CHAPTER

12
Composite

8-1

Introduction

Every material is composite at one or the other

level.
A composite material is a material system, a
mixture or combination of two or more micro or
macroconstituents that differ in form and
composition and do not form a solution.
Properties of composite materials can be superior
to its individual components.
Examples: Fiber reinforced plastics, concrete,
asphalt, wood etc.

8-2

Composites

Particle-reinforced

Largeparticle

Dispersionstrengthened

Fiber-reinforced

Continuous
(aligned)

Structural

Discontinuous
(short)

Aligned

Randomly
oriented

Laminates

Sandwich
panels

Terminology/Classification
Composites:
-- Multiphase material w/significant
proportions of each phase.

woven
fibers

Matrix:

-- The continuous phase

-- Purpose is to:

0.5 mm

- transfer stress to other phases

- protect phases from environment

-- Classification:
metal

MMC, CMC, PMC

ceramic

cross
section
view

polymer

Dispersed phase:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase Kc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.

-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties.

-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural

0.5 mm

Particle-reinforced
Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix:
ferrite (a)
steel
(ductile)

- WC/Co
cemented
carbide

matrix:
cobalt
(ductile)
Vm :
10-15 vol%!

Fiber-reinforced

60 mm

600 mm

- Automobile matrix:
rubber
tires

(compliant)

0.75 mm

Structural
particles:
cementite
(Fe3 C)
(brittle)

Adapted from Fig.

10.19, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.19 is
copyright United
States Steel
Corporation, 1971.)

particles:
WC
(brittle,
hard)

Adapted from Fig.

16.4, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 16.4 is courtesy
Carboloy Systems,
Department, General
Electric Company.)

particles:
C
(stiffer)

Adapted from Fig.

16.5, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 16.5 is courtesy
Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company.)

Concrete gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand and gravel?

Sand packs into gravel voids

Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rerod or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Pre-stressed concrete - remesh under tension during setting of

concrete. Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force

Post tensioning tighten nuts to put under tension

nut

threaded
rod

 Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- two approaches.
E(GPa)
350
Data:
Cu matrix 30 0
w/tungsten 250
particles
20 0
150
0

upper limit: rule of mixtures

Ec = VmEm + VpEp

(Cu)

lower limit:
1 Vm Vp
=
+
Ec Em Ep
20 4 0 6 0 8 0

Application to other properties:

10 0 vol% tungsten

(W)

-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace E in equations with se.

-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E in equations with k.

Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Fibers very strong

Provide significant strength improvement to
material
Ex: fiber-glass
Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
Strength due to fibers
Polymer simply holds them in place

 Fiber Materials

Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio

graphite, SiN, SiC
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest known
very expensive
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
Wires
Metal steel, Mo, W

Fiber Alignment

aligned
continuous

aligned
random
discontinuous

 Aligned Continuous fibers

Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)

matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)

-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers

by eutectic solidification.

formed by glass slurry

Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a)

2 mm

fibers: g (Ni3Al) (brittle)

(b)

fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.

 Discontinuous, random 2D fibers

Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- process: fiber/pitch, then
burn out at up to 2500C.
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
turbine exhaust flaps, nose
cones.

(b)

(a)

Other variations:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D

C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
in plane

 Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:

sf d
fiber length 15
c

fiber strength in tension

fiber diameter
shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface

Ex: For fiberglass, fiber length > 15 mm needed

Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
sd
fiber length 15 f
c

Shorter, thicker fiber:

s(x)

fiber length 15

Longer, thinner fiber:

s(x)

sf d
c

Adapted from Fig.

16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency

Better fiber efficiency

Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced

composite strength for long continuous fibers in a
matrix
Longitudinal deformation

sc = smVm + sfVf but isostrain c = m = f

volume fraction

Ece = Em Vm + EfVf

Ff
EfVf

Fm EmVm

longitudinal (extensional)
modulus
f = fiber
m = matrix

Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the

load - isostress

sc = sm = sf = s

c= mVm + fVf

1
Vm Vf

Ect Em Ef

transverse modulus

Equation for Elastic Modulus of Lamellar Composite

Isostrain condition: Stress on composite causes uniform

strain on all composite layers.
Pc = Pf + Pm
Pc = Load on composite
Pf = Load on fibers
Pm = load on matrix

= P/A
cAc = fAf + mAm

Figure 11.14
Since length of layers are equal,
cVc = fVf + mVm Where Vc, Vf and Vm are volume
fractions (Vc =1)
s f V f s mVm
s
c
Since strains c = f = m,

Ec = EfVf + EmVm

Rule of mixture of binary composites

Loads on Fiber and Matrix Regions

Since = E and f = m

s f Af
E f f Af
E f Af
EfVf

Pm s m Am Em m Am E m Am EmVm
Pf

Pc = Pf + Pm

From above two equations, load on each of fiber and

matrix regions can be determined if values of Ef, Em, Vf, Vm
and Pc are known.

Isostress Condition

Stress on the composite structure produces an equal stress

condition on all the layers.
c = f + m
c = f + m

Assuming no change in area

and assuming unit length of the composite

c = fVf + mVm

But
Therefore

s
Ec

sV f
Ef

Ec

sVm
Em

, f

Ef

, m

Figure 11.15

s
Em

Elastic Modulus for Isostress Condition

We know that

s
Ec

sV f
Ef

sVm
Em

Dividing by
V f Vm
1

Ec E f E m
V f E m Vm E f
1

Ec E f E m E m E f
Ec

E f Em

V f E m Vm E f

Figure 11.16

Higher modulus values are

obtained with isostrain
loading for equal volume of
fibers

 Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:

sf d
-- valid when fiber length 15
c

-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:

Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:

(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf

(aligned 1D)

Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
Adapted from Fig. 16.18,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)

Structural

Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)

Glass fiber reinforced plastic composite materials

have high strength-weight ratio, good dimensional
stability, good temperature and corrosion
resistance and low cost.
E Glass : 52-56% SiO2, + 12-16% Al2O3,
16-25% CaO + 8-13% B2O3
Tensile strength = 3.44 GPa, E = 72.3 GPa

S Glass : Used for military and aerospace

application.
65% SiO2 + 25% Al2O3 + 10% MgO
Tensile strength = 4.48 GPa, E = 85.4 GPa

 Produced by drawing monofilaments from a

furnace and gathering them to form a strand.
Strands are held together with resinous binder.
Properties: Density
and strength are lower
than carbon and aramid
fibers.
Higher elongation.
Low cost and hence
commonly used.

Fiber Reinforced-Plastic Composite Materials

Fiberglass-reinforced polyester resins:

Higher the wt% of glass, stronger the reinforced

plastic is.
Nonparallel alignment of glass fibers reduces
strength.

Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resins:

Carbon fiber contributes to rigidity and strength

while epoxy matrix contributes to impact strength.
Polyimides, polyphenylene sulfides are also used.
Exceptional fatigue properties.
Carbon fiber epoxy material is laminated to meet
strength requirements.

Properties of Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Fiberglass polyester

(Carbon fibers and epoxy)

Carbon Fibers for Reinforced Plastics

Light weight, very high strength and high stiffness.

7-10 micrometer in diameter.
Produced from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch.
Steps:

Tensile strength = 3.1-4.45 GPa, E = 193-241 GPa,

density = 1-7-2.1 g/cc.

Stabilization: PAN fibers are stretched and oxidised in air at

about 2000C.
Carbonization: Stabilized carbon fibers are heated in inert
atmosphere at 1000-15000C which results in elimination of
O,H and N resulting in increase of strength.
Graphitization: Carried out at 18000C and increases modulus
of elasticity at the expense of strength

Aramid Fibers for Reinforcing Plastic Resins

Aramid = aromatic polyamide fibers.
Trade name is Kevlar

Kevlar 29:- Low density, high strength, and used for ropes and
cables.
Kevlar 49:- Low density, high strength and modulus and used for
aerospace and auto applications.
Table 11.1

Hydrogen bonds bond fiber together.

Used where resistance to fatigue, high
strength and light weight is important.

Fatigue Characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Lamination

Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Continuous fiber reinforced CMCs:

SiC fibers are woven into mat and SiC is impregnated
into fibrous mat by chemical vapor deposition.
SiC fibers can be encapsulated by a glass ceramic.
Used in heat exchanger tube and thermal protection
system.
Discontinuous and particulate reinforced CMCs:
Fracture toughness is significantly increased.
Fabricated by common process such as hot isolatic
pressing.

Portland Cement

Production: Lime (CaO), Silica (SiO2), alumina(Al2O3)

and iron oxide (Fe2O3) are raw materials.
Raw materials are crushed, ground and proportional for
desired composition and blended.
Mixture is fed into rotary kiln and heated to 1400-16500C
and then cooled and pulverized.
Chemical Composition:

Types of Portland Cement

Types of Portland cement differ by composition.

Type I: Used when high sulfate attack from soil and water,
and high temperature are absent.
Examples: Sidewalks, buildings, bridges.
Type II: Used in case of moderate sulfate attack as in case
of drainage.
Type III: Early strength type for quick use.
Type IV: Low heat of hydration type and used when rate
and heat generated must be minimized.
Type V: Used for heavy sulfate attack as in case of
groundwater.

Hardening of Portland Cement

Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate constitute 75% of
portland cement.
Hydration reactions:
2C3S + H2O
2C2S + 4H2O

C3S2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
C3S2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2

Tricalcium silicate hydrate

C3S is responsible for early strength.
Most of compressive strength is
developed in 28 days.
Strengthening might continue
for years

Water Aggregate and Air

Drinking and Non-Drinking water can be used.

Non-drinking water should be tested for level of
impurities.
Aggregates make up 60-80% of concrete volume.
Fine aggregates are of sand particles and coarse
aggregates are rocks.
Air entraining agents are sometimes added.
They increase resistance to freezing and thawing and
improved workability.

Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is higher than tensile strength and

depends up on settled time.
High water content reduces compressive strength.
Air entrainment improves workability and hence water
content can be reduced.
Air
Bubbles

Toughening Mechanisms in CMCs

Toughening is due to fibers interfering with crack
propagation.
Crack deflection: Up on encountering
reinforcement, crack is deflected making
propagation more meandering.
Crack bridging: Fibers bridge the crack and help
to keep the cracks together.
Fiber pullout: Friction caused by pulling out the
fiber from matrix results in higher toughness.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

Continuous fiber reinforced MMCs: Continuous fibers are

reinforced in metal matrix used in aerospace, auto
industry and sports equipments.
Example:- Aluminum alloy Boron fiber composite
Boron fiber is made by depositing boron vapor on tungsten
substrate.
Boron fibers are hotpressed between aluminum foils.
Tensile strength of Al6061 increases from 310 to 1417GPa and E
increases from 69 to 231 GPa
Tungsten filament

Boron

Discontinuous fiber and particulate reinforced MMCs

Particulate reinforced MMCs: Irregular shaped alumina

and silicon carbide particulate are used.
Particulate is mixed into molten aluminum and cast into ingots or
billets.
Al 6061 + 20% SiC

Tensile strength increased to 496 MPa

E increased to 103 GPa

Discontinuous fiber reinforced MMcs: Needle like SiC

whiskers (1-3 micron diameter, 20-200 micron in length)
are mixed with metal powder.
Mixture is consolidated by hot pressing
and then forged or extruded.
Tensile strength of Al 6061 increases to
480 MPa and E increases to 115 GPa

Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness
Force

103

particle-reinf

un-reinf

Bend displacement
10 -4

6061 Al
ss (s-1)
10 -6

Increased
creep
resistance

ceramics

E(GPa)
PMCs
2
10
10

fiber-reinf

MMCs:

PMCs: Increased E/r

10 -8
10 -10

6061 Al
w/SiC
whiskers

20 30 50

metal/
metal alloys

.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
.1 .3 1 3 10 30
Density, r [mg/m3]

Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a

silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

s(MPa)
100 200

Open Mold Process for Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Hand lay-up process:

Gel coat is applied to open mold.

Fiberglass reinforcement is
placed in the mold.
Base resin mixed
with catalysts is
applied by pouring
brushing or spraying.

Spray-up process: Continuous

strand roving is fed by chopper
and spray gun and chopped
roving and catalyst resin is
deposited in the mold.

Vacuum
Bag-Autoclave and
Winding
Vacuum
Bag-Autoclave
andFilament
Filament
Winding

Vacuum bag-autoclave process:

Filament winding:
Fiber reinforcement is fed

Long thin sheet or prepeg carbon-fiber epoxy material is laid on

the table.
The sheet is cut and laminate is constructed.
Laminate is put in vacuum bag to remove entrapped air and
cured in autoclave.

through resin bath and

wound around suitable
mandrel.
Mandrel is cured and mold part is stripped from mandrel.

Closed Mold Process

Compression and injection molding:

Same as in polymers except that the fiber reinforcement is mixed

with resin.

Sheet molding compound process:

Highly automated continuous molding process.

Continuous strand fiberglass
roving is chopped and deposited
on a layer of resin-filler paste.
Another layer of paste is
deposited on first layer.
Sandwich is compacted
and rolled into rolls.

Sheet Molding

The rolled up sheet is stored in a maturation room for 1-4

days.
The sheets are cut into proper size and pressed in hot mold
(1490C) to form final product.
Efficient, quick, good quality and uniformity.
Continuous protrusion: Continuous strand fibers are
impregnated in resin bath, fed into heated die and drawn.
Used to produce
beams, channels,
and pipes.