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Seminar Report
On

SPECIAL STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

NAME:
ROLL:

INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland

cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate
(generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel limestone or granite, plus a fine aggregate such
as sand and water) and chemical admixtures. The word concrete comes from the Latin word
"concretus", which means "hardened" or "hard".
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration.The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. The reactions are highly
exothermic and care must be taken that the build-up in heat does not affect the integrity of the
structure. Concrete is used to make pavements, architectural structures, foundations,
motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for
gates, fences and poles.
More concrete is used than any other man-made material in the world. [1] As of 2006, about
seven billion cubic meters of concrete are made each yearmore than one cubic meter for
every person on Earth.[2] Concrete powers a US$35-billion industry which employs more than
two million workers in the United States alone. More than 55,000 miles of highways in
America are paved with this material. The People's Republic of China currently consumes
40% of the world's cement [concrete] production.
History
In Serbia, remains of a hut dating from 5600 BC have been found, with a floor made of red
lime, sand, and gravel. The pyramids of Shaanxi in
China, built thousands of years ago, contain a mixture of
lime and volcanic ash or clay. The secret of concrete was
lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British
engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic
lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as
aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in
the early 1840s.Recently, the use of recycled materials as
concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of
increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a
byproduct of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of
quarrying and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the
amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete. As cement production creates massive
quantities of carbon dioxide, cement-replacement technology such as this will play an
important role in future attempts to cut carbon dioxide.
Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was discovered
that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans knew
that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood
made it more frost-resistant.In modern times, researchers have experimented with the
addition of other materials to create concrete with improved properties, such as higher
strength or electrical conductivity.There are many types of concrete available, created by
varying the proportions of the main ingredients below.The mix design depends on the type of
structure being built, how the concrete will be mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed
to form this structure.

Types of concrete

A highway paved with concrete.

Regular concrete paving blocks

Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have become
known by these names.

Regular concrete
Regular concrete is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by following the mixing
instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement, typically using sand or other
common material as the aggregate, and often mixed in improvised containers. This concrete
can be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10 MPa to about 40 MPa, depending
on the purpose, ranging from blinding to structural concrete respectively. Many types of premixed concrete are available which include powdered cement mixed with an aggregate,
needing only water.
Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts dry sand,
3 parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight not volume. For example,
1 cubic foot of concrete would be made using 22 lbs cement, 10 lbs water, 41 lbs dry sand, 70
lbs dry stone (1/2" to 3/4" stone). This would make 1 cubic foot of concrete and would weigh
about 143 lbs. The sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible) and
the stone should be washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should be
removed from the sand and stone to ensure the highest strength.

High-strength concrete
High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than 6,000 pounds per
square inch (40 MPa). High-strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C)
ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium

hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at the cementaggregate bond.
Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable,
which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where
dense rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability,
superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected
carefully for high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist
the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the
matrix or at a void, as normally occurs in regular concrete.
In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is the elastic modulus
rather than the ultimate compressive strength.

High-performance concrete
High-performance concrete (HPC) is a relatively new term used to describe concrete that
conforms to a set of standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited
to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all highperformance concrete is high-strength. Some examples of such standards currently used in
relation to HPC are:

Ease of placement
Compaction without segregation
Early age strength
Long-term mechanical properties
Permeability
Density
Heat of hydration
Toughness
Volume stability
Long life in severe environments

Self-consolidating concretes
During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed
concretes that are self-compacting, known as self-consolidating concrete in the United States.
This self-consolidating concrete (SCCs) is characterized by:

extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow table,

rather than slump(height)
no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
placement being easier.
no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and workmanship

SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear
on formwork.

As of 2005, self-consolidating concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some

European countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of
concrete production. 38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC for
road and bridge projects.
This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates plasticizer instead
of older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity modifiers to address aggregate
segregation.

Shotcrete

Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto
(or into) a frame or structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock
surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support,
especially in tunnelling.
There are two application methods for shotcrete.

dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and
conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water needed for the hydration
is added at the nozzle.
wet-mix the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes
are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying.

For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used.[20]

Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through
the concrete.
It is formed by leaving out some or all of the fine aggregate (fines), the remaining large
aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of cement paste. When set, typically
between 15 and 25% of the concrete volume are voids, allowing water to drain at around 5
gal/ft/ min or 200 L/m/min) through the concrete.
Pervious concrete allows water to drain naturally through roadway or other structures,
reducing the amount of artificial drainage needed, and allowing the water to naturally
replenish groundwater
It can significantly reduce noise, by allowing air squeezed between vehicle tyres and the
roadway to escape.

Cellular concrete

Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to the concrete (or a
lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or cork granules and vermiculite) is
sometimes called Cellular concrete.
See also: Aerated autoclaved concrete

Cork-cement composites
Cork granules are obtained during production of bottle stoppers from the treated bark of Cork
oak or Quercus suber trees.[21] These trees are mainly found in Portugal, Spain and North
Africa.[22] Portugal is the largest cork producing country, followed by Spain. The waste cork
granules have a density of about 300 kg/m, which is lower than that of most of the
lightweight aggregates used for making lightweight concrete. It has been found that cork
granules do not significantly influence cement hydration. However, cork dust can influence
hydration.[23] Cork cement composites have several advantages over standard concrete, such
as lower thermal conductivities, lower densities and good energy absorption characteristics.
These composites can be made of density from 400 to 1500 kg/m, compressive strength from
1 to 26 MPa, and flexural strength from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa.

Roller-compacted concrete
Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete
placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed
on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically
used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong
monolithic block.[24] Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement, but
has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low cement content causes less heat to be
generated while curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours.

Glass concrete
The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, with
large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This greatly
enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete. Recent research findings have shown that
concrete made with recycled glass aggregates have shown better long term strength and better
thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass aggregates. [1]

Asphalt concrete
Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials replacing
cement as the binder.

Rapid strength concrete

This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after been
manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move
forward in the building process at record time, repair road surfaces that become fully
operational in just few hours.

Rubberized concrete
While "rubberized asphalt concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete
("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2007 [2] [3] [4] [5].

Polymer concrete
Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer concrete
can gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix may reach
5000 psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive than conventional
concretes.

Limecrete
Limecrete or lime concrete is concrete where cement is replaced by lime.

Fiber reinforced concrete

Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibres that are uniformly distributed and
randomly oriented. Fibres include steel fibres, glass fibres, synthetic fibres and natural fibres.
Within these different fibres that character of fibre reinforced concrete changes with varying
concretes, fibre materials, geometries, distribution, orientation and densitie

Historical perspective
The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as
reinforcement since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in
mud bricks. In the early 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete, and in the 1950s the
concept of composite materials came into being and fiber reinforced concrete was one of the
topics of interest. There was a need to find a replacement for the asbestos used in concrete
and other building materials once the health risks associated with the substance were
discovered. By the 1960s, steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic fibers such as polypropylene
fibers were used in concrete, and research into new fiber reinforced concretes continues
today.

Effect of fibers in concrete

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage
cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water.
Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter resistance in concrete.
Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, so it can not replace
moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Some fibers reduce the strength of
concrete.

The amount of fibres added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total volume
of the composite (concrete and fibres) termed volume fraction (V f). Vf typically ranges from
0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fibre length (l) by its diameter (d).
Fibres with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of
aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the fibre is higher than the matrix (concrete or
mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material.
Increase in the aspect ratio of the fibre usually segments the flexural strength and toughness
of the matrix. However, fibres which are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create
workability problems.
Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact
resistance of concrete materials[1 & 2]. This finding is very important since traditionally
people think the ductility increases when concrete reinforced with fibers. The results also
pointed out that the micro fibers is better in impact resistance compared with the longer
fibers.[1]
The High Speed 1 tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m of polypropylene
fibres, of diameter 18 & 32 m, giving the benefits noted below.[2]

Benefits
Polypropylene fibres can:

Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances

Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
Improve impact resistance
Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage

Some developments in fiber reinforced concrete

The newly developed FRC named Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) is 500 times
more resistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete. ECC can sustain
strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material ductility of at least two
orders of magnitude higher in comparison to normal concrete or standard fiber reinforced
concrete. ECC also has unique cracking behavior. When loaded to beyond the elastic range,
ECC maintains crack width to below 100 m, even when deformed to several percent tensile
strains.
Recent studies performed on high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete in a bridge deck
found that adding fibers provides residual strength and controls cracking. There were fewer
and narrower cracks in the FRC even though the FRC had more shrinkage than the control.
The residual strength is directly proportional to the fiber content.
A new kind of natural fiber reinforced concrete (NFRC) made of cellulose fibers processed
from genetically modified slash pine trees are giving good results. The cellulose fibers are
longer and greater in diameter than other timber sources. Some studies were performed on
using waste carpet fibers in concrete in an environment friendly approach to recycle carpet
waste. A carpet typically consists of two layers of backing (usually fabrics from

polypropylene tape yarns), joined by CaCO 3 filled styrene-butadiene latex rubber (SBR), and
face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and
polypropylene fibers can be used for concrete reinforcement. Studies have shown that FRC
containing carpet waste show adequate structural qualities to make it a feasible choice for
recycling and thus reducing need for landfilling.

Aerated autoclaved concrete

Stacked blocks of AAC (wrapped in foil)

Autoclaved Aerated concrete (AAC), or otherwise known as Autoclave Cellular Concrete
(ACC), is a lightweight, precast building material. AAC provides structure, insulation and fire
resistance in a single material. AAC products include blocks, wall panels, floor and roof
panels, and lintels.
It has since been refined into a high thermally insulating concrete-based material used for
construction both internally and externally. Besides insulating capability, one of AAC's
advantages in construction is its quick and easy installation since the material can be routed,
sanded and cut to size on site using standard carbon tip band saws, hand saws and drills.
Even though regular cement mortar can be used, 98% of the buildings erected with AAC
materials uses thin bed mortar, which comes to deployment in a thickness of 1/8 inch. This
varies on national building codes and creates solid and compact building members. AAC
material can be coated with a stucco compound or plaster against the elements. Siding
materials such as brick or vinyl siding can also be used to cover the outside of AAC
materials.
Produced for more than 70 years, AAC offers considerable advantages over other
construction materials, one of the most important being its very low environmental impact.
AACs high resource efficiency gives it low environmental impact in all phases of its life
cycle, from processing of raw materials to the disposal of AAC waste.
AACs light weight also saves energy in transportation. The fact that AAC is up to five times
lighter than concrete leads to significant reductions in CO2 emissions during transport. To
reduce the need for transportation, AAC manufacturers apply the principle of producing as
near to their consumer market as possible.

AACs excellent thermal efficiency makes a major contribution to environmental protection

by sharply reducing the need for space heating and cooling in buildings.
In addition, AACs easy workability allows accurate cutting that minimizes the generation of
solid waste during use. Unlike other building materials AAC can eliminate the need to be
used in combination with insulation products, which increase the environmental impact and
cost of construction.

Raw materials
Quartz sand, lime and/or cement as binding agent. Aluminum powder in 5%8% by volume
(depending on the pre-specified density) and water. When mixed and cast in forms, several
chemical reactions take place that give AAC its light weight and thermal properties.
Aluminium powder reacts with calcium hydroxide and water to form hydrogen. The
hydrogen gas foams the raw mix to double the volume (with gas bubbles up to 1/8 inch in
diameter). At the end of the foaming process the hydrogen escapes to the atmosphere and is
replaced by air.
When the forms are removed from the material, it is solid but still soft. It is then cut into
either blocks or panels, and placed in an autoclave chamber for 12 hours. During this steam
pressure hardening process, when the temperature reaches 374 Fahrenheit and the pressure
reaches 12 bars, quartz sand reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silica hydrate,
which accounts for the material's high strength and other unique properties. After the
autoclaving process the material is ready for immediate use on the construction site.
Depending on its density, up to 80% of the volume of the mass is air. Density also accounts
for the low structural compression strength of AAC material, which can carry loads up to
1,200 PSI, approximately 1/6th of stronger concrete.
Since 1980, there has been a worldwide increase in the use of AAC materials and new
production plants are being built in the USA, Eastern Europe, Israel, China, Bahrain,
India and Australia. AAC is increasingly used by developers, architects and home
builders. The Material is also known as: Autoclaved Concrete, Autoclaved Aerated
Concrete, Cellular Concrete, Porous concrete, Aircrete and Thermalite (UK). As of
August 2007 there are 2 functioning AAC factories in the USA, Xella Aircrete North
America in Georgia, and Aercon in Florida

Ready-mix concrete

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1.6 cuM. transit mixer

small batching plant for local small deliveries

7 cuM. transit mixer

The inside of a transit mixer uses a simple archimedes screw to mix and to lift the concrete to
the delivery chute.
Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant,
according to a set recipe, and then delivered to a worksite, by truck mounted transit mixers .
This results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed and
implemented on construction sites. The first ready-mix factory was built in the 1930s, but the

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industry did not begin to expand significantly until the 1960s, and it has continued to grow
since then.
Ready-mix concrete is sometimes preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the
precision of the mixture and reduced worksite confusion. However, using a pre-determined
concrete mixture reduces flexibility, both in the supply chain and in the actual components of
the concrete.
Some leading ready-mix concrete suppliers worldwide are the Mexican concrete companies
PCM and Cemex; their main competitor is France-based Lafarge. Ready Mixed Concrete, or
RMC as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery
to the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened state.
Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and aggregates comprising sand and
gravel or crushed stone. In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured
separately and mixed in specified proportions at site to make concrete. Ready Mixed
Concrete is bought and sold by volume - usually expressed in cubic meters. RMC can be
custom-made to suit different applications. Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under
computer-controlled operations and transported and placed at site using sophisticated
equipment and methods. RMC assures its customers numerous benefits.

Advantages of Ready mix Concrete over Site mix Concrete

A centralised concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.

The plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, and yet the delivery trucks can
service residential districts or inner cities.
Better quality concrete is produced.
Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site.
Elimination of procurement / hiring of plant and machinery
Wastage of basic materials is avoided.
Labor associated with production of concrete is eliminated.
Time required is greatly reduced.
Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.

Disadvantages of Ready-Mix Concrete

The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the
traveling time from the plant to the site is critical over longer distances. Some sites are
just too far away, though this is usually a commercial rather than technical issue.
Access roads, and site access have to be able to carry the weight of the truck and load.
Concrete is approx. 2.5tonne per cuM. In the UK, this problem can be overcome by
utilising so-called 'minimix' companies, using smaller 4m3 capacity mixers able to
access more restricted sites. Examples of companies of this type in the UK include
Nimblemix, Ablemix, Micromix and Diddimix.
Concrete's limited timespan between mixing and going-off means that readymix
should be placed within 2 hours of batching at the plant. Concrete is still useable after
this point but may not conform to relevant specifications.

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CONCLUSION
Notwithstanding its versatility, cement concrete suffers from several drawbacks, such as
low tensile strength, permeability to liquids and consequent corrosion of reinforcement,
susceptibility to chemical attack, and low durability. Modifications have been made from time to
time to overcome the deficiencies of cement concrete yet retaining the other desirable
characteristics. Recent developments in the material and construction technology have led to
significant changes resulting in improved performance, wider and more economical use. The
improvements in performance can be grouped as:
(i) Better mechanical properties than that of conventional concrete, such as compressive
strength, tensile strength, impact toughness, etc.
(ii) Better durability attained by means of increased chemical and freeze-thaw resistances.
(iii) Improvements in selected properties of interest, such as impermeability, adhesion, thermal
insulation, lightness, abrasion and skid resistance, etc.

References
1. ^ The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, by Bjorn Lomborg,
p 138.
2. ^ Minerals commodity summary - cement - 2007 (2007-06-01). Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
3. ^ Wild, Stan (27 Jan. 2007). "Concrete evidence". New Scientist (2588): 21.
4. ^ Missing File
5. ^ a b U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Admixtures. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
6. ^ Cement Admixture Association. CAA. www.admixtures.org.uk. Retrieved on 2008-04-02.
7. ^ Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Skokie,
IL, USA: Portland Cement Association, pp. 17, 42, 70, 184. ISBN 0-89312-087-1.
8. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Fly Ash. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
9. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag. Retrieved
on 2007-01-24.
10. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Silica Fume. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
11. ^ Premixed Cement Paste
12. ^ Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
13. ^ U.S. Patent 5,443,313 - Method for producing construction mixture for concrete
14. ^ David Hambling (April 13, 2007). Iran's Invulnerable Bunkers?. Wired. Retrieved on 200801-29.
15. ^ Thermal Coefficient of Portland Cement Concrete. Portland Cement Concrete Pavements
Research. Federal Highway Administration. Retrieved on 2008-01-29.
16. ^ Jones, Katrina (1999). Density of Concrete. The Physics Factbook.
17. ^ Norwegian Building Research Institute, publication 24. Fire-damage to buildings.