www.kms.matrik.edu.

my/physics

PHYSICS

CHAPTER
18
The study of
interference, diffraction
and polarization of
light. Light is treated as
waves rather than as
rays.

CHAPTER 23:
Physical optics
(6 Hours)

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.1

Huygens principle (1/2 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State Huygens principle

( Include spherical and plane wavefronts)

Sketch and explain the wave fronts of light after passing

through a single slit and obstacle using Huygens
principle.

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
23.1 Huygens principle
23.1.1 Wave fronts

is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave motion,

on which the disturbances at every point have the same
phase.
Figure 2.1 shows the wavefront of the sinusoidal waves.
wavefront
A
D

Figure 2.1

Line joining all point of adjacent wave, e.g. A, B and C or D,E

and F are in phase
Wave front always perpendicular to the direction of wave3
propagation.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Type of wave fronts

Circular wave fronts as shown in Figure 2.2 are produced by a
point source generates two-dimensional waves.
circular wave front

ray

point source

Figure 2.2
4

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Spherical wave fronts as shown in Figure 2.3 are produced by

a point source generates three-dimensional waves.
spherical wave fronts

point source

rays
Figure 2.3

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Plane wave fronts as shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b are

produced by a point source generates three-dimensional waves
at large distance from the source.

plane wave front

rays

plane wave front

Figure 2.4a : (3-D)

rays

Figure 2.4b : (2-D)

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Ray
is defined as a line represents the direction of travel of a
wave.
It is at right angle to the wave fronts as shown in Figure 2.5.

ray

Wave
front

Figure 2.5

Beam of light
is a collection of rays or a column of light.
parallel beam, e.g. a laser beam (shown in Figure 2.6a)
Source of light
from infinity
Figure 2.6a

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

divergent beam, e.g. a lamp near you (shown in Figure 2.6b)

Figure 2.6b

convergent beam as shown in Figure 2.6c.

Figure 2.6c

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.1.2 Huygens principle

states that every point on a wave front can be considered as

a source of secondary wavelets that spread out in the
forward direction at the speed of the wave. The new wave
front is the envelope of all the secondary wavelets - i.e. the
tangent to all of them.
secondary wave front

wavelets

Figure 2.7

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Application of Huygens principle

a. Construction of new wave front for a plane wave

P1

If the wave speed is v, hence in

time t the distance travels by the
wavelet is s = vt.

From Huygens Principle, points

P1, P2, P3 and P4 on the wave
front AB are the sources of
secondary wavelets.

From the points, draw curves of

radius s.

Then draw a straight line AB

which is tangent to the curves at
points Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4

Hence, line AB is the new wave

front after t second.
10

A Q

P2

Q2

P3

Q3

P4
B

Q4
B

Figure 2.8

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

b. Construction of new wave front for a circular wave

A

Q1

P1

Q2

Explanation as in the
construction of new wave
front for a plane wave front.

But the wave front AB is a

curve touching points
Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4.

The curve AB is the new

(circular) wave front after t
second.

P2
source
P3
B
B

P4

Q3

Q4

ray
Figure 2.9

11

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

c. Diffraction of wave at a single slit

Figure 2.10

Huygens principle can be used to explain the

diffraction of wave.

Each of the point in Figure 2.10, acts as a

secondary source of wavelets (red circular
arc)

The tangent to the wavelets from points 2, 3

and 4 is a plane wave front.

But at the edges, points 1 and 5 are the last

points that produce wavelets.

Huygens principle suggest that in conforming

to the curved shape of the wavelets near the
edges, the new wave front bends or diffracts
around the edges - applied to all kinds of
waves.
Simulation 2.1
12

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.2

Constructive interference and destructive

interference (1/2 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define coherence.

State the conditions to observe interference of light.

State the conditions of constructive and destructive

interference.

13

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.2 Constructive interference and

destructive interference
23.2.1 Interference of light

Light wave is an electromagnet waves (emw).

It consists of varying electric field E and varying magnetic

field B which are perpendicular to each other as shown in
Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11
Electric field:

E = E0 sin (t-kx)

Magnetic field:

B = B0 sin (t-kx)

14

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Interference is defined as the effect of interaction between

two or more waves which overlaps or superposed at a point
and at a particular time from the sources.
For light the Interference is occurred when two light waves meet
at a point, a bright or a dark region will be produced in
accordance to the Principle of superposition.
Principle of superposition states the resultant displacement
at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to
the two light waves.
Constructive interference is defined as a reinforcement of
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a bright fringe
(maximum).
Destructive interference is defined as a total cancellation of
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a dark fringe
(minimum).
Monochromatic light is defined as a light of a single
wavelength or freqency.
15

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.2.2 Conditions for permanent interference

Permanent interference between two sources of light only take

place if they are coherent sources. It means
the sources must have the same wavelength or frequency.
the sources must have a constant phase difference
between them.
The light waves that are interfering must have the same or
approximately of amplitude to obtain total cancellation at
minimum or to obtain a good contrast at maximum.
The distance between the coherent sources should be as
small as possible of the light wavelength ( ).

16

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.2.3 Path difference, L

is defined as the difference in distance from each source

to a particular point.

P
x1
S1

x2

Figure 2.12

S2

screen

Path difference, L = |S2P S1P|

= |x2 x1|

17

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Interference of two coherent sources in phase

Path difference for constructive interference
S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase

S1

x1
P (maximum)

S2

x2

Figure 2.13

18

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A bright fringe is observed at P thus

2m where m 0,1,2,...

At P,
then

E1P E0 sin(t kx1 )

E2 P E0 sin(t kx2 )

(t kx2 ) (t kx1 )
k ( x1 x2 ) since k 2 and ( x1 x2 ) L

2
order

L

2
L m
therefore 2m
L

Note :
When

m=0
m = 1
m = 2

where

m 0,1,2,.....
: wavelength

Central bright fringe

(zeroth order bright)
1st bright fringe (1st order bright)

2nd bright fringe (2nd order bright)

19

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Path difference for destructive interference

S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase

x1

Q (minimum)

S1
x2
S2

Figure 2.14

20

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A dark fringe is observed at Q thus

2m 1 where m 0,1,2,...

At P,

then

E1P E0 sin(t kx1 )

E2 P E0 sin(t kx2 )

(t kx2 ) (t kx1 )
k ( x1 x2 )
2

L

2
L
therefore 2m 1

Note :
When

m=0
m = 1
m = 2

L m
2

where m 0,1,2,.....

1st dark fringe (zeroth order dark)

2nd dark fringe (1st order dark)
3rd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
21

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Interference pattern for two coherent sources in phase

Fringe
2nd bright
2nd dark
1st bright
1st dark
Central bright
1st dark
1st bright
2nd dark
2nd bright

S1

S2

4
3
2

2
3
4

m
2
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
2

L
2
3
2

1
2

0
1
2

3
2

screen
Figure 2.15
22

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Interference of two coherent sources in antiphase

Path difference for constructive interference
S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase

P (maximum)

x1
S1

x2

S2

Figure 2.16

23

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A bright fringe is observed at P thus

2m where m

At P,

L
therefore 2m

Note :

1,2,...

E1P E0 sin(t kx1 )

E2 P E0 sin(t kx2 )
then (t kx ) (t kx )
2
1
k ( x1 x2 )

When

m=0
m = 1
m = 2

L m
2

m 0,1,2,.....

where
1st bright fringe (zeroth order bright)
2nd bright fringe (1st order bright)
3rd bright fringe (2nd order bright)

24

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Path difference for destructive interference

S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase

S1

x1
Q (minimum)

S2

x2

Figure 2.17
25

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A dark fringe is observed at Q thus

2m 1 where m 0,1,2,...

E1P E0 sin(t kx1 )

E2 P E0 sin(t kx2 )
then
(t kx2 ) (t kx1 )
k ( x1 x2 )
2

L
L m
therefore 2m 1

Note :
where m 0,1,2,.....
When
At P,

m=0
m = 1
m = 2

Central dark fringe (zeroth order dark)

1st dark fringe (1st order dark)
2nd dark fringe (2nd order dark)

26

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Interference pattern for two coherent sources in antiphase

Fringe
2nd dark
2nd bright
1st dark
1st bright
Central dark
1st bright
1st dark
2nd bright
2nd dark

S1

S2

5
4
3
2

2
3
4
5

m
2
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
2

L
2
3
2

1
2

0
1
2

3
2

screen
Figure 2.18
27

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Table 2.1 shows the summary of chapter 18.2.3.

Two Coherent
sources

Bright fringe

L m
In phase

Antiphase

m 0,1,2,...
2m
m 0,1,2,...
1

L m
2

m 0,1,2,...
2m
m 1,2,...
Table 2.1

Dark fringe

L m
2

m 0,1,2,...
(2m 1)
m 0,1,2,...

L m

m 0,1,2,...
(2m 1)
m 0,1,2,...
28

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.3

Interference of transmitted light through

double-slits (1 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Use

mD
ym
d
xm

for bright fringes (maxima)

m 12 D

for dark fringes (minima),

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, .

Use

and

explain the effect of changing any of the variables.

29

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.3 Interference of transmitted light

through double-slits
23.3.1 Methods of obtaining two coherent sources
Division of wave front

S1
S2

monochromatic
light source
single
slit

double
slits

A slit S is placed at equal

distance from slits S1 and S2 as
shown in figure.

Light waves from S that arrived

at S1 and S2 are in phase.

Therefore, both slits S1 and S2

are two new coherent sources,
e.g. in Youngs double slit
experiment

Figure 2.19
30

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Division of amplitude
incident ray

1 2
partial reflection

air

film

Both reflected waves 1 and 2 are

coherent and will result in
interference when they
superpose.

e.g. Newtons ring, air wedge

fringes and thin film interference.

partial
transmission

air

The incident wave front is divided

into two waves by partial
reflection and partial
transmission.

Figure 2.20

31

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.3.2 Youngs double-slit experiment

Figure 2.21 shows the schematic diagram of Youngs double-slit
Intensity
experiment.

Max

m=2

Min
Max
S
monochromatic
light beam

S1

Min
Max

S2

m=1
m=0

Min
Max

m = 1

Min
single
slit
Picture 2.1

double
slits
Figure 2.21

Max
screen

m = 2
interference
pattern
32

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Explanation of Youngs double-slit experiment by using

Huygens principle
Wave front from light source falls on a narrow slit S and
diffraction occurs.
Every point on the wave front that falls on S acts as sources of
secondary wavelets that will produce a new wave front that
propagate to slits S1 and S2 .
S1 and S2 are produced two new sources of coherent waves in
phase because they originate from the same wave front and their
distance from S are equal.
An interference pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is
formed on the screen as shown in Figure 2.21.
The bright fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and
S2 superposes constructively.
The dark fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2
superposes destructively.
33

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Derivation of Youngs double-slit equations

Equation for separation between central bright fringe and
mth bright fringe
(m+1)th bright
M

ym

S1

S2

mth bright

y m 1
Central bright

D
double-slit

screen
Figure 2.22

34

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Suppose P in Figure 2.22 is the mth order bright fringe, thus

S2 P S1P m

Let OP = ym = distance from P to O .

In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N

meets PQ at right angle. Hence
NP = S1P then S2N = S2P NP = m .
angle PQO = angle S2S1N =
From the figure,
S2 N m
sin

S2S1N

S2S1
d
PO ym
tan

PQO
QO D
Since is small, thus

sin tan
m ym

d
D

35

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth

bright fringes, ym is given by

mD
ym
d

where

(2.1)

m : order 0,1,2,...
: wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
d : separation between double - slits

Note: For bright fringes

Central bright fringe (Zeroth order maximum)
m0

m 1
m 2
m 3

1st bright fringe (1st order maximum)

2nd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
3rd bright fringe (3rd order maximum)
36

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Equation for separation between central bright fringe and

mth dark fringe

mth order dark

xm

S1

S2

m
2

double-slit

(m1)th order
dark

Central bright

D
screen
Figure 2.23
37

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Suppose R in Figure 2.23 is the mth order dark fringe, thus

S2 R S1R m
2

Let OR = xm = distance from R to O .

In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
meets RQ at right angle. Hence,

NR = S1R then S2 N S2 R NR m

angle RQO = angle S2S1N =

S2 N
1

m
S2S1
2 d
RO xm
tan

QO D

From the figure,

sin
S2S1N
RQO

Since is small, thus

sin tan

1 xm

m
2 d D

38

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth

order dark fringes, xm is given by

1 D

xm m
2 d

where

(2.2)

m : order 0,1,2,...

Note: For dark fringes

1st dark fringe (Zeroth order minimum)
m0

m 1
m 2
m 3

2nd dark fringe (1st order minimum)

3rd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)

4th dark fringe (3rd order minimum)

39

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Equation for separation between successive (consecutive)

bright or dark fringes, y (Figure 2.22)
is given by

D
mD
and ym 1 m 1
y ym 1 ym where ym
d
d

mD
y m 1

d
d
D
y
d
where

(2.3)

y : separation between consecutive bright

or dark fringes
: wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
d : separation between double - slits
40

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Appearance of Youngs double-slit experiment

From the equation (2.3),

y depends on :

D
d

the wavelength of light,

the distance apart, d of the double slits,

distance between slits and the screen, D

Explanation for the above factors:

if is short and thus y decreases for fixed D and d. The

interference fringes are closer to each other and vice-versa.
if the distance apart d of the slits diminished, y increased
for fixed D and and vice-versa.
if D increases y also increases for fixed and vice-versa.
41

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

if a source slit S (Figure 2.21) is widened the fringes

gradually disappear. The slit S then equivalent to large
number of narrow slits, each producing its own fringe system
at different places. The bright and dark fringes of different
systems therefore overlap, giving rise to a uniform
illumination.
if one of the slit, S1 or S2 is covered up, the fringes disappear.
if the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits, y is
unaffected but their intensity increases.
if the experiment is carried out in a different medium, for
example water, the fringe separation y decreased or
increased depending on the wavelength, of the medium.
if white light is used the central bright fringe is white, and the
fringes on either side are coloured. Violet is the colour nearer
to the central fringe and red is farther away as shown in
Figure 2.24.
42

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Figure 2.24

Table 2.2 shows the range of wavelength for colours of visible

light.
Colour
Range of / nm

Simulation 2.2
Simulation 2.3

Violet

400 450

Blue

450 520

Green

520 560

Yellow

560 600

Orange

600 625

Red

625 - 700
Table 2.2

43

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.1 :
A double-slits pattern is view on a screen 1.00 m from the slits. If
the third order minima are 25.0 cm apart, determine
a. the ratio of wavelength and separation between the slits,
b. the distance between the first order minimum and fourth order
maximum on the screen.
Solution : D 1.00 m; x3 0.25 m; m 3
a.

3rd order minimum

S1

x3

S2

x3
zeroth order maximum

x3
D

3rd order minimum

From the figure,

x3 0.25
x3

2
2
44

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : D 1.00 m; x3 0.25 m; m 3

a. By using the equation of separation between central bright and
mth order dark fringes, thus

1 D

xm m
2 d

1 D

x3 3
2 d

1 1.00

0.125 3
2 d

b. The separation between central max and the 1st order min. is

1 D
x1 1
2 d
D
x1 1.5
d
45

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution :
b. and the separation between central max and the 4th order max.
(m = 4) is given by

mD
ym
d

y4 4

D
d

Therefore the distance between the first order minimum and

fourth order maximum on the screen is

d y4 x1

D D
d 4
1 .5

d
d
D
d 2.5
d
d 2.53.57 10 2 1.00
46

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.2 :
a. How would you expect the interference pattern of a double-slit
experiment to change if white light is used instead of
monochromatic light?
b. Describe the changes that would be observed in a double-slit
interference pattern if the entire experiment were submerged in
water.
(Physics, 3rd edition, J. S. Walker, Q4&Q6, p.963)

Solution :
a. The locations of bright and dark fringes depends on the
wavelength of light. Therefore, if white light is used in a
double-slit experiment, each bright fringe will show some

separation into colours, giving a rainbow effect.

47

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution :
b. Submerging the double-slit experiment in water would reduce
the wavelength of the light from to /n, where n = 1.33 is
the refraction index of water. Therefore, the bright or dark
fringe separation would be reduced, according to the
equation below:

D
d

It follows that the interference pattern fringes get closer to each

other.

48

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.3 :
In a Youngs double-slit experiment, when a monochromatic light of
wavelength 600 nm shines on the double slits, the fringe
separation of the interference pattern produced is 7.0 mm. When
another monochromatic light source is used, the fringe separation
is 5.0 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the second light.
Solution : 1 600 10 9 m; y1 7.0 10 3 m;

y2 5.0 10 3 m

1st case:

y1

S1
S2

y1
Central of interference pattern

D
By applying the fringe separation equation, thus

y1

1 D
d

7.0 10 3

600 10 D

(1)
49

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 1
2nd case:

500 10 9 m; y1 7.0 10 3 m;
y2 5.0 10 3 m

y2
(2)(1):

y 2

S1

Central of interference pattern

S2

2 D
d

y 2

5.0 10

2 D

5.0 10
2

3
7.0 10
600 10 9
3

(2)

OR

50

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.4 :

S1
1.2 mm
S2

2.5 m

B
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.25 shows two coherent sources (S1 and S2) of light in
phase. The separation of S1 and S2 is 1.2 mm and the screen is
2.5 m from the sources.
a. The frequency of the light is 5.77 1014 Hz. Calculate
i. the wavelength of the light used
ii. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes if the
experiment is carried out in air.
b. If the experiment is carried out in water of refractive index 1.33,
calculate the separation of two consecutive dark fringes.
(The speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00 108 m s1)

51

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : d 1.2 10 3 m; D 2.5 m

14
a. i. Given f 5.77 10 Hz
By applying the wave speed equation, thus

c f
8
14

3.00 10 5.77 10

OR
ii. By using the equation of fringe separation, thus

d
9
520 10 2.5
y
3
1.2 10

52

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : d 1.2 10 3 m; D 2.5 m

b. Given n 1.33
The wavelength of light in water is given by

n
w

1.33

520 109

Therefore the dark fringes separation is

d
3.91 10 7 2.5
x
3
1.2 10

53

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Exercise 23.1 :
1.

Youngs double-slit experiment is performed with 589-nm light

and a distance of 2.00 m between the slits and the screen.
The tenth interference minimum is observed 7.26 mm from the
central maximum. Determine the spacing of the slits.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.5, p.1198)

ANS. : 1.54 mm
2. A Youngs interference experiment is performed with
monochromatic light. The separation between the slits is
0.500 mm, and the interference pattern on a screen 3.30 m
away shows the first side maximum 3.40 mm from the centre
of the pattern. What is the wavelength?
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.2, p.1197)

ANS. : 515 nm
54

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Exercise 23.1 :
3.

A coherent light that contains two wavelength, 660 nm (red)

and 470 nm (blue) passes through two narrow slits separated
by 0.3 mm and the interference pattern is observed on a
screen 5.00 m from the slits. Determine the distance between
the first order bright fringes for each wavelength.
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q35.14,
p.1362)

ANS. : 3.17 mm
4. A monochromatic light of wavelength 560 nm passes through
a Youngs double-slit system of unknown slit separation. After
that, the slits is illuminated by a monochromatic light of
unknown wavelength. It was observed that the 4th order
minimum of the known wavelength light overlapped with the
5th order maximum of the unknown wavelength light on a
screen. Calculate the wavelength of the unknown wavelength
light.
ANS. : 504 nm
55

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.4

Interference of reflected light in thin films

(1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Identify the occurrence of phase change upon reflection.

Explain with the aid of a diagram the interference of light

in thin films at normal incidence.

For non-reflective coating:

Constructive interference : 2nt = m

Destructive interference : 2nt = (m + )

For reflective coating:
Constructive interference : 2nt = (m + )
Destructive interference : 2nt = m

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
56

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.4 Interference of reflected light in

thin films

Interference due to reflected waves is observed in many

everyday circumstances such as bright colours reflected from oil
film on water and soap bubble.
The reflected waves can change their phase in two ways:
The phase changes in proportion to the distance of the
waves travel.
The phase changes as a result of the reflection process
itself.
Optical path is defined as the product between a distance
travelled by light and the refractive index of the medium
OR

L nl

where

L : optical path
n : refractiveindex of a medium
l : distance travelled by light in the medium
57

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.4.1 Phase changes due to reflection

A light wave travelling in a medium of lower refractive index

(n1) when reflected from a mediums surface of higher
refractive index (n2) undergoes a radian phase change as
shown in Figure 2.26a.
radian phase change
incident wave
incident pulse

n1
reflected wave

n2
transmitted wave

transmitted pulse

Note:

rad

n1

n2

Figure 2.26a

reflected pulse
Figure 2.26b: string analogous
58

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A light wave travelling in a medium of higher refractive index

(n2) when reflected from a mediums surface of lower
refractive index (n1) undergoes no phase change as shown in
Figure 2.27a.
no phase change
incident wave
incident pulse

n2
reflected wave

n1
transmitted wave

transmitted pulse

Note:

0
L 0

n2

n1

Figure 2.27a
Simulation 2.4

reflected pulse
Figure 2.27b: string analogous
59

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.4.2 Interference from thin films on a denser

medium

Figure 2.28 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) on a denser
medium.
rad phase
rad phase
change
change
E F
A
1

n1 1.0

n 1.5

t : thicknessof
thin film

n2 3.5
Figure 2.28

60

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal

to the surface (point B)
division of amplitude occurs,
part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
At B,

the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes radian phase change.

because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
At C,

the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes radian phase change.

Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources in phase

because the phase difference, is

and meet at a point produces interference pattern.

61

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by

L ABCDF ABE
L BC CD
L nt nt
L 2nt

Constructive interference:
where

2nt m

: wavelength of light in vacuum

m 0,1,2,...

Destructive interference:

1 where

2nt m
2 m 0,1,2,...

Example of thin film on a denser medium:

Non-reflective (anti-reflective) coating
Oil film on water and etc
Picture 2.2

Picture 2.3

Picture 2.4
62

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.4.3 Interference from thin films on a less dense

medium

Figure 2.29 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) in a less dense
medium.
rad phase
no phase
change

change
E F

A
1

B
C

Figure 2.29

63

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal

to the surface (point B)
division of amplitude occurs,
part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
At B,
the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes radian phase change.
because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
At C,
the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes no phase change.
Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources antiphase
because the phase difference, is

0 rad

and meet at a point produces interference pattern.

64

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by

L ABCDF ABE

L BC CD
2

L nt nt
L 2nt
2
2

Constructive interference:

2nt

1 where

2nt m m 0,1,2,...
2

Destructive interference:

2nt m
2
2

where

2nt m m 0,1,2,...

Example of a thin film on a less dense medium:

Soap bubbles
Reflective coating and etc
Picture 2.5

Picture 2.6

65

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.5 :
A non-reflective coating of magnesium fluoride of refractive index
1.38 covers the camera lens of refractive index 1.52. The coating
prevents reflection of yellow-green light of wavelength in vacuum
565 nm. Determine the minimum non zero thickness of the
magnesium fluoride.
(Physics,7th edition, Cutnell&Johnson, Q48, p.886)

Solution :

565 109 m
rad phase

rad phase

change

change

n1 1.0

n 1.38
n2 1.52

2 coherent sources in
phase

tm in
66

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 565 109 m

By using the condition of destructive interference for non-reflective
coating, thus

2nt m
2

For minimum thickness of MgF2, m 0

2ntm in 0
2

1
21.38 t m in 565 10 9
2
OR

67

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 6 :
White light is incident on a soap film of refractive index 1.30 in air.
The reflected light looks bluish because the red light of wavelength
670 nm is absent in the reflection.
a. State the condition for destructive interference.
b. What is the minimum thickness of the soap film?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q26, p.966)

Solution :

670 109 m
rad phase
change

n1 1.0

n 1.30
n1 1.0

no phase
change

2 coherent sources
antiphase

tm in
68

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 670 109 m

a. The condition of destructive interference is given by

2nt m
b. For minimum thickness of soap film,

2ntmin 1

21.30 t m in 670 10 9

m 1

OR

69

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.5

Interference of reflected light in air wedge

and Newtons rings (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain with the aid of a diagram the interference in air

wedge.

Use for air wedge

2t = (m + ) for bright fringes (maxima)

2t = m for dark fringes (minima),

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Use diagram to explain qualitatively the formation of
Newtons rings and the centre dark spot.

70

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
23.5 Interference of reflected light in air
wedge and Newtons ring
23.5.1 Air wedge

travelling
microscope

glass plate

monochromatic
light source

L Q

air
O P
B

T
Y

L
Figure 2.31

m= 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
glass slide
thin foil

1st dark
fringe
Figure 2.30: Apparatus setup

Figure 2.32

71

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a glass slide.
At point O, Ray S is

partially reflected (ray OL)

partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray BPQ)

The two reflected rays (OL and BPQ) are coherent since both
have originated from the same source O.
OL and BPQ produces interference pattern if it is brought
together as shown in Figure 2.32.
Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O),
the path difference between the rays at O (ray OL and ray
OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
where n is refractive index of air = 1.0

At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright fringe

is expected, but a dark fringe is observed at X. This is due to
the phase change of radian for ray BPQ (reflected on a
denser medium at B).
72

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Hence, ray BPQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought
together (by the retina or lens) to interfere, a dark fringe is
obtained.

Constructive interference (bright fringe):

1
2t m
2

2t m
2

where

(2.4)

m 0,1,2,...

Destructive interference (dark fringe):

2t m
Note:

where

A phase change of
difference of

(2.5)

m 0,1,2,...

radian is equivalent to a path

73

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
From equation (2.4),
When

1st bright fringe (Zeroth order maximum)

m 0; t 14
2nd bright fringe (1st order maximum)
m 1; t 34
m 2; t 54
3rd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
i.e. bright fringes are formed when thethicknessof
air film, t 14 , 34 , 54 ,.......

From equation (2.5),

When

1st dark fringe (Zeroth order minimum)

m 0; t 0
2nd dark fringe (1st order minimum)
m 1; t 12
m 2; t
3rd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)
i.e. dark fringes are formed when thethicknessof
air film, t 0, 12 , , 32 ,.......
74

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and
the mth order dark fringe, l

From Figure 2.31,

T t
tan
L l

t
(2.6)
l
tan
m
substitute into eq. (2.6)
Rearrange eq. (2.5): t
2
m
(2.7)
l
2 tan
where

m : order 0,1,2,...
: wavelength of light in vacuum

: angle of inclinatio n of glass slide

75

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and
the mth order bright fringe, l

Rearrange eq. (2.4):

m 12
substitute into eq. (2.6)
t

m 12
l

2 tan

where

(2.8)

m : order 0,1,2,...

Equation for separation between adjacent dark fringes or

bright fringes, x

Put m = 1 into eq. (2.7),

2 tan

(2.9)
76

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
C

23.5.2 Newtons ring

Figure 2.34
travelling
microscope
monochromatic
light source

R R t
Y

t
X

glass plate

plano-convex
lens
glass block

Figure 2.33:
Apparatus setup

Figure 2.35:
Newtons ring

77

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a plano-convex.
At point O, Ray S is

partially reflected (ray OL)

partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray BPQ)

The two reflected rays (OL and BPQ) are coherent since both
have originated from the same source O.
OL and BPQ produces interference pattern if it is brought
together as shown in Figure 2.35.
The pattern is a series of circular interference fringes called
Newtons ring. This because of a curved piece of glass with a
spherical cross section.
Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O),
the path difference between the rays at O (ray OL and ray
OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
where n is refractive index of air = 1.0
78

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright spot is
expected, but a dark spot is observed at X. This is due to the
phase change of radian for ray BPQ (reflected on a denser
medium at B).
Hence, ray BPQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought
together (by the retina or lens) to interfere, a dark spot is
obtained.

Constructive interference (bright ring):

1
2t m
2

2t m
2

(2.8)

where m 0,1,2,...
Destructive interference (dark ring):

2t m
where

m 0,1,2,...

(2.9)
79

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Relationship between diameter of ring, d and thickness of
air gap, t

From Figure 2.34,

By using the Phytogorean theorem,

thus the distance AY is

AY 22 AC 2 YC 2

R R t
A

d
2

d
2
2
R R t
2 2
d
2 Rt t 2
4

Since t is very thin thus t2 0

d2
2 Rt
4

(2.10)

80

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Equation for diameter of dark ring

m
substitute into eq. (2.10)
Rearrange eq. (2.9): t
2
d2
m
2
(2.11)
2 R

4
2

d 4Rm

where

m : order 0,1,2,...

When

m 0; t 0
m 1; t 12
m 2; t
m 3; t 32

Central dark spot

(zeroth order minimum), d = 0
1st dark ring (1st order minimum)
2nd dark ring (2nd order minimum)
3rd dark ring (3rd order minimum)

81

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
Equation for diameter of bright ring

m 12
substitute into eq.
Rearrange eq. (2.9): t
d
m
2R

4
2

1
2

d 2 4 R m 12
where
When

(2.10)

(2.12)

m : order 0,1,2,...

m 0; t 14
m 1; t 34
m 2; t 54
m 3; t 74

1st bright ring (zeroth order

maximum)
2nd bright ring (1st order maximum)
3rd bright ring (2nd order maximum)
4th bright ring (3rd order maximum)
82

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
From Figure 2.35,

The rings become more closely spaced as one moves

farther from the centre of the Newtons ring.

The reason is that the convex surface of the lens moves

away from the lower glass block at a progressively
faster rate therefore the thickness of air film increases
rapidly.

Newtons ring can be used to test the accuracy with which a

lens has been ground.

The rings are not circular if the surface is not spherical

(or the glass block is not flat).

83

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.7 :
An air wedge is formed by placing a human hair between two glass
slides of length 44 mm on one end, and allowing them to touch on
the other end. When this wedge is illuminated by a red light of
wavelength 771 nm, it is observed to have 265 bright fringes.
Determine
a. the diameter of hair,
b. the angle of air wedge,
c. the thickness of the air film for 99th dark fringe to be observed,
d. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes.
9
3
Solution : 771 10 m; L 44 10 m

84
265th bright fringe

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 771 10 9 m; L 44 10 3 m
a. Assuming the diameter of the hair, d = the thickness of air film, t
at 265th bright fringe
Therefore the diameter of the hair is given by

2t m and m 264
2

2d 264 771 10 9
2

b. The angle of air wedge is

d
tan
L

1.02 10 4
tan
44 10 3
85

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 771 10 9 m; L 44 10 3 m
c. By applying the equation for dark fringe (air wedge), thus
2t m and m 98

2t 98 771 10 9

d. The separation between two consecutive bright fringes is

2 tan
9
771 10
x

2 tan 0.13

86

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.8 :
a. Explain why the central spot in Newtons ring is dark.
b. In a Newtons ring experiment, the radius of the qth bright ring
is 0.32 cm and the radius of the (q+19)th dark ring is 0.67 cm.
Determine the radius of curvature of the plano-convex used in
the experiment if the wavelength of light used is 589 nm.
Solution :
a. A ray of light reflected from the lower surface of the convex
surface has no phase change.
Meanwhile, a ray of light reflected from the top surface of
glass block undergoes a radian phase change. Thus the
two reflected rays are two coherent sources in antiphase.
At the centre of the interference pattern, the thickness of the
air film is zero, hence the path difference for these two rays
goes to zero.
These resulting a destructive interference at the central of
the Newtons ring.
87

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23
2
Solution : r 0.32 102 m; r

0
.
67

10
m
q
q19
9
589 10 m
q 1
d 2 4 R m 12

b. For qth bright ring, m

and

2r 4Rq 1
2r 4Rq 0.5
2

d 2rq

1
2

(1)

m q 19
d 2 4Rm and d 2rq 19

For (q+19)th dark ring,

2r
2r

4Rq 19

4Rq 19

q 19

q 19

(2)

88

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Exercise 23.2 :
1. A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight falls
almost perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes.
Although the sunlight is white, since it contains all colours, the
film has a yellow hue, because destructive interference has
occurred eliminating the colour of blue (=469 nm) from the
reflected light. If the refractive indices for gasoline and water are
1.40 and 1.33 respectively, Calculate the minimum thickness of
the film.
ANS. : 168 nm
2. White light is incident normally on a thin soap film (n =1.33)
suspended in air.
a. What are the two minimum thickness that will constructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
b. What are the two minimum thickness that will destructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q34, p.966)

ANS. : 110 nm, 330 nm ; 220 nm, 440 nm ;

90

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

3. Two plane glass plates which are in contact at one edge are
separated by a piece of metal foil 12.5 cm from that edge.
Interference fringes parallel to the line of contact are observed
in reflected light of wavelength 546 nm and are found to be 1.50
mm apart. Determine the thickness of the foil.
ANS. : 2.27105 m
4. Newtons rings are formed by reflection between an biconvex
lens of focal length 100 cm made of glass of refractive index
1.50 and in contact with a glass block of refractive index 1.60.
Calculate the diameter and thickness of air film for fifth bright
ring using light of wavelength 6000 .
Given 1 angstrom () = 1010 m
ANS. : 3.28 mm; 1.35 m
5. Newtons rings are formed with light of wavelength 589 nm
between the plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 100 cm
and a glass block, in perfect contact.
a. Determine the radius of the 20th dark ring from the centre.
b. How will this ring move and what will its radius become if
the lens and the block are slowly separated to a distance
apart 5.00 104 cm?
91
ANS. : 3.43 mm; inwards, 3.07 mm

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 23
Learning Outcome:
23.6

Diffraction by a single slit (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define diffraction

Explain with the aid of a diagram the diffraction of a

single slit.

Use formula

nD
yn
a
yn

for dark fringes (minima)

n 12 D

for bright fringes (maxima),

where n = 1, 2, 3, ...

92

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CHAPTER 23

23.6 Diffraction by a single slit

23.6.1 Diffraction of light

is defined as the bending of light waves as they travel around

obstacles or pass through an aperture or slit comparable to
the wavelength of the light waves.
Figures 2.36a, 2.36b and 2.36c show the bending of plane
wavefront.

Figure 2.36a:
obstacle

Figure 2.36b:
slit, a >

Figure 2.36c:
slit, a
93

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

23.6.2 Diffraction by a single silt

Figure 2.37 shows an apparatus setup of diffraction by a single

slit.
3rd minimum
2nd maximum
2nd minimum
1st maximum
1st minimum
Central
maximum
1st minimum
1st maximum
2nd minimum
2nd maximum
3rd minimum

1
2
S

Animation 2.1
Picture 2.7
Picture 2.8

intensity
single slit

screen
Figure 2.37

where

: angle of diffraction

94

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Explanation of single slit diffraction experiment

Wavefront from light source falls on a narrow slit S and diffraction
occurs.
Every point on the wavefront that falls on S acts as sources of
secondary wavelets and superposed each another to form an
interference pattern on the screen as shown in Figure 2.37.
The central fringe is bright (maximum) and widen compare to
other bright fringes.
The central fringe has the highest intensity compare to the
other bright fringes.
The intensity of bright fringes reduce as the distance
increase from the central bright fringe.

Other rays with angle 2 and 1 will produce minimum and

maximum on both sides of the central maximum.

95

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Derivation of single slit diffraction equations

Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)
and nth minimum (dark) fringes
P nth minimum

yn

where

a
2
a
2

aE
sin 1
2

a
sin 1
2

Central
maximum

a : slit width
D : distancebetween single slit and screen
Figure 2.38

screen
96

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A single slit is split into two equal parts, AC and CB. A,C and
B are new sources of secondary wavelets. (Huygens
principle)
When the wavelets from A, C and B superpose, interference
will occur at P.
As AB is very small, thus
AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,
the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP
a
and CP is :

L CE

sin 1

Consider two narrow strips as shown in Figure 2.38, for the

two strips superposed destructively thus both strip of light
must in antiphase to each another which is equivalence to a
path difference of .
If the 1st minimum (1st order minimum) is at P, hence :

L sin 1
2
2

a sin 1

97

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

For the 2nd minimum and 3rd minimum, AB is split into 4

equal parts, 6 equal parts and so on as shown in Figures
2.39 and 2.40.
a
6

a
4

2
2nd minimum
(2nd order
minimum)

sin 2
4
2
a sin 2 2

Figure 2.39

3
3rd minimum
(3rd order
minimum)

sin 3
6
2
a sin 3 3

Figure 2.40
98

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

In general, for minima (dark fringes)

a sin n n

where n : order 1,2,3,..

If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
yn
then:

sin n tan n

Therefore the distance of nth minimum from central

maximum is:

yn
a n
D

When

n 1
n 2
n 3

nD
yn
a

1st minimum fringe (1st order minimum)

2nd minimum fringe (2nd order minimum)
3rd minimum fringe (3rd order minimum)
99

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)

and nth maximum (bright) fringes
R nth maximum

yn

a
3
a
3
a
3

1
A
C aE
sin 1
D 3
B
a sin

1
Q

Central
maximum

D
screen
Figure 2.41

100

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

A single slit is split into three equal parts, AC,CD and DB.
A,C,D and B are new sources of secondary wavelets.
(Huygens principle)
When the wavelets from A,C,D and B superpose,
interference will occur at R.
As AB is very small, thus
AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,
the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP
a
and CP is :

L CE

sin 1

Consider three narrow strips as shown in Figure 2.41, the

first two strips (pair) superposed destructively at which the
path difference is and leave the third strip. The 3rd strip
produces the maximum (bright) fringe at R.
If the 1st maximum (1st order maximum) is at R, hence :

L sin 1
3
2

3
a sin 1
2

101

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

For the 2nd maximum and 3rd maximum, AB is split into 5

equal parts, 7 equal parts and so on as shown in Figures
2.42 and 2.43.

a
3

2nd maximum
(2nd order
maximum)
Figure 2.42

3rd maximum
(3rd order
minimum)
Figure 2.43
102

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

In general, for maxima (bright fringes)

where
1

a sin n n n 1,2,3,..
2

If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a

yn
then:

sin n tan n

Therefore the distance of nth maximum from central

maximum is:

1
yn
a n
2
D

When

n 1
n 2
n 3

yn

n 12 D

1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)

2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum)
3rd maximum fringe (3rd order maximum)
103

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Equation for central maximum (bright) fringe

D
1st minimum

1
1

a
single slit

y1

Q Central
y1 maximum
1st minimum

Figure 2.44
A
C
D
E
B

Figure 2.45

screen

104

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Figure 2.45 shows five sources of Huygens wavelets and the

screen is to be so far from the slit (D>>a) thus the rays
from each source are nearly parallel.

All the wavelets from each source travel the same distance
to the point Q (Figure 2.44) and arriving there in phase.

Therefore, the constructive interference is occurred at the

central of the single slit diffraction pattern.

The angular width of central maximum, w is given by

and

105

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

The width of central maximum, w is given by

w 2 y1

and

y1 : separation of 1st minimum and

centralmaximum
D
y1
a

D
w 2

Note:

To calculate the maximum number of orders observed,

take the diffraction angle, = 90.

From both equations for minima and maxima, we obtain

sin n

and

yn

By using this two relations, the changes of single slit

diffraction pattern can be explained.

106

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Example 23.9 :
A sodium light of wavelength 580 nm shines through a slit and
produces a diffraction pattern on a screen 0.60 m away. The width
of the central maximum fringe on the screen is 5.0 cm. Determine
a. the width of the slit,
b. the angular width of the central maximum fringe,
c. the number of minimum that can be observed on the screen.
9
2

580

10
m;
D

0
.
60
m,
w

5
.
0

10
m
Solution :

a
a. Since

w 2 y1

D
w 2

and

1st minimum
Central
maximum
1st minimum

y1

D
a

5.0 10

580 10 0.60
2
9

107

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 23

Solution : 580 10 9 m; D 0.60 m, w 5.0 10 2

b. The angular width of the central maximum fringe is given by

1 sin
a
9

580

10
1
1

w 2 sin
w 2 sin

5
a

1.39 10
w 21

and

c. By applying the equation for minimum fringe,

a sin n

For the maximum no. of order for minimum fringe,

1.39 10 sin 90
5

nm ax 580 10 9

90

Therefore the number of minimum that can be observed is

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Example 23.10 :
a. State the similarities and differences of double-slit interference
and single slit diffraction patterns.
b. How many bright fringes will be produced on the screen if a
green light of wavelength 553 nm is incident on a slit of width
8.00 m?
Solution :
a. The similarities are
Double-slit interference pattern

Single slit diffraction pattern

Both patterns consist of alternating dark and bright

fringes.
The central for both patterns is bright fringe.

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a. The differences are

Double-slit interference pattern

Single slit diffraction pattern

The width of each fringe is

the same.

The central fringe is wider

than the other fringes.

The intensity of each bright

fringe is constant.

The intensity of bright fringes

reduce as a distance increase
from the central bright.

b. Given 553 10 m; a 8.00 10 m

By applying the equation for bright (maximum) fringe,
9

a sin n
2

For the maximum no. of order for bright fringe,

8.00 10 sin 90 n
6

90

0
.
5
553

10
m ax

Therefore the number of bright that can be observed is

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Exercise 23.3 :
1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 689 nm falls on a slit. If the
angle between first bright fringes on either side of the central
maximum is 38, calculate the slit width.
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli, Q4, p.913)

ANS. : 3.2 m
2. Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant source is incident on
a single slit 0.750 mm wide, and the resulting diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen 3.50 m away. Determine the distance
between the two dark fringes on either side of the central bright
fringe.
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q36.4, p.1396)

ANS. : 5.91 mm
3. A screen is placed 1.00 m behind a single slit. The central
maximum in the resulting diffraction pattern on the screen is
1.60 cm wide. What is the distance between the two second
order minima?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q45, p.967)

ANS. : 3.20 cm

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Learning Outcome:
23.7

Diffraction grating (1 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain with the aid of a diagram the formation of

diffraction.

Apply formula,

d sin n n

where

1
d
N

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23.7 Diffraction grating

is defined as a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.

Diffraction grating can be made by ruling very fine parallel
lines on glass or metal by a very precise machine.
The untouched spaces between the lines serve as the slits as
shown in Figure 2.46.

lines

Light passes through the slit because it is

transparent.

The spaces between the lines are the slits,

for example : if there are four lines then we
have 3 slits.

slit

Figure 2.46
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If there N lines per unit length, then slit separation, d is given

by:

1
d
N

e.g. if a diffraction grating has 5000 lines per cm, then

1
1

N 5000 cm1

d 2 104 cm

The light that passes through the slits are coherent .

The Interference pattern is narrower and sharper than doubleslits.
There are two type of diffraction grating which are
transmission grating (usual diffraction grating)
reflection grating e.g. CD and DVD
Diffraction grating is used in spectrometer to determine the
wavelength of light and to study spectra.
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23.7.1 Explanation of diffraction by using Huygens

principle for diffraction grating
Figure 2.47 shows an incident lights fall on the transmission
diffraction grating.
C first order wavefront
A
source of secondary
wavelets
E
second order wavefront

incident lights

third order wavefront

D
F

grating

zeroth order wavefront

Figure 2.47

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Using Huygens principle, each maximum is located by taking the

tangent of the wavelets from the slits.
If the wavelets from each of the slits are drawn and a tangent AB
is drawn, a plane wavefront parallel to the diffraction grating is
obtained. This represents the zeroth-order maximum (n = 0).

If the wavelets are grouped such that the first wavelet from one
slit is combined with the second wavelet from the next slit, the
third wavelet from the third slit and so on, the tangent CD will
represent the first-order maximum (n =1).

For the second-order maximum, the wavelets are grouped are

such that the second wavelet of one slit is combined with the
fourth wavelet of the next slit, the sixth wavelet from the third slit
and so on. (tangent EF)
Similarly, the third-, fourth-,. order maximum may be obtained.

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23.7.2 Equation of diffraction grating

Figure 2.48 illustrates light travels to a distant viewing screen

from five slits of the grating.
first order maximum
(n = 1)

incoming plane
wavefront of light

central or zeroth order

maximum (n = 0)
first order maximum
(n = 1)

diffraction grating

d sin

Figure 2.48

Figure 2.49

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The maximum (bright) fringes are sometimes called the principal

maxima or principal fringes since they are placed where the light
intensity is a maximum.
Since the screen is far so that the rays nearly parallel while the
light travels toward the screen as shown in Figure 2.49.
In reaching the place on the screen while the 1st order maximum
is located, light from one slit travels a distance of one wavelength
farther than light from adjacent slit.
Therefore the path difference for maximum fringe (constructive
interference) is given by

d sin n n
n : order 0,1,2,3,..
n : n th order of diffractio n angle

where

When

n0
n 1
n 2

Central maximum fringe (0th order maximum)

1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)
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2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum)

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The maximum fringes produce by a grating are much narrower

and sharper than those from a double-slit as the intensity graph
in Figures 2.50a and 2.50b.

Figure 2.50a

n 2

n 2

Figure 2.50b

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Figures 2.51 shows the diffraction grating pattern.

n2

Parallel beam of
monochromatic light

2
1

second-order
maximum

first-order
n 1 maximum

n0

zero-order
maximum

n 1first-order
maximum
grating

n 2 second-order
maximum

Figure 2.51
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If the white light is falls on the grating, a rainbow colours would

be observed to either side of the central fringe on the screen
which is white as shown in Figure 2.51. This because the white
light contains wavelengths between violet and red.

n 2

Rainbow Rainbow

white Rainbow

2
Rainbow

White
light
Figure 2.51

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Note:

To calculate the maximum number of orders for bright

fringes observed, take the diffraction angle, = 90.

Therefore

d sin 90 nm ax
d
nmax

where nmax : maximum number of orders that can be

observed.
From the equation for maxima, we obtain

sin n

and

1
sin n
d

By using this two relations, the changes of diffraction grating

pattern can be explained.
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Example 23.11 :
A monochromatic light of unknown wavelength falls normally on a
diffraction grating. The diffraction grating has 3000 lines per cm.
If the angular separation between the first order maxima is 35.
Calculate
a. the wavelength of the light,
b. the angular separation between the second-order and thirdorder maxima.
Solution : N 3000 cm 1 ; 2 35 ; n 1
1

35

1st order max.

1st order max.

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Solution : N 3000 cm ; 21 35 ; n 1
a. The diffraction angle for 1st order maximum is
1

21 35
1 17 .5

And the slit separation, d is given by

1
d
1
3000 cm

1
d
N

OR
Therefore the wavelength of the light is

d sin n n

3.33 10 sin
3.33 10 sin 17.5
6

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Solution :
b.

n3
3
2

23

3rd order
maximum

2nd order
n 2 maximum

n0

0th order
maximum

2nd order
n 2 maximum
3rd order
n 3 maximum
By using the equation of diffraction grating for maxima,

d sin n n
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Solution :
b. For 2nd order maximum, n

d sin 2 2
3.33 10 6 sin 2 21.00 10 6

For 3rd order maximum, n 3

d sin 3 3
6
6
3.33 10 sin 3 31.00 10

Therefore the angular separation,

23 3 2

23 64 .3 36 .9
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Example 23.12 :
The second-order maximum produced by a diffraction grating with
560 lines per centimeter is at an angle of 3.1.
a. What is the wavelength of the light that illuminates the grating?
b. Determine the number of maximum can be observed on a
screen.
c. State and giving reason, what you would expect to observe if a
grating with a larger number of lines per centimeter is used.
3
1

Solution : N 56 10 m ; 2 3.1 ; n 2
a. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for 2nd order
1
maximum, thus
d sin 2 2 and d

N
sin 2 2 N
sin 3.1 256 10 3

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Solution :
b. By applying the equation of grating for maximum,

d sin n n and
sin n nN

1
d
N

For the maximum no. of order for maximum fringe, n

sin 90 nm ax 56 10 3 4.83 10 7

90

Therefore the number of maximum can be observed is

c. The fringes become farther to each another.
Reason : since
1
1
sin
sin and d

a larger number of lines per cm results in a larger

diffraction angle thus the distance between two
consecutive maximum fringes will increase.
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Exercise 23.4 :
1. The first-order maximum line of 589 nm light falling on a
diffraction grating is observed at an angle of 15.5. Determine
a. the slit separation on the grating.
b. the angle of diffraction for third-order maximum line.
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli, Q32, p.914)

ANS. : 2.20 m; 53.4

2. A diffraction grating has 6000 lines per cm. Calculate the angular
separation between wavelengths 589.6 nm and 546.1 nm
respectively after transmission through it at normal incidence, in
the first-order spectrum (maximum line).
ANS. : 1.60
3. When blue light of wavelength 465 nm illuminates a diffraction
grating, it produces a 1st order maximum but no 2nd order
maximum.
a. Explain the absence of 2nd order maximum.
b. What is the maximum spacing between lines on this grating?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q65, p.968)

ANS. : 930 nm

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CHAPTER 18

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 24 :
Electrostatics

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