Ivanova, R.

and
Iordanova
Journal of the UniversityY.ofDimitriev,
ChemicalY.Technology
Metallurgy, 43, 2, 2008, 181-192

HISTORY OF SOL-GEL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(REVIEW)
Y. Dimitriev, Y. Ivanova, R. Iordanova*

University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy

8 Kl. Ohridski, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
E-mail: yanko@uctm.edu
*
Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
1113 Sofia, Bulgaria

Received 05 March 2008

Accepted 27 May 2008

ABSTRACT
The objective of this review is to summarize some of the most significant research achievements in the sol-gel
science and technology. Comprehensive review papers have been made regularly in the past three decades by outstanding
scientists such as Mackenzie, Sakka, Zarzycki, Schmidt, Uhlmann, Livage, Ulrich, Dislich. The main sources for the
scientific information are the Journal of Sol-Gel Technology started in 1993 and the International Sol-Gel Workshops
periodically held from 1981 up to now. In the beginning the studies have been centered mainly on silica and silicate glasses
but they progressively have been extended to many other oxide and non-oxide ceramics and composites. It has been shown
that the sol-gel methods have great potential in producing important materials in forms of bulk, fibers, sheets, coating
films, and particles at relatively low temperatures. It is also possible to produce materials of new compositions with high
purity, high homogeneity, and to control particle size distributions in a nano-scale level. One of the most important
advances of sol-gel science is the preparation of inorganic-organic hybrids. They started with the development of ormocers
based on the formation of chemical bonds between the constituents and nanocomposites, containing organic molecules
incorporated into porous gel matrix. That is why the sol-gel method is a representative nanotechnology. Specific examples
are presented that have been carried out in leading universities and laboratories. Some our results in this field are also
discussed briefly. A classification was made of sol-gel derived materials according to their functions: optical (solar
collectors, fibers, waveguide), electronic (piezoelectric transducers, non-volatile memory, solid electrolytes), thermal
(refractorys and low expansion ceramics, aerogels), chemical (catalysts, membranes, corrosion protection), biomedical
(entrapment of enzyme and living tissue, implants). It was emphasized the crucial role of starting precursors and the
processing routes to the final structure and the impact on the technological functions.
Keywords: sol-gel technology, sol-gel materials, hydrolysis, condensation, precursors.
INTRODUCTION
The preparation of inorganic refractory materials follows well elaborated technological schemes which

comprise the proceeding of high-temperature solid state

reactions. Ceramic and glassy materials have been obtained in this way for thousands of years on the basis of
natural raw materials. Irrespective of the specific tech-

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Journal of the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 43, 2, 2008

nological conditions of the different schemes used in

industry one of the main factors in each case is the temperature of synthesis, sintering and melting. The sol gel
technologies were developed during the past 40 years
as an alternative for the preparation of glasses and ceramics at considerably lower temperatures. The initial
system represents a solution where different polymerization and polycondensation processes lead to the gradual
formation of the solid phase network.
The sol formed is at first subjected to a series of
operations: gelling, drying, pressing, drawing and casting,
which results in various structural and phase transformations. This permits formation of powders, fibers, coatings, bulk monolithic products, etc. from the same initial composition. The synthesis schemes mostly used
can be divided, depending on the initial precursors, into
three groups: (i) aqueous solutions of metal salts; (ii)
metal alkoxide solutions; (iii) mixed organic and inorganic precursors.
The purpose of the present review is to summarize
the main achievements in this field using results of the
sol gel technology and some reviews published at different times. Special attention is paid to study associated
with the utilization of alkoxide precursors which
contribute to the successful development and popularization
of the sol gel technology in various areas of application.
HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM
The development of the sol gel science and technology is impressing and instructive, the more so as at
present they show an intense development accompanied by important applications in the practice. According to Sakka [1] who is one of the pioneers in this new trend
of technological development, the sol-gel technology is a
typical nanotechnology because all gel products may
contain nanoparticles or are nanocomposites. In this
sense it plays a principal role in the development of
modern nanotechnology for the preparation of new
materials.
Ebelman was the first to report (1845) the formation of a transparent material as a result of slow hydrolysis of an ester of the silicic acid. In 1930 Geffcen
and Berger from Shott Company established the way of
achieving a sol-gel process for oxide layers on industrial
glasses using combinations of metal-containing precur-

182

sors by deep-coating. After that D. Roy and R. Roy

proposed a method for preparation of more homogeneous
melts and glasses using a sol-gel process. In the early
60s H. Schroeder deposited transparent coatings on
glass surfaces in order to correct the refractive index
using titanium butoxide. At the same time, in the
nuclear laboratories in USA one has worked on large
scale projects based on sol gel processes in association
with the production of nuclear fuel, as a result of which
material of a higher density has been obtained.
However, these results [2, 3] have to remain secret for a
long time. Other episodical investigations [4, 5] concerning low-temperature synthesis of ceramic material
and quartz glass from gel precursors have been published during the same period of time. A serious success are the studies of Dislich [6, 7] which aroused great
interest among the scientists. Dislich synthesized
boronsilicate glass by heating bathes of oxide powders
obtained by a low temperature sol-gel process. The results obtained initiated systematic investigations by a
lot of research teams and contributed very much to the
development and popularization of the sol-gel technology within a short time. Two reviews [8, 9] contained
analyses of the first practical achievements associated with
the preparation of fibers, coatings and monolithic products. They also presented important prognostications
concerning the synthesis of new glasses and ceramics.
According to Dislich, the number of publications at the
beginning of the 80s of the 20th century shows a sustainable exponential growth. The first International Conference on Glasses and Glass Ceramics Obtained from
Gels was held in Padova, Italy in 1981 [10]. This significant event marks the actual modern development of
sol-gel science. Ever since then periodic similar conferences
[11-20] demonstrating the advance of the studies have
taken place. The interest in organizing such events is
still great. The last two conferences were held in Australia (2003) and in USA (2005). The timely publication of the conference materials is the main source of
new technological and basic knowledge and a stimulus
for extending the studies in various directions. Another
important factor for exchange of information is the specialized international Journal of Sol-Gel Science and
Technology which has been issued regularly since 1993
(Editor-in-chief, S. Sakka). It presents a wide range of
investigations comprising all nuances in the correspond-

Y. Dimitriev, Y. Ivanova, R. Iordanova

ing field. In each volume there are original scientific

papers, reviews on topical themes and special issues on
symposia and conferences. A considerable number of
the reports at international congresses on glasses held
during the past 20 years were dedicated to sol-gel technologies and were mostly presented at special sessions.
The publications presented at the 17th Congress on Glass
held in 1995 and the 20th Congress in Kyoto [21, 22]
were significant in number.
The huge and steadily and quickly increasing
amount of publications makes rapid and adequate analysis of the achievements difficult. Professional reviews
by renowned scientists are very helpful. Irrespective of
when they were published, they continue to be a topical
source of knowledge and to generate new ideas. The
sol-gel synthesis methods and the products obtained by
them were summarized by Sakka in 1985 and 1987 [23,
24]. Already at that time the author paid special attention
to the practical applications of the fibres and coatings of
TiO2, TiO2-SiO2, ferroelectrics, aerogels and hybrid products. It is worth noting that during the past years the
interest of leading industrial firms in the application of
the low-temperature methods is obvious. The most active among them are some companies in Japan: Nippon,
Sheet Glass, Asahi Glass Company, and Central Glass
Company, which have introduced photocatalyst gels, coatings against mist, hydrophilic aerogels, coatings for cars
and for construction classes, for TV sets etc [25]. On the
basis of a wide inquiry among specialists Uhlman [26]
pointed to the real possibilities of definite applications
in catalysis, in the preparation of microfilters and sensors. The first results on the preparation of solid electrolytes by sol gel methods were summarized by Livage
[27]. He considered the electrochemical properties of
gels comprising V2O5.nH2O, WO3.nH2O, TiO2-CeO2.
In the papers of the International Conference on
Glass Science in 2004 held in 1984 and dedicated to
the 70th anniversary of Professor Kraidel, important and
true prognoses on the future development of the fundamental and applied sol-gel research were made [27-33]. It
was pointed out that one of the most important and promising results was the development of amorphous materials
containing organic and inorganic components in their structure (organically modified silicates). Ten years later
Zarzycky [34] noted again the increasing number of investigations on the organo-inorganic hybrid materials.

An important peculiarity of the sol gel technologies is the possibility to control the mechanism and kinetics of the proceeding chemical reactions. In other
words, controlling each step of the sol gel process one
may affect the final structure of the materials and the
modification of the processes. Some of these principal
processes are subjected to detailed analysis by Livage et
al. [35] and by Yoldas [36]. The structure and phase
changes accompanying the development of a definite
sol gel process can be followed by different physical
experimental techniques, which are constantly improving. Among them the spectral methods proved very appropriate due to the relatively easy processing of the
results and their explicit interpretation in the case of
both amorphous and crystal state of the gel products.
Combining several structural methods adequate information have been obtained for sol-gel materials in the
system TiO2-SiO2 [37].
During the 90s of the past century a series of
reviews [38-50] were dedicated to the synthesis of various materials by sol gel methods and most of them are
still attracting. Important information on the synthesis
of ferroelectric polycrystalline and amorphous coatings
of alkoxides with the participation of LiNbO3, KNbO3
and BaTiO3 and the possibility of their application as
condensers, waveguide, etc. was summarized [39]. At
the same time, the successful development of nonlinear
optical devices with the participation of gold particles
[51] and CdS in a silicate matrix [44] were reported.
The development of a method for preparing optical fibres [47] and the wide application of the sol-gel processes to optical telecommunication technologies at
present show a high degree of realization on an industrial level [50]. Kakihana [49] made an exclusively detailed analysis of the applicability of the different variants of sol gel technologies for the preparation of complex multicomponent materials such as ceramic superconductors using a wide range of precursors. Gugliemi
[41] and Mackenzi [45] analysed the advantages of the
sol-gel coatings for protecting the metals from oxidation, thermal and chemical corrosion and especially for
improving their strength. An important problem concerning the density of gel coatings was solved successfully by Scherer [42]. He showed that sintering of the
amorphous gel particles at high temperatures preceding
the crystallization processes and realized by suitable

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heating rates is important for improving the quality of

the coatings. At the end of the 20th century increasing
attention was paid to the organo-inorganic hybrids and
their relation to the sol-gel processes [52, 53]. This problem is the subject of several reviews.
BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Mackenzie in his short but very informative review considered [54] the principal achievements associated with the sol gel processes and the products obtained by them. In historical aspect he notices two periods of studies. According to him, the first generation of
sol-gel processes and the resulting materials are dedicated
to various reactions with the participation, above all, of
alkoxides, while the obtaining of organic-inorganic hybrids belongs to the second period. Following the sequence proposed by him, we shall mention briefly some
of the important achievements, which are expected to
continue developing in the future. Above all these are
the studies of Livage et al. [35, 55] dealing with the
physical chemistry of sol-gel solutions, on the basis of
which a particle charge model has been elaborated with
a view to predicting and controlling the reactivities of
the alkoxides and the formation of stable metal oxide
clusters. More recently it was found that attaining a high
homogeneity of the solutions did not lead to homogeneous structure of the corresponding solid phases because the structural units may be transformed with time
before being frozen in a solid phase matrix [56].
Nakanishi [57] was the first to achieve phase separation
in gel solutions, which permitted successful applications
to the production of porous solid materials with a design microstructure. The theoretical analysis of Scherer
[33, 58] concerning the drying mechanism and the experimental techniques he proposed represent an essential contribution to the efforts to prevent cracking and
uncontrolled destruction of monolithic gels during the
thermal treatment. One of the first applications of the
sol-gel technology is the production of glass fibres by
lowtemperature sol-gel synthesis [23,59]. A simple and
effective method for drawing amorphous fibres from viscose sols by thermal treatment at temperatures much lower
than the melting temperature of SiO2 was developed. These
investigations are the basis for obtaining the other new
kinds of optical fibres mentioned above [47, 50]. A typical

184

example is the preparation of self-cleaning surfaces based

on the photocatalytic effect of TiO 2 (anatase
nanoparticles) for decomposing organic compounds and
obtaining a hydrophilic surface under the effect of UV
radiation [60-64]. Coatings of that kind for motor vehicles and architecture glasses are obtained. Recently
the research team of Minami [66-67] obtained a new
type of hybrid structures with the participation of TiO2
and Al2O3 which have unique properties as coatings of
glass. Depending on their structure and composition,
they can possess both superhydrophilic and hydrophobic properties.
It can be said that the pioneer works of H.
Schmidt [29, 53, 68] on the preparation and investigation of hybrid structures mark the beginning of the second important period in the development of the sol-gel
science and technology. A new type of noncrystalline
materials (called at first ormosil and ormoker) with
strong chemical bonds between organic and inorganic
components were obtained. Avnir et al. [69] laid the
beginnings of investigations on another kind of hybrid
materials obtained according to a sol gel method and
incorporating organic dye in oxide gels. Since the chemical bonds between the organic molecules and the inorganic matrix in these structures are insignificant, these
materials are called nanocomposites. On this basis,
compositions containing organic luminescent dyes and
SiO2 have been successfully developed for new type of
self-tuning lasers [70, 71]. Other promising applications
of these hybrids are associated with the production of
solar collectors, elements for nonlinear optics, sensors,
biological markers, materials for fluorescence diagnostics
and photodynamic therapy in medicine. The successful
development of those applications requires selection of a
suitable active component and elucidation of the character of their interaction with the matrix [72-74]. Especially
successful is the development of hybrid organo-inorganic
structures associated with the biological and medical
nanocomposites [75, 76] which, according to E. Poppe
[77], can be added to the so-called live ceramic. Addition of biopolymers (cytosam, gelatine, alginita) [78,79]
to an inorganic (silicate or oxide) matrix has led to improvement of the biocompatibility with the live tissue and
the immobilization of enzymes, and cells is facilitated.
Another direction of hybrid structure development is associated with their use in the synthesis of refrac-

Y. Dimitriev, Y. Ivanova, R. Iordanova

tory ceramic materials. As a result of the efforts of a lot

of research teams [80-83], ceramics (fibres, coatings and
monolithic products) of the system Si-C-O have been
obtained as well as more complex combinations with
the participation of Ti, B and Zr. The most usual initial
precursors are alkyl, aryl or phenyl substituted
alkoxosilanes, which, following an appropriate scheme
(hydrolysis, condensation and pyrolysis in inert medium)
are transformed into inorganic carbon-containing materials (black glass) or into polycrystalline ceramics after
heating above 14000C. An analogous scheme has led to
oxynitride glass and ceramics (Si-N-O) after treatment
in ammonia atmosphere [84]. The preparation of nonoxide
ceramics (C-Si-N, C-Si-N-Ti-B, etc) develops independently by the so-called polymeric methods [85-87]. Choosing specific precursors (polycarboxylan, polyvinylsilazan,
polysilazan, polyborosilazan, polymethylvinylsilane), one
obtained spatial networks called pre-ceramic polymers
[88-91]. As a result of pyrolysis processes in a suitable
gaseous medium, ceramization of the polymers (organicinorganic transition) occurred and the so-called polymeric amorphous ceramics were obtained [92, 93]. Depending on the chosen thermal regime, these materials
can be preserved in the amorphous state or transformed
into nanocrystalline structures as coatings, powders, fibres or bulk solid products.
The successful development of modern ceramic
technology associated with the synthesis of ceramic
materials is, to a large extent, due to the application of
different variants of the sol-gel technologies to the synthesis of submicron powders. The achievements in this
respect are summarized in the review of Ganguli [94].
Ceramic powders obtained by the sol gel technology
are characterized by lower sintering temperatures, improved stability with respect to grain growth (recrystallization) and, finally, formation of dense ceramics.
A wide application during the last decade was
attained by the modern version of the method of Pechini
[49, 95, 96]. This method is based on esterification processes between chelate complexes of metal ions (soluble
metal salts, nitrates, acetates, etc. combined with a chelate agent, citric acid or EDTA) and ethylene glycol.
The resin obtained in this way is transformed, after thermal treatment, into a nanosized powder in which the
particles are distributed within very narrow limits
(monodispersity) and the reactivity is enhanced. The

above examples from various scientific regions confirm

once more that the sol-gel methods are among the main
routes of obtaining hybrid and nanostructured materials. Several specialized reviews [52, 97-99] have been
dedicated to this problem. Sanchez [97] demonstrated
the possibilities of different chemical strategies for
preparation of hybrid structures based on sol-gel processes combined with controlled growth upon suitable
templers. The networks generated by this research team
may contain hierarchically ordered polyfunctional clusters or nanostructured blocks. Portier et al [99] showed
how combinations of various polymers and inorganic
compounds may be included into hybrid structures
(ormokers ionomers, polymeric salts, complexes). The
purpose of these studies is associated with finding new
applications of the hybrids as nanocomposites, nanosized
powders, electrolytes, membranes, sensors, etc.
The experience accumulated by several generations of scientists in the field of the sol-gel processes is
summarized in a series of monographs and topical proceedings [100-106]. The monograph of Brinker and
Scherer [104] is exclusively popular. The last fundamental edition is the three-volume collection edited by
Sakka [106] with the participation of world-known researchers where the most recent achievements and the
classical pioneer studies are summarized. The main
kinds of precursors, synthesis methods, structure and phase
analysis as well as the most important practical applications are described. This monograph can be helpful
for a wide round of specialists.
SOL-GEL STUDIES AT THE DEPARTMENT OF
TECHNOLOGY OF SILICATES OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
AND METALLURGY, SOFIA
The investigations on the sol-gel processes at
the Department Technology of Silicates at the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy in Sofia
began as a new direction of studies affected, on one
hand, by the investigations of the pioneers in this field,
and, on the other, by personal contacts with them and
their visits to Bulgaria. In 1987, at the Conference on
Glass and Ceramics in Varna, Sakka [107] presented a
large plenary lecture on the state problem and the future of the sol-gel method. He received 17 years later a

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Journal of the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 43, 2, 2008

Fig. 1. The award of prof. S. Sakka by the academic council of UCTM, 2005.

Honnory plaque of UCTM for his outstanding contributions to the sol-gel science (Fig. 1). E. Zarzycky [108,
109] was an active participant in the work of the International School on Condensed Matter Physics in 1988
[108] and in the Conference on Glass and Ceramics in
1993 [109]. He read reviews on the fractal structure of
amorphous gels, peculiarities of preparation of monodisperse powders and the role of different precursors
with respect to the formation of gel materials (Fig. 2).
Dislich [110, 111] also contributed very much to the
Bulgarian scientists joining in this field by their participation in the conferences on Glass and Ceramics in
Varna in 1993 and 1996 (Fig. 3).
In an extensive report in 1996 Samuneva [112]
summarized the first investigations performed in our
country on the use of low-temperature sol-gel methods
for synthesis of glasses, glass-ceramic coatings, ceramic
powders, pigments and glazing. In this analysis it was
pointed out that the researchers of the Department were
interested in developing and applying new combinations
of precursors. In the middle of the 90s of the 20th century, several teams were formed at the Department, which
extended the investigations on new sol-gel products.

186

Coatings based on silicates, phosphates and oxides were

obtained [113-119]. Ceramic powders containing spinel,
garnet and perovskite phases compositions for glazing

Fig. 2. A plenary lecture of prof. Zarzycky at the Conference on

Glass and Ceramics in Varna, 1993.

Y. Dimitriev, Y. Ivanova, R. Iordanova

sol-gel synthesis was realized during the preparation of

perovskite phases which could be used as membranes in
heating elements [146]. Multicomponent fire-resistant ceramic materials were synthesized in mixed oxide-nonoxide
systems containing Si, C, Ti, B, O, N [147-156] on the
basis of hybrid structures using original precursors.
CONCLUSIONS

Fig. 3. Dr. Dislich at the Conference on Glass and Ceramics,

Varna, 1996.

The based on the data concerning the development of sol gel technologies, in summary one can say
that a very important moment is the choice of appropriate precursors. Most often these are alkoxides, soluble
metal salts, polymers, colloids, which, depending on
their nature, may be combined with suitable solvents,
and the aggregation processes stimulating solid phase
formation can be controlled. Fig. 4 shows schematically the most used variant of the sol-gel process. We
accepted a more general interpretation proposed by
Kachichana [49] according to which a chemical process
starting from solutions and leading to a solid phase without a precipitate is a sol-gel process even if the system
does not represent an infinite solid network. One of the
methods leading to colloid dispersions (sols) is based
on inorganic salts, water and occurrence of hydrolysis
processes at a definite pH. A classical example is the
formation of a gel of SiO2 whose detailed description is
given in the monograph of Iler [157]. This technique
was not a subject of the present review. The non-hydrolytic sol-gel method (without participation of water) is
also promising, especially with respect to transition metal

and pigments were obtained from precursors containing organic and inorganic components [120-126]. The
preparation of bioceramic materials is a permanently
topic for the researchers of the Department. The sol-gel
methods are used for investigating silicate and
phosphate systems containing fluoroappatite,
Hydrolysis and
condensation
tricalcium phosphate as well as gels with antiof metal alkoxides
bacterial effect [127-134]. A series of organoinorganic systems for immobilization of cells Colloidal dispersion
[135-138] can be attached among this group of
materials. Incorporation of rare-earth ions into
SolSol-gel processing
amorphous gel silicate matrices stable at high
temperatures without metastable phase separation, was achieved. Multicomponent ceramic
nanopowders containing rare-earth manganites Inorganic-organic
hybrids
were obtained [139-141]. Specific sol gel methPolymer pyrolisis
ods (peroxy method, ion exchange) were used
to obtain nanostructured transition metal oxides (V2O5, MoO3, WO3) [142-145]. Successful Fig. 4. Different routes of the sol-gel processing.

Non-hydrolytic
sol-gel reactions

Pechini gel methods

(chelate polyesterification)

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Journal of the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 43, 2, 2008

Applications of sol-gel method

Optical and
photonic functions

Fluorescence solar collector,

solar cell;
Laser element, light guide;
optical switching, light
amplification, antireflecting
coatings;
non-linear optical effect
(second generation).

Electronic functions
(ferrolectricity electronic and
ionic conduction)
Capacitor, piezoelectric
transfer;
Non-volatile memory,
transparent
semiconductors;
Solid electrolyte (battery,
fuel cell);

Chemical functions
Mechanical functions

Protection with hard coat,

strong ceramics abrasive

Catalyst, membrane, gas

barrier, repellent film

Thermal function

Refractory ceramics, fibers

wood, aerogels;
Low expansion ceramics;

Biomedical functions

-Entrapment of enzyme,
cell, coated implant,
medical test

Fig. 5. Applications of sol gel method according to S. Sakka [106].

oxides. This concerns mainly reactions associated to

chloride hydrolysis with metal alkoxides [158, 159].
The most used is the so-called Pechini method [49,
95] which was applied successfully to the preparation
of finely dispersed powders in systems with complex
compositions. Pyrolysis of polymers and their transformation into polymer ceramics is developing successfully regardless of the classical sol-gel technologies but
is genetically connected with them. Thus, the transformation of polysilans and polycarbosilans into inorganic
ceramics includes formation of hybrid organic-inorganic
nanostructures which, at high temperatures, can be transformed into powders, coatings, fibres or monolithic products [87]. As it was pointed out in the foregoing, during
the past 30 years the methods associated with the participation of alkoxides, alcohols and water showed the most
intense development. The occurring hydrolysis-conden-

188

sation processes depend on a series of parameters and

the successful synthesis depends on the quantitative ratio
of the alkoxy groups with respect to water, the kind of
catalyst, solvent, temperature, medium pH, component
concentrations in the initial mixtures, etc. [160]. The chemical reactivity of the metal alkoxides depends on the type of
functional groups, the oxidation degree of the metal ions,
the ionic radius and the coordination number with respect
to the anion [35]. As a rule, heterometal alkoxides are very
often more appropriate because already at a molecular
level strong chemical bonds are formed [161]. It is worth
noting that there is a principal difference between the solgel processes occurring in a silicate matrix and processes
which can take place in oxide systems especially with the
participation of transition metal ions. In the latter case
there is a much stronger trend to clustering, coordination
number change and oxidation degree.

Y. Dimitriev, Y. Ivanova, R. Iordanova

The sol-gel technology is very efficient in producing various functional materials in which particle
size, porosity, thin layer thickness, separation of particles with different compositions and structures may
be controlled and successful applications have been
achieved. Following the analysis of Sakka [106] they
may be summarized in a scheme (Fig. 5) where examples
of materials applied in electrotechnics, electronics, optics, photonics, high-temperature technologies, chemical technologies, biochemistry and medicine are given.
The history of the sol-gel technologies and the development of materials by using them is far from ending.
The possibility of varying both parameters and precursors
is endless. A typical example is the development of organic-inorganic hybrid and nanostructured materials on
which the attention of modern scientists is focused.
Acnowledgemens
This work was financially supported by the Nacional
Science Fund, Ministry of Education and Science of Bulgaria, contract No BY-TH 102 (No 806, UCTM, Sofia).

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