Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 809813

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Energy and Buildings

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Estimation of passive cooling efciency for environmental design in Brazil

J.T. Oliveira *, Aya Hagishima, Jun Tanimoto
Kyushu University, Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 6-1 Kasuga-koen Building F, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka-ken 816-8580, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 7 January 2009
Received in revised form 29 January 2009
Accepted 15 February 2009

An estimation of passive cooling techniques was conducted for 14 cities in Brazil, using a fairly accurate
algorithm that accounts for heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation; this was done to
determine the amount of heat gain/loss of room air, dened as a particular quantitative index for passive
techniques. Heat gains and losses were calculated for four envelope conditions namely, insulated, highalbedo, wet surface, and a combination of the previous two and compared to a case assumed to be the
standard condition. A conclusion drawn was that a passive design is efcient in decreasing the need for
cooling in typical dwellings in Brazil; solutions should differ with regional climate characteristics. In
semi-arid areas, evaporative cooling showed the best results. Reduced heat gain was found during the
warm seasons for all cities, along with increased heat gain during the cool seasons for mid-latitude cities.
In particular, a combination of high-albedo enveloping and evaporation can greatly decrease heat gain in
building walls. High-albedo surfaces in the sub-tropical areas found in southern Brazil are more efcient.
It is suggested that passive techniques should be conceived in such a way so as to work during the cooling
season and be disabled during mild ones.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Passive design
Passive cooling
Evaporative cooling
Environmental architecture

1. Introduction
As a developing country, Brazil faces many problems associated
with its social-economical development; of these, energy consumption is one of the most important. Brazil has reached
important material achievements that were long ago achieved
by other industrialized countries; the question now is how to
advance sustainably. According to government reports [1], electric
energy consumption is increasing, especially in the residential and
commercial sectors, in spite of the recent crisis that led to an
extensive rationing policy.
Under these conditions, it is hoped that careful architectural
design can contribute to a reduction in a buildings energy consumption and thus improve its performance. Principles such as
passive design can play an important role in adapting a building to its
surroundings and improving indoor thermal conditions. In hot and
humid countries such as Brazil, the simple effect of cooling can
signicantly improve living conditions for a portion of the population.
Empirical methods used to evaluate design techniques and the
efciency therein already exist, but they provide an approximation
that usually takes into account only a few aspects of real-world
phenomena. Nishikawa et al. [2] created climate maps for passive
cooling potential on the Kyushu main island in Japan, using a

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 92 583 7646.

E-mail address: joaotales@yahoo.com.br (J.T. Oliveira).
0378-7788/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.02.006

simplied model to nd an approximate value for surface

temperature (usurf):

usur f uair

ac ar


Isw;noon

(1)

Eq. (1) is a reasonable approximation, used to determine

equivalent surface temperature; it is useful for verifying the
effectiveness of passive design solutions, but it has two crucial
drawbacks: a lack of a viewpoint for hourly evaluation and a
disregard for evaporations inuence on the surface-heat balance.
This study looks to estimate the efciency of different passive
design techniques, by calculating the total amount of thermal gain
and loss in a room environment, while accounting for the effects of all
the ux elements taking place on the envelope surface, such as
evaporation, radiation, convection, and conductive heat transfer.
Although complex, this model aims to be an alternative and easy-touse passive cooling assessment method for designers, allowing them
a rst-approximation albeit a qualitative estimation at a glance,
which can be used to apply the appropriate technique with a
reasonable level of accuracy. Students and professionals alike can
then integrate the acquired knowledge into the early stages of design.
2. Numerical model
The effects of evaporation, conduction, convection, and radiation can be calculated in this model by solving the thermal balance
equation for temperature at an indoor surface, based on the Finite

J.T. Oliveira et al. / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 809813

810

Nomenclature
cp,dry-air
cp,m
cp,vapor
f
Isky
Isw
Isw,noon
Kx
L
l
Lw

v
x
Xsat(u)
Xout

a
ac
ar
b
e
u
uins
uins,surf
uout
r
s
l

specic heat of dry air [J kg1 K1]

specic heat of moist air [J kg1 K1]
specic heat of water vapor [J kg1 K1]
water vapor pressure [mmHg]
atmospheric radiation [W m2]
shortwave radiation [W m2]
shortwave radiation at noon [W m2]
mass transfer coefcient [kg m2 s1 (kg kg1)1]
latent heat of water vaporization [J kg1]
wall thickness [m]
Lewis number (value assumed to be 1)
wind speed [m s1]
any given distance within wall [m]
saturated absolute humidity for temperature (u)
[kg kg1]
absolute humidity of outside air [kg kg1]
absorptivity
convective heat transfer coefcient [W m2 K1]
outside radiative heat transfer coefcient
[W m2 K1]
surface wetness factor
emissivity
temperature of envelope [K]
indoor air temperature [K]
indoor surface temperature [K]
outside air temperature [K]
density [kg m3]
Stephan-Boltzmann constant [W m2 K4]
thermal conductivity [W m1 K1]

Difference Method for every hour; in this way, 8760 single values
are generated in a year. A heat transfer equation for general
expression (e.g., Davies [3], Clarke [4]) that can be applied not only
to the inside of the envelope, but also to boundary surfaces can be
drawn as follows:

rc p

@u
@2 u
l 2 C
@t
@x

(2-1)

C represents the source term, dened as

8
< CV Rnet  L  EV outdoor surface;
C ac-ins uins  u indoor surface;
:
0 if 0 < x < l:

(2-2)

where the convection, net radiation, and evaporation terms mean,

respectively:
CV ac-out uout  u ;
4

(2-4)

(2-5)

Isky esky suout ;

p
0:526 0:076 f ;

EV b  K x X sat u  X out ;
Kx

Q gain ac-ins uins;sur f  uins

for uins;sur f > u ins ;

Q gain ac-ins uins  u ins;sur f

for uins;sur f < u ins :

Concerning the convective heat transfer coefcient, ac, we assume

the following (McAdams [5]):

3:9v for v  4:9;
ac 5:6 0:78
7:2v
for v > 4:9:
Indoor temperature (uins) and emissivity (e) were assigned
constant values (i.e., 26 8C and 0.95, respectively), together with
different envelope conditions: absorptivity (a) and wetness factor
(b). b is a dimensionless number that empirically denes
evaporation. b = 1 and 0 refer to a completely wet surface (i.e.,
equivalent to a water surface) and a dry one, respectively. In order
to simplify the calculation process only the material properties and
surface conditions (horizontal and vertical) without obstructions
were taken into account. The effect of natural ventilation is a rather
complex phenomenon that would require a more detailed
approach, and thus was not addressed in this study. Table 1 lists
the characteristics of the simulation setting.
The different envelope conditions of cases A, B, C, and D were
compared to a control case, which was considered the standard
condition for the surface. Case A refers to a surface with high
albedo, i.e., a whitewashed acrylic latex coating. Case B takes into
account evaporation, i.e., a wetted surface. Case C simultaneously
combines the circumstances of cases A and B, and case D has the
same properties as the control case, but with the addition of a 20mm inner layer of insulation.
The external walls of the typical Brazilian residence are made of
ceramic bricks covered with one or two layers of mortar and one or
two coats of paint. The walls of low-budget houses tend to be
neither covered with plaster nor painted, and most of their roofs
are not tiled. For the purposes of this study, walls are assumed to be
made of 100-mm thick ceramic blocks covered with 10-mm plaster
layers on both sides (U = 1.82.5 W/m2 K), while the building slab
made of dry gravel concrete was 100 mm thick (U = 22.79 W/
m2 K). Figs. 1 and 2 show the envelope types used in this study. The
properties namely, r (density), cp (specic heat), and l
Table 1
Envelope conditions.

a
b
Remark

Control

0.65
0.0
Reference

0.2
0.0
H. Albedo

0.65
0.6
Eva. Surf.

0.2
0.6
A+B

0.65
0.0
Insulation

(2-3)

Rnet aIsw eIsky  esu ;

esky

In this study, the amount of heat gain/loss of room air due only
to convection of the inside wall surface is assumed to act as an
index, indicating how effective certain passive techniques are. In
this case, the total heat gain/loss in the room airhereafter called
thermal gain/loss, can be dened as

ac-out
;
Lw  rc pm

c pm c p;dry-air X air  c p; por

(2-6)
(2-7)
(2.8)
(2-9)

Fig. 1. Standard and insulated slabs. (A) Dry gravel concrete: r = 2300 (kg m3);
l = 1.75 (W m1 K1); cp = 880 (kJ kg1 K1). (B) Cotton wool insulation board:
r = 2300 (kg m3); l = 1.75 (W m1 K1); cp = 840 (kJ kg1 K1).

J.T. Oliveira et al. / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 809813

811

Table 3
Percentage of accumulated heat gain (relative to control case), for a concrete slab
(horizontal).

Fig. 2. Standard and insulated walls. (A) Light plaster: r = 1800 (kg m3); l = 1.15
(W m1 K1); cp = 1000 (kJ kg1 K1). (B) Ceramic brick: r = 1300 (kg m3); l = 0.90
(W m1 K1); cp = 920 (kJ kg1 K1).
(C) Cotton wool insulation board.

City

A (high Albedo)

B (evaporation)

C (A + B)

D (insulated)

Belem
Sao Luis
Fortaleza
Natal
Recife
Maceio
Salvador
Brasilia
Vitoria
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Curitiba
Florianopolis
Porto Alegre

61
54
56
58
60
67
62
81
65
70
82
87
76
76

58
76
65
67
67
67
69
67
69
62
74
74
69
69

83
94
87
88
90
92
91
97
90
90
98
99
97
94

61
61
62
62
61
65
61
68
66
60
73
77
70
67

Table 4
Percentage of accumulated heat gain (relative to control case), for a south-oriented
wall.
City

A (high Albedo)

B (evaporation)

C (A + B)

D (insulated)

Belem
Sao Luis
Fortaleza
Natal
Recife
Maceio
Salvador
Brasilia
Vitoria
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Curitiba
Florianopolis
Porto Alegre

57
47
50
54
57
64
58
83
60
65
80
86
70
72

58
84
68
70
71
72
73
72
71
65
79
78
70
72

83
96
87
89
91
94
92
98
90
89
98
99
91
94

56
57
57
58
55
62
57
66
61
56
68
71
63
60

Fig. 3. Map of stations.

based on the Test Reference Year (TRY) methodology. It contains

hourly dry-bulb temperature, relative and absolute humidity, wind
speed, and direct and diffuse solar radiation, among other
elements. Solar radiation provided in the form of direct and sky
elements was derived from hourly cloud cover values. Other
elements were measured in airport stations by the Brazilian
Association of Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (ABRAVA/
IBF), together with the Institute of Aeronautics and Space (CTA/IAE
INFRAERO) (see Goulart et al. [8]). A map of the 14 stations is
plotted in Fig. 3.

(conductivity) for each type are given; values are based on

Lamberts et al. [6].
3. Weather database
The database used in this study is the result of an extensive
revision and improvement of available measured data, undertaken
by the Energy Efciency in Buildings Laboratory (LabEEE) at the
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, a public university in
Brazils southern region [7]. There are data les for 14 stations,
Table 2
Accumulated heat gain for control case, according to orientation.
City

Belem
Sao Luis
Fortaleza
Natal
Recife
Maceio
Salvador
Brasilia
Vitoria
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Curitiba
Florianopolis
Porto Alegre

Annual accumulated thermal gain (MJ/year m2)

Latitude

East

West

North

South

Horizontal

1.48
2.68
3.88
5.98
8.18
9.58
12.98
15.98
20.38
22.88
23.68
25.58
27.78
308

405
392
387
307
312
279
296
182
189
246
87
53
115
153

414
434
459
373
364
338
343
222
214
278
125
85
131
177

326
340
341
273
267
224
248
127
154
192
64
37
89
110

460
446
470
394
404
373
377
291
246
336
159
114
165
243

874
797
847
690
702
699
680
641
469
638
369
267
355
440

Annual Max Gain for

Horizontal Surface (W/m2)
121
113
122
105
102
103
110
138
100
147
120
109
104
127

J.T. Oliveira et al. / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 809813

812

Table 5
Accumulated values for control case and respective percentages of heat loss, for a concrete slab (horizontal).
City

Control case (MJ/year m2)

A (high Albedo) (%)

B (evaporation) (%)

C (A + B) (%)

D (insulated) (%)

Belem
Sao Luis
Fortaleza
Natal
Recife
Maceio
Salvador
Brasilia
Vitoria
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Curitiba
Florianopolis
Porto Alegre

9
4
4
25
13
53
28
184
122
115
348
506
245
337

+170
+172
+201
+59
+65
+83
+70
+60
+41
+51
+37
+35
+42
+40

+228
+4028
+577
+160
+292
+116
+243
+59
+66
+58
+31
+21
+47
+41

+362
+5069
+886
+227
+413
+195
+352
+121
+108
+110
+65
+50
+86
+78

100
100
98
100
99
98
99
90
87
90
80
73
78
76

Table 6
Accumulated values for control case and respective percentages of heat loss, for a south-oriented wall.
City

Control case (MJ/year m2)

A (high Albedo) (%)

B (evaporation) (%)

C (A + B) (%)

D (insulated) (%)

Belem
Sao Luis
Fortaleza
Natal
Recife
Maceio
Salvador
Brasilia
Vitoria
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Curitiba
Florianopolis
Porto Alegre

10
5
6
24
13
59
29
186
119
117
333
489
249
334

+137
+113
+97
+42
+44
+62
+51
+54
+32
+45
+30
+25
+30
+28

+123
+3061
+246
+116
+212
+74
+188
+49
+55
+44
+26
+15
+36
+31

+240
+3884
+423
+178
+332
+243
+289
+101
+85
+88
+50
+34
+61
+56

99
99
98
96
94
86
91
33
32
75
67
62
64
64

4. Results and discussion

The results offer quantitative information useful to architects in
comparing different passive cooling techniques. Instead of a
detailed output, it explains how efcient they are as a rst
approximation, which is sufcient and important in the early
stages of the design process.
Table 2 shows the year-integrated thermal gains for all 14
cities and 5 envelope orientations for the control case. The
relevance of different conditions i.e., insulated wall, high-albedo
surface, evaporation, and a combination of the last two of these
conditions can be seen from their performance compared to the
control case.
It can be seen from Table 2 that horizontal and south-oriented
surfaces experience the highest thermal gains. With regards to
thermal loss, all orientations showed similar values. Thus, only
south-oriented and horizontal surfaces were chosen as representative results. Tables 3 and 4 show the percentage of total thermal
gain compared to the control case, for south-oriented and
horizontal surfaces. Tables 5 and 6 show the integrated thermal
loss and percentages compared to the control case, for each
envelope condition. For example, in Belem city (rst row, Table 3),
the use of high-albedo surfaces can result in a 61% reduction in heat
gain, compared to the control case. Such reective coatings can be
very effective especially during summer, as attested by Synnefa
et al. [9] and Akbari [10] although they can also contribute to
increase indoor temperature and cooling load by increasing
incidental solar radiation at a building surface, as a study by
Ihara et al. [11] demonstrated. Likewise, an increase of 170% in heat
loss can be observed for the same location (Table 5). In comparison

to the control case, Belem (2.68 latitude) and Curitiba (25.58

latitude) showed the highest values for heat gain and loss,
respectively (Tables 2, 5 and 6).
Comparing high-albedo surfaces (case A), evaporation (case B),
and the combination of both (case C) (Tables 3 and 4), it can be
inferred that cooling efciency increases from (A) to (C) at lower
latitudes, along with diminishing heat gain. This would suggest
that an emphasis should be placed on mixed solutions, to increase
cooling effect; for instance, light-colored walls can be designed,
along with small roof ponds. Also, it can be noticed that in order to
reach an appropriate cooling performance in higher latitudes, it is
sufcient just to use high-albedo surfaces (A), whereas in lower
latitudes, another passive technique should be used (C) concurrently.
5. Conclusion
Thermal loss for three passive design techniques in 14 cities in
Brazil was estimated using an accurate model that calculates
heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation. It was
found that they can be effective in increasing heat gain for
common dwellings in Brazil but attention should be paid to the
seasonal behavior of evaporative and high-albedo surfaces,
especially at low latitudes. The best results were found in
southern regions such as Sao Paulo, Curitiba, and Porto Alegre,
where a reduction of more than 90% in cooling load could be
observed. In conclusion, this study shows that our complex,
albeit incomplete, one-dimensional computation model offers an
acceptable level of accuracy in estimating heat gain, based solely
on building design.

J.T. Oliveira et al. / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 809813

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) for providing us with
nancial support through its scholarship program, and Kyushu
University for its material support.
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