The study of light based on

the assumption that light

travels in straight lines
and is concerned with the
laws controlling the
reflection and refraction
of rays of light
light.

Learning Outcome:
22.1

Reflection at a spherical surface (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State laws of reflection.


Sketch and use ray diagrams to determine the
characteristics of image formed by spherical mirrors.


Use

CHAPTER 22:
Geometrical optics
(4 Hours)

1 1 1 2
= + =
f u v r

for real object only.

Use sign convention for focal length:
+ f for concave mirror and f for convex mirror.
Sketch ray diagrams with minimum two rays.
r=2
2ff only applies to spherical mirror.




22.1.1 Reflection of light

All the reflected rays are parallel to each another or move

in the same direction.
Diffuse reflection is the reflection of light from a rough
surface such as papers, flowers, people as shown in Figure
22.2.

22.1 Reflection at a spherical surface



is defined as the return of all or part of a beam of light when

it encounters the boundary between two media.
media
There are two types of reflection due to the plane surface
 Specular (regular) reflection is the reflection of light from
a smooth shiny surface as shown in Figure 22.1.

Figure 22.2

Figure 22.1
3

The reflected rays is sent out in a variety of directions.

For both types of reflection, the laws of reflection are obeyed.

Laws of reflection state :

 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in
the same plane.
plane
 The angle of incidence, i equals the angle of reflection, r
as shown in Figure 22.3.

22.1.2 Spherical mirror

is defined as a reflecting surface that is part of a sphere.

sphere
There are two types of spherical mirror. It is convex (curving
outwards) and concave (curving inwards) mirror.
Figures 22.4a and 22.4b show the shape of concave and
convex mirrors.
(a) Concave (Converging
Converging)
(b) Convex (Diverging
Diverging) mirror
imaginary sphere
mirror
A

i=r

Plane surface
Figure 22.4a

Figure 22.3

silver layer

r
B

reflecting surface

Figure 22.4b

Terms of spherical mirror

Centre of curvature (point C)
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
part

22.1.3 Focal point and focal length, f

Radius of curvature, r
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
part
Pole or vertex (point P)
 is defined as the point at the centre of the mirror.
mirror
Principal axis
 is defined as the straight line through the centre of
curvature C and pole P of the mirror.
mirror
AB is called the aperture of the mirror.

C
F

7

Consider the ray diagram for a concave and convex mirrors as

shown in Figures 22.5a and 22.5b.
Incident
Incident
rays
rays

C
F

Figure 22.5a
Figure 22.5b
Point F represents the focal point or focus of the mirrors.
Distance f represents the focal length of the mirrors.
The parallel incident rays represent the object infinitely far
away from the spherical mirror e.g. the sun.
8

22.1.4 Relationship between focal length, f and

radius of curvature, r

Focal point or focus, F

For concave mirror is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays converge after reflection on the mirror.
mirror
 Its focal point is real (principal).
(principal)

For convex mirror is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays seem to diverge from a point behind the mirror
after reflection.
reflection
 Its focal point is virtual
virtual.

Consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis of concave

mirror as shown in Figure 22.6.
incident ray

Focal length, f

is defined as the distance between the focal point (focus) F
and pole P of the spherical mirror.
mirror

The paraxial rays is defined as the rays that are near to and
almost parallel to the principal axis.
axis

Figure 22.6
9

From the Figure 22.6,

BD
tan i =
i

BCD

CD
BD
tan =

FD

BFD

10

22.1.5 Ray diagrams for spherical mirrors

Taken the angles are <<

small by considering the
ray AB is paraxial ray.

By using an isosceles triangle CBF, thus the angle is given by

= 2i

then

BD
BD
= 2

FD
CD

Because of AB is paraxial ray, thus point B is too close with pole

P then CD CP = r

FD FP = f

Therefore

r=2f

CD = 2FD

is defined as the simple graphical method to indicate the

positions of the object and image in a system of mirrors or
lenses.
lenses
Figures 22.7a and 22.7b show the graphical method of locating
an image formed by concave and convex mirror.
(a) Concave mirror
(b) Convex mirror
1
1
1

OR

f =

I
F

r
2

This relationship also valid for convex mirror.

1
Figure 22.7a
11

Figure 22.7b
12

Ray 1 - Parallel to principal axis, after reflection, passes

through the focal point (focus) F of a concave mirror
or appears to come from the focal point F of a
convex mirror.
 Ray 2 - Passes or directed towards focal point F reflected
parallel to principal axis.
 Ray 3 - Passes or directed towards centre of curvature C,
reflected back along the same path.
Images formed by a convex mirror

Figure 22.8 shows the graphical method of locating an image
formed by a convex mirror.


The characteristics of the image formed are

 Virtual

is seem to form by light coming from the image but
light does not actually pass through the image.
image

would not appear on paper, screen or film placed at the
location of the image.
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed at the back of the mirror (behind the mirror)

Object position any position in front of the convex mirror.

Convex mirror always being used as a driving mirror because it
has a wide field of view and providing an upright image.
image
Images formed by a concave mirror

Concave mirror can be used as a shaving and makeup mirrors
because it provides an upright and virtual images.
images

Table 22.1 shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed
by a concave mirror for various object distance, u.

At least any
two rays
for drawing
the ray
diagram.

I
v

u
Figure 22.8

front

back

14

13

Object
distance, u
Object
distance, u

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

u>r

Front

back

O

u=r

F
C

I
Front

back

Real
Inverted
Diminished
Formed
between point
C and F.

Real
Inverted
Same size
Formed at point
C.
15

f<u<r

I C

Front

back

u=f

Front

Real
Inverted
Magnified
Formed at a
distance
greater than
CP.

Real or virtual
Formed at
infinity.

back

16

Object
distance, u

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

u<f

Front

22.1.6 Derivation of Spherical mirror equation

Figure 22.9 shows an object O at a distance u and on the
principal axis of a concave mirror. A ray from the object O is
incident at a point B which is close to the pole P of the mirror.

back

Table 22.1
Linear (lateral) magnification of the spherical mirror, m is defined
as the ratio between image height, hi and object height, ho
h
v where

m=

Virtual
Upright
Magnified
Formed at the
back of the
mirror

ho

BD
BD
BD
=
;=
; =
u
r
v

therefore

BD BD
BD
+
= 2

u
v
r
1 1 2
+ = where r = 2 f
u v r
1 1 1 2
Spherical mirrors
= + =
equation
f u v r

By using
BOD,
BCD and
BID

thus

BD
BD
BD
; tan =
; tan =
OD
CD
ID

Table 22.2 shows the sign convention for spherical mirrors

equation .

Object distance,

Image distance,

Focal length,

19

(3)

18

Physical Quantity

Substituting this
value in eq. (3)

(1)
(2)

Figure 22.9

OD OP = u ; CD CP = r ; ID IP = v

=
+ = 2

D P

tan =

v : image distance from the pole

tan ; tan ; tan

then

u u : object distance from the pole

17

By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

From the figure,

= +

BOC
= +

BCI
then, eq. (1)(2) :

Positive sign (+)

Real object

(in front of the mirror)

Real image

Negative sign (-)

Virtual object

(at the back of the mirror)

Virtual image

(same side of the object) (opposite side of the object)

Concave mirror

Convex mirror

Table 22.2
Note:
 Real image is formed by the actual light rays that pass
through the image.
image
 Real image can be projected on the screen.
screen

20

Example 22.1 :

Example 22.2 :

A dentist uses a small mirror attached to a thin rod to examine one

of your teeth. When the tooth is 1.20 cm in front of the mirror, the
image it forms is 9.25 cm behind the mirror. Determine
a. the focal length of the mirror and state the type of the mirror
used,
b. the magnification of the image.
Solution : u = +1.20 cm; v = 9.25 cm

An upright image is formed 20.5 cm from the real object by using

the spherical mirror. The images height is one fourth of objects
height.
a. Where should the mirror be placed relative to the object?
b. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror and describe the
type of mirror required.
c. Sketch and label a ray diagram to show the formation of the
image.
Solution : h = 0.25h

a. By applying the mirrors equation, thus

1 1 1
= +
f u v

1
1
1
=
+
f 1.20 ( 9.25)
f = +1.38 cm (Concave mirror)

Spherical

mirror

b. By using the magnification formula, thus

m=

v
u

m=

(9.25)
= 7.71
1.20

22

Solution : h = 0.25h
i
o
b. By using the mirrors equation, thus

u + v = 20.5

(1)

By using the equation of linear magnification, thus

hi
v
=
ho
u

21

Solution : h = 0.25h
i
o
a. From the figure,

m=

20.5 cm

0.25ho
v
=
ho
u
v = 0.25u

(2)

By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), hence

u + 0.25u = 20.5
u = 16.4 cm
The mirror should be placed 16.4 cm in front of the object.
object

1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1
1
= +
f u ( 0.25u )
1
1
1
=
+
f 16.4 ( 0.25(16.4))
r
f = 5.47 cm and f =
2
r = 2(5.47 ) = 10.9 cm
The type of spherical mirror is convex because the negative
value of focal length.

23

24

Example 22.3 :

Solution : h = 0.25h
i
o
c. The ray diagram is shown below.

I
front

A person of 1.60 m height stands 0.60 m from a surface of a

hanging shiny globe in a garden.
a. If the diameter of the globe is 18 cm, where is the image of the
person relative to the surface of the globe?
b. How tall is the persons image?
c. State the characteristics of the persons image.
Solution : h = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m
o

back

ho
25

Solution : h = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m

o
a. Given d = 0.18 m
The radius of curvature of the globes surface (convex surface)
is given by

0.18
r=
= 0.09 m
2

26

Solution :

ho = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m

b. By applying the magnification formula, thus

m=

hi
v
=
ho
u

hi
(0.042)
=
1.60
0.60
hi = 0.112 m OR 11.2 cm

By applying the mirrors equation, hence

2 1 1
= +
r u v
2
1
1
=
+
0.09 0.60 v

c. The characteristics of the persons image are

 virtual
 upright
 diminished
 formed behind the reflecting surface.

v = 0.042 m (behind the globes surface)

27

28

Example 22.4 :

Solution :

A shaving or makeup mirror forms an image of a light bulb on a

wall of a bathroom that is 3.50 m from the mirror. The height of the
bulb is 8.0 mm and the height of its image is 40 cm.
a. Sketch a labeled ray diagram to show the formation of the bulbs
image.
b. Calculate
i. the position of the bulb from the pole of the mirror,
ii. the focal length of the mirror.
3
2
Solution : v = 3.50 m; ho = 8.0 10 m; hi = 40 10 m
a. The ray diagram of the bulb is

b. i. By applying the magnification formula, thus

m=

OR 7.0 cm
The position of the bulb is 7.0 cm in front of the mirror.
ii. By applying the mirrors equation, thus

40 cm
3.50 m

1 1 1
= +
f u v
1
1
1
=
+
f 0.07 3.50

P
F

hi
v
=
ho
u

40 102
3.50
=
3
8.0 10
u
u = 0.07 m

O
I 8.0 mm

v = 3.50 m; ho = 8.0 10 3 m; hi = 40 10 2 m

f = 0.0687 m OR 6.87 cm

29

30

Learning Outcome:

Exercise 22.1 :
1.

a. A concave mirror forms an inverted image four times larger

than the object. Calculate the focal length of the mirror,
assuming the distance between object and image is
0.600 m.
b. A convex mirror forms a virtual image half the size of the
object. Assuming the distance between image and object
is 20.0 cm, determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
ANS. : 160 mm ; 267 mm
2. a. A 1.74 m tall shopper in a department store is 5.19 m from
a security mirror. The shopper notices that his image in the
mirror appears to be only 16.3 cm tall.
i. Is the shoppers image upright or inverted? Explain.
ii. Determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
b. A concave mirror of a focal length 36 cm produces an
image whose distance from the mirror is one third of the
object distance. Calculate the object and image distances.
ANS. : u think, 1.07 m ; 144 cm, 48 cm
31

22.2

Refraction at a plane and spherical

surfaces (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State and use the laws of refraction (Snells Law) for
layers of materials with different densities.


Apply

n1 n2 n2 n1
+ =
u v
r


for spherical surface.

Use sign convention for radius of curvature, r:

+ ve for convex surface and ve for concave surface

32

22.2 Refraction at a plane and spherical

surfaces

(a) n1

22.2.1 Refraction at a plane surface

Refraction is defined as the changing of direction of a light

ray and its speed of propagation as it passes from one
medium into another.
another
Laws of refraction state :
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie
in the same plane.
plane
 For two given media, Snells law states

sin i n2
= = constant OR n1 sin i = n2 sin r
sin r n1
where n1 : refractive index of the medium 1
( Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of the medium 2
( Medium containing the refracted ray)
33
r : angle of refraction

n =

(Medium containing
the incident ray)

(b) n1

velocity of light in medium 1 v1

=
velocity of light in medium 2 v2
(Medium containing the
refracted ray)
35

> n2

(Medium 1 is denser than

medium 2)

Incident ray
Incident ray

i
n1
n2

n1
n2

r
Refracted ray

Figure 22.10a
The light ray is bent toward the
normal, thus r < i
normal

Figure 22.10b
Refracted ray
The light ray is bent away from
the normal,
normal thus r > i 34

Absolute refractive index, n (for the incident ray travels from

vacuum or air into the medium
medium) is given by

n=

The value of refractive index depends on the type of medium

and the colour of the light.
light
It is dimensionless and its value greater than 1.
1
Consider the light ray travels from medium 1 into medium 2, the
refractive index can be denoted by

1 2

< n2

(Medium 1 is less dense

medium 2)

Refractive index (index of refraction), n

is defined as the constant ratio sin i for the two given
media.
media
sin r

Examples for refraction of light ray travels from one medium to

another medium can be shown in Figures 22.10a and 22.10b.

c
velocity of light in vacuum
=
v
velocity of light in medium

Table 22.3 shows the refractive indices for common substances.

Table 22.3
(If the density
of medium is
greater hence
the refractive
index is also
greater)
greater

Substance
Solids
Diamond
Flint glass
Crown glass
Fused quartz (glass)
Ice
Liquids
Benzene
Ethyl alcohol
Water
Gases
Carbon dioxide
Air

Refractive index, n
2.42
1.66
1.52
1.46
1.31
1.50
1.36
1.33
1.00045
1.000293

36

Relationship between refractive index and the wavelength of

light

As light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength,

changes but its frequency, f remains constant.
constant
The wavelength changes because of different material.
material The
frequency remains constant because the number of wave
cycles arriving per unit time must equal the number leaving
per unit time so that the boundary surface cannot create or
destroy waves.
waves
By considering a light travels from medium 1 (n1) into medium 2
(n2), the velocity of light in each medium is given by

then

v1 = f1 and v2 = f2
c
v1
f
= 1 where v1 =
n1
v 2 f 2

and

v2 =

c
n2

c

n1 = 1
c 2

n2

n11 = n2 2
(Refractive index is inversely
proportional to the wavelength)

If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then n1 = 1. Therefore the

refractive index for any medium, n can be expressed as

n=
where

0 : wavelengt h of light in vacuum

: wavelengt h of light in medium

37

Example 22.5 :
A fifty cent coin is at the bottom of a swimming pool of depth
3.00 m. The refractive index of air and water are 1.00 and 1.33
respectively. Determine the apparent depth of the coin.
Solution : na = 1.00 ; nw = 1.33
Air (na)

Water (nw)

3.00 m

Solution : n = 1.00 ; n
a
w
From the diagram,

= 1.33

ABD

tan r =

AD
AB

ACD

tan i =

AD
AC

By considering only small angles of r and i , thus

38

tan r sin r

and

tan i sin i

AD

tan i sin i AC AB
=
=
=
tan r sin r AD AC

AB

then
where

C
AB : apparent depth
AC : actual depth = 3.00 m
39

40

Solution : n = 1.00 ; n
a
w
From the Snells law,

Example 22.6 :

= 1.33

A pond with a total depth (ice + water) of 4.00 m is covered by a

transparent layer of ice of thickness 0.32 m. Determine the time
required for light to travel vertically from the surface of the ice to
the bottom of the pond. The refractive index of ice and water are
1.31 and 1.33 respectively.
(Given the speed of light in vacuum is 3.00 108 m s-1.)
Solution : ni = 1.31 ; nw = 1.33

sin i n2 na
=
=
sin r n1 nw
AB na
=
AC nw
AB 1.00
=
3.00 1.33

AB = 2.26 m

Ice (ni)

Note : (Important)
Other equation for absolute
refractive index in term of
depth is given by

c
vw

3.00 10
vi
vi = 2.29 108 m s 1
3.00 108
1.33 =
vw

1.31 =

43

n2

PD

r
u

hi hw 0.32 3.68
+
=
+

vi vw 2.29 108 2.26 108

t = 1.77 10 8 s

Therefore the time required is given by

t=

Figure 22.11 shows a spherical surface with radius, r forms an

interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

n1

vw = 2.26 108 m s 1
Since the light propagates in ice and water at constant speed thus
s
s
v=
t=
t
v
t = ti + t w

42

22.2.2 Refraction at a spherical surface

Solution : n = 1.31 ; n = 1.33

i
w
The speed of light in ice and water are

nw =

4.00 m

Bottom

41

c
vi

hw = 4.00 0.32
hw = 3.68 m

Water (nw)

real depth
n
n= 2 =
n1 apparent depth

ni =

hi = 0.32 m

Figure 22.11
The surface forms an image I of a point object O.

The incident ray OB making an angle i with the normal and is

refracted to ray BI making an angle where n1 < n2.

Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical surface and

44
BC is normal.

From the Figure 22.11,

BOC

BIC

i = +

= +
=

By substituting eq. (1) and (2) into eq. (3), thus

then

(2)

From the Snells law

n1 sin i = n2 sin

By using
BOD,
BCD and
BID thus

tan =

n1 ( + ) = n2 ( )
n1 + n2 = (n2 n1 )

(1)

BD
BD
BD
; tan =
; tan =
OD
CD
ID

BD
BD
BD
n1
+ n2
= (n2 n1 )

u
v
r

n1 n2 n2 n1
+ =
u v
r

By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

sin i i ; sin ; tan ; tan ; tan

OD OP = u ; CD CP = r ; ID IP = v

where

then Snells law can be written as

n1i = n2

(3)
45

Note :
 If the refracting surface is flat (plane) :

r =

Physical Quantity

The equation (formula) of linear magnification for refraction

by the spherical surface is given by

m=

hi
nv
= 1
ho
n2u

Positive sign (+)

Real object

Object distance,

(in front of the refracting

surface)

Image distance,

(opposite side of the

object)

Focal length,
Radius of
curvature,
47

v : image distance from pole

u : object distance from pole
n1 : refractive index of medium 1
( Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of medium 2
( Medium containing the refracted ray)

46

Table 22.4 shows the sign convention for refraction or thin lenses:
lenses

then

n1 n2
+ =0
u v

Equation of spherical
refracting surface

Real image

Negative sign (-)

Virtual object

(at the back of the

refracting surface)

Virtual image

(same side of the

object)

Converging lens

Diverging lens

convex surface

concave surface

Table 22.4

48

Example 22.7 :
A cylindrical glass rod in air has a refractive index of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, r =3.00 cm as
shown in Figure 22.12.
air

glass

P
C

10.0 cm
Figure 22.12
Calculate,
a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the rod,
10.0 cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure.
b. the linear magnification.

Solution : n = 1.52 ; u = 10.0 cm; r = +3.00 cm

g
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus

na ng ng na
+ =
u v
r
1.00 1.52 1.52 1.00
+
=
10.0
v
+3.00

The image is 20.7 cm at the back of the convex surface.

b. The linear magnification of the image is given by

m =

n1v
n2 u

m =

na v
ng u

m =

(1.00)(20.7)
(1.52)(10.0)

(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)

m = 1.36

49

Example 22.8 :
Figure 22.13 shows an object O placed at a distance 20.0 cm from
the surface P of a glass sphere of radius 5.0 cm and refractive
index of 1.63.
Glass sphere
air

5.0 cm

v = +20.7 cm

50

Solution : n = 1.63 ; u = 20.0 cm; r = +5.0 cm

g
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus

na ng ng na
+ =
u v
r
1.00 1.63 1.63 1.00
+
=
20.0
v
+5.0

v = +21.5 cm

The image is 21.5 cm at the back of the first surface P.

OR

20.0 cm
Figure 22.13
Determine
a. the position of the image formed by the surface P of the glass
sphere,
b. the position of the final image formed by the glass sphere.

ng

na

P
u = 20.0 cm

I1

v = 21.5 cm

(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)

51

52

Solution :
b. By using

Solution :
b.

ng

na

ng

na

Q
I2

First surface

21.5 cm
11.5 cm

I1

na na ng
=
v
r

1.63 1.00 1.00 1.63

+
=
11.5
v
5.0

Second surface

v = + 3.74 cm

From the figure above, the image I1 formed by the first surface P
is in the glass and 11.5 cm from the second surface Q. I1 acts
as a virtual object for the second surface and

n1 = ng = 1.63 ; n2 = na = 1.00; u = 11.5 cm;

r = 5.00 cm
convex surface

The image is real and 3.74 cm at the back of the second

surface Q.

53

54

Exercise 22.2 :
1.

A student wishes to determine the depth of a swimming pool

filled with water by measuring the width (x = 5.50 m) and then
noting that the bottom edge of the pool is just visible at an
angle of 14.0 above the horizontal as shown in Figure 22.14.

2.

A small strip of paper is pasted on one side of a glass sphere

of radius 5 cm. The paper is then view from the opposite
surface of the sphere. Determine the position of the image.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 20.83 cm in front of the 2nd refracting surface.

3.

A point source of light is placed at a distance of 25.0 cm from

the centre of a glass sphere of radius 10 cm. Determine the
image position of the source.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 25.2 cm at the back of the 2nd refracting surface.

Figure 22.14
Calculate the depth of the pool.
(Given nwater = 1.33 and nair = 1.00)
ANS. : 5.16 m
55

56

Learning Outcome:

Learning Outcome:

22.3

22.3

Thin lenses (2 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Sketch and use ray diagrams to determine the
characteristics of image formed by diverging and
converging lenses.


Use thin lens equation,

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Use lensmakers equation:

1 1 1
+ =
u v f


Thin lenses (2 hours)

1 1
1
= ( n 1)
f
r1 r2

for real object only.

if the medium is air.

1 nmaterial 1 1
=
1
f nmedium r1 r2

Use sign convention for focal length, f:

+ f for converging lens and f for diverging lens
lens..

Use the thin lens formula for a combination of

converging lenses.

57

58

(b) Diverging (Concave) lenses

22.3 Thin lenses

is defined as a transparent material with two spherical

refracting surfaces whose thickness is thin compared to the
radii of curvature of the two refracting surfaces.
surfaces
There are two types of thin lenses. It is converging and
diverging lenses.
Figures 22.15a and 22.15b show the various types of thin
lenses, both converging and diverging.
(a) Converging (Convex) lenses

r2
r1
( )
) (+ve)
Biconcave

Plano-concave
PlanoFigure 22.15b

Figures 22.16 show the shape of converging (convex) and

diverging (concave) lenses.
(b) Diverging lens

r1

r1
Plano--convex
Plano

Convex meniscus

Figure 22.15a
59

Concave meniscus

22.3.1 Terms of thin lenses

(a) Converging lens

Biconvex

r2
( ve
ve))

C1

r2

C2

C1

Figure 22.16

r2

C2
60

How to determine the sign convention of radius curvature, r

Centre of curvature (point C1 and C2)

 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
part
Radius of curvature (r1 and r2)
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
part
Principal (Optical) axis
 is defined as the line joining the two centres of curvature
of a lens.
lens
Optical centre (point O)
 is defined as the point at which any rays entering the lens
pass without deviation.
deviation

a) Biconvex
Incident rays

r1 (+
(+ve
ve))
convex surface

r1 = r2
r2 ( -ve
ve))
concave surface

b) Convex meniscus
Incident rays

r1 (+
(+ve
ve))
convex surface

r2 > r1

ve))
r2 ( +ve
convex surface

61

62

How to determine the sign convention of radius curvature, r

22.3.2 Focal point and focal length, f

c) Biconcave
Incident rays

r1 (-ve
ve))
concave surface

r1 = r2

Consider the ray diagrams for converging and diverging lenses

as shown in Figures 22.17a and 22.17b.

r2 ( +ve)
ve)
convex surface
O

F1
d) Concave meniscus
Incident rays

f
r1 > r2

r1 (+
(+ve
ve))
convex surface

ve)
r2 ( +ve)
convex surface

F1

F2

Figure 22.17a
Figure 22.17b
From the figures,
 Points F1 and F2 represent the focus of the lenses.


63

F2

Distance f represents the focal length of the lenses.

64

Focus (point F1 and F2)

For converging (convex) lens is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel and close to the
principal axis converges after passing through the lens.
lens
 Its focus is real (principal).

For diverging (concave) lens is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel to the principal
axis seem to diverge from after passing through the lens.
lens
 Its focus is virtual.

22.3.3 Ray diagram for thin lenses

Figures 22.18a and 22.18b show the graphical method of

locating an image formed by a converging (convex) and
diverging (concave) lenses.
(a) Converging (convex) lens
1
2
3

Focal length ( f )

is defined as the distance between the focus F and the
optical centre O of the lens.
lens

F2

F1
2

v
Figure 22.18a

65

(b) Diverging (concave) lens

Images formed by a diverging lens

Figure 22.19 shows the graphical method of locating an image
formed by a diverging lens.

1
2

66

3
3

F2

At least
any two
rays for
drawing
the ray
diagram.

F1

2
Figure 22.18b
Ray 1 - Parallel to the principal axis, after refraction by the lens,
passes through the focal point (focus) F2 of a
converging lens or appears to come from the focal point
F2 of a diverging lens.
Ray 2 - Passes through the optical centre of the lens is
undeviated.
Ray 3 - Passes through the focus F1 of a converging lens or
appears to converge towards the focus F1 of a diverging
lens, after refraction by the lens the ray parallel to the
67
principal axis.

F2
Front

F1
back

Figure 22.19

The characteristics of the image formed are

 virtual
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed in front of the lens.
lens
Object position any position in front of the diverging lens.
68

Images formed by a converging lens

Table 22.5 shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed
by a converging lens for various object distance, u.

Object
distance, u

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

Real
Inverted

Same size

Formed at point
2F2. (at the back
of the lens)

Object
distance, u

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

Real

Inverted

Diminished

Formed between
point F2 and 2F2.
(at the back of
the lens)

O
u = 2f

2F2
F1

F2

Front

back

2F1

u > 2f

I
O 2F1

2F2

F2

F1
Front

back

Real
Inverted

Magnified

Formed at a
distance greater
than 2f at the
back of the lens.

f < u < 2f 2F1 O

I
2F2

F1

F2

Front

back

69

Object
distance, u

Image
characteristic

Ray diagram

u=f

O
2F1

F1

F2

Front

back

Real or virtual
Formed at infinity.

2F2

70

22.3.4 Thin lens formula, lens makers and linear

magnification equations
Thin lens formula and lens makers equation

Considering the ray diagram of refraction for two spherical
surfaces as shown in Figure 22.20.

u1
Virtual
Upright

Magnified

Formed in front
of the lens.

r1

u2 = t v1
r2

v1

n1

v2

n2

n1

u<f

2F1

F1 O

F2

back
Front
Table 22.5

C1

I1

C2
P2

P1

I2

2F2
71

Figure 22.20

72



By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), thus

By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, the

refraction by first surface AB and second surface DE are given
by


Surface AB (r

Surface DE (r

n1 n1 n1 n2 (n2 n1 )
=
+
u1 v2 r2
r1
n1 n1 (n2 n1 ) (n1 n2 )
+ =
+
u1 v2
r1
r2

n
1 1
1 1
+ = 2 1
u1 v2 n1 r1 r2

= +r1)

n1 n2 (n2 n1 )
+ =
u1 v1
+ r1

(1)

= -r2)

n2
n (n n )
+ 1= 1 2
(t v1 ) v2
r2
Assuming the lens is very thin thus t

If

u1 = and v2 = f thus eq. (3) becomes

= 0,

n2 n1 ( n1 n2 )
+ =
r2
v1 v2
n2 n1 n1 n2

=
v1 v2 r2

1 1
1 n2
= 1
f n1
r1 r2

By equating eq. (3) and the lens makers equation, thus

: focal length
r1 : radius of curvature for 1stndrefracting surface
r2 : radius of curvature for 2 refracting surface
n1 : refractive index of the medium
74
n2 : refractive index of the lens material

Linear magnification, m

1 1 1
+ =
u1 v2 f

therefore in general,

1 1 1
= +
f u v

Thin lens formula

If the medium is air (n1= nair=1) thus the lens makers

equation can be written as

1 1
1
= ( n 1)
f
r1 r2


is defined as the ratio between image height, hi and object

height, ho.

hi
v
=
ho
u
where v : image distance from optical centre
u : object distance from optical centre
1 1 1
Since
= + the linear magnification equation can be
f u v
written as 1
1 1
= + v
f u v
v v
v
m = 1
= +1
f u
f
m=

Note :


Lens makers
equation

where f
(2)
73

(3)

where n : refractive index of the lens material

For thin lenses and lens makers equations, use the sign
convention for refraction
refraction.
75

76

Example 22.9 :

Solution :

A person of height 1.75 m is standing 2.50 m in from of a camera.

The camera uses a thin biconvex lens of radii of curvature
7.69 mm. The lens made from the crown glass of refractive index
1.52.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
b. Sketch a labelled ray diagram to show the formation of the
image.
c. Determine the position of the image and its height.
d. State the characteristics of the image.
Solution : ho = 1.75 m; u = 2.50 m; n = 1.52;

a.

ho = 1.75 m; u = 2.50 m; n = 1.52;

r1 = r2 = +7.69 10 3 m

1
1
1
= (1.52 1)

3
3
f
(7.69 10 )
7.69 10
3
f = +7.39 10 m

b. The ray diagram for the case is

I
O 2F1

r1 = r2 = +7.69 10 3 m

a. By applying the lens makers equation in air, thus

1 1
1
= ( n 1)
f
r1 r2

F1

F2

Front

back

2F2

77

78

Solution :

Example 22.10 :

c. The position of the image formed is

1 1 1
= +
f u v

A thin plano-convex lens is made of glass of refractive index 1.66.

When an object is set up 10 cm from the lens, a virtual image ten
times its size is formed. Determine
a. the focal length of the lens,
b. the radius of curvature of the convex surface.
Solution : n = 1.66; u = 10 cm; m = 10
a. By applying the linear magnification equation for thin lens, thus

1
1
1
=
+
3
+ 7.39 10
2.50 v
v = 7.41 10 3 m

(at the back of the lens)

By using the linear magnification equation, thus

m=

hi
v
=
ho
u

7.41103
hi
=

1.75
2.50
hi = 5.19 103 m OR 5.19 mm

m=

d. The characteristics of the image are



real

Inverted(--ve)
Inverted(

diminished

formed at the back of the lens

v
( v)
=
= 10
u
u

v = 10u

By using the thin lens formula, thus

1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1
1
= +
f u ( 10u )
79

Virtual image

80

Example 22.11 :

n = 1.66; u = 10 cm; m = 10
a.
1 1
1
= +
f 10 ( 10 )(10 )
f = +11.1 cm
b. Since the thin lens is plano-convex thus r =
2
Solution :

The radii of curvature of the faces of a thin concave meniscus lens

of material of refractive index 3/2 are 20 cm and 10 cm. What is the
focal length of lens
a. in air,
b. when completely immersed in water of refractive index 4/3?
Solution : n2 = 3 / 2

Therefore

1 1
1
= ( n 1)
f
r1 r2
1 1
1
= (1.66 1)
11.1
r1

r1 = +20 cm

r2 = +10 cm

a. By applying the lens makers equation in air,

1 1
1
= ( n 1)
f
r1 r2

r1 = +7.33 cm

and

n2 = n = 3 / 2

81

82

Solution :

22.3.5 Combination of lenses

a.

b. Given

n2 = 3 / 2
1 3 1
1
= 1

f 2 +20 10
f = 40 cm
n1 = 4 / 3

By using the general lens makers equation, therefore

1 n2 1 1
= 1
f n1 r1 r2
1 ( 32 ) 1
1
= 4 1

f ( 3 ) +20 10

Many optical instruments, such as microscopes and

telescopes use two converging lenses together to produce
telescopes,
an image.
In both instruments, the 1st lens (closest
closest to the object )is called
the objective and the 2nd lens (closest
closest to the eye)
eye is referred to
as the eyepiece or ocular
ocular.
The image formed by the 1st lens is treated as the object for
the 2nd lens and the final image is the image formed by the 2nd
lens.
lens
The position of the final image in a two lenses system can be
determined by applying the thin lens formula to each lens
separately.
separately
The overall magnification of a two lenses system is the
product of the magnifications of the separate lenses.
lenses
where

m = m1m2 m : overall magnificat ion

f = 160 cm
83

m1 : magnificat ion due to the 1stndlens

m2 : magnificat ion due to the 2 84lens

Example 22.12 :
The objective and eyepiece of the compound microscope are both
converging lenses and have focal lengths of 15.0 mm and 25.5 mm
respectively. A distance of 61.0 mm separates the lenses. The
microscope is being used to examine a sample placed 24.1 mm in
front of the objective.
a. Determine
i. the position of the final image,
ii. the overall magnification of the microscope.
b. State the characteristics of the final image.
Solution : f1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;

u1 = 24.1 mm

f1

u1

a. i. By applying the thin lens formula for the 1st lens (objective),

f1

u1

f1

F1

f2

F1

F2

F2

u2

u2 = d v1
u2 = 61.0 39.7

f2

F2

F2
eyepiece(2nd)

objective (1st)

f2

I1

v1

f2

F1

1
1
1
=
+
+ 15.0 24.1 v1
v1 = +39.7 mm (real)

1 1 1
= +
f1 u1 v1

f1

F1

1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;

u1 = 24.1 mm

Solution : f

u2 = 21.3 mm

85

= +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;

u = 24.1 mm

86

1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;

u1 = 24.1 mm

Solution : f

Solution : f

a. i. and the position of the final image formed by the 2nd lens

a. ii. The overall (total) magnification of the microscope is given by

1
1

(eyepiece) is

1
1 1
= +
f 2 u 2 v2

1
1
1
=
+
+ 25.5 21.3 v2
v2 = 129 mm

v1
m = m1m2 where m1 =
u1
v1 v2
m =
u1 u2

(in front of the 2nd lens)

f1
O

u1

F1

f1

f2

F1

F2

v1

I2

v2 = 129 mm

39.7 129
m=

24.1 21.3

f2
F2

I1

and

m2 =

v2
u2

m = 9.98

b. The characteristics of the final image are

u2

87

Virtual (m=(m=-ve)

inverted

magnified

formed in front of the 1st and 2nd lenses

lenses.
88

Exercise 22.3 :

3.

1.

a. A glass of refractive index 1.50 plano-concave lens has a

focal length of 21.5 cm. Calculate the radius of the
concave surface.
b. A rod of length 15.0 cm is placed horizontally along the
principal axis of a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm.
If the closest end of the rod is 20.0 cm from the lens
calculate the length of the image formed.
ANS. : 10.8 cm
cm;; 6.00 cm
2. An object is placed 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens
forms an image which is 36.0 cm to the right of the lens.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens and state the type of
the lens.
b. If the object is 8.00 mm tall, calculate the height of the
image.
c. Sketch a labelled ray diagram for the case above.
ANS. : 11.1 cm; 1.8 cm
89

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 23 :
Physical optics

91

When a small light bulb is placed on the left side of a

converging lens, a sharp image is formed on a screen placed
30.0 cm on the right side of the lens. When the lens is moved
5.0 cm to the right, the screen has to be moved 5.0 cm to the
left so that a sharp image is again formed on the screen. What
is the focal length of the lens?
ANS. : 10.0 cm
4. A converging lens of focal length 8.00 cm is 20.0 cm to the left
of a converging lens of focal length 6.00 cm. A coin is placed
10.0 cm to the left of the 1st lens. Calculate
a. the distance of the final image from the 1st lens,
b. the total magnification of the system.
ANS. : 24.6 cm; 0.924
5. A converging lens with a focal length of 4.0 cm is to the left of
a second identical lens. When a feather is placed 12 cm to the
left of the first lens, the final image is the same size and
orientation as the feather itself. Calculate the separation
between the lenses.
90
ANS. : 12.0 cm