs display this
zone in much finer detail.
Second pass
8 mm
HAZ zone
Fusion line
First pass
Figure 35. A macro photograph shows the different zones of a welded joint.
84
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
1.3
1.7
85
Comments
Narrow HAZ with
clear zones. Backing
ring has developed
near lack of side weld
fusion in the root
pass.
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
1.3
1.7
86
Comments
Very clear zones in
narrow HAZ area.
Excess weld metal in
root pass. Smooth
capping run which is
good in dynamic action.
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
Comments
1.0
Some misalignment
in the welded plates.
Smooth joints
between weld and
base plates. Also,
the CGHAZ is clear
in root pass.
1.3
1.7
8 mm
Steel C
87
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
88
Comments
In QT steel the
CGHAZ area is not as
clear as steels A and
C which are TMCP
steels. HAZ area is
clear. Small heat
input lead up to clear
fusion line.
1.3
1.7
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
1.3
1.7
89
Comments
The formation of the
backing ring is
important to the
shape of the root
pass. In this weld,
the filler metal has
spread over the base
metal. When the
fusion line is not
completely melted, a
lack of side weld
fusion can occur.
Zones in the HAZ are
distinguished. This
QT steel has a clear
CGHAZ using 1.3
kJ/mm heat input.
Wide HAZ as a
consequence of high
heat input. When the
fusion line is not
completely melted, a
lack of side weld
fusion can occur.
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
Smooth joint
between weld and
base metal. Clear
HAZ area where
individual zones can
be seen.
1.3
1.7
90
Comments
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
Comments
12 mm width QT
steel welded using
three passes. With
this heat input, the
HAZ area is narrow.
This is intended
when welding HSSs.
Not a much wider
HAZ area than in 1.0
kJ/mm heat input.
1.3
1.7
91
Macro sections
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
1.0
1.3
1.7
Comments
Good looking welded
structure. Narrow
HAZ is good in
welded HSS
structure. Base
material is not
excessively
tempered.
Wider HAZ area than
in 1.0 kJ/mm heat
input but very good
looking welded HSS
structure.
92
The base microstructure in the steels was either bainite-martensite or ferritebainite. Disparities occurred in the phase structure of the steels depending on
the manufacturer. The weld structure was a ferrite-perlite microstructure, which
is a typical microstructure when the filler material is ESAB OK 12.51. Initial
columnar grains formed by epitaxial growth were detected by the presence of
grains of polygonal ferrite and Widmanstatten ferrite along the former grain
boundaries. However, the main constituent is an acicular ferrite, forming a
"wicker basket" structure.
The first phase forming on prior austenite grain boundaries during cooling below
the AC3 temperature is referred to as polygonal ferrite. At relatively low
undercooling temperatures, Widmstatten ferrite formation occurs. The ferrite
plates grow rapidly with a high aspect ratio, resulting in parallel arrays.
Widmanstatten ferrite plates grow directly from a prior austenite grain boundary
or from polygonal ferrite at the grain boundaries.
The microstructure of the fusion line was an alloy of filler material and base
metal, the two of which mixed together. This zone is in partially melted state.
The microstructure of FL is mixed and contains bainite and polygonal ferrite,
fig.37. Near fusion line hardness in QT base metal started to grow fast and in
the CGHAZ, hardness had reached its highest point. The microstructure in the
CGHAZ of QT steels is martensite-bainite.
phase structure similar to the base material. The microstructure of the ICHAZ
can have some changes in its carbide structure which can decrease its yield
Line of photography
1
2 3 4
8 mm
Weld
Metal
2 mm
Fusion
CGHAZ FGHAZ ICHAZ
Line
Base
Metal
Figure 36. Semantic photograph from welded structure showing the areas
where the micro photographs had been taken.
CGHAZ
FUSION LINE
Liquid base metal and
weld metal has mixed
together. Base metal
alloying elements, like Nb,
V, Ti, etc. have mixed with
liquid filler metal. The
strength of the weld has
grown because of that.
Microstructure of the base
metal near fusion zone is
bainite although ferritepearlite can occur.
WELD METAL
95
FGHAZ
ICHAZ and
SCGAZ
Table 21. Micro photographs of welded TMCP steel A and comments. Aspect ratio of 1:500.
Base microstructure of
TMCP A steel was a
bainite and ferrite
microstructure.
Microstructure was very
small and homogeneous.
Rolling direction has not
any effect on steel A.
BASE METAL
FUSION LINE
A very clear fusion line is
observed. Weld metal
microstructure is the same
as the weld. Base metal
was molten in the fusion
line. Base material mixes
with melted filler material.
Mixing can be clearly seen
in the fusion line.
Solidified base material
grains have been directed
towards the base metal.
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
WELD METAL
Main microstructure is
martensite and bainite in
the CGHAZ. In Kaputska
et al. (2008), the same
microstructure was
observed.
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
96
FGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Concentration of the
former austenite occurs in
the ICHAZ and this
hardened phase becomes
a material notch and the
toughness deteriorates
(Hamada 2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 22. Micro photographs of welded QT steel B and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel B
was tempered martensite
and bainite. This
quenched and tempered
microstructure primarily
consists of fine-lath
martensite and significant
amounts of coarse
martensite (Moon et al
2000 according to Fonda
et al. 1994). Steel B was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of
grains is small and texture
is homogenous. This kind
of microstructure gives
good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
2
FUSION LINE
Melted base metal and
liquid weld metal have
mixed together. Base
metal alloying elements,
such as Nb, V, Ti, etc.
have mixed with liquid
filler metal, causing the
welds strength to growth.
The microstructure of the
base metal near the fusion
zone is bainite although
ferrite- pearlite can occur.
Great heat inputs near the
fusion line have made
large grains in the base
metal. The inherent
austenite grain size has
grown near the fusion line
because this zone has
been the longest over the
Ac3 point.
WELD METAL
CGHAZ
97
FGHAZ
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 23. Micro photographs of welded TMCP steel C and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Base microstructure of
TMCP C steel was a
bainite and ferrite
microstructure.
Microstructure was very
small and homogeneous.
Rolling direction has not
had any effect on steel C.
BASE METAL
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
FUSION LINE
WELD METAL
1
FGHAZ
98
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Main microstructure is
tempered martensite and
bainite with cementite
particles.
Concentration of the
former austenite occurs in
the ICHAZ and this
hardened phase becomes
a material notch and the
toughness deteriorates
(Hamada 2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 24. Micro photographs of welded QT steel D and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel D
was tempered martensite
and bainite. Steel D was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of the
grains is small and texture
is homogenous. This kind
of microstructure gives
good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
FUSION LINE
WELD METAL
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
99
Main microstructure is
martensite and bainite in
that zone.
FGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Main microstructure is
tempered martensite and
bainite with cementite
particles.
Concentration of austenite
formers occurs in ICHAZ
zone and this hardened
phase becomes a material
notch and the toughness
deteriorates (Hamada
2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 25. Micro photographs of welded QT steel E and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel E
was tempered martensite
and bainite. Steel E was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of the
grains is small and the
texture is homogenous.
This kind of microstructure
gives good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
FUSION LINE
WELD METAL
FGHAZ
Main microstructure is
martensite and bainite in
that zone.
100
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Main microstructure is
tempered martensite and
bainite with cementite
particles.
Concentration of austenite
formers occurs in ICHAZ
zone and this hardened
phase becomes a material
notch and the toughness
deteriorates (Hamada
2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 26. Micro photographs of welded QT steel F and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel F
was tempered martensite
and bainite. Steel F was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of the
grains was small and the
texture is homogenous.
This kind of microstructure
gives good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
FUSION LINE
WELD METAL
FGHAZ
Main microstructure is
martensite and bainite in
that zone.
101
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Main microstructure is
tempered martensite and
bainite with cementite
particles.
Concentration of austenite
formers occurs in ICHAZ
zone and this hardened
phase becomes a material
notch and the toughness
deteriorates (Hamada
2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 27. Micro photographs of welded QT steel G and comments. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel G
was tempered martensite
and bainite. Steel G was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of the
grains was small and the
texture is homogenous.
This kind of microstructure
gives good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
Microstructure is
martensite-bainite near
the fusion line of the base
metal.
FUSION LINE
WELD METAL
FGHAZ
Main microstructure is
martensite and bainite in
that zone.
102
Microstructure in CGHAZ
has grown. Size of grains
depends on t8/5 time (heat
input). Grain size was
largest when heat input
was 1.7 kJ/mm. In all heat
input 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7
kJ/mm this zone was most
brittle in the HAZ. Width of
CGHAZ is wider when
heat input is greater and
t8/5 time is longer. In
literature the width of the
CGHAZ area should be
maximum 1/3 of thickness
of the base metal.
CGHAZ
The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite
particles at grain
boundaries of SCHAZ is
more noticeable than in
ICHAZ.
Main microstructure is
tempered martensite and
bainite with cementite
particles.
Concentration of austenite
formers occurs in ICHAZ
zone and this hardened
phase becomes a material
notch and the toughness
deteriorates (Hamada
2003).
ICHAZ and
SCHAZ
Table 28. Micro photographs of welded QT steel H and comments of it. Aspect ratio is 1:500.
Microstructure of steel G
was tempered martensite
and bainite. Steel G was
QT HSS and this
microstructure is typical to
QT steel. The size of the
grains was small and the
texture is homogenous.
This kind of microstructure
gives good strength and
toughness to steel.
BASE METAL
GAS PORES
GAS PORES
kJ/mm).
kJ/mm).
103
additionally all of the tested welded structures broke at their welding points as a
result of the tensile test.
MPa
780
760
740
720
700
680
660
640
620
600
580
STEELS
D
E
Figure 40. Tensile strengths of welded joint made of different steels using three
heat input.
104
780 MPa
764
751
750
735
732
739
721
709
700
690
680
672
683
678
667
666
650
629
600
550
500
STEELS
Figure 41. Tensile strength of various steels using constant heat input 1.0
kJ/mm.
780 MPa
765
759
748
750
727
715
704
700
688
682
708
685
671
661
650
645
651
597
600
500
STEELS
Figure 42. Tensile strength of various steels using constant heat input 1.3
kJ/mm.
105
800
780 MPa
750
739
718
716
706
700
685
691
679
671
669
660
650
647
642
639
632
631
600
500
STEELS
Figure 43. Tensile strength of various steels using constant heat input 1.7
kJ/mm.
The mismatch level between filler metal and parent metal was 0.72, which is
lower than the recommendations of many researchers (Toyota 1986, Satoh & et
al. 1975). Within such as low mismatch value, it is clear that the weld is the
weakest place in structure, especially when compared to the strengths of filler
and base materials. Tensile strength values change when penetration and
mixing between filler and base material occurs and figures 41 through 43 show
that the strength values of the base material are higher than the filler material. A
typical example of a broken tensile test bar is shown in figs 44 a, b, c and d.
The fracture occurs in the weld at the point of reduction area, the failure of
which arises in the HAZ and continues into the weld.
106
a)side picture
c) root side
b) face side
Steel A has standard tensile test value 700 MPa and using the lowest heat input
(1.0 kJ/mm), the values obtained from steel A were near the tensile strength of
the base steel. The same happened in steel H when heat input was 1.0 and 1.3
kJ/mm, and nearly same situation occurred in steel D. In these situations, the
tensile strength of welded structure was 4 % lower than the tensile strength of
base material. The standard tensile strength of all steels with the exception of
steel A was 780 MPa.
In all welded structures, the failure started from the weld or the HAZ, however,
in some instants the failure started from the fusion line between weld and HAZ.
This happens because of the low yield strength of filler material but also
because of possible deformation in the weld. Nearly all of the tensile test pieces
failed starting at the fusion line and only few of them broke in the HAZ. When
the failure began in the fusion line or the HAZ, the direction of the break was
towards the weld at a traditional 45 angle.
107
Tables 29, 30 and 31 present tensile test values which are used in different heat
inputs in welding. Regardless of heat input, all tensile test values are higher
than the tensile test of the filler material, which was 560 MPa. The tensile test
values of the base material was around 780 MPa or more (steel A had minimum
tensile test value 700 MPa). In all steels, the real tensile test value was more
than in manufactorers procedure. Heat input has lowering effect to tensile
strength of structure. Manufactory method doesnt effect to tensile strength.
Also, TMCP and QT steels behaved equally when using different heat input in
welding.
In all structures, the elongation at the break was considerably smaller than the
base material elongation. In 690 MPa class HSSs, the standards stipulate that
the minimum A5 should be 15%. However, in this research the values for the
elongation at the break were only half of the base material values.
These
values differed from one another. These differences caused variations between
elongation break values of the welded structures when using the same heat
input. The amount of penetration and dilution that occurred between the base
and filler materials led to a better tensile strength in the welded structure than in
the filler material.
elongation break value of HSS, where larger real tensile strength leads to
smaller elongation break values.
When dilution happens between the base material and the weld, alloy elements
can mix together. Some alloys such as Nb mixes to the weld and increases the
properties of the welded structure. The Metal Handbook (1990) explains that the
yield strength of the carbon steel increases with small additions of Nb. The yield
strength of carbon steel can increase from 490 MPa to 700 MPa when the
addition of Nb is 0.02 %.
Using fillet welds, it is possible to increase the size of the weld (effective throat
thickness) which leads to a greater tensile strength in the welded structure.
Aside from increasing the tensile strength, this method also has some negative
side effects including a longer welding time, higher cost and decreasing
productivity. As opposed to fillet welds, butt welds are limited and increasing the
weld size is not possible. When using undermatched filler material, the welded
structure will not have a strength matching its base material.
109
Table 29. Comparing the tensile strength and elongation at break of base material to the welded structure when heat input was 1.0 kJ/mm. Red font corresponds to the highest value while green font corresponds to the lowest.
TEST
SPECIMEN
TESTED
TENSILE
TRENGTH
MPa
% BIGGER
THAN FILLER MATERIAL
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
D1
D2
E1
E2
F1
F2
G2
H1
H2
690
680
629
672
667
732
735
739
666
678
721
709
683
751
764
23.2
21.4
12.3
20.0
19.1
30.7
31.3
32.0
18.9
21.1
28.8
26.6
22.0
34.1
36.4
TENSILE
STRENGTH OF
BASE MATERIAL (from material certificate)
MPa
769
844
821
852
835
798
879
865
% LOWER
THAN BASE
MATERIAL
10.3
11.6
ELONGATION
AT
BREAK
A %
11.2
22.3
13.2
11.7
8.5
7.9
4.8
5.2
7.0
5.4
6.4
6.4
4.3
4.6
5.5
5.4
7.0
6.3
6.3
15.4
6.1
25.5
20.4
18.8
10.8
13.7
13.3
20.2
18.8
9.6
MEAN
VALUE
8.2
5.0
6.2
6.4
4.4
5.5
7.0
6.3
MEAN
VALUE
25.2
Table 30. Comparing the tensile strength and elongation at break of base
material to the welded structure when heat input was 1.3 kJ/mm. Red font
corresponds to the highest value while green font corresponds to the lowest.
TEST
SPECIMEN
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
D1
D2
E1
E2
F1
F2
G2
H1
H2
TESTED
TENSILE
STRENGTH
MPa
645
651
715
688
682
685
748
727
661
671
704
708
597
765
759
MEAN
VALUE
% BIGGER
THAN FILLER MATERIAL
15.2
16.3
27.7
22.9
21.8
22.3
33.6
29.8
18.0
19.8
25.7
26.4
6.6
36.6
35.5
TENSILE
STRENGTH OF
BASE MATERIAL (from material certificate)
MPa
769
844
821
852
835
798
879
865
23.9
110
% LOWER
THAN BASE
MATERIAL
16.1
15.3
15.3
18.5
16.9
16.6
12.2
14.7
20.8
19.6
11.8
ELONGATION
AT
BREAK
A %
11.6
12.3
9.4
9.3
5.8
6.4
9.6
9.3
5.6
5.7
5.0
4.6
8.1
7.8
7.0
5.9
6.1
16.3
7.1
11.3
32.1
MEAN
VALUE
9.3
6.1
9.4
5.7
4.8
7.9
7.0
6.0
Table 31. Comparing the tensile strength and elongation at break of base material to the welded structure when heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm. Red font corresponds to the highest value while green font corresponds to the lowest.
TEST SPECIMEN
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
D1
D2
E1
E2
F1
F2
G1
G2
H1
H2
TESTED
TENSILE
STRENGTH
MPa
% BIGGER
THAN FILLER
MATERIAL
660
647
685
691
17.9
15.5
22.3
23.4
671
706
716
642
639
669
679
632
631
739
718
MEAN VALUE
19.8
26.1
27.9
14.6
14.1
19.5
21.3
12.9
12.7
32.0
28.2
TENSILE
STRENGTH OF
BASE MATERIAL
(from material
certificate) MPa
769
844
821
852
835
798
%
LOWER
THAN BASE
MATERIAL
ELONGATION
AT BREAK A
%
14.2
15.9
18.8
18.1
9.5
8.5
6.1
7.5
7.9
9.4
5.9
6.9
6.1
6.1
6.0
6.3
6.6
5.3
6.8
7.1
18.3
14.0
16.0
23.1
23.5
16.2
14.9
28.1
879
28.2
865
14.6
17.0
20.5
MEAN
VALUE
9.0
6.8
8.6
6.4
6.1
6.1
6.0
7.0
7.0
This tensile test has proven that when heat input is bigger and consequence of
that width of HAZ is consequently wider, the tensile properties of the welded
structure are weaker than the base material. In the tensile tests, the weakest
welded structure had the highest heat input. Rodriques et al. (2004a) came to
the same conclusion in their study when they looked at matched and undermatched filler metal situations and determined that the strength of the joint is
strongly depend on the HAZ dimension. It is therefore of utmost importance to
use proper welding parameters when welding HSSs regardless of the filler material.
111
The transverse bend tests that were done on these HSSs with undermatched
filler material were much more demanding than normal transverse bend tests.
The discrepancy between the tests occurs because the filler material has a
lower yield strength than base material. In these tests, the first part to be bent
was the welded structure and the base material. In the end of these tests, the
weld yielded more than the base material and the bending angle was bigger in
the weld than in the structure, as seen in figs 45 and 46. If the welded structure
passes this bend test, the weld can then be considered of acceptable quality.
112
The results of the transverse bending tests are in table 32, where OK means
that the weld passed the bending test. Of all the transverse bending tests, steel
G got the worst results which can be explained through a number of factors.
First of all, a thickness of 12 mm, the heat flow from the fusion line was faster
than in other steels. During the solidification of the molten weld pool, the
porosity could increase, and these porous areas will be the first to crack during
bending tests. Additionally, dilution in fusion line could be too low for the same
reasons. In steel G, all the root passes failed in the transverse bending test.
This can potentially be explained by the fact that the cooling time of the root
pass without being preheated is shorter in 12 mm thick plates than in 8 mm
thick plates. If there are significant thickness discrepancies, it would be possible
to use a three dimensional equation, however, the differences between 8 and
12 mm thickness (d) in equation 16 is 2.25 times (d2 in the equation).
Equation 9 allows the cooling time to be calculated with allowance for thicker
plate thickness. During the course of this research, 8 mm and 12 mm thick
plates of steel displayed large differences in cooling time (fig. 46-1).
Additionally, the cooling time of the root pass of QT HSS G was short, 7 s. A
113
short cooling time can lead to brittle martensite microstructure, which also has
small ductile value. This is why the root pass of QT HSS G broke in the bending
test.
Figure 46-1. Cooling time t8/5 vs. plate thickness. Welding conditions are
presented in Table 12.
114
WELD
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
root 1
root 2
surface 1
surface 2
will curve more horizontally and it leads to different HAZs under the V-groove.
As shown in fig. 47, the test area of Charpy-V test can include some weld metal,
CGHAZ, FGHAZ, ICHAZ, SCHAZ and some base metal. Between first and
second HAZ is the ICCGHAZ which earlier research (Liu at al. 2007, Hamada
2003, Li et al. 2001, Lambert et al. 2000, Matsuda et al. 1995, Lee et al. 1993)
has shown to be the most fracture area in the HAZ. The brittle area of
ICCGHAZ is small, but in some Charpy-V tests it can be under the test notch.
Milled Charpy-V
groove
Second pass
5 mm
First pass
8 mm
HAZ zone
Fusion line
In earlier studies (Wang et al. 2003, Juan et al. 2003) it was noticed that lower
toughness values occur because of a wide HAZ. The lowest toughness values
were in CGHAZ and if the HAZ is wide all zones will be wider and then the
Charpy-V test place is more in CGHAZ and fusion line. In this present research,
the same results have been observed. The overall numbers of tests were small
because of the testing standards, and some exceptional results are the
consequence of statistical dispersion.
Overall, the results of the impact tests were ambiguous. The test results from
weld area, as seen in fig. 48 and table 33 were acceptable and these results
show that undermatching weld metal has good impact ductility. This might be
because the impact value was limited to 18 J for test bar 5 x 10 x 55 mm piece.
As seen in table 33 steels A, E, F and G have a few results under 18 J, however
116
the vast majority of them are close to 18 J (16 J - 17 J) and they can be
considered acceptable.
Fig. 49 and table 34 display HAZ impact results. In earlier study by Shi et al.
(1998) it was concluded that the lower the weld strength mismatching, the
higher the fracture toughness of the HAZ. In this study, the mismatching value
was very low at 0.72. There was not a great deal of consistency in HAZ impact
test results, as some steels have good values for all three heat inputs while
other steels had very low values. In fig. 49 the impact test values show great
divergence between different HSSs. Additionally, the test values in fig. 49 are
very low. Cells highlighted in yellow in table 34 indicate that the values are
under standard recommendations. For example, steel H had a value 4 J twice
when heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm and had poor values ranging from 8 - 13 J at
1.0 and 1.3 kJ/mm as well. Steels A, B, D and F also exhibited low impact test
values, however there is no consistency in the results according to heat input.
TMCP steels A and C have low C content. C content levels determine
toughness properties in general and high C content is detrimental to toughness
as Hatting and Pienaar (1998) have concluded. In this study, TMCP steels A
and C have low C contents, whereas the C content in QT steels was
considerable bigger. Accordingly, TMCP steels have good toughness values in
the HAZ than most of the QT steels.
As Tian (1998) and Hatting and Pienaar (1998) have researched, heat input has
a direct effect on impact toughness in Nb added HSSs. When using a low heat
input in welding, this will increase impact toughness, while if a high heat input is
used in welding it will decrease the impact toughness in the HAZ. Six of eight
tested steels had Nb as an alloying element in this study and the greater heat
input led to the lower impact toughness.
Ti precipitations have an impact to grain growth and they inhibit it very well.
However, if the heat input is too high on welding, then the grains grow too much
which leads to the coarse structure in the HAZ and consequently destroys the
welded structure. Liu and Liao (1998) researched Ti nitrides and found that
117
As Rak et al. (1997) has concluded and is also clearly displayed in this
research, the size and distribution of the Ti precipitates are important when
studying the grain growth control and comparing it to the role of the chemical
composition of the precipitates. It is important to keep the heat input as low as
possible, because Ti precipitate dissolves in to base material at higher
temperatures. When the heat input is kept low, there is no time for precipitates
to dissolve and the properties of the welded structure remain satisfactory. In this
research, the lowest heat input 1.0 kJ/mm gives the best results of impact
ductility and strength test on the chemical composition and microstructure of
HSS.
In the undermatched weld structure, local mismatch can be the reason for
lowered toughness. Dilution and alloying are not evenly distributed in
undermatched welds and this leads to local mismatch. This study similarly
clarifies the differences between impact test values as was in the Rak et al.
(1995) study.
118
70
61
60
50
51 50
47
41
37
36 37 36
30
46 47
40
39
36
30
33
32
30 32
28 29
20
17
22
18
49 48
36
24
22
20
43 42
37
32
26
25
22
17
10
43
34
27
19 18
16
14
43 42
38
37
27
22
24
24 26
17
38 40
33 32
30
29
24
16
16
D
E
WELD
1.0 kJ/mm
HEAT
1.3 kJ/mm
1.7 kJ/mm
Figure 48. Impact test values to weld metal using different heat input when filler
material was undermatched.
J
80
75
60
50
47
40
36
22 25
20
16
10
12 10 9 10,5
10 11
10
9 10
20
0
A
HEAT INPUT
32
58
53
49
24 24
18
44
37 37
44
28
23 23
18
18
14
12
9
8
D
E
WELDS
1.0 kJ/mm
45
31
27
23
18
16
17
10 7 11
6
7
1.3 kJ/mm
56 57
55
51
11
8
16
4
13
98
4
1.7 kJ/mm
Figure 49. Impact test values to HAZ area structure using different heat input
when filler material was undermatched.
119
In addition to previous research (Wang et al. 2003), this study confirms the
influence of heat input to impact toughness in HSS welding. As the heat input
grows, the deterioration of impact toughness in the HAZ of HSSs is quite clear.
In this study, steels F and H had very low HAZ area impact values.
To further bolster confidence in these impact test results, and uncover different
implications, it was additionally determined to conduct CTOD tests.
120
Table 33. Impact test values from weld when filler material was undermatched.
HEAT INPUT
1.0
1.3
1.7
kJ/mm
kJ/mm
48
31
30
28
36
46
17
29
47
22
39
18
32
30
32
32
33
20
41
47
36
51
37
30
50
37
36
22
49
24
36
48
36
26
32
25
22
17
43
14
42
37
27
19
16
34
43
18
38
27
22
37
24
17
43
26
24
61
42
16
38
16
33
32
29
40
24
30
40
STEEL kJ/mm
A
121
Table 34. Impact test values from HAZ when filler material was undermatched.
HEAT INPUT
1.0
1.3
1.7
kJ/mm
kJ/mm
41
11
22
50
22
16
12
10
25
10
20
10.5
10
11
10
10
32
47
36
53
37
24
18
37
24
49
58
75
18
44
12
23
28
14
23
18
16
10
17
18
11
11
46
31
44
55
23
27
56
57
51
11
16
13
STEEL kJ/mm
A
122
In all of the tested pieces, the hardness values in the weld metal were the
same, but when test moved though HAZ from fusion line to base material,
hardness values were higher than in the weld. Test values differed depending
on the base metal test material. In QT steels, the HAZ hardness curve is at its
highest point in the CGHAZ, (just beyond the fusion line and the base material)
and sinks down to its lowest point in the ICHAZ. As Loureiro (2002) has
explained, a loss of hardness occurs in the ICHAZ because of carbide
precipitation. Beyond the ICHAZ, the hardness levels rose until they reached
the hardness level of the base material. The highest hardness values observed
were the same or slightly higher than the hardness of the base material, a
phenomenon that possibly be explained as an effect of quenching in the HAZ.
Steels A and C which were made using TMCP method behaved quite different
than the QT HSSs. The TMCP steels had a very straight hardness curve in the
weld and the HAZ, the hardness curve gradually grew to the hardness of base
material. These steels had C content 0.05 % while QT steels had C content
close to 0.15 %. Additionally, the two types of steel have differences in their
base material microstructure with TMCP steel having a ferrite-bainite mix and
QT steel having martensite and bainite.
Prior to welding, all steels had near same base metal hardness levels, 280-290
HV5. B was added as an alloying element to steels B, D, E and F, because B
has been known to increase hardness in low carbon steels. Moon et al. (2008)
researched that the hardness of the CGHAZ increases when B is added as
123
alloy element. In the same investigation, the researchers noticed that the impact
toughness decreased at the same time. They additionally used Cu as an
alloying element in their investigation. During the welding process, the
microstructure of all the steels changed to austenite near the fusion line. Steels
A and C, which have a low C content of 0.05%, did not quench, which must
explain the lower martensite content in their CGHAZs. QT steels behaved quite
differently, as after welding there was a change the martensite microstructure
could be moved in the CGHAZ, thus increasing hardness to its highest point. A
bigger C content of approximately 0.15 %, potentially contributed to the harder
microstructure (martensite and bainite) observed in QT steels. C is the most
important alloying element in the quenching process and as other studies
(Kaputska et al. 2008) have concluded the peak hardness of QT steel is higher
in the HAZ than in the base metal. Nb is an important alloying element in HSSs
and it has an effect on the hardness as well. The content of martensite can
depend on Nb as Zhang et al. (2009) has researched. They concluded that
when the Nb content was 0.026 % and the cooling rate was high, martensite
was observed, however when Nb was not in the steel no martensite was
observed.
An overall, maximum hardness of around 345 HV5, was observed when heat
input was 1.0 kJ/mm in QT steel G. At the same heat input, QT steels F and H
also had a maximum hardness that exceeded 300 HV5. Loureiro (2002 in
accordance Yurioka et al. 1987) concluded that a totally martensite structure
should have a maximum hardness of 444 HV10, while a non-martensite
microstructure should have a hardness of 223 HV10. In this study the
microstructure in the CGHAZ area of QT HSS was lower bainite and tempered
martensite with a maximum hardness of 300 HV5 or more.
In this study, it was clearly observed that slower cooling rates lead to lower
hardness levels in the HAZ as was similarly concluded in the research
conducted by Kaputska et al. (2008). This happens because the autotempered
martensite has formed in the CGHAZ. In fig. 52, some curves end before base
metal hardness, which means that these steels had wider HAZs than is able to
124
be read in the table. Our study proves that when welding HSSs, lower cooling
rates tend to produce a wider HAZ, a phenomenon that has also been studied
by Kaputska et al. (2008).
FUSION
LINE
WELD
METAL
BASE
METAL
HAZ
2 mm
0.5 mm
STEELS
BASE MATERIAL 6
BASE MATERIAL 5
BASE MATERIAL 4
BASE MATERIAL 3
BASE MATERIAL 2
BASE MATERIAL 1
HAZ 7
HAZ 6
HAZ 5
HAZ 4
HAZ 3
HAZ 2
HAZ 1
FUSION LINE
WELD 4
WELD 3
WELD 2
350
330
310
290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
WELD 1
HARDNESS HV5
Figure 51. Hardness of the welded structure when the heat input was 1.0
kJ/mm.
125
WELD 1
WELD 2
WELD 3
WELD 4
FUSION LINE
HAZ 1
HAZ 2
HAZ 3
HAZ 4
HAZ 5
HAZ 6
HAZ 7
BASE MATERIAL 1
BASE MATERIAL 2
BASE MATERIAL 3
BASE MATERIAL 4
BASE MATERIAL 5
BASE MATERIAL 6
HARDNESS HV5
350
330
310
290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
HEAT INPUT 1.3 kJ/mm
STEELS
A
B
C
kJ/mm.
126
D
E
F
G
H
Figure 52. Hardness of the welded structure when the heat input was 1.3
STEELS
WELD 1
WELD 2
WELD 3
WELD 4
WELD 5
FUSION LINE
HAZ 1
HAZ 2
HAZ 3
HAZ 4
HAZ 5
HAZ 6
HAZ 7
BASE MATERIAL 1
BASE MATERIAL 2
BASE MATERIAL 3
BASE MATERIAL 4
BASE MATERIAL 5
BASE MATERIAL 6
BASE MATERIAL 7
BASE MATERIAL 8
BASE MATERIAL 9
BASE MATERIAL 10
BASE MATERIAL 11
HARDNESS HV5
350
330
310
290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
Figure 53. Hardness of the welded structure when the heat input was 1.7
kJ/mm.
Fig. 54 shows the hardness results for the TMCP steels. This table shows that
the hardness of the HAZ area does not grow until it reached the base material.
Heat input also affects the width of the HAZ area, with greater heat inputs
leading to wider HAZ areas. Of all the TMCP steels, the only one not displaying
hardness growth at the base material was steel A when the heat input was 1.7
kJ/mm. Under these conditions, steel A is likely to have a wider HAZ than the
other steels and hardness measurements from the base material of steel A
were not captured within the scope of this test.
Fig. 55 shows the hardness results of steel G which was 12 mm thick. It was
remarkable that the width of the HAZ was the same regardless of heat input
values. This could be attributed to the thickness of steel G which was greater
127
than all of the other steels. Another reason for this behaviour could be within the
microstructure of steel G, which had neither Nb nor Ti. These microelements
have a big influence upon the microstructure, where Ti inhibits grain growth in
the HAZ, while Nb only has an effect upon the HAZ with the presence of other
alloying elements. Overall, it is not very clear why the HAZ width is the same
regardless of heat inputs in steel G. Another option to consider is whether the
equations for two or three dimensional conduction of heat are still valid with
Hardness HV5
HSSs.
350
300
250
Steel A 1.0 kJ/mm
200
150
128
STEEL G
1.0 kJ/mm
1.3 kJ/mm
1.7 kJ/mm
WELD 1
WELD 2
WELD 3
WELD 4
WELD 5
FUSION LINE
HAZ 1
HAZ 2
HAZ 3
HAZ 4
HAZ 5
HAZ 6
HAZ 7
HAZ 8
BASE MATERIAL 1
BASE MATERIAL 2
BASE MATERIAL 3
BASE MATERIAL 4
Hardness HV5
350
330
310
290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
In HSSs 780 and 980 DP, it was noticed that a greater reduction in base metal
hardness occurs in the HAZ of 780 DP steel. This may be due the higher
dislocation density present in the ferrite phase of this material producing a
larger driving force for recovery (Kaputska et al. 2008), which is important to
notice when planning steels structures using HSSs.
If the weld is welded with many passes, then the ICCGHAZ has been observed
(Liu at al. 2007, Hamada 2003, Li et al. 2001, Lambert et al. 2000, Matsuda et
al. 1995, Davis & King 1993, Lee et al. 1993) to be the worst impact ductility
zone between two CGHAZs. This LBZ has a very brittle structure where the MA phase will destroy the impact ductility. This ICCGHAZ is narrow and
discontinuous, and only 0.5 mm width (Davis & King 1993) depending on heat
input. CTOD tests are better suited to find this kind of brittle areas than CharpyV tests, but in this study test place was unfortunately too far from the fusion line
and ICCGHAZ LBZs were not under investigation. In Gleeble made test bars
only one heat input was used.
The very brittle microstructure proves that the CGHAZ is a weak area within the
HAZ. In this situation, it is assumed that the CGHAZ is the weakest zone in
welded structure. In real structures, there are many zones in the HAZ and the
width of the CGHAZ is usually narrow. The total width of all zones in the HAZ
depends on heat input. When the heat input is large, those zones are wider and
the tensile strength and toughness properties of the structure go down. The
microstructure of the CGHAZ can be composed of M-A constituents and this
making the structure very brittle. A good example of this brittle structure is seen
in fig. 57 which was taken of Gleeble simulated QT test bar. The main
microstructure is martensite and the proportion of bainite is less than half.
Additionally, the coarseness of bainite is a metallurgical factor affecting the
impact properties as Lampert et al. (2000) have also studied.
130
CTOD test results from the welded structure and base material are presented in
table 35 and in fig. 58. Overall, the base material has the lowest CTOD value.
Only steel H exhibited different behaviour, as the base material of steel H had
the highest CTOD value and only decrease by its higher heat inputs. This result
was one of the hypotheses of this study. As seen in fig. 58, the highest results
from this CTOD test were 0.2 or more. Five of the eight tested HSSs reached
this value when the heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm. Steel A also reached this value
with a heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm, but the value was too high as the result of a
measurement mistake which is not clear. There were big differences between
the base material CTOD test values. The lowest values, near 0.05, were seen
in steels A, C, D and G, whereas the highest value, 0.2, was seen in steels B, F
and H. With the heat input at 1.0 and 1.3, the measured values were not so
unambiguous because the measured HSS, like steel B, had a low value when
the heat input was 1.0 (0.15) and a high value (0.3) when the heat input was 1.3
and 1.7kJ/mm. Steel F had good values with all the welded structures.
It is very difficult to find the weakest zone of the HAZ. It was expected that the
CGHAZ would to be the weakest area, however, it is very difficult to find the
CGHAZ from within the HAZ. The place of CTOD test was 2 mm from fusion
line, the same measurement as was used in Charpy-V test. As shown in table
35, near all test results were higher than base materials results. This most likely
means that these measurements were taken from a HAZ area other than the
CGHAZ. In fig. 56 it can clearly be seen that the place of the test was not in the
CGHAZ. Depending on heat input, this zone of the HAZ was so far from the
fusion line that the test place was most likely in the ICHAZ or SCHAZ. When
conducting the CTOD test on a welded structure made from HSS, the initial
crack must not be more than 0.5 mm from fusion line. If this criterion is met,
then the initial crack will be in the CGHAZ.
Table 36 shows the results from Gleeble tested pieces. These test pieces were
made to clarify the features of the CGHAZ microstructure from the tested HSSs.
These CTOD test results are very low compared to CTOD test results from
131
welded structure, which means that all the CTOD test results from simulated
structures were very brittle, as seen in fig. 59. In fig. 59, it is clearly explained
that all of the results of this CTOD test were very low and within close value
proximity to one another. Only steel E had one value over 0.05, however, this
value was very low when compared to the base material. Fig. 58 additionally
explains that the base material CTOD test values in all the tested HSSs were
higher than in the Gleeble simulated test bars.
2 mm
End of
sawed
crack
starter
notch
Fusion line
Crack
extension
using cyclic
force
Breakage
after
bending
Figure 56. Broken QT steel CTOD test piece where the place of initial crack is
well seen.
When welding using undermatched filler material as was used in this study, it is
clear that the weakest zone is in the weld. The rate of undermatching has a
significant role in fracture toughness. When the rate of undermatching is low,
the HAZ can have lower toughness than the weld or base material. This can
encourage the toughness of the welded structure to decrease. Pisarski and
Dolby (2003) concluded that the worst case fracture toughness of softened
HAZs occurred when the HAZ undermatched in strength both the weld deposit
132
and the parent plate. In this study, the highest level of undermatching was in the
weld, which makes the fracture toughness acceptable.
100 m
Figure 57. The CGHAZ of Gleeble simulated and CTOD tested QT steel. Aspect
ratio is 1:500.
kJ/mm
kJ/mm
kJ/mm
BASE MATERIAL
VALUE
VALUE
VALUE
VALUE
STEEL
mm
CATEGORY
mm
CATEGORY
mm
CATEGORY
mm
CATEGORY
0.05
0.42
0.12
0.12
0.21
0.14
0.30
0.31
0.06
0.07
0.12
0.27
0.07
0.14
0.04
0.27
0.10
0.11
0.14
0.21
0.18
0.23
0.28
0.28
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.11
0.21
0.17
0.15
0.13
c= critical
u= unstable
m=high tensile
133
Base
Heat
Heat
Heat
input
input
input
1.0
1.3
1.7
0.05
0.022
0.015
0.027
0.21
0.024
0.025
0.018
0.06
0.012
0.011
0.008
0.07
0.013
0.016
0.008
0.10
0.031
0.036
0.065
0.18
0.021
0.010
0.016
0.08
0.011
0.014
0.022
0.21
0.021
0.017
0.010
0,45
0,4
0,35
0,3
BASE MATERIAL
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
134
0,25
0,2
0,15
Base material
Heat input 1.0 kJ/mm
0,1
0,05
0
When comparing the structure of a Gleeble made CTOD test bar and a welded
test bar, the size and phase of microstructure of the CGHAZ is different. In
Gleeble made test bars, the initial austenite grain size was greater, ranging in
value from 3-4 (ASTM E112-10) than grain size of welded CGHAZ, ranging in
value from 4-5 (ASTM E112-10). The same differences in size were observed in
the initial austenite grains of both QT and TMCP HSSs. This is explained in
more detail in 7.11.5. Additionally, the microstructure of Gleeble made test bar
had more martensite than the welded CGHAZ. In this study, the fracture
toughness between welded and simulated structure cannot be compared
because the CTOD test of welded structure was not in the CGHAZ.
135
The microstructure of the steel C, TMCP HSS, base metal, fig. 61, consists of
bainite (70%) and ferrite (30%). The effective grain size of the base metal corresponds to 14 number, ASTM E112-10, 3.0 m. The optimum microstructure
with a desired balance of mechanical properties are achieved through a suitably
designed thermomechanical process. This includes heavy deformation of the
austenite, carried out in the non-recrystallisation temperature region, which
brings about significant refinement of the final transformation microstructure.
136
Both QT and TMCP HSS steels have exceptional working properties and although they have different microstructures, both HSSs are good to cold form,
cut or machine. However, the welding these steels makes their properties quite
different. Both HSS have bainite in their microstructure, but the tempered martensite microstructure of QT HSS forms differently than ferrite in TMCP HSS.
Also TMCP HSS has more bainite (70%) than QT HSS, and additionally rolling
TMCP HSS has worked its faces more parallel than the faces of QT HSS.
137
a)
b)
Figure 62. Microstructure of TMCP (a) and QT HSS (b) weld. Wf (Windmanstatten ferrite), pf (polygonal ferrite) and af (acicular ferrite) are observed.
Close to the weld interface the metal is exposed to the temperatures between
liquidus and solidus lines described as the fusion line (FL). This zone is in partially melted state. Microstructure of FL of QT HSS E has mixed microstructure
which contains bainite and polygonal ferrite, fig. 63.
138
QT HSS E CGHAZ borders the FL and refers to the HAZ subjected to peak
temperatures above the grain coarsening temperature, the latter is 1300 oC for
steels which have been Ti-treated to elevate their grain coarsening temperature
(Eastling 1992). As the peak temperature exceeds the critical point, AC3,
complete retransformation to austenite occurs, fig. 64. The extent of following
grain coarsening depends on the peak temperature, the time above the grain
coarsening temperature, the chemical composition of the steel and presence of
undissolved nitride and carbonitride particles. When heated above 1300 oC,
most of these particles, except the most stable such as TiN, dissolve (Mitchell et
al. 1995). This results in reduction of pinning effect of the particles and following
grain growth. At the same time long exposure of the HAZ to high temperature
promotes homogenizing of austenite by alloying elements. So grain coarsening
and homogenizing of austenite make it more stable. During cooling the grain
coarsened austenite transforms to non-equilibrium transformation products
depending on steel chemistry and cooling rate.
139
In both TMCP and QT HSS steel coarse grain microstructure of initial austenite
grains is clearly revealed in CGHAZ. Austenite grains grew from 5.6 m, number 12 (base metal) up to 75 m, number 4-5 (according to ASTM E112-10)
during welding heating. In QT HSS E during subsequent cooling coarse grains
were divided into packets of a lath bainite and low-carbon martensite, which
slightly refines the constituents of the structure and has a positive effect on the
resistance to crack propagation (Lamberte-Perlade et al. 2004). In TMCP HSS
C during subsequent cooling coarse grains were divided into packets of a lath
and granular bainite. Both microstructures are seeing in fig. 65 a and b.
a)
b)
Figure 65. Optical microstructure of CGHAZ of QT HSS E (a) and TMCP HSS C
(b).
0.025 kgf loading. The hardness of the lath martensite in CGHAZ exceeds 300
HV and reaches 340 HV, fig. 66. Packets of bainite have hardness less than
300 HV. Tempered martensite of the base metal is characterized by a hardness
of 270-280 HV.
Most prior austenite grain boundaries are clearly visible in CGHAZ of TMCP
HSS C, allowing the mean austenite grain size to be measured. The mean
austenite grain size at this size is 89.0 m, 4 number (according to ASTM E11210). Within prior austenite grain several crystallographic packets with high
misorientation angles between them, which slightly refines effective grain size,
can be identified.
FGHAZ refers to HAZ regions which have been subjected to peak temperatures
between the austenite grain coarsening temperature and the upper critical point
AC3, typically between about 1300 and 910 C (Eastling 1992). Both CGHAZ
and FGHAZ are the zones which have become fully austenitic due to weld
thermal cycle. The microstructures of these zones continuously change
142
Along the HAZ of HSS QT steel, FGHAZ has the most fine grain structure with
the mean grain size of 4.0 m, 13 number (according to ASTM E112-10), fig.
69. There are more equilibrium transformation products, such as polygonal ferrite, and islands of granular bainite in this zone. Compared with tempered martensite of BM, microstructure constituents of FGHAZ have lower hardness.
Hardness of ferrite equals 210 HV, granular bainite 230 HV, fig. 70.
143
The most fine grain and uniform structure within the HAZ of TMCP HSS C is
observed in FGHAZ, fig. 71. The microstructure contains mostly polygonal ferrite with a hardness of 220 HV and dispersed islands of granular bainite with a
hardness of 240 HV.
144
ICHAZ refers to HAZ regions which have been subjected to peak temperatures
between the upper and lower critical points AC3 and AC1, typically between 910
and 720 C (Eastling 1992). In this region partial retransformation to austenite
occurs during heating, the exact extent of which is governed by the peak
temperature within the intercritical temperature range. During cooling, the
austenite regions decompose to different extents and to various transformation
products, fig. 72 (Matsuda et al. 1996).
145
The SCHAZ is the region of HAZ that has been subjected to peak temperatures
below the lower critical point AC1, below 720 C (Eastling 1992). The processes
of nucleation and spheroidization of carbides occurs in this zone, fig. 74. Black
cementite conglomerates are clearly identified in fig. 75. The agglomeration of
spheroidized cementite particles at grain boundaries and triple junctions emphasizes the role of grain boundaries as high diffusivity channels for carbon at
these low temperatures.
146
a)
b)
147
Base metal microhardness of the QT and TMCP steels is similar, 265 and 273
HV respectively, fig. 77. The weld metal has a lower hardness (200-210 HV) in
comparison with BM, while undermatching between the weld and base metal
occurs.
a)
b)
As it seen from fig. 77, the HAZ microhardness of the both steels varies over a
wide range. Characteristic of the TMCP steel HAZ is a general decrease in
hardness with respect to the base metal. In the HAZ of QT steel a decrease as
well as increase in hardness is observed depending on the resulting
microstructure.
In the HAZ of QT welded joint the highest hardness reaches 290-317 HV and is
observed in the CGHAZ close to the fusion line. This can be explained by the
formation of bainite- martensite microstructure. Increased hardenability of steel
at the CGHAZ, because of the increased carbon content in the base metal and
a strong grain growth due to welding thermal cycle, is the cause of such
microstructure. There is a gradual decrease in hardness with decreasing the
fraction of martensite in the microstructure with the distance from the weld and
the associated reduction of maximum heating temperature.
148
CGHAZ of the TMCP steel welded joint has microhardness 230-240 HV. The
decrease in the hardness in relation to the base metal is explained by the full
recrystallization of microstructure and its transformation to the austenite during
heating. Optimum microstructure with a desired balance of mechanical
properties and primary bainitic microstructure with a high density of dislocation
are achieved through suitably designed thermomechanical process. Low
hardenability of the TMCP steel is explained by a very low level of alloying
elements and carbon. When heating exceeds the AC3 temperature the full
recrystallization of the microstructure occurs and the more equilibrium products
of transformation with lower density of dislocation are achieved. This is the main
cause of a decreasing of the hardness at a considerable distance from the HAZ.
The lowest hardness in the HAZ of the both steels corresponds to the FGHAZ.
It is explained by the formation of the polygonal ferrite in this area. Austenite
fine grain and insufficiently high cooling rates assist in transformation of the
austenite into ferrite with low density of dislocations.
During heating between AC1 and AC3 (ICHAZ) austenite composition in the
microstructure varies from 0 to 100% according to the local maximum
temperature or in other words to the distance from the fusion line. Ferrite as a
product of austenite decomposition determines the hardness of this region of
the HAZ after cooling.
So both TMCP and QT steels are characterized by the softening in the HAZ but
the lowest hardness relates to the weld metal. Formation of the quenched
structures in the HAZ of QT steel can lead to cold cracking during welding and
deterioration of the toughness of CGHAZ.
149
a)
b)
Figure 78. Microstructure of CGHAZ HSS E of the Gleeble sample a) and a real
GMAW welded joint b).
150
a)
b)
Figure 79. Microstructure of TMCP HSS E CGHAZ of the Gleeble sample (a)
and a real GMAW welded joint (b).
When comparing the HAZ grain growth in the simulated weld and the real weld,
this current study also came to the same conclusions of previous research
(Easterling 1992) where it was observed that the maximum initial austenite
grain size in real welds is less than what is seen in simulated welds. This trend
has been mainly observed with medium heat input values. This phenomenon
can possibly be explained by the fact that small grains hinder the grain growth
of the large grains in real welds. This is shown in fig. 80, where it can be observed that the change in grain size is associated with a very steep temperature
gradient. The grains can move other way, like grains which have a large temperature gradient across them tend to grow non-uniformly. Then it results
change of shape from equiaxed to pear-shaped. A grain can also experience
surface tension restrictions when adjacent grains are trying to expand at faster
or slower rates (Easterling 1992).
151
Figure 80. Grain size in the HAZ as a function of the peak temperature and distance from the fusion line (Easterling 1992).
HAZ under welding, especially the effects of the heat input and the cooling
time. It has been clearly observed within this research that higher yield
strengths HSSs require lower heat inputs and cooling time t8/5. In this study
there were so many different HSS from the different manufacturers (eight steels
from six manufacturers) that the observation was unambiguous regardless of
the steel or manufacturer.
Welding DQ HSSs required the lowest values in heat input. The microstructure
and the hardness are the most susceptible areas of DQ steels, yet these steels
have the highest yield strength of HSSs. The martensite and bainite
microstructure of QT steels leads to a brittle CGHAZ structure, as seen in DQ
steels, and therefore the heat input must be low, near 1.0 kJ/mm. In TMCP
steels hardness decreases in the CGHAZ when compared to the base material.
This must be taken into consideration, especially if the filler material is
undermatched, because a soft HAZ can weaken the entire welded structure. If
the filler material is matched and the heat input is as low as 1.0 kJ/mm, then
despite reduced hardness in the HAZ, the welded structure will have as good
strength values as the base material in TMCP HSS.
At the same time that hardness is decreasing, the impact toughness decreases
when the cooling time is longer. Similar to the work of other researchers (Shi &
Han 2008, Liu at al. 2007, Wang et al. 2003, Juan et al. 2003), this study has
also observed that greater heat input leads to decreasing impact toughness
values, which can lead to damage in the welded structure especially in low
temperatures such as -40 C. The same phenomenon will happen despite the
manufacturing method used to make the HSSs. This study has shown that the
welding circumstances in the workshops, good professional skills, and needed
WPSs are important when pursuing a good impact toughness in HSS welded
structures.
153
9. CONCLUSIONS
1. It has been acknowledged in this study that when welding HSS with a
minimum yield strength of 690 MPa, the heat input cannot be over 1.0
kJ/mm. If the heat input is greater than this, then the impact ductility,
toughness, tensile strength and fatigue strength properties of the welded
structure start to decrease and in the worst case scenario, the welded
HSS will break unexpectedly because of the brittle structure in the HAZ.
M-A grains in the HAZ can be the source of initial crack as an increased
heat input results in more M-A grains in the HAZ. The heat input 1.0
kJ/mm in this study leads to t8/5 time 21 s if the plate thickness is 8 mm,
however when the thickness of the welded plate is thicker, the heat input
must be calculated again. Based on earlier studies, it was recommended
that the heat input for HSS with a minimum yield strength of 690 MPa
should be anywhere between 1.0 through 2.0 kJ/mm. This study has
clearly indicated that these ranges are too high regardless of the method
which was used to make the HSS; QT, TMCP or DQ.
2. The disappearance of nitrides and carbides in the CGHAZ during welding
leads to a growth of initial austenite grains. The base metal temperature
in the CGHAZ exceeds 1300 C and this causes the microstructure to
change. When the temperature of the CGHAZ decreases, the stable
particles
that
gave
the
base
material
its
small
homogenous
these methods were not utilized in the course of this research, although
they can offer new solutions for welding HSSs.
3. Elongation at break in all the HSS welded structures was too low when
compared to the standards of these steels. Values of 6.1 % were
observed when heat input was 1.0 kJ/mm, 7.1 % when heat input was
1.3 kJ/mm and 7.0 % when heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm. These values are
only half of the required 15 % necessary for HSSs. Big differences
between the yield strengths of the weld and base materials meant that
most of the yielding occurred in the weld. The same situation occurs in
real welded structures when using undermatched filler material, main
yield will happen in the weld. Designers of steel structures must consider
that the majority of the yielding will happen in the weld.
4. The tensile strength of welded structures was good. Although the tensile
strength of filler material was only 72 % of base material tensile strength,
some welded structures had near the same tensile strength as the base
material. The average value of weakness was 15.4 %, when heat input
was 1.0 kJ/mm, 16.3 % when heat input was 1.3 kJ/mm and 18.7 %
when heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm. Additionally, the tensile strength of
welded structure was 25.2 % when heat input was 1.0 kJ/mm, 23.9 %
when heat input was 1.3 kJ/mm and 20.5 % when heat input was 1.7
kJ/mm, higher than the tensile strength of the filler material. The fusion
zone has experienced mixing during the welding process, most likely
involving the mixture of alloying elements that make inclusions, such as
carbides and nitrides.
5. Using undermatched filler material when welding HSSs with a yield
strength of 700 MPa is a workable method. There are many benefits to
using this method as have been previously discussed. Planning ahead
careful welding is the best guarantee to ensure a good final result when
welding HSSs with a yield strength of 700 MPa. Undermatched filler
material survives as filler metal, too.
6. However, if the steel structure is loaded in low temperatures, from -20 C
to -40 C, then the CGHAZ could be the place from which failure can
occur. The CGHAZ is near the fusion zone and there is always undercut
155
between the weld and base material. The undercut is the initial crack
near the weakest zone of the HAZ. It is important to repair it within the
structure through grinding and polishing. This is important if the welded
structure is dynamic loaded.
156
HSSs use has been growing in the steel industry. Many of those products will
be in use in the winter in Arctic areas. It would be important to clarify more
behaviours of welded HSS structures in -40 C and -60 C temperatures. All
tests should be conducted at these lower temperatures to ensure that HSS will
be able to endure in the demanding Arctic area.
In this study, the CTOD test was only implement in the CGHAZ. It would be
important to test all HAZ zones to test if the hypothesis that the CGHAZ is the
weakest zone in the HAZ. This is important when QT steels and TMCP steels
are in service in the same steel structure.
Only two impact ductility tests have made in this study. There were such a big
range of values that the mean values of some HAZs were not the real impact
ductility value. To make sure which is the real impact ductility mean value in the
HAZ more tests must be done. Together with CTOD tests it will give the best
estimation of the structure.
In this study micro photography has also been done. However, TEM testing of
the microstructure gives a better description of the microstructure. Using this
method would be an easy way to clarify content of inclusions, such as carbides,
nitrides and carbonitrides. Additionally, the size and shape of inclusions could
be clarified through TEM testing.
157
11. SUMMARY
In this doctoral thesis the usability of HSS in welded structures has been
researched. Welded QT, TMCP and DQ HSSs have been under examination.
The use of these HSSs grows in many industrial areas and the need for
knowledge of these steels structures manufacturing is in high demand.
Today, HSS is manufactured using three different methods, QT, TMCP and DQ.
The microstructure of these steels and HAZ area after welding, mechanical
properties, usability, and other main discrepancies in the welded structures
were researched. Only after carefully clarifying the research topic and discusses
welded high strengths structures was experimental research done using
different laboratory tests. These tests were all conducted with undermatched
filler material with three different heat inputs, 1.0, 1.3 and 1.7 kJ/mm.
The research carried out during this doctoral thesis had four key findings.
1) A clear implication of this study points out that when welding HSS, thickness
8 mm and butt joint, the heat input must be 1.0 kJ/mm or lower. HSS steels with
a heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm have better HAZ microstructures and additionally
superior tensile strength and impact test values than steels with a heat input of
1.3 or 1.7 kJ/mm.
2) When welding all three types of HSS (QT, DQ and TMCP), the CGHAZ was
very brittle. This brittleness occurred because of the high heat input used during
the welding process causes dissolve of carbides and nitrides and also growing
of initial austenite grains. The CGHAZ is narrow using low heat input and in
normal steels structures it does not significantly weaken the structure. However,
if the steel structure is loaded in low temperatures, from -20 C to -40 C, then
the CGHAZ could be the area from which failure can occur.
158
3) The tensile strength of the welded structures was acceptable. Although the
tensile strength of the filler material was only 72 % of base materials tensile
strength, some welded structures had nearly the same tensile strength as the
base material.
Elongation at break values in all the welded structures were low. Values of 6.1
% where observed when the heat input was 1.0 kJ/mm, 7.1 % when the heat
input was 1.3 kJ/mm and 7.0 % when the heat input was 1.7 kJ/mm. These
values are only half of the required 15 % necessary for HSSs. The same
situation occurs in real welded structures when using undermatching filler
material, and the main yield will occur in the weld. Designers of steel structures
must consider that the majority of the yielding will happen in the weld.
4) When welding HSSs with a yield strength of 700 MPa, using undermatched
filler material is an acceptable method. This undermatched filler material will
survive as a filler metal. However, planning ahead and careful welding are the
best guarantees to ensure a positive result when welding HSSs.
159
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Gral, A. Bostan, B. zdemir, A.T. Heat treatment in two phase region and its
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Hamada, M. Control of strength and toughness at the heat affected zone. Welding International, vol. 17, no 4, pp. 265-270. 2003.
Hwang, G.C. Lee, S. Yoo, J. Y. Choo, W. Y. Effect of direct quenching on microstructure and mechanical properties of copper-bearing high-strength alloy
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Kou, S. Welding Metallurgy, Second Edition. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2003.
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Network documents
http://www.worldautosteel.org/uploaded/AHSSApplicationGuidelinesVersion4.p
df
(read 3.6.09)
168
Appendix 1.
Thickness
V-Groove 60
Welding process
MAG
Welding position
PA
Groove preparation
machining
Groove cleaning
Fastening
Edge fastener
Accesory equipment
Tack welding
Back gouging
Non
Backing ring
Fiberglass tape
Electrode
Cutting-edge angle
0
Filler material and shielding gas
Classification of filler
material
Torch angle
Angle of tilt
OK AUTROD 12.51
Powder
Preheating temperature
Ar + 15 % CO2
Shielding gas
Plasma gas
Method
Heating rate
Backing gas
Soaking temperature
Soaking time
DC
Type of current
Cooling rate
+ pole
Polarity
Finishing
Welding
Process
Filler
material
MAG
MAG
Customer
Flow
rate
range
(A)
Arc
voltage
range
(V)
Welding
speed
range
(mm/min
Wire feed
range
(m/min)
Heat input
range
( kJ/mm)
Length of
free wire
( mm )
Oscillation
frequence
( Hz )
Amplitude (
mm )
1.2
220225
22.3
243
5.8
1.0
15
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
1.2
225230
25.5
275
6.8
1.03
19
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
Accepted
7.4.2009 Markku Pirinen
169
Notes!
Appendix 2.
Thickness
V-Groove 60
Welding process
MAG
Welding position
PA
Groove preparation
machining
Groove cleaning
Fastening
Edge fastener
Accesory equipment
Tack welding
Back gouging
Non
Backing ring
Fiberglass tape
Electrode
Cutting-edge angle
0
Filler material and shielding gas
Classification of filler
material
Torch angle
Angle of tilt
OK AUTROD 12.51
Powder
Preheating temperature
Ar + 15 % CO2
Shielding gas
Plasma gas
Method
Heating rate
Backing gas
Soaking temperature
Soaking time
DC
Type of current
Cooling rate
+ pole
Polarity
Finishing
Bead
Welding
Process
Filler
material
Flow
rate
range
(A)
Arc
voltage
range (
V)
Welding
speed
range
(mm/min
Wire feed
range
(m/min)
Heat input
range
( kJ/mm)
Length of
free wire
( mm )
Oscillation
frequence
( Hz )
Amplitude (
mm )
MAG
1.2
220-225
22.3
243
5.8
1.0
15
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
MAG
1.2
260270
29.0
270
8.0
1.35
19
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
Customer
Accepted
7.4.2009 Markku Pirinen
170
Notes!
Appendix 3.
Thickness
V-Groove 60
Welding process
MAG
Welding position
PA
Groove preparation
machining
Groove cleaning
Fastening
Edge fastener
Accesory equipment
Tack welding
Back gouging
Non
Backing ring
Fiberglass tape
Electrode
Cutting-edge angle
0
Filler material and shielding gas
Classification of filler
material
Torch angle
Angle of tilt
OK AUTROD 12.51
Powder
Preheating temperature
Ar + 15 % CO2
Shielding gas
Plasma gas
Method
Heating rate
Backing gas
Soaking temperature
Soaking time
DC
Type of current
Cooling rate
+ pole
Polarity
Finishing
Bead
Welding
Process
Filler
material
Flow
rate
range
(A)
Arc
voltage
range (
V)
Welding
speed
range
(mm/min
Wire feed
range
(m/min)
Heat input
range
( kJ/mm)
Length of
free wire
( mm )
Oscillation
frequence
( Hz )
Amplitude (
mm )
MAG
1.2
220-225
22.3
243
5.8
1.0
15
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
MAG
1.2
260270
30.9
230
7.6
1.75
19
Measured values
Kemppi Data pro
DLI10
Customer
Accepted
7.4.2009 Markku Pirinen
171
Notes!
Appendix 4.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Inclusion Characteristics
Chemical Composition
Region A 50.1O-0.7Mg-1.6Al-3.9Si-2.8S-19.6Ti-21.4Mn
Region B 48.2O-0.9Mg-1.6Al-3.4Si-2.3S-22.2Ti-21.4Mn
51.4O-1.4Al-4.5Si-1.7S-18.1Ti-22.8Mn
Region A 32.2O-0.5Al-1.3Si-0.9S-51.4Ti-13.7Mn (Ti-O2)
Region b MnS, Region c Ti-Oxide
Region A 32.3O-1.5Al-0.7Si-50.4Ti-15.1Mn
Region B 35.4O-3.2Al-6.1Si-0.8S-26.5Ti-28.0Mn
Region C 35.3O-4.4Al-9.6Si-1.4S-3.6Ti-45.8Mn
30.9O-1.8Si-26.5S-3.5Ti-37.3Mn
56.2O-1.3Al-5.5Si-2.1S-15.4Ti-19.5Mn
77.8O-0.9Si-1.3S-17.2Ti-2.8Mn
65.5O-0.5Si-1.4S-22.8Ti-9.8Mn
65.4O-2.5Si-13.0S-16.0Ti-3.1Mn
67.9O-3.5Si-4.4S-21.1Ti-3.1Mn
73O-1.9Al-6.9Si-1.0S-14.6Ti-2.7Mn
55.1O-4.0Al-17.6Si-1.6S-3.6Ti-18.2Mn
55.9O-4.2Al-17.6Si-1.8S-2.4Ti-18.1 Mn
Region A 57.9O-4.6Al-17.4Si-1.9S-2.8Ti-15.5Mn
Region B 60.2O-1.7Al-2.2Si-0.6S-24.5-10.8
33.7O-2.3Al-15.4Si-3.5S-6.5Ti-38.7Mn
53.7O-5.0Al-17.6Si-2.0S-4.1Ti-17.6Mn
68.6O-0.9Al-15.6Si-1.5S-2.9Ti-10.5Mn
80.6O-0.7Al-14.0Si-2.1S-2.6Ti
Region A 49.9O-10.9Si-1.1S-12.0Ti-26.2Mn
Region B 49.3O-13.4Si-3.8S-3.9Ti-29.6Mn
12.1O-1.2Si-32.9S-53.8Mn
62.0O-9.8Si-0.7S-10.5Ti-17.0Mn
56.8O-1.9Al-16.0Si-2.1S-2.2Ti-21.1Mn
47.0C-14.4N-10.9O-1.2Mg-2.0Al-24.5Zr Zr
Region A 23.0N-1.9Mn-7.9Al-66.6Zr-0.7Ti;
Region B 39.9N-23.4O-1.0Mg-30.3Al-5.4Zr
45.4C-14.6N-15.6O-0.8Al-23.9Zr
40.3C-13.0N-13.4O-1.7Mg-2.8Al-28.7Zr
Region A 40.4O-10.9Mg-23.0Al-25.7Zr
Region B 48.9O-15.0Mg-36.1Al
Region A 20.8N-33.2O-1.7Mg-1.6Al-42.7Zr
Region B 79.5O-20.5Zr
Region A 18.9N-29.2O-2.95Mg-3.0Al-46.0Zr
Region B 17.2N-40.8O-3.8Mg-13.9Al-24.3Zr
11.2N-50.6O-14.2Mg-19.6Al-4.4Zr
62.7O-3.4Mg-2.0Al-31.92Zr
56.0O-3.8Mg-29.5Al-10.8Zr
63.7O-36.3Si
59.3O-13.2Al-9.0.Si-6.1Ti-12.4Mn
65.0O-10.0Al-5.9Si-6.7Ti-12.5Mn
59.5O-10.4Al-13.8Si-2.3Ti-14.0Mn
63.7O-5.3Al-5.2Si-11.1Ti-14.7Mn
Description
O, Al, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
Composite inclusion
Ti-Mn oxide
Mn, S, O rich
Ti-Mn oxide
O, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
Ti oxide
O, S, Ti rich
Ti Oxide
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
O, Si, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, Mn rich
Composite inclusion
O, Al, Si, S, Ti, Mn
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, S, Ti rich
O, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
O, Si, S, Mn rich
O, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, S, Ti, Mn rich
Carbo-Nitride - Al2O3
Composite inclusion
Zr Carbo-Nitride
Zr Carbo-Nitride
Composite inclusion
Composite inclusion
Composite inclusion
Composite inclusion
O, Mg, Al, Zr rich
O, Al, Mg, Zr rich
SiO2
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
O, Al, Si, Ti, Mn rich
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