c=:I

C::'
I

~
Appendix B

Fluid and Rock Properties

B.1 Introduction

Integration of the pressure-gn;dient equation requires determina

tion of individual phase velocities. densities, viscosities, and, in
some cases, surface tension at different pressures and temperatures.
In dynamic conditions of multiphase flow in pipes. the pressure and
temperature of the fluids change continuously. Consequently. very
active mass transfer occurs between the liquid and the gas phases.
As the pressure decreases in the direction of flow below the bubble
point, gas evolves from solution in the oil, increasing the gas veloc
ity and the oil dcnsity and viscosity. Such flow and fluid property
changes can be predicted with either compositional or black-oil
models. The compositional models presented in Appendix C can
represent the mass-transfer phenomena more accurately and are ap
plicable universally.
This appendix presents methods to determine fluid physical prop
erties required in the black-oil model. The assumptions in the black
oil model are that. at any fixed temperature, pressure, API gravity
of the liquid phase and spccific gravity of gas, the liquid phase has
a fixed gas solubility and formation volume factor. These assump
tions imply that the composition of the oil and gas do not change
with pressure and temperature. This constant composition assump
tion may be valid for the oil phase. but can cause errors in predicting
the physical properties of the gas phase.
Gas solubility is defined as the volume of gas dissolved per unit
volume of liquid at a fixed temperature and pressure. Formation vol
ume factor detemlines the change in the volume of a phase at differ
ent pressures and temperatures. This appendix presents a detailed
discussion of these black-oi1 parameters. An important limitation of
the black-oil model is its inability to predict retrograde condensation
phenomena. The black-oil model should be avoided for very vola
tile or light crude oils or gas condensates. Compositional models are
recommended for these cases.
Most black-oil-model-rclated fluid physical properties 128 can be
determined by use of pressure/volume/temperature (PV1) ceUs.
These are often called PVf properties. This appendix present.s the
mt)st widely used and reliable fluid and rock physical property cor
relations. These correlations are very useful in determining the fluid
and rock physical properties required in the application of the multi
phase flow theories presented in this monograph. However. the COf
relations should be used with proper caution. Most of these correla
tions arc empirical in nature and are based on a limited quantity of
representative samples of data. Some of these PVf properties are de
veloped from reservoir fluid samples belonging to particular geo
graphical areas and may not be applicable in other areas where reser
voir fluid composition is very different Although PVf property
correlations are very widely used in the petroleum industry world

wide, the use of laboratory data measured on representative sanlples

taken from the reservoir is strongly recommend whenever available.
Most ofthe fluid and rock properties included in this appendix have
been reponed previously.I.5 However, we decided to incorporate
some of these materials, in some cases verbatim Of with minor
changes, and to provide supplementary lIlfommlion when necessary.
B.2 Hydrocarbon Physical Properties

Crude oils and natural gases contain several pure organic and inor
ganic chemical components, each with its own properties. Table
B-1 presents selected physical properties ofseveral of these individ
ual components. Refs. 6 and 7 present more complete data.
Table 8-1 shows a very wide range of molecular weights, boiling
points, phase densities, and critical temperatures and pressures
among the components constituting reservoir fluids (crude oils or
natural gases). Clearly. the physical properties ofreservoir fluids are
pressure and temperature-dependent. The critical pressure and
temperature of a multicomponent mixture are called pseudocritical
pressure, ppc. and pseudocritical temperature, Tpc , respectively. In
this appendix. these pseudocritical properties are used as correlating
parameters in many empirical correlations. If the mixture composi
tion is known, these quantities may be estimated from
(B-1 )

and
nc

Ppc =

YjPcj ,

. " ................... , (B-2)

j=l

where 7Ic number of components in the mixture; Yj = mole fraction

of Colfiponent j; Tcj = critical temperature of Componentj, OR, and
Pcj = critical pressure of Componentj, psia.
If the system composition is not known. Figs. B-1 through B-3
can be used to estimate Tpc and {'pc. Fig. 8-1 provides a way to esti
mate these quantities forundersarurated oil at reservoir pressure; the
oil specific gravity corrected to 60F (the value normally reported)
is used. ~The specific gravity of a petroleum oil and of mixtures of
petroleum products with other substances is the ratio of the weight
of a given voiume of the material at a temperature of 60F ... ~v th;:
weight of an equal volume of distilled water at the same tempera
ture. both weights being corrected for the buoyancy of air." 9 This
often is referred to as Yo at 60F/60F, Sometimes the weight of the
MULTIPH.4SE FLOW IN WELLS

TABLE B-1-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS AND SELECTED COMPOUNDS6

Gas Density
at 60F,
1 atm
(lbmlft3)

Critical
Pressure
(psia)

Critical
Temperature
(OR)

Molecular
Weight

---.t!L

Methane, CH 4

16.04

, -258.7

201.0

343.1

668

30.07

-127.5

332.2

19'
22.22'

0.04228

Ethane. C2H6

0.07924

549.8

708

Propane, OsHa

44.10

-43.7

416.0

31.66'

0.1162

665.7

616
529

Constituent

Normal Boiling Point

Liquid Density
(lbmlft3)

Isobutane, C4H10

58.12

10.9

470.6

35.12"

0.1531

734.7

n-bu!ane, C4 H10

58.12

31.1

490.8

36.44"

0.1531

765.3

551

Isopentane. CS H12

72.15

82.1

541.8

38.96

828.8

n-pentane, CS H12

72.15

96.9

556.6

39.35

845.4

490
489

n-hexane, CS H14

86.18

155.7

615.4

41.41

913.4

437

n-heptane. C7 H16

100.20

209.2

668.9

42.92

972.5

397

n-octane. C eH18

114.23

258.2

717.9

44.08

1,023.9

361

n-nonane, C 9 H2D

128.26

303.5

763.2

45.01

1.070.4

332

n-decane, ClOH22

142.29

345.5

805.2

45.79

1.112

304

Nitrogen, N2

28.01

-320.4

139.3

Air (02+N2)

28.96

142.1

carbon dioxide. CO2

44.01

-317.6
-109.3 .

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S

34.08

Water

18.02

0.07380

227.3

493
547
1,071

0.07630

238.4

350.4

51.5"

0.1160

547.6

-76.6

383.1

49.3"

0.08977.

212.0

671.7

62.37

2.02

-423.0

36.7

0.005313

59.9

181

Oxygen, O 2

32.00

-297.4

162.3

0.08432

278.6

737

Carbon monoxide, CO

28.01

-313.6

146.1

0.07380

240

507

Hydrogen. H2

Apparent density in liquid pl1ase.

"Density at saturation pressure,

oil is not detenruncd at 60F, in which case the specific gravity is

either corrected to 60F to give Yo at 60F/60F or is reported as Yo
at the given temperature. The pressure at which the liquids are
weighed is not specified. In Fig. B-1, the specific gravity at reservoir
pressure corrected to 60F is the ratio of the oil density at reservoir
pressure and temperature corrected to 60F to the density ofdistilled
water at 60"F and I atm. Fig. B-2 applies to bubblepoint liquids by
use of the specific gravity corrected to 60F. Fig. B-3 applies to con
densate well fluids and natural gases. To use Fig. B-3, the gas gravity
must be known. Tpc and Ppc normally are used to estimate the
pseudoreduced temperature, tjm and pressure, Ppr'
Tpr

=! .................................... (B-3)

672.4

1.306

1.365.3

3,208

1972 Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.

With gas in solution, oil physical properties also depend on gas sol
ubility, in addition to the pressure, temperature, and API gravity ofoiL

B.3.l Gas Solubility. Gas solubility is defined as the volume of gas

dissolved in one stock tank barrel of oil at a fixed pressure and tem
perature. Gas solubility in oil increases as the pressure increases, up
to the bubblepoint pressure of the oil. Above the bubblepoint pres
sure, gas solubility stays constant (Fig. B-4) and crude oil is often
called undersaturated. In black-oil models, gas solubility deter
mines the mass transfer between the liquid and gas phases.
This parameter fails to predict any retrograde condensation ef
fects. For light oils or condensates, where retrograde condensation

and
Ppr

1,300

iii

1.200

.;
P
= p~'

................................... (B-4)

f!!.rr.
_0
}j i
'51

where T~ temperature of interest, "R, and p = pressure of inter

est, psia. In Eqs. B-1 through B-4, temperature and pressure must
be absolute.

'II

Oil, in the absence of gas in solution, is called dead oil. The physical
properties of dead oil are a function of the API gravity of the oil,
l' API. pressure, and temperature. API gravity of oil is defined as

0
."

900

0.

eoo

"ill

13.3 Oil Physical Property Correlations

1,100

1,000

..:s

'"'"
li:" ..

5'a

700
Pseudoorilical
Pressure

600

500

~ ~ 400

:5<>.

l' API

141.5
-y;;-

."'".

."

131.5,

......................... (B-5)

B-5, Yo specific gravity of stock tank or

with Yo at 60F, In
dead oil at 60"F/60F. If the oil gravity is reported at other than 60F,
it can be corrected to 60F by use of the technique described in Ref.
9. (In Ref. 9, Table 5 is used for hydrometer measurements at other
than 60"F; Table 7 allows the correction of volume at a g.iven tem
perature to volume at 60F.) The API gravity of water is 10.

fLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

!l.

300
200
0.62

0.65

0.70

0.74

0.78

0.62

0.66

SpecifIC Gravity of Undersalurated Reservoir Uquid

ai A<>servoir Pressure Corrected 10 ro'F

Fig. B-1-Approximate correlation of liquid pseudocritical pres

sure and temperature with specific gravity (after Trube8 ).
103

m~~
1=1=

8
G

a
u:

,'\,.

I,

I\.

, r\ \
l
f\

,-"

"

co

..'"
f

::J

"

'-"

1\

650

COllciensate

ases

_____

ell FII1Ic1s-""""

Speeilic Gravity of Und....""turall!<!

Re...."ol, liquid al SO"F, r

600

\1\

\. f\ 1\
'66-'66>>' '''''-'''>''~

r----- __-c~~M~'~e~e~"a~n~e~o;u;s:~~------

b11.000000 0

.~

.<t,

550

.~

fl03

Il.

'E

&.

8
6

II>

:E

.a

Jl

500

.ae
"'C::

.. "

800

!:

D_

.....
Q"

400

I1
100

450

'"
E

0..

"...
::J

1,000

900

Pseudocrilicat Temperature,

1,100

II>

Il.

Tpc. "R

3OO~"~~~~~~__~~~~~~~~~

0.6

0.1

0.8

1.0

0.9

1.1

1.2

Gas Gravity. Yg (air = 1)

Fig. 8-2-Correlation of liquid pseudocritica l temperature with

specific gravity and bubblepoint (after Trube8 ).

effects aIe suspected. use of this paIameter may lead to substantial

error in calculations. In this case, tlle amount and composition of
each phase should be predicted by flash-vaporization calculations
presented in Appendix C.
In the flash-vaporization process, the gas liberated from the oil in
a PVT cell during pressure decline remains in contact with the oil
from which it was liberated. This is quite different from the differen
tial-vaporization process,19 which is considered to be more repre
sentative of the sepaIation process experienced in the reservoir flow
system. TIlis is because of the higher transmissibility of gas, leading
to faster flow of gas, and leaving behind the oil from which it was
liberated. Consequently, the differential-vaporization process is de
fined as the separation of the solution gas that is liberated from an
oil sample as a result of a change in pressure andlor temperature.
with continuous removal from contact with the source oil before es
tablishing equilibrium with the liquid phase. Fig. B-4 compares gas
solubility with these two types of vaporization processes.
Several empirical correlations 10 delermine gas solubility aIe
presented. TIley assume a flash-vaporization process.

Standing Correkltion. The Standing

correlation 21

R = Y (~+ I 4)100.012SYAI'!-o.oOO9IT
,
g[
18.2
.
]

states
..... (8-6)

Lasater Correlation. Lasater l2 presemed the empirical relation

ship to calculate the solution gas/oil ratio or gas solubility as

C32~:5Y(J)( 1 ~g

yJ, ...................

(B-7)

where Yo specific gravity of oil; Mo = effective molecular weight

of tank oil ohtained from Fig. B-6; and)'g = mole fraction of gas, a
correlating parameter obtained from Fig. B-7.
104

TABLE B-2-COEFFICIENTS FOR VAZQUEZ AND BEGGS13

CORRELATION
Coefficient

YAPIS30

C1
C2

0.0362

C3

25.7245

YAPI> 30

0.0178

1.0937

1.1870
23.931

Vazquez and Beggs l3 presented

Vazquez and Beggs Correkltion.

an improved empirical correlation to estimate gas solubility, Rs,
which can be written as

R, =

CIYgIOOPC2exp[

C3 (T :A~60)

. ............. (8-8)

where the values for the coefficients are presented in Table B-2.
The gas specific gravity, Yg 10), refers to a separator pressure of
100 psig and can be calculated from

1.2048

where Yg = specific gravity of gas (air= 1.0); T= temperature, OF;

p system pressure, psia; and YAPI = gravity of oil, 0 API. It is often
convenient to calculate the gas solubility from the nomograph pres
ented in Fig. B-S.

R, =

Fig. B-3-Correlation of pseudocritical properties of conden

sate well fluids and miscellaneous natural gases with gas grav
ity (after Brown et al.10 ).

{giOO = Yg ( 1.0

+ 5.912 x

ill

-5

YAPITuP

Glasfl Correkltion. This correlation 14 is based on North Sea

crude-oil data. The mathematical fonn is
= Yg (

Q.989
YAPl
TO.172

where Tis in

OF

and

) 1.2255

(B-I0)

Pb

P; =

3
I

where.1g 100 = gas gravity at the reference separator pre~sure of 100

psig; Yg gas gravity at the actual separator conditions of Psep and
Tup; Pup = actual separator pressure, psia; and Tsep actual separa
tor temperature, oF. If the specified gas gravity, Yg. is at any pressure
other than 100 psi. it should be adjusted to Yg 100 with Eq. B-9.

Pup)

log 114.7 '

..................... (B-9)

1O{2.8869-114.1&IJ -3.3093 log (PIl 05 1.

MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

C:.:

c::

voir to surface conditions. Thus, the fonnation volume factor is al

ways equal to or greater than 1.0. A mathematical definition is
Differential

B _ (Vo\.T
o -

Flash

............................ _'"

(8-14)

where Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbVSTBO; (\{,)P.T = vol

ume of oil at pressure, p, and temperature, T, bbl; and (\{,)sc vol
ume of oil at standard conditions, STB.
The oil formation volume factor increases continuously with
pressure as more gas dissolves in the oil until the pressure reaches
the bubblepoint or the saturation pressure. As the pressure increases
above the bubblepoint pressure, the oil stops dissolving more gas
and the fonnation volume factor decreases because of the compress
ibility of the liquid. Fig. B-8 describes this behavior. It is important
to note that the oil formation volume factors are detennined by use
of different equations above and below the bubblepoint pressure.
Consequently, it also is imperative to determine the bubblepoint
pressure before the oil iormation volume factor is determined.
There are different correlations to calculate the oil formation vol
ume factor and the bubblepoint pressure. A few of the more com
monly used correlations are presented here. The bubblepoint pres
sures are calculated from the solution gas/oil ratio correlations given
in Sec. B.3.1 by setting R, equal to the producing gas/oil ratio, Rp.
and solving for the corresponding pressure.

IPb
Pressure
Fig. B-4-ldealized comparison of flash and differential gas sol
ubilities.

The accuracy of this correlation is believed to decrease for solu

tion gas/oil ratios exceeding 1,400 scf/STBO:18 Analysis of the ex
pression for p; shows th~t the correlation cannot be used for pres
sures in excess of 19,285 psi.

AI-MarllOun Correlation. AI-Marhoun 15 presented this correla

tion based on Middle East crude oils. It can be expressed as

r, ...........................

= (ay~y~:rJp
(B-11)

where Yg = gas specific gravity; Yo = stock-tank oil specific gravity;

Rs

(Vo)sc '

T=temperature, oR; a= 185.843208; b= 1.877840; c= -3.1437;

d= 1.32657; and e = 1.398441.

Kartoatmodjo and Schmidt Correlation. This correlation 16 is

based on a wide range of data covering Southeast Asia (including
Indonesia), North and South America, and the Middle East. Kartoat
modjo and Schmidt evaluated all the correlations presented in this
section to determine gas solubility and found the Vazquez and
Beggs correlation to be the most accurate. They used it to correlate
data into two groups on the basis of API gravity, YAP!'
For YAPI :5 30,

Standing Correlation. This is the oldest and most commonly

used empirical correlaticn. 21 It was developed primarily from
California crude oils. The Standing correlation can be expressed in
this mathematical form below the bubblepoint pressure.

Be

= 0.9759 +

0.00012
[

R,(~f5 +

1.2

_.. (B-15)

1.25T
]

where T== temperature, OF; Yo == specific gravity of the stock-tank

oil; Yg specific gravity of the solution gas; and Rs = solution gasl
oil ratio, scf/STBO.
Standing also presented Eq. B-15 in graphical form as Fig. 8-9.
For noncomputer determination of the formation volume factor, this
is very convenient. The gas solubility, Rs , in Eq. B-15 should be ob
tained from Eq. B-6 or Fig. BS. To calculate the formation volume
factor of oil, Bob, above the bubblepoint pressure, Pb, use

(B-16)

Bob can be calculated from the Standing correlation (Fig. B-9 or Eq.
B-15), replacing Rs with the produced gas/oil ratio, Rp. The isother
mal compressibility, co' in Eq. B-16 can be calculated with one of
several methods, including the Vazquez and Beggs correlation from
For YAPI> 30,
Eq. B-19. The bubblepoint pressure, Ph, can be calculated by solv
R,
O.0315Oy~"tiifpU)937101L289yAP!/(T+460), ....... (B-12b)
ing Eq. B-6 for pressure after replacing Rs with R , as presented
p
by Standing. 21
where T is ill oF.
On the basis of their large data base, Kartoatmodjo and Schmidt
R
observed that the mean separator pressure, Psep. was 101.6, or very
Pb = 18.2 [( Y;
lO(O.OOO9IT-O.0!25y...,,) - 1.4 . . .. _ (B-17)
close to the Vazquez and Beggs l3 reference pressure of 100 psig.
This observation led to the adoption of 100 psig as their reference
pressure for specific gravity of gas, Yg 100. Kartoatmodjo and
Vazquez and Beggs Correlation. Based on empirical correlation
Schmidt also proposed an empirical equation to correct specific
0,6,000 measured data values for the formation volume factor of oil
gravity referrcd at any other separator pressure and temperature.
below the bubblepoint pres~ure, Vazquez and Beggs proposed this
mathematical expression.
_
(
0
OA07"T- 0.2466 I " Psep )
Y8 lOO - Yg 1.0+ .1595YAPI
sep
0"'114.7'

Rs

= 0'(15958Y~17:2pI.OOI~1OI3.l405yA,,/(T+460J.

. ..... (B-12a)

)0.8J

(B-13)
B.3.2 Oil Formation Volume Factor and Bubblepoint Pressure.
The 'lOl::mc in bd~rcls occiJpied by or.c stock tank Lam:l of oil with
the dissolved gas at any specified pressure and temperature is de
fined as the formation volume factor of oil, Bo. The r;: formation
volume factor is measured in reservoir barrels per Sloe,.:: barrel.
This is a measure ()f the volumetric shrinkage of oil f;
"~serFLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

Bo

1.0

+ CIRs + (T -

60)Ug~~ )(C

+ CJR,) ,

................... (B-IS)

where Rs = gas solUbility, scf/STBO; T= temperature, OF; and

YglOO = gas specific gravity 100 psig. Table 8-3 gives values for
and C3.
the coefficients C I,
Above the bubblepoint pressure or for undersaturated crudes, Eq.
B-16 can be used to determ;ne the formation volume factor where

,it

105

Example
Required: Bubblepoint pressure at 200"F 01 liquid with a
gas/oil ratio (GOR) 01 350 fl 3lbbl. a gas gravity of 0.75.
and a lank-oil gravity of 30"API.
Procedure: Starting at the left side of the chart. proceed
horizontally along the 35O-ft3lbblline to a gas gravity of
0.75. From that point. drop vertically to the 3O o APlline.
Proceed horizontally from the tank-oil-gravity scale to
the 200F Hne. The required pressure is found
be 1.930 psia.

Bubblepoint

Fig. B-5-Properties of natural mixtures of hydrocarbon gas and liquids at bubblepoint pressure (after Standing21 ).

TABLE B-3--COEFFICIENTS FOR THE VAZQUEZ AND

BEGGS COARELATJON13

Coefficient

TABLE B-4-COEFFICIENTVALUES FROM VAZQUEZ AND

BEGGS MODIFICATION13

YAPI s30

YAPI > 30

Coefficient

C1

4.677 x 10- 4

4.670x 10- 4

Cl

1.751 x 10- 5

1.100x 10- 5

C:.!

-1.811x10- a

the isothermal compressibility of oil. Co, can be determined from

this Vazquez and Beggs empirical correlation.

+ 12.61YAPI

Gas specific gravity, YglOO. can be calculated from Eq. B-9. pis
the pressure at which formation volume factor is to be calculated.
Vazquez and Beggs modified Eq. B-8 to solve for bubblepoint
pressure by replacing Rs with Rp. and presented this mathemati
cal expression.

....................... (B-20)

where a
cients CI.

C3 t' APIIT. Table 8-4 tabulates the values of coeffi

and C3 in Eq. B-20.

Glas Correlatioll. The Stamjing 17 PVT correlations are widely

used in the oil industry, although they are based primarily on
California crude oils. These correlations do not COrrect for other oil
types or nonhydrocurbon conlent. Glas0J~ modified the Standing
: ,,,relations to make them independent or oil type and suggested up-

56.18
0.84246

11.172

10.393

propriate corrections for nonhydrocarbon content and paraffinicity.

The Glas~ correlations were developed and validated against North
Sea crude oils. G1as~'s oil fonnation volume factor correlation can
be expressed mathematically as

CO = ------------------~~----~~------~

(B-19)

YAPI>30

0.914328

Ca

1.337x 10- 9

YAPIS30
27..62

1.0 + lOA,

(B-21a)

where

- 0.27683{
' )2
A = - 6.58511 + 2.91329 log BOb
log Bob
(B-2Ib)
and B;b is a "correlating number" defined by

B;b = Rs ( ~: )

0526

+ 0.968T.

.. ................ (B-2 Ie)

Glasl1 also presented a bubblepoim-pressure correlation and sug

gested a procedure to account for the presence of non hydrocarbon
content of the crude oil system. The proposed bubblepoint-pressure
correlation 19 can be expressed as
logpb

1.7669 + 1.7447 log p~

0.30218(log p;)2

................... (B-22a)

MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

55

.4

50

00

ii:

'!
....~
-;

...m

..0

45

40

I
,r

5,.

35

Cl

0 30

.:!t.
I::

...

ocr
0.9

4.111

25
'U

20
15

.....
100

400

200

...

bI

S:"

500

'0

4.0

a.tI

III

.,

u..

Fig. B-6-Molecular weight vs. tank-oll gravity (after Lasater12).

tI)
tI)

with

II>

p; a "correlating number" defined by

p;

.........................

(~rT'Jy~r,'

0:

0
0.

11'.11

~
.c:.

(B22b)

"

IXl

where Rs = gas solubility, scf/STBO; T= temperature, of; Yg = av

erage specific gravity of the total surface gases, and a,b.c coeffi
cients with respective values of 0.816,0.172, and 0.989. For volatile
oils. b = 0.130. For nonhydrocarbon content, GJas0 suggested these
corrections to the bubblepoint pressure, Pb.

lL4

(pole

= PbCNFc0 CHf>'
2

La

,0r1

LI

.................... (B-23)

where C;= correction factor; and (Pbk corrected bubblepoint

pressure, psia. Correction factors, C, for N2, C02, and H2S are cal
culated by

1.11

lUI
0

............ (B-24a)

a ...

where YN , = mole fraction of nitrogen in total surface gases. and Gl

through ag = coefficients of the correlation with the following values:

at == - 2.65

10-

5.5

aJ

0.0391,

Bo

== 0.027,

"

and

= 2.366.

CC02 == 1.0 - 593.8Yco,T-1.5S3,

(B-24b)

where Yeo = mole fraction of C02 in total surface gases.

1.0 - (0.9035

!
+ 0.019\45
- YAPI ) YIl2,S'

......

LO

AND ROCK PROPERTIES

1O- sF2 ,

1O- 3T + 0.182594 x 10

.....................

(B-25)

= aR;y~y~1".

.. .......................... (B-26)

(B-24c)

where C U2S == H2S correction factor and YH2S = mole fraction ofH2S
in total surface gases.
~UID

OJ'!

where F == RsY~Y~' whe:e the coefficients are a =0.742390,

b =0.323294, and c = 1.202040.
AI-Marhoun's bubblepoint-pressure correlation can be ex
pressed as

Ph

+ 0.0015Y.\I'!)YH 2s

= 0.497069 + 0.862963
+ 0.318099

C II ."

AI-Marhoun Correlation. Al-Marhoun l5 developed his fonna

tion volume factor correlation on the basis of crude oils from the
Middle East and proposed this empirical relationship.

4.699,

ag

Q4

Gas Mole Fraction

as == 1.954 x 10- 11

AI

Fig. B-7-Bubblepolnt pressure factor vs. gas mole fraction

(after Lasater12).

a 4 = 0.8295,

Q7

JJ

X 10- 3 ,

a2

where T= temperature, OR; Yo = stock-lank-oil gravity. a 5.38088

X 10- 3, b =0.715082, c== -1.87784. d=3.1437, and e= 1.32657..

Kartoa;'n, , :~io and Schmidt Correlation. Kartoatmodjo and

Schmidt l'
"ced" formation volume factor correlation at and
107

is recommended. Eq. B-90 gives an empirical conversion factor be

tween f1ash- and differential-vaporization formation volume factors.
The formation volume factor above the bubblepoint pressure can
be calculated with Eq. B-16. In this case, Bob is estimated from Eq.
B-27 and the isothermal oil compressibility, Co. is calculated from
this empirical relationship .

IT.!
l;;:,
f./)

.Q
.Q

rJ1

-"
.:
Q

c = 6.87~7

III

LL.

IV

E
:I
'0

10- 6 RO.5002yO.3613To.76606...-0.35S0S
S

Y glOO

API

..... " ............ (B-28)

>
c

;:;
III

...0

I'b

u..

where p is in psia.
The bubblcpoint-pressure con'elation is presented in two ranges
of API gravity oil.
For y API ~ 30,

Pressure, psia

... (8-29a)

Fig. B-8-Variation of formation volume factor isotherm with

pressure at constant temperature, T; I'b = bubblepoint pressure.

below the bubblepoint pressure that can be expressed mathemati

cally as

80

= 0.98496

+ O.OOOIFI.50, .................. : $-27)

where F "" R~my~l&y;UO + 0.45T, where T=temperature. of;

1'8 100 = specific gravity of gas a[ 100 psig, and Yo = specific gravity
of stock-tank oil. This formation volume factor is recommended for
the flash-vaporiL'1tion process normally encountered in pipe flow. For
application to reservoir flow, such as in inflow performance relation
ship (IPR), a differential-vaporization formation volume factor

P. =

[O.0315Oy:;'.l:':;"~'~,"",._,]

0.9143

. . .. (B29b)

Note that Eqs. B-29a and B-29b are identical to Eqs. B-12a and
B-12b, but solve for p with Rs equal to the produced gas/oil ratio,
Rp. These correlations were developed with nonlinear regression
analysis.
B.3.3 Oil Density. The density for saturated crude oils below the
bubblepoint pressure can be calculated at a given presssure and tem-

Example
Required: Formation volume at 200"F of bubblepoint liquid
with a GOA of 350 ft3lbbl, a gas gravity of 0.75. and a tank-oil
gravity of 3D API.

Procedure: Starting al the lell side of the chart. proceed

horizontally along t~e 350-ft3Ibblline to a gas gravity of

0.75. From that point, drop vertically to the 30 o APlline.
Proceed horizontally from the tank-oilgravity scale to
the 200"F line. The formation volume is found 10 be 1.22
bbVbbl 01 tank oil.

Fig. S-9-Chart to determine oil formation volume factor with the Standing correlation. 21
MULTlPHASr FLOW IN WELLS

5,000
4,000

2,000

1.000
C. 800
.., 800

6.,

400

200

"0

:::

CD

'"
ol::
.;,

.,

:.

(!)

i:

'0

!:!

i!'

:;:

"i3

"

'iii
0

()

'"
;>

\.

\\\ \.

100

eo
60

~
I'l.

4ll

" '\.\.

20

"

"\.

10
6
6

........

CD

0.9

'5

0II)

~~

0.8

0.2

0.7

0.1

..........

"

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

.0

._

..........

-.........

.......

-...

I~ ......

-6

00

Crude Oil Gravity, "API

0.6,_ __

400

200

600

800

Fig. 8-11-Gas-free crude viscosity as a function of temperature

and 011 gravity at 60F and atmospheric pressure (after BeaI 20 ).
1,000

1,200

1,400

Solubility, flJ/bhl residual oil

and
Ygl ~ Ygf ~ 0.56.

Fig. 8-1 O-Dissolved-gas gravity correlation. (After Katz et al.26

Reproduced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Cos.)
perature if the solution gaS/oil rario, Rs. the formation volume factor,
8 0 , and the specific gravity of the dissolved gas, Ygd, are known.

62.4yo

+ 0.0136R sYgd
B.

Po =

.................. (B-30)

where Yo = stock-tank oil specific gravity and Ygd = dissolved-gas

gravity described in Sec. B.3.4.
For saturated oils above the bubblepoinl. oil density can be calcu
lated by first determining the density at the bubblepoinl pressure.

Pob

)
)

62.4yo

+ 0.0136R pYg,
B

. . . . . . .. ......... (B-31)

(B-34)

OT! the basis of a simple material balance, the free-gas gravity can
be calculated by
Yxl =

RpYg, - RSYgd

R _ R
p

'

........................ (B-35)

where produced gas/oil ratio, Rp. is calculated a~ the gas solubility

at or above the bubblepoint pressure. In gas/oil. two-phase-flow cal
culations, the physical properties of the free gas, such as density and
viscosity, should be calculated based on the free-gas gravity, Ygf, as
functions of pressure and temperature, which changes the gas solu
bility and the specific gravity of the dissolved gas. Most commercial
computer programs fail to account for the changing composition of
the free and dissolved gas as pressure and temperature change .

ob

B.3.5 Oil Viscosity. The viscosity of crude oil with dissolved gas is
an important parameter in pressure-loss calculations for flow in
pipes or in porous media. Whenever possible, the oil viscosity
should be determined in the laboratory for the required pressure and
Po = Pobe<o(P-Pb).
. ..................... (B-32)
temperature ranges. This section presents empirical correlations to
calculate the oil viscosity b.ased on frequently available hydrocar
bon-system parameters, such as temperature, pressure, oil gravity,
B.3.4 Specific Gravity of Free and Dissolved Gas. In thermody
gas gravity, and gas solubility.
namically stable mixtures of oil and gas, as the equilibrium is dis
turbed with change in pressure under isothermal conditions, the
B.3.S,1 Dead-Oil Viscosity Correlations. For empirical correla
composition of each phase changes. Methane is the first hydrocar
tions, the dead-oil viscosity is determined first. The dead oil is de
bon component to evol ve into the free-gas phase at or below the bub
fined at atmospheric pressure and at any fixed system temperature
blepoint pressure. Heavier hydrocarbon components vaporiz.e with w~thout dissolved gas. This dead-oil viscosity then is corrected for
further lowering of pressure. Such sequential vaporization increases
the system pressure condition. Normally dead-oil viscosity is deter
the spedfie gravity of both thc free and the dissolved gas. Katz et mined in the laboratory whenever PVT analysis is done.
al. 26 used Fig. B-10 to predict the dissolved-gas gravity. Ygd, as a
Beal Corre/ntion. Beal20 presented a graphical correlation in Fig.
functioll of the API gravity of the crude oil and the gas solubility of
the oil phase. Because methane is the lightest component in natural B-11 to determine dead-oil viscosity if the API gravity of the crude
gas. with specific gravity of 0.56, both the free and the dissolved-gas oil and the temperature are known. Standing21 presented this mathe
gravity must be greater than 0.56. However, while the upper limit matical equation to represent Beal's correlation for dead-oil viscos
ity, ,,"od. at I-atm pressure and temperature, T, in OR.
of the free-gas gravity is the average specific gravity of the total sep
Then. given the oil compressibility, Eq. B-32 can be used for density
whenp>Pb

:rrated gas, I"gr, c:xprE~sed at sl<lil0ard conditiuns, this also forms the
lower limit of the dissolved-gas gravity. These limits can be ex
pressed mathematically as

I'gi ::;

rgd

~ 0.56 ., ............................ (B-33)

FLUID AND Ror':K PROPERTIES

J.luJ = (0.32

+ 1.8

10 )(

4
YAPI .S3

360

)Q

IT - 260,

......... (8-36)

where a = lO lOAJ+8.3J/rAPl).
109

",

10

c.

~l~

Detail

,~

!!

a.

c::

.5

'"
C;

.Q

f
'"en

, --l--- - - 1----

t=~---__ __---__ __

t::

L..-__

::l

OL---~

a.

e::
c::

~-J

~.OOO

1,000 2,000 3.000 .000

C
15c..

Pressure, psi

..

:a

Detail

!.3

.Q

G:

::J

10

>
0

c::

.c

..

'0

::J

U
'0
.?:

10--

Oi

en

L-----:
. I-_________
:;

;:;;

to

15

c=
c=

.. ,
:>
Oi

~I

'"

.c

a.

------

\:!I--

-'O~"------

.8'"

)00

c:

:;;;

c::

1---------)------
0

ct:

01

0.1

1.000 1.'00 :1.000 2.-Soo 3,000 3.'00 .000 ".~

),000

Undersaturated Pressure, p = p - Pb. psia

0.0 ! -......~~.......-!

c::
a:

Pressure. 1.000 psia

G::
Fig. B-12-Variation of oil viscosity with pressure. 20

Beggs and Robinson CorrelMion. Beggs and Robinson22 pro

posed a different empiriclll correlation to detemtine the dead-oil vis
cosity. It is based on 460 dead-oil viscosity measurements and can
be expressed mathematically as
.
Pcd = lOx - 1, ....................... , .. , ... (B-37)

where

a:

B.3.5.2 Saturated Crude Oil Viscosity. The reservoir oil viscosity

depends on the solution-gas content. Oil viscosity decreases with
rising pressure as the solution gas increases, up to the buhbJepoint
pressure. There are few empirical correlations to detennine the vis
cosity of saturated or undersaturated crude oil systems.
Beggs and Robinson Correlation. This correlation 22 is based on
2,073 saturated oil viscosity measurements. The empirical form of
this equation is

10(3.0324 - 0.02023r API)

x = ~~--------~
T 1.163

Pc

[10.715(R s + 100)-0515].u!t .............. (B-40)

and T is in OF.
based on North Sea data. Sutton and Farshad l8 found this correla
tion to be the most accurate dead-oil viscosity correlation among the
three described here. This correlation can be expressed as
(3 141

x 10 Hl)T- 3A44(log i' APi)'

J

(B-38)

't

where a = 10.313 log T - 36.447; T= system temperature, OF; and

y API = gravity of oil system, 0 APt
Eq. B38 was developed for data in the foHowing ranges of tem
perature and API graVity, respectively: 50:s T:s 300 and
20.1 :SYAPI:S48.1.

Kartoatmodjo arId Schmidt Correlation. In its empirical form,

this correlation 16 is a combination of all three previous ones and can
be expressed as
lim!

= ( 16.0 x

8)

I0 T

-2.8177(

logy API

)5,752610&(n-26.9718

+ 150) -0.338.

Q:

a=
a:
C

This correlation was developed from these ranges of data:

pressure = 132 to 5.265 psia.
temperature = 70 to 295F, "
oil gravity = 16 to 58APl, and
gas solubility = 20 to 2.070 scf/STBO.
'C;

Kartoatmodjo and Schmidt Correlation. This correlation 16 rec

ommends the following' correction of the dead-oil viscosity pres
ented in Eq. B39 to determine the live-oil viscosity, .uo,

Po = - 0.06821 + 0.9824/ + 0.0004034/2, ...... (B-41)

where

/ = (0.2001

+ 0.8428 x

!O -OOOO845R')p~43+0.5165YI

and

(8-39)

llO

b = 5.44 (Rs

G:

where

Glasp Correlation. Glas14 presented an empirical correlation

G:

y :: lO- o,ooosIR,.

C
C

t;
C

,
C

C
MULTIPHASE ROW IN WELLS

38

36
E 34
~ 32

~ 30

'il

26

to

26
24
22

200~---1~O----~20~--~~~---~~----W-----6-0~~7~O~--J80
Oil Gravity at 50F, "APt

Saturation Pressure, psia

Fig. B-13-Surface tension of crude oils at atmospheric pres

sure (after Baker and Swerdloff 23 ).

8.3.5.3 Undersaturated Crude Oil Viscosity. Above the bubble

point pressure, rising pressure increases the viscosity of oil because
of its compress!bility:Fig. B-12 present, this viscosity vs. pressure
relationship ....
,.

Vazqllez alla Beggs Correliltioll. Vazquez and Beggs 13 proposed

this correction io the saturated crude oil viscosity at the bubblepoint
pressure for pressures above the bubblepoint pressure.
(B-42)
where

Fig. B-14-Correction to dead-oil surface 1ension.23

00

;;

o,JxjIOO), ............................. (B-44)

where x = percent correction from Fig, B-14.

B.4 Water Physical Properties
Watcr is often a very important liquid component in the oil and gas
production system. 29 Consequently, the physical properties of water
play an important role in multiphase flow calculations. Among the
physical properties of water, gas solubility, formation volume factor.
viscosity, surface tensioll, and compressibility are of particular inter
est. Specific gravity or density of water is also an importanL property
and is normally readily available from an oilfield water analysis.

m=2.6 p I.l 87 1O G
and
a

).
)
)

(3.9 x IO- S)p-S.

This correlation is based on data in the following ranges:

pressure = 141 to 9,515 psia,
gas solubility = 90.3 to 2,199 scf/STBO,
viscosity=0.117 to 148cp,
gas specific gravity = 0.511 to 1.351, and
oil gravity = 15.3 to 59S API.

Kartoatmodjo and Schmidt CorrehItioll. This correlalion Hi al

lows correction of the saturated crudc oil viscosity at the bubble
point, /lob, based on Eq. 8-41 for undcrsaturated pressure, p.

B.4.1 Water Density. T:1e density of pure water at standard condi

lions is 62.4 Ibm!ft3 . Neglecting gas solubility in water, the density
of waler can be calculated from

Pw =

62.41'
s:: = ---s:;-.

p "'sc

"S<

............ . ..........

(8-45)

where p., = density of water at any pressure and temperature, Ibm!

ft3; P "S< = density of water at standard conditions. Ibm!ft3;
Bw formation volume factor of water; and )'W$C = specific gravity
of water at standard conditions.

B.4.2 Gas Solubility in Water. The solubility of hydrocarbon gas

components is inversely proportional to their molecular weights.
Thus. methane is more soluble than ethane, ethane is morc soluble
/l 0 = 1.00081/l "b + 0.00 1127(p - Pb}
than propane, and so forth. McCain 27 states that the solubility of
each component is two to three times greater tban that of the next
x ( 0.0065 I7/l';: 148 + 0.038~l!t90), ......... (8-43)
heavier paraffinic component. Methane is the most soluble compo
nent of natural gas in water. The solubility of methane in water can
where ~to viscosity of undersaturated oil, cpo
be used to estimate the solubility of natural gas in pure water with
an accuracy of5% or bener. Fig. B-15 can be used 10 estimate meth
B.3.6 Surface Tension. Surface tension 23 . 26 is a measure of the im
28
balance in the interfacial molecular forces for two phases in contact. ane solubility in pure water.
To
account
for
the
effect
of
water salinity, Dodso l1 and Standing31
In multi phase pipe now, gasniquid and liquidlliquid surface or in
suggested the corrections presented in Fig. B-16.
terfacial tension values are used to determine flow patterns and liq
Ahmed 19 recommends the use of this gas-solubility correlation
uid holdup.
The empirical work of Baker and Swerdloff,23 presented in Fig. for water.
B-13, commonly is used to estimate the surface tension of crude oil
at atmospheric pressure (dead oil). 0od. In this figure. the surface It Rrw ;; A + Bp + Cp2, ........................ (B-46)

tension of dead oil is correlated vs. temperature and the API gravity
where A 2.12+(3.45X 1O- 3)T-(3.59x 1O-S)T2, B=0.0107
of the oil. Because the precise effl!cts of temperature on dead-oil sur
-(5.26 x lO-s)T+(1.48x 1O-7)T2, and C= (8.75 x 10- 7)
face tension is unknown, extrapolation beyond the data presented in
+(3.9 x 1O-9)T-(1.02 x 1O- 11 )T2. The gas solubility is cor
Fig. B-13is not recommended.
rected for the effect of water salinity.
The surface tension of live oil with dissolved gas, 0 0 , can be ob
tained v."h an appropriate correction to God for the dissolved gas.
(R"")b = R,Cs, ....... , ................... (B-47)

Fig. H-l:. presents this correction to the surface tension of the dead
oil as n ',crccntage reduction of the dead-oil surface tension, a!' >I where T is in OF and (Rs",)!; = ~~$ ,olubility in brine, sr[ISTBW:
Rsw = gas solubility in pure water; Cs = salinity correction factor
functio!> ()f pressure, The effect of increasing pressure is to increase
= 1.0- [0.0753 -0.0001737]S, where S= salinity of water, weight
gas solubility. thus decreasing surface tension. The effect of pres
percent of NaC!.
sure on surface tension of oil with dissolved gas can be determined
Ref. 19 is the source of this gas-soluhility correlation.
from Eg. B-44.
FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

111

ical polynomial relation to determine the formation volume factor

of water.

6<

.~L

48

4C t-

I-@

32

JY!'" -.Vi

"

"

X'I'- t--...

"

l1A

'"
"

1&

r-.....
---

1/

jf

sJ

;;t

.....
~

..,.

--

r-..

-I--

r-pt-

r- P

!OO

1/
)1

.,~/

... V

i'--

---

........

140

180

V
V ~~
V V1>./ V

- -~

:220

I-

I-

r-:r

260~~O

1.2 x 1O- 4 T..

. : ....................... (B-48)

BM'

= B",b exp[ -

c,.,(p - Pb)]' ................... (B-49)

where B.,., = water formation volume factor above bubblepoint pres

sure, P/J; Bw/J = water formati9n volume factor at the bubblepoint
pressure; c.. = water compressibility, psi - I; and p == system pres
sure (p>p/J), psia.
The compressibility of water with natural gas in solution can be
estimated from Fig. B-17.3 1 The top graph yields c'" for pure water
while the bottom graph is used to determine a correction factor for
Cw to correct for the effects of gas solubility.
Meehan 32 presented an empirical correlation to determine the
isothermal compressibility coefficient of gas-free and gas-saturated
water. For gas-free water, this empirical relationship is proposed.

1O-6(A + BT + CT2 ),

(ck')J

..................

(B-50)

where (cw ) = j$Othennal compressibility coefficient of the ga<;-1Iee wa

ter, psi 1; A:03.8546-0.000134p; B= -0.01052+(4.77 X 1O-7)p;
C=(3.9267 x 10- 5) -(8.8 x 10- J~p; p=pressure, psia; and T= tem

perature, oF,
B.4.3 Water Formation Volume Factor. Because gas solubility is
very low in water compared to that ill oil, it is common practice to
neglect compressibility and gas solubility of water. Assuming negli
gible thermal expansion. water formation volume factor is assumed
to be 1.0. In actual field situations, water shows gas solubility and,
thus, shrinks under pressure reduction. Gould 30 presented an empir

..
.-

1 aBw
c..,=--
Bw ap

'iii

c..

x't

+ 1.0 x lO-oT;

where B,., formation volume factor of water. bbIlSTBW; T= sys

tem temperature. F;Tx := T - 60; and p = system pressure, psia.
Water formation volume factor above the bubblepoint pressure
changes as a result of the compressibility.

Temperature, OF
Fig. 8-1 S-Solubility of methane in pure water (after Culberson
and MCKetta28).

= 2.0 +

- 3.33 x 10 -6p ,

V ~

",:""

Bw

,,'
'H"

et=
cC

c=
c::
c::
c:::
c=
c::
G:

a:
a:
a:

c:

3.6

a:

:>:

...
s:

...

E 2.8
0
u

tl.)

Q:

II

:E

'iii

(tI

c;;:

til

Co

QI

:I

c=

...

C.

.E:

'"
iii

"0

?;

tl.)

::

"0
~~

2.4

60

III

Temperature, of

is
III

c=
Q:

(tI

C!

---c:
QI

.>:;

>'(0

l~rT~rr~~rr~.-rr~-rrT~-r~~

~ II:

In

Correction for Gas in Solution

->

!II

~=
l{l;

'0

Ef!

is

uS
c: 0
ou

.E:
"0

~
~

... tIl

:>

c..<Il

06,

~?
I/)

III

1.1

~~

ttl

(!j

ol5Q

Om

en?;
100,0-00

200,000

300,000

TDS, ppm
Fig. B-16--Effect of salinity on gas solubility: TDS=total dis
solved solids (after Dodson and Standing 31 ).

GaslWater Ratio, ft 3lbbl

Fig. B-17-Compressibility of pure water, including eHects of
gas in solution (after Dodson and Standing 31 ).

C
It:

C
III

MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

t:

>-

1.6r-"~"'--""T""---r---'--...--....

Cii

o
o

o~/

rtJ

:>...
CIl

ttl

3:
CIl

1.3[
>.
~

......
.~
o

0.09

'"
:f-

~Q9- o~ ~

/ OO~<P
/' J~Lo<C
/.. //,~O

/#'

."

if 0.05

;;;

5'"

"

0.04

.s.>

1ii

0.03

s::""

0.02

Critical Poim

0.01

:>

Q.

<J

/L..?

ffI

It'

/. / /

/ ///
/ /:.1'/

1.2

0.10

700

sO!

Temperature. OF

4 .

Fig. S-' 9-Kinematic viscosity of steam and water as a function

of temperature (after Prats 5 ).

12

16

20

24

TOS,%

uid phase. Thus, actual IJboratory viscosity data should be used in

this case.

Fig. B-18-Ratio of brine viscosity to pure water viscosity vs. sa

linity (after Frick 35).

B.4.5 Surface Tension of Water. HOCOlt36 and Hough ef al. 37 in

vestigated the surface tension of water/gas systems. Katz et a/. 26
combined their works into a sinrle diagram (Fig. B-21).
Meehan also proposed a correlation to determine the isothermal
Although these resuJts.26 ,36.3 suggest that all experiments have
compressibility of gas-saturated water.
been valid, their approach is highly questionable in its prediction of
water surface tension as a function of such variables as water salinity
(C"')g = (c"')J (1.0 + 8.9 x lO-JR,w), ........... (B-51a)
and gas composition. Nevertheless. from the work of Hough et al.
one can linearly interpolate between the curves for 74F and 280F
where (el<')8 == isothermal compressibility coefficient of the gas-sat
and obtain acceptable estimates of the surface tension of water.
urated water, psi - I, and Rsw gas solubility in water, scf/STB W.
To account for the salinity of water, this adjustment is suggested.
8.5 Gas Phvsical Properties
C", = (c",).~Cs,
............................ (B-5Ib)
A gas is defined as a homogeneous fluid of low density and viscosity
without a definite volume. Gas occupies the volume of its container
where Cw isothermal compressibility coefficient of the brine,
without regard to shape or size. According to the kinetic theory of
psi - 1, and Cs = salinity correction factor.
gases, gas is composed of a large numher of molecules of insignifi
Numbere el a/. 33 proposed this mathematical expression for the
cant volume compared to the total volume of the container. These
salinity correction factor.
molecules are assumed to have no attractive or repulsive forces be
tween them. and they collide at random. These intermolecular colli
Cs = 1.0 + (- 0.052 + 2.7 x 1O- 4T 1.14 x 1O- 6 T2
sions are perfectly elastic. An equation of state is a mathematical
+ l.121 X 1O- 9TJ)So.7, ........... _........ (B-52)
relationship between pressure, volume, and temperarure for a fixed
mass of gas and is expressed mathematically for II moles of gas as
where S == salinity of the water, weight percent of NaCl, and
pV
nRT. ...... . ......... _............... (B-54)

T== temperature. oF.

This equation is calJed the ideal gas law, where p == absolute pres
BA,4 Water Viscosity. Data on the viscosity of oilfield water are
sure, psia; V = volume of gas (gas container), ft3; T = absolute tem
very scarce. Water viscosity increases with pressure and dissolved
perature, OR; n = number of moles of gas; m = mass of gas, Ibm;
solids and decreases with increased gas solubility. No data are avail

M = molecular weight of gas; and R universal gas constant.

able on the effects of gas solubility. However, van Wingen 34 re

Hydrocarbons' or natural ga~es are not pure or single-component

ported the effect of temperature on water viscosity. His empirical
gases. These are mixtures of multicomponent gases and are called
correlation relating water viscosity with temperature in OF is pres
real gases. For real gases, the basic assumptions of negligible inter
ented as
molecular forces and insignificant volume of molecules compared
with the volume occupied by the gas are not valid. Based on empiri
Ii", = exp(1.003 - 1.479 x 1O- 2T + 1.982 x 1O- 5T2).
cal studies. the equations of state are modified for real gases to in
clude the gas deviation factor or compressibility factor, often called
................... , (B-53)

th,r Z factor.
For large dissolved-solids content in water, apply Frick's35
pV == ZnRT.
. ............. _................ (B-55)

correction chart in Fig. B-18 to estimate brine viscosity.

where the compressibility factor, Z. is an empirically determined
Fig B-19 shows the kinematic viscosity. v, of water at saturated
constant. This equation of state is called the real gas law.
condition vs .. temperature. Matthews and Russell! presented Fig.
B-20 to estimate water viscosity as a function of salinity and temper
B.S.l Gas Density. Gas den<ity is defined as the mass per unit vol
ature. This figure also provides a method to correct for pressure.
It is important to note that the production of oil and water mixtures ume of gas. From the real gas law.
often causes emulsions to form in the well. A volume fraction
m
pMg
welghteo mlxt:.lre viscosity calculation procedure does not work in
pg = 17 == ZRT' ............................. (B-56)
this case.
where p g is the density of gas. In weight of gas. and V == volume
As discussed in Chap. 3, the viscosity of an oil/water emulsion
can be many times greater than the viscosity of either constituent liqof gas. The other parameters in this equation have heen defined pre

)
)

FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

113

{c:;:
;.t
'.'

1. ..., - - - - - - - - - . . ,

:;.

Estimated Maximum ElTor

Temperature

.....::t
'":;

'"'"
Ql

n:
E

a;

::.

'"0 I.'

'.0

c:

0..

c:

iii

0.7

Viscostty,p', allalm pressure at

/

'5

2:

III

0."

less Ihan 212'F, al saluration 01

pressure of water at more than 212F.

c
c
c;

3l

a:

0.&

iii
.i':'
'iii

0....

III

;:;:

0..

t=

0. ..

0.1

~~~~~~~~~~-=~=-~I~m~~~~~I~~~~~-=KC=--bO==~~~~no~~aeo~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Temperature, of

c=

Fig. B20-Water viscosities at various salinities and temperatures (after Matthews and RusselJ1).

viously. The specific gravity of gas, Yg. is defined as the ratio of the
gas density to that of air. Pa. at standard conditiolls, expressed math
ematically as
Y
g

= (Ps)
,Po sc

Mg ............... , ..........
Ma'

(B-57)

The molecular weight of air, Ma , is 28.96 and its specific gravity is I.

Thus, the specific gravity of gas is

Yg

Mg

= 28.96 .

. . , ............................. (B-58)

Gas density in Ibmlft3 can be determined easily by combining the

re .. 1gas law with the definition of specific gravity of gas.

(B-59)

a:
c:

where Yg = specific gravity of free gas (air = l);p pressure of gas,

psia; T =absolute temperature of gas, R;Z= real-gas deviation fac
tor; and R 10.73, psia ft 3l1bm-mol OR.
The specific gravity of free gas is a function of pressure and tem
perature because it depends on the composition and quantity of gas
transferred between the liquid and the free-gas phase. Thus, Ys' in
Eg. B-59 should be replaced by Ygf as defined in Eq. B-35.

C;

c:

Houoh et at. 37 methane

HouOn el al. 31 methane

10~--~--~----~--~--~--~----~--~--~--~

2,000

4.000

6,000

B,OOO

IO,ODe

Pressure, psia

Fig. 8-Z1-Effec! of pressure and temperature on surface ten

sion of wat~r (after Katz et al. 26 ).
114

:C::;

c
c=

Viscosity at elevated pressure

"p, T = "i-fp. T

:;
'"
iii
a; 0."
a.
I

(::

Pressure--corr9ction factor, f.
for waler vs. T (oF), presumed
applicable 10 brines but nol
confirmed experimentally.

0..

...

c=
c=
c:

a.

'0

(e:

Ie;

4010120
120'10 <112
21210400

B.5.2 Real-Gas De\iation Factor. The real-gas deviation factor is a

very important variable used to calculate gas density and gas fonna
~ion volume factor. To determine this p:rrameter, Standing and Katz! I
used the law of corresponding states. This law states that at the same
reduced pressure and temperature. all hydrocarbon ga~es have the
same gas deviation factor, Eqs. B-1 through B-4 define the critical and
reduced pressures and the critical and reduced temperatures.
Brown et a/. 10 correlated the pseudocritical pressure and temper
ature with the specific gravity of gas (Fig. B-3). If the specific grav
ity of the natural gas exceeds 0.75 a correction for high molecular
weight gas should be applied. 19 Stewart et al. 38 proposed
adjustments to the pseudocritical pressure and temperature for high
molecular-weight natural gases. Note that the tenn "pseudo" is used
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

t:

c:
c:
.:
c
~?
'.~

t:

t:

Pseudorecluced Pressure
4

"'mt.
~.

...

....

J!

1
~

.,~
u

1.0

_ _ _ _ _O.!!

10

II

12

IS

Pseudoreduced Pressure

Fig. B-22-Real-gas deviation factor for natural gases as a function of pseudoreduced pres
sure and temperature.11

to represent the properties of pure gas mixtures, such as hydrocar

bon or natural gases. Stalldi~g2J presented a set of empirical equa
tions to determine the pseudocritical pressure and temperature to
approximate the curves in Fig. B-3.

.'

After determining the )Jseudocritical pressure and temperature.

Eqs. B-3 and B-4 can be used to calculate the reduced pressure and
temperature. Then. the gas deviation factor can be obtained from
Fig. B-22.
.
Several empirical correlations are available, representing the
Case 1: Natural Gas Systems.
Standing and Katz ll Z-factor nomogram (Fig. B-22). For ease of
calculation with computer programs, these mathematically ex
Tpc
168 + 325Yg - 12.5y; .................... (B-60)

.pressed correlations are convenient for Z-factor determination. The

and
Dranchuk and Abu-Kassern correlation39 is presented for the sake
~f completeness. It is an ll-constant empirical equation used to fit
(B-61)
Z-factor curves in Fig. B-22. and can be expressed as
Ppc = 677 + 15.Oyg - 37.5y;.

Case 2: Gas Condensate Systems.

Tpc = 187 + 330yg

7I.5y; .................... (B-62)

and
Ppc == 706 - 51.7)'8 - ILly;,

................. (B-63)

where Tpc "" pseudocritical temperature, oR; Ppc = pseudocritical

pressure, psia; and l'g == specific gravity of the gas mixture (air == 1).
FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

+ A 10(1 + AIIP~)i; cxp(

pr

'

AllP~) +

LO,

(B-64)
115

where P r = reduced gas density and is defined by

Pr

0.27Ppr
ZIpr .

B.S.4 Gas Formation Volume Factor. The formation volume fac

tor of gas can be calculated from the real gas law.

.............................. (B-65)

The 11 constants.AI throughA II were determined from nonlinear

regression on 1,500 data points from the Standing and Katz I I Z-fac
tor chart.
Al

= 0.3265,

A2

- 1.0700,

A3

- 0.5339, .

A4

As

A6

As

0.5475,

= 0.1844,

; ................. , . . . . . .. (8-70)

c:

where J.lga = viscosity of the gas mixture at the desired temperature

and atmospheric pressure, cp; n number of components in the gas;
Yj mole fraction of Componentj:J.lj = viscosity of Componentj at
the desired temperature and atmospheric pressure; and MJ = molec
ular weight of Component j from Table 8- L
If the gas composition is not kn.own, Fig. B-23 can be used with
the gas molecular weight or gas gravity to estimate the gas viscosity
at reservoir temperature and atmospheric pressure. Molecular
weight is related to gas gravity by

c:
c

J.lga= - , - - - - -

= 0.6134,

and

All

= 0.7210.

Eq. B-64 is implicit in Z and must be solved by some iterative

method, such as the Newton-Raphson iteration teChnique. This cor
relation represents the Standing and Katz Z-factor chart within
0.585% ave'rage absolute error and is applicable over the ranges,
0.2:$; Ppr < 30 and I.O:s Tpr :s 3.0. Although presented for Ppr up to
15, the S Landi ng and Katz Z-factor chart can be extrapolated beyond
that reduced pressure because of the linear relationship of Z vs. Ppr
at constant 1pr for Ppr > 15.

B.S.3 Correction for Nonhydrocarbons. Standing and Katz devel

oped their Z-factor correlation based on mixtures of hydrocarbon
gases with molecular weights less than 40. Natural gases often con
tain non hydrocarbon components, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
and hydrogen sulfide. At nonhydrocarbon gas-content values below
5%. there is negligible effect on the Z factor. Higher concentrations
of nonhydrocarbon gases can cause substantial error when calculat
ing the compressibility factor and, thus, require correction. Wichert
and Aziz40 presented a simple gas compressibility correction proce
dure to compensate for the presence of hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide in natural gases. This method suggests the following adjust
ments to the pseudocritical properties used to determine the Z factor
from the Standing and Katz chart.
(8-66)

(8-67)
where Tpc = pseudocritical temperature, OR; Ppc = pseudocritical
pressure, psia; T;'" = corrected pseudocritical temperature, OR;
p~c corrected pseudocritical pressure, psiu; YH 2S mole fraction
of hydrogen sulfide in the gas mixture; and e = pseudocritical tem
perature adjustment factor, defined mathematically by

Mg = 28.97yx'

A 1.6) + 15{),o5. _
\ H2~

y4.0 ) ,
H1S

(8-68a)

where the Coefficient A is the sum oftne mole fractions of hydrogen

sulfide and carbon dioxide in the gas mixture or

116

YH,S

+ Yeo,

(ll-68b)

............................... (8-71)

The gas viscosity at reservoir pressure is estimated by deterrnlning

the ratioJ.lglJ.lga at the appropriate temperature and pressure from Fig.
B-70
B-24. Then, that ratio is applied to J.lga, obtained from either
or Fig. B-23. The pseudoreduced temperatures and pressures for use
in Fig. 8-24 are estimated from Eqs. 8-3 and 8-4 and Fig. B-3.
In the presence of nonhydrogen gases, such as nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. the gas viscosity at atmospheric
pressure and desired temperature must be corrected by use of the in
serts in Fig. B-23.
Lee et al. 42 presented a semiempirical equation to calculate gas
viscosity. This equation. which cannot be used for sour gases. can
be presented as

J.l g

=:

x(tz~4fl

1O-4K exP [

.......".........

(8-72)

where K= (9,4 +O.02Mg )TI5 /(209 + 19M9 +D; X""3.5+(98611)

+ O.OIMg; Y= 2,4 - 0.2 X; P g =gas density at reservoir pressure and
temperature.lbmlft3: T = reservoir temperature, OR; and Mg apparent
molecular weight of the gas mixture.

Ii'

B.S_6 Gas Compressibility. Isothermal gas compressibility can be

defined as the change in volume per unit volume of gas for a unit
change in pressure,13 expressed mathematically as

C
g

e = J 20(A 0.9

pressure, psia;

and T = absolute temperature, OR.

0.7361,

A9 = 0.1056,

AIO

(B-69)

B.5.5 Gas Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio

of shear stress to shear rate. The commonly used oilfield unit for
viscosity is centipoise, where I poise is defined as a viscosity of
1 dyne-s/cm2 .
Carr et al. 4J presented a widely used method to estimate natural
gas viscosity. It requires knowledge of the gas composition and the
viscosity of each component at atmospheric pressure and in-situ
temperature. The viscosity of the gas mixture at atmospheric pres
sure is estimated from

= 0.01569.

= - 0.05165,

A7

= 0.0283
where Bg =gas formation volume factor, ft 3/scf;' P
B,

'= -

t(~~)T'

........................... (B-73)

WIth the real gas law to replace volume in the previous equations

and after proper differentiation,

1
Z

(d2:)
d
P

.......................... (8-74)

MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

c:

where p,. = reduced gas density and is defined by

Pr

0.27p

pr
= --z:r-.

..... .......................... (B-65)

pr

The II constants, A I through A II were determined from nonlinear

regression on 1,500 data points from the Standing and Katz 11 Z-fac
tor chart.
Aj

- 1.D700,

A3

=-

A4

As

=-

A6

= 0.5475,

As

A9
AIO

0.5339,

0.01569,

A7

0.05165,

j=1

= '--n=---IYj~

/l go

0.1056,

= 0.6134,

Eq. B-64 is implicit in Z and must be solved by some iterative

method. such as the Newton-Raphson iteration technique. This cor
relation represents the Standing and Katz Z-factor chart within
0.585% ave'rage absolute error and is applicable over the ranges.
0.2 S Ppr < 30 and 1.0 S Tpr S 3.0. Although presented for ppr up to
15, the Standing and Katz Z-factor chart can be extrapolated beyond
that reduced pressure because of the linear relationship of Z vs. Ppr
at constant Tpr for Ppr > IS.

U.S.3 Correction for Nonhydrocarbons. Standing and Katz devel

oped their Z-factor correlation based on mixtures of hydrocarbon
gases with molecular weights less than 40. Natural gases often con
tain ncnhydrocarbon compom:nts, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
and hydrogen sulfide. At nonhydrocarbon gas-content values below
5%. there is negligiblc effect on the Z factor. Higher concentrations
of nonhydrocarbon gases can cause substantial error when calculat
ing the compressibility factor and, rhus. require correction. Wichert
and Aziz 40 prescnted il simple ga' . ompressibility correction proce
dure to compensate for the prescn~.:; of hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide in natural gases. This melliod suggests the following adjust
ments to the pseudocriticai properties used to determine the Zfactor
from the Standing and Katz chart.

Tpc -

...

(B-66)

and

where Ilga viscosity of the gas mixture at the desired temperature

and atmospheric pressure. cp; n = number of components in the gas:
Y.i mole fraction ofComponclltj:/lj = viscosity of Componentj at
the desired temperature and atmospheric pressure; and M.i = molec
ular weight of Component j from Table B- I.
If the gas composition is no! Known. Fig. B-23 can be used with
the gas molecular weight or gas gravity to estimate the gas viscosity
at reservoir temperature and atmospheric pressure. Molecular
weight is related to gas gravity by

= 28.97)'8 .

Mg

P, = W.KOX [x(tz'4)'l .................

P

p""T'pc

(B-67)

+ Yll 2S( 1 - YH 2S)

where Tpc = pseudocritical temperature, OR; Ppc = pseudocritical

pressure, psia; T~c= corrected pseudocritical temperature, Ri
p~c= corrected pseudocriticai pressure, psia; YH 2S = mole fraction
of hydrogen sulfide in the gas mixture; and E =pseudocritical tem
perature adjustment factor, defined mathematically by
A I .6)

+ J5()'0.~
,H,S

K= (9.4 + 0.02Mg )T5/(209 + 19M9 +T); X=3.5 + (9861T)

Y= 2.4 -0.2 X; pg = gas density at reservoir pressure and

y"o)
HzS'

(B-68a)

the Coefficient A is the sum of the mole fractions of hydrogen

sulfide and carbon dioxide in the gas mixture or

+ Yco 2 '

temperature, Ibmlft 3; T= reservoir temperature, OR; and Mg = apparent

molecular weight of the gas mixture.

"

B.S.6 Gas Compressibility. Isothermal gas compressibility can be

defined as the change in volume per unit volume of gas for a unit
change in pressure,13 expressed mathematically as
c'=
g

wh~re

A = YH 2$

(8-72)

+ O.OIMg;

PI'C "" - - -.... ..!....,...:----,-,

Tpc

(B-7 I)

The gas viscosity at reservoir pressure is estimated by determining

the ratio /lg//lga at the appropriate temperature and pressure from Fig.
B-24. Then, that ratio is applied to/lga obtained from either Eq. B-70
or Fig. B-23. The pseudoreduced temperatures and pressures for use
in Fig. B-24 are estimated from Eqs. B-3 and B-4 and Fig. B-3.
In the presence of nonbydrogen gases, such as nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, the gas viscosity at atmospheric
pressure and desired temperature must be corrected by use of the in
serts in Fig. B-23.
Lee et al. 42 presented a semiempirical equation to calculate gas
viscosity. This equation, which cannot be used for sour gases, can
be presented as

where

......................... (B-70)

j=l

0.7210.

d
d

I)'j!lj~

= 0.1844,

All

116

where Bg =gas formation volume factor. ft3/scf; P = pressure, psia;

and T= absolute temperature, OR.

- 0.7361,

and

T(,.

Bg = 0.0283;, ............................. (B-69)

B.S.S Gas Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio

of shear stress to shear rale. The commonly used oilfield unit for
viscosity is centipoise, where I poise is defined as a viscosity of
I dyne-stcm2 .
Carr et al. 41 presented a widely used method to estimate natural
gas viscosity. It requires knowledge of the gas composition and the
viscosity of each component at atmospheric prcssure and in-situ
temperature. The viscosity of the gas mixture at atmospheric pres
sure is estimated from

0.3265,

A2

B.S.4 Gas Formation Volume Factor. The formation volume fac

tor of gas can be calculated from the real gas law.

(B-68b)

_l(av)
V
i'Jp

T'

........................... (B-73)

With thl" r!'lll gas law to r'!piace volumf' in the previous eqtlations
and after proper differentiation.
Cg

~ H~t,

..........................

(B-74)

','-;;JLTlPHASE FLOW iN WELLS

~
d

Gas Gravity (air

1.0

1,5

2.0

50

=1)

60

Molecular Weight

Fig. B-23-Viscoslty of natural gases at 1 atm (after Carr et 81.41 ).

where Z= gas deviation factor at absolute pressure. p, in psia and

absol ute temperature, 7; in oR. Note that for an ideal gas. Z = 1, and

I
p'

.................................... (B-75)

Oil Formation Volume Factor (from Vazquez and Beggs).

From Eq. B-18,

B. = 1.0 + 4.677 x 10- 4(281)

Trube 44 presented a correlation to estimate gas compressibility.

He defined isothermal gas compressibility, Cg, as the ratio of
pseudoreduccd' compressibility, cpr. to the pseudocrilical pressure,
Ppe, as

+ (180
1.0

60)(0.~;2)[1.l x

10- 5

1.337

10- 9(281)]

+ 0.131 + 0.067

1.197 bbVSTBO .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B-76)
To estimate the gas compressibility, Trube presented correlations to
estimate the pseudoreduced compressibility as a function of pseudo
reduced pressure and temperature (Figs. B-25 and B-26). Note that
these two correlations are similar. They present pseudoreduced com
pressibil.ity at two different ranges of compressibility values.

SpecifIC Gravity ofDissolved Gas (from Knlz).

From Fig. B 10, Ygd == 0.88.

SpecifIC Gravity of Fret Gas.

From Eq. B-35,

= (1,000)(0.75) - (281)(0.88) = 070

Yd
Example B.I-Calculate Black-Oil-Model Mass-Transfer Pa
rameters and Physical Properties. A crude oil and natural gas mix
ture i~ flowing through a wellbore. Determine the black-oil-model
mass-transfer parameters and the physical properties of the gas and
oil phases at a location in the well where the pressure is 1,700 psia and
the temperature is J80F. Also given are Yg = 0.75 at Pup == 14.7 psia
.
and Tsep = 6QF, YAP! 33, and Rp == 1,000 scf/STBO.

Solution Gas/Oil Ratio (from

~l1zquez

and Beggs).

From Eg. B-9,

YglOO

yg{ 1.0 + 5.912 x

1O-S(33)(60)IOg[/~:7n

From Eg. B-8 for YAPl > 30,

R s = (0.0178)(0.672)(1,700)1187

x ex p ( (23.93J)CSO

Oil Density.
From Eg. B-5,
141.5

Yo = 131.5

+ 33 == 0.8?

From Eq. B-30,

(62.4)(0.86)

+ (O.!) 136)(28 J)(0.88)

Po ==

I.l~n

53.66 + 336
1.197

== 47.61 Ibmfft 3 .

From Eg. B-61,

= 0.672.

'},

PseudQcritical Pressure and Temperature (from Standing).

= (0.75)(0.896)

1,000 - L81

~ 460)]

281 scf/STBO.
FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

Pp< = 677

(15)(0.7) - (37.5)(0.7)2

= 669 psia.
From Eq. B-60,

Tp< = 168

+ (325)(0.7)

- (12.5)(0.7)2

= 38g R.
117

jfiP'-
"I'\.

~ L Temperalure
to

'.0

\ 1\
~T\

,\ ~

I\\~
\

1\

I\~~

\\ \l~~

1/ .~.

r\\i\ ~~.
\\
I.of\LI,
''\ f\

o.I

\ \~

ti

678910

PseudOreduced Pressure,

ppr

Fig, B25-Correiation of pseudoreduced compressibility for

natural gases (after TrUbe44 ).

Oil Viscosity (from Beggs and Robinson).

10[3,Q314-1O.02023)0311

180 1. 163
= 0.552

x =
and

b = 5.44(281

150) -0.J38 = 0.7.

From Eq. B-37.

j1. od
PSEUOOP.OUCEO TEMPRATURE.

T~

= 10552 - I = 2.56 cp.

From Eq. 8-40.

j1.o =

[10.715(281

100)-0.515](2.56)7 = 0.97ep.

Fig. 6-24-Effect of temperature and pressure on gas viscosity.41

Gas Compressibility Factor (from Standing and Katz).

Gas VIScosity (from Lee et al.).

From Eg. B-71.

From Eq. B-3,

M g = (28.97)(0.7)

20.28Ibmllbm-mol.

1.65.

From
Ppr =:

K = [9.4 + (0.02)(20.28)](640{S = 1287

209 + (19)(20.28) + 640

.

B-4,

2.54.

From Fig. B-22,

= 3.5

+ ~g +

(0.01)(20.28)

and

Z=0.853.

y = 2.4 - (0.2)(5.243)

Gas Formalion Volume Factor.

Fr~m

=:

0.0283

'V

=:

(0.0283) (O.853li~~~0~ 460)

= 0.0091 ft 3/scf.

Gas Density.
From Eq. B-59.

j1.g

1.351.

Eq. B-72,

From Eq. B-69.

Bg

5.243,

= (10) -4028.7)exp[

(5.243)(~i~!f3S']

=:

0.016 cpo

Surface Tension (from Baker and SwerdlofJ).

From Fig. B-13.

00d

= 29 dynes/em.

c:

From Fig. B-14,

pg
118

(2.7)(0.7)(1,700) = 5 88 lbmlf J

(0.853)(180 + 4 6 0 ) '
t

C
MULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS

t::

~i

0.10

~~

noS'
ODa

l>

...,1;.

.,.,
li

.c..

1\

(.'!:Oil:

f\

1\

\,

\ \.
ClO4

l.o~

..

;l;)

00'3

/Ll

1\71.11-

[\ \

[\

Co.

-\\\ \
\\\\ \

[\[\

\
\1\

!\

1\
1,1,
I, I\

001

\~~

[\

1\ \

002

0\\

l4 \\ \

'-1 L
~

c'"
.,'"

"0
::l

....

yu-

\ r\
r\ \

l\

~,

1\1\

\\ 1\

"0

::l

"0

1\

'\

i\

!\
\\

2.0

Q05

PseudQredueed Tempereture -

1\

0.07

r::,

mf

~\ \~

\\'\
\~

10

JO'!

10

Pseudoreduced Pressure, Ppr

Fig. B-27-Correlation of pseudoreduced compressibility for an

undersaturated oil (after Trube8 ).

Fig. B-25--Correlation of pseudoreduced compressibility for

natural gases (af1er Trube44).

From Eq, BM,

= (29)UtO) = 8.41

Il!i

Pseudoreduced Pressure, I'pr

a"

where c= 2.9 x lO-o.ooo27R,; T= temperature, DF;p

sure, psia; and y = phase specific gravity.

system pres

Al-Marhoun Correlation. This empirical correlation 15 to deter

mine the total formation volume factor can be expressed mathemati
cally as

dynes/cm.

8,

= 0.314693 + 0.106253
+ 0.18883

8.6 Composite fluid Properties

x 1O- 4 F

x 10 - lo F2 ,

(B-79)

Individual phase properties for formation volume factor and com

pressibility can be combined into composite properties.

where F=R~y!'Y~y-dp<, and a =0.644516,

c=0.724874, d=2.00621, and e= -0.761910.

IL6.1. Total Formatiun Volume Factor. It is often convenient to

express the formation volume factor below the bubblepoint pressure
in terms of lotal formation volume factor, independent of the num
ber of phases present. Total formation volume factor is defined as
the ratio of the total volume ofhydrocarhons per unit stock-tank bar
rel of oil at the prevailing pressure and temperature. This can be ex
pressed mathematically as

B.6.2 Tolal Compressibility. Compressibility, c. is defined as the

change in volume per unit volume for unit change in pressure at
constant temperature.

b=-1.079340,

C= ~(~;)T'

(B-80)

The unit of compressibility is reciprocal of prcssure (lIpsi).

In this appendix, different methods to determine individual fluid
B, = Bo + (Rsh - RslBg, ...................... (B-77)

compressibilities already have been presented. In all transient fluid

flow calculations in porou~ media, the total isothermal compress
where Bo = formation volume factor of oil, bbl/STBO; Rsb =gas sol
ibility, denoted as c" must be calculated. The total rock/fluid system
ubillty at bubblepoint, scf/STBO; Rs gas solubility at system condi
compressibility
can be ex.pressed mathematically as
tiens, scf/STBO; and Bg =gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf.
Glas14 presented an empirical correlation to calculate the total
C, = Soc o + S"c", + SgLg + c/'
................. (B-81)

formation volume factor, which also is known as the two-phase

where c( == total system compressibility, psi 1; So = average oil sat
formation volume factor. This correlation can be expressed mathe
uration; Co isothermal compressibility coefficient of the oil phase,
matically as
psi - I; 5,.. water saturation; Cw = isothermal compressibility coef
ficient of the water phase, psi - I; Sg = gas saturation; cg = isother
log B,
0.080135 + 0,47257 log B;
mal compressibility coefficient of the gas phase. psi -1; q= fonna
tion
or rock compressibility, psi - I; and Sa + s.., + Sg = 1.
(B-78a)
+ 0.17351 (log
By definition. the isothermal compressibility coefficient of
Phase i is
where B; = a correlating number and is defined as

'"

B;(

B,

1'0.5
= Rs __
y'p-I.H1l\9
'Y~.3

FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES

(B-78b)

Ci = (~~i)T"""'"''''''''''''''''''''

(B-82)
119

I:

'!I
II

~0
l'

II

it

"

"'l~
II!!"\

10
'II

""
"....

"'&

'\
1'-. ~"

Cf)IfI'f'LA~
I\> rt

..."
~ ;-!!I-- ..

"

\&

!l

e >

l!

"

HALL'S

CORR.UTIf.I

ro

C,

+ c/.

00

00.0.

(B-83)

where Bw water formation volume factor. bbI/STBW; Bo '" oil

formmion volume factor. bbllSTBO; and Bg gas fonnation vol
ume factor. bbVscf.
Eq. B-83 can be modified slightly to include the effects of solu
tion gas on the change in liquid phase volumes and presented as

c == S
(

Ii

10

where Rs and Rsw

= cpr/Ppc.

(B-84)

gas solubilities in oil and water. respectively.

Oil Compressibility. The isothennal compressibility of an under

saturated oil (above the bubblepoint pressure) can be defined as

where

Ppc =

o.

(B-85)

Oil compressibility is always po~itive bec'n,_';~ the volume of an un

ders;;ruratcd liquid decreases as the pr-:s: ""~<: increases. Oil com120

pseudocritical

pressure

from

Fig.

(B-86)

B-1

and

Taking into account the gas in solution. the apparent compressibili

ty of oil, Coo, below the bubblepoint pressure can be calculated by

R; 21.75) (Bg)
Bo

+ (Oo83p +

Coo "" Co

i (a;.P.) , ..

.............. (B-87)

(B-88)

where Bw fonnation volume factor of water.

Dodson and Standing 31 presented a correlation to estimate the
compressibility of water (Fig. B-17). Because the gas solubility in
wate! is verY low. the effect ofgas solubility can be ignored. Howev
er. Meehan 32 presented a correlation that includes the effects of gas
solubility (Eqs. B-50 and B-5Ia).

Formation Compressibility. Rock or formation compressibility

under isothennal conditions can be defined as

l..(avp)
Vp ap

30

'fpc = pselldocritical temperature from Fig. 8-1.

c/.

25

pressibility can be determined from laboratory experiments. from

the correlations presented earlier in this section, or from the Trube
eorrelation 8 shown in Fig. B-27. Trube correlated pseudo reduced
compressibility, cpr. with pseuooreduced pressure, Ppr> and pseudo
reduced temperature. Tpro The oil compressibility then can be esti
mated from
'

Ss( ~ 1 a:Pc)

ItO

Fig. B-29-Pore-volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

vs. initial sample porosity for friable sandstones (after Newman45).

Cw

IS

Water Compressibility. For an isothennal condition. the com

pressibility of oilfield water can be defined as

[(-=-1.
B~ (aRI)
]
Bo aBo)
ap + Bo
ap
T

(I

INITIAl.. POROSITY AT ZERO tifT PRESSURE, ;'1

Co

II

0"

0.0

where Bi = fomlation volume factor of Phase i.

Accordingly. Co. Cwo and cg in Eqo B-81 can be replaced by the pre
vious expression to yield

Sg( ~ 1 daB)

..

,p,

Fig. B-28-Pore-Ifolume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pres

sure vs. initial sample porosity for limestones (after Newman"s)o

!O

~"

"

----. ~te

1&1

Ul!mN... POROSITY ,\T ZERO rdET PRESSURE,

"

',,"

'--

00

.-...........

..

5
'I f-

..

""'t

o.

q
~

r~ .... ....

,~~

4'-:- H!lLL'$

silO

..

1J

--

CORflL/lTION

'\-

"~

1\
......

g'

0"

00

11
f!)-

1I

...all'AIY !:EP IfIllAAP'$

"

II

li

I"RlA.8L SltND$TONES

COAlSOl..I.OArED LIMS7T1NES

T'

(B-89)

where Vp pore volume.

There are different correlations for rock compressibility. each for
a fixed type of rock, Figs. B28 through B-31 present the rock com
pressibility curd;;! ion after Ncwman. 45 It is strongly reeomMULTIPHASE FLOW IN WELLS