2004

Lie Groups and Lie Algebras

in Robotics.
Author: Jos Manuel Pardos Gotor
Director: Dr. Carlos Balaguer Bernaldo de Quirs

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid

Departamento de Ingeniera Elctrica, Electrnica y
Automtica
rea de Ingeniera de Sistemas y Automtica.

Abstract
Humanoid Robot Kinematics modeling for robotics real-time
applications requires computationally efficient solutions of the inverse kinematics
problem. As the complexity increases, the need for more elegant formulations of
the equations of motion becomes a paramount issue. This paper investigates
analytical methods, using techniques and notation from the theory of Lie groups
and Lie algebras, to develop geometric algorithms for the kinematical analysis,
modeling and simulation of humanoid robots.
We introduce a new closed-form analytical solution, geometrically
meaningful and numerically stable, based on the PoE (Product of Exponentials
formula), which allows us to develop a geometric algorithm to solve the
humanoid inverse kinematics problem, built upon the Paden-Kahan subproblems.
Our approach to path planning the WBT (Whole Body Trajectory) for
humanoid robots computes collision-free trajectories by the development of the
new FM3 (Fast Marching Method Modified) algorithm. We present a general and
analytical solution for the inverse kinematics, satisfying the balance constraints of
the ZMP (Zero Moment Point) trajectory, based on a Humanoid SKD (Sagital
Kinematics Division) approach; this is the humanoid OSG (One Step to Goal)
algorithm. The motion of the humanoid consists on applying successive goals
from the WBT, to the inverse kinematics algorithm.
Our results are illustrated in studies with the 21 DoF (degree-offreedom) humanoid robot RH0 (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid). The algorithm
is presented along with computed simulation examples.

Keywords: humanoid robot, inverse kinematics, Lie Groups,

PoE product of exponentials, FM3 fast marching method modified, Paden-Kahan
subproblems, SKD sagital kinematics division, OSG one step to goal.

General Index
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................. 2
GENERAL INDEX ................................................................................... 3
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 4
2. BACKGROUND ................................................................................... 5
2.1 Geometric Methods in Robotics - Lie Groups & Algebras Screw theory. 5
2.2 The PoE (Product of Exponentials) formula Forward Kinematics........... 6
2.3 The PoE Inverse Kinematics by Paden-Kahan subproblems. ....................... 7
2.4 FMM (Fast Marching Methods).......................................................................... 9

3. HUMANOID MODEL RH0 ROBOT ................................................ 10

3.1 Humanoid SKD (Sagital Kinematics Division). ............................................. 10

4. WBT (WHOLE BODY TRAJECTORY) PATH PLANNING ................. 11

4.1 FM3 (Fast Marching Method Modified) Algorithm....................................... 11

5. HUMANOID KINEMATICS MOTION ................................................. 13

5.1 Humanoid OSG (One Step to Goal) Inverse Kinematics Algorithm......... 13

5.2 Humanoid Footstep Planning. .......................................................................... 14
5.3 Half-Humanoid/Sagital-Manipulator Inverse Kinematics Algorithm. ....... 15

6 CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 17
REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 18

1. Introduction
The Humanoid robot kinematics modeling presents a formidable
computational challenge due to the high number of degrees of freedom, complex
kinematics models, and balance constraints ([10],[12],[20]). Traditionally, inverse
kinematics algorithms have been developed through a numerical approach based
on a variety of optimization and Heuristic methods ([7],[11],[15]). Conversely,
this paper presents a new analytical closed-form method for the solution of the
humanoid robot kinematics modeling using techniques from the theory of Lie
Groups, such us the PoE (Product of exponentials formula), allowing elegant, fast
and efficient calculations, even for real-time applications.
One objective is to path planning the collision-free WBT (Whole
Body Trajectory) for the humanoid, by developing the FM3 (Fast Marching
Method Modified) algorithm, based on Level Set and Fast Marching Methods
([1]), which are techniques for analyzing evolving interfaces in computational
geometry.
Another objective of this paper is to introduce the OSG (One Step to
Goal) algorithm, for generating statically-stable motions through the solution of
the humanoid inverse kinematics, by imposing balance constraints of the ZMP
(Zero Moment Point) trajectory, upon incremental goals obtained during the WBT
search. The OSG algorithms is developed from a divide and conquer approach
called SKD (Sagital Kinematics Division), which from the kinematical point of
view, considers the humanoid to be divided by the sagital plane into two
synchronized manipulators. On so doing, the inverse kinematics problem is solved
in an analytical and complete (for all DoF) way, using techniques from the Lie
groups, these are, PoE and the Paden-Kahan subproblems ([2],[21],[22]).
The development of general-purpose motion generation tools and
techniques has been based on the use of virtual humanoid robot platforms ([10],
[12]). In a similar way, for testing our results with the 21 DoF humanoid robot
RH0 (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid), we use a graphical simulation
environment with the Humanoid based on the H-Anim (Humanoid Animation)
definition, and VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) for the building of
the virtual world.

2. Background
We provide a description of the rigid body motions using the tools of
Lie algebras and Screw theories for the study of robot kinematics ([2], [3], [5],
[16]). From these theories, we present the tools we use for the analytical solution
of the humanoid inverse kinematics problem, these are: the POE (product of
exponentials) and the Paden-Kahan subproblems ([21],[22]).
The question of motion planning and obstacle avoidance for the
humanoid is analyzed through the use of Fast Marching Methods ([1]).

2.1 Geometric Methods in Robotics - Lie Groups &

Algebras Screw theory.
If points on a manifold also satisfy a group structure and both
mappings are smooth then this manifold is a Lie group ([2], [5]). Lie groups are
important in mathematical analysis, physics and geometry because they serve to
describe the analytical structures. The homogeneous representation of a rigid
motion, this is, the space of 4 x 4 matrices g, belongs to the Lie group SE(3)
(Especial Euclidean group).

R p
g=
R = Orientatio n ; p = position
0
1

SE (3) = ( p , R ) : p 3 , R SO (3) = 3 SO (3)

Lie algebra is an algebraic structure whose main use lies in studying

geometric objects such as Lie groups. A Lie algebra is a vector space g over
some field, together with a binary operation [, ] : g g -> g, called the Lie
bracket, which is bilinear and satisfies the Jacobi identity. The Lie algebra of
SE(3), denoted se(3), can be identified with the matrices ^, called twists.

^
3
^=
, are the TWIST Coordinate s of ^
0

^
1

, 2^ = 1^ 2^ 2^ 1^
5

________

1
= 2 ^ =
3

3
2

3
0

2
1 skew symmetric matrix so (3)
0

A twist can be interpreted geometrically using the theory of screws

([16]). Chasless theorem proved that any rigid body motion could be produced by
a translation along a line followed by a rotation about that line, this is, a screw
motion, and the infinitesimal version of a screw motion is a twist.

2.2 The PoE (Product of Exponentials) formula

Forward Kinematics.
The matrix exponential, maps twist into the corresponding screw
motion. There are several advantages to using the matrix exponential for
describing rigid body kinematics. One is that they allow a global description of
rigid body motion, which does not suffer from singularities due to the use of local
coordinates. Another is that screw theory provides a very geometric description of
rigid motion, which hugely simplifies the analysis of robots.
The exponential map for a twist gives the relative motion of a rigid
body. The interpretation of this transformation is not as mapping points from one
coordinate frame to another, but rather as mapping points from their initial
coordinates, to their coordinates after the rigid motion is applied.

R
g=
0

p e
=

1 0
^

( I e ) ( ) + T
0
1

e = I + ^ sin + ^ 2 (1 cos ) ; Rodrigues ' formula

This formulation presents a geometric treatment of spatial body
motion, as a generalized sequel of the elegant notion of the exponential mapping
of a rotation introduced by Rodrigues ([2], [5], [16], [17]).
Since modern robot manipulators and humanoids are typically
constructed by connecting different joints (the most common are revolute and
prismatic) using rigid links, restricting the motion to a subgroup of SE(3), the PoE
formula represents a natural starting point for the analysis of the kinematics of a
mechanism as the product of exponential of twists.
It is possible to generalize the forward kinematics map for an arbitrary
open-chain manipulator with n DoF (Degrees of Freedom). Let S be a frame
attached to the base system and T be a frame attached to the last link of the
manipulator. Let be value of the DoF, this is, rotation for revolute joints and
translation for prismatic ones. The reference configuration of the manipulator is
the one corresponding to = 0, and gst(0) represents the rigid body transformation
between T and S when the manipulator is in its reference configuration. For a
revolute joint, is a unit vector in the direction of the twist and q is any point on
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the axis. For a prismatic joint, is a unit vector pointing in the direction of
translation. Then, the product of exponentials formula for the manipulator forward
kinematics is gst().

q
i = = i i ; twist for revolute
i
i
i = = ; twist for prismatic
0

g st ( ) = e

1 ^ 1

2 ^ 2

Le

n ^ n

g st (0 )

2.3 The PoE Inverse Kinematics by Paden-Kahan

subproblems.
The Inverse Kinematics problem consists on finding for an arbitrary
open-chain manipulator the value , of the DoF, which given the forward
kinematics map gst, and the desired configuration gd, makes gst()= gd.
This problem may have multiple solutions, for instance, 16 is the
upper bound number of solutions for any open-link mechanism with six DoF. As
the number of DoF increases (e.g: the RH0 Humanoid has 21 DoF), the number of
solutions increases as well, and a general numerical solution based on elimination
theory of the variables in a system, becomes a brute-force procedure not very
suitable for fast real-time calculations.
One payoff for the product of exponentials formalism is that it provides
an elegant formulation of a set of canonical problems (the Paden-Kahan
subproblems) for solving the robotics inverse kinematics problem in a closed-form
by developing geometric algorithms ([21],[22]).

= a tan 2[T (u'v'), u'T v']

u' = u T u
v' = v T v

=

Figura 2: PK Subproblem 1 Rotation about a single axis.

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c = r +

(
T

(
2

)
T

1
2

2
T
1

1 = 1
1

v
2

u
2

)
T

2
2

T
1

2
2

Figura 3: PK Subproblem 2 Rotation about two subsequent axis.

Once we get c for the second subproblem, we can apply the first
Paden-Kahan subproblem to get the solutions for 1 and 2. Beware that there
might exist two solutions for c , each one of them gives a solution for 1 and 2.

u' 2 + v' 2 '2

= 0 cos
2 u' v'

0 = a tan2 T (u'v'), u'T v'

1

'2 = 2 T ( p q)

u' = u Tu
v' = v T v

=

Figura 4: PK Subproblem 3 Rotation to a given distance.

From the solution for the third subproblem is clear that it could lead to
multiple solutions as well.
Once these subproblems are solved, the full inverse kinematics
problem can be solved by reducing it into appropriate subproblems ([2]), which
are geometrically meaningful and numerically stable.

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2.4 FMM (Fast Marching Methods).

The Level Set and Fast Marching Methods ([1]), are numerical
techniques for analyzing interface motion. They rely on an Eulerian perspective
for the view of moving boundaries. The results can be used to track threedimensional complex fronts that can change topology as they evolve.
The FMM (Fast Marching Methods) can be applied to solve optimal
path planning problems, through solving the Eikonal equation. The Eikonal
equation gives the first arrival or viscosity solution, extracting among all possible
solutions, the one that corresponds to the first arrival of information from the
initial disturbance.

dx = F ( dT )
1 = F dT

dx

T F = 1
Figura 5: One dimension Eikonal Equation example.

The algorithm applies the FMM to solve the Eikonal equation to

produce the Arrival Function T. Then, given the goal point, explicit construction
of the shortest path comes through back propagation via the solution of the
ordinary differential equation. We can do so by using Heuns method. An efficient
scheme for R2 is presented hereafter, being h the integration step ant t the time.
1
2

max( D T , D T ,0 )
1
=

y
+y
2
Fij
+ max( Dij T , Dij T ,0 )
T ( + h , t ) T ( , t )
Dij+ T
h
T ( , t ) T ( h , t )
Dij T
h
x
ij

+x
ij

Figura 6: Two dimension FMM scheme example.

To path planning the collision-free WBT (Whole Body Trajectory) for

the humanoid, we develop the FM3 (Fast Marching Method Modified) algorithm,
based on the presented scheme.

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3. Humanoid Model
RH0 Robot
The Universidad Carlos III de Madrid has lunched RH0 humanoid
robotics project. The mechanical design concepts of RH0 are light, compact, but
performable for application tasks like working cooperation with humans.
Several architecture humanoid robotics platforms have been
developed in recent years ([10], [12]). There are many advantages for an open
architecture software and hardware to obtain the consistency between the
simulator and a real humanoid robot, and therefore we work on the same idea,
even though we did not joint to any specific architecture. The models of robots
and their working environment are described by VRML97 format that is extended
for a humanoid animation by h-anim working group [19].

3.1 Humanoid SKD (Sagital Kinematics Division).

Our objective is to find a close-form solution for the Humanoid
inverse kinematics problem which allows us fast and real time computation, but
because the RH0 has many degrees of freedom (21 DoF for the body - without
hands and head), there might be many solutions for any motion, and we search for
some kind of simplification to solve the problem.
We introduce the idea of considering the Humanoid to be divided by
the sagital plane into two kinematical different mechanisms, this is what we call
SKD (Sagital Kinematics Division). This is a divide and conquer approach, which
allows us to solve the humanoid inverse kinematics problem in a much easier
way; this is, solving the inverse kinematics problem for two synchronized but
independent manipulators.
The idea behind the SKD is that we can analyze and control the whole
humanoid body, considering separately the left and right body halves, as a
resemblance of the two hemispherical body locomotion control of the human
brain.

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4. WBT (Whole Body

Trajectory) Path
Planning
The automatic WBT (whole body trajectory) motion planning for
humanoid robots presents a formidable computational challenge due to the high
number of degrees of freedom, complex kinematics models, and balance
constraints ([10],[12]). The challenge is to search for a solution path that lies
within the free configuration space, checking for collisions with obstacles. All that
remains is to calculate a final solution trajectory that is collision-free.
We have developed a new version of FMM (Fast Marching Method)
([1]), for generating collision-free trajectory motions for the entire body. The
points of the solution trajectory will become the goals for the humanoid inverse
kinematics algorithm we present in this paper.

4.1 FM3 (Fast Marching Method Modified)

Algorithm.
The FMM practical schemes for solving the Eikonal equation have to
solve a quadratic equation for each step of the algorithm, but in general the
differentiability is not guaranteed, making necessary the use of slow numeric
methods, such us bisection.

T F = 1
The new version of FMM is the recently developed algorithm FM3,
which stands for Fast Marching Method Modified. This new algorithm overcomes
the problem of having slow numeric methods trough the building of a lineal
scheme for approximating the Eikonal equation, directly resoluble, and therefore

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computationally very fast and suitable for real time applications. This method
allows to always find out a cuasi-optimal humanoid WBT path, whatever the
nature of the obstacles, this is, the FM3 solves the humanoid collision-free path
inside a world with regular, irregular and even non-convex geometry obstacles.
The FM3 solves the Eikonal equation to produce the Arrival Function
T. Then, given the goal point, explicit construction of the shortest path comes
through back propagation following the maximum negative gradient. An efficient
scheme for R3 is presented hereafter, being h the integration step ant t the time.

max( Dij xT , Dij+ xT , Dij yT , Dij+ yT , Dij zT , Dij+ zT ,0) =

1
Fij

T ( h, y ) T ( , y )
Dij T Abs

T ( x, y , z ) = min

( x, y,z )

F ( x , y , z ) d

From the proposed scheme, we get an Arrival Function T, which is an

increasing function in sense of information propagation from the origin to the
objective points, for all points inside the configuration space. Graphically, the
arrival function in R3 is the development of a plane interface in motion; its a kind
of accumulative pyramidal fronts. Therefore, the lineal approached of the FM3
generates a non-differentiable but continuous T function, which allows us to solve
the path planning. The obtained path can easily be smoothed if necessary.

Figure 2: Fast Marching Method Modified (FM3), with collision

free trajectory.

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5. Humanoid
Kinematics Motion
We introduce the OSG (One Step to Goal) algorithm, for generating
statically-stable humanoid motions based on incremental goals obtained from the
WBT path planning, by imposing balance constraints of the ZMP (Zero Moment
Point) trajectory, upon the inverse kinematics algorithm. The OSG algorithm is
developed from the previously presented Humanoid model SKD (Sagital
Kinematics Division) humanoid model. The humanoid inverse kinematics motion
problem is solved in an analytical and complete way, using techniques from the
Lie groups (PoE and the Paden-Kahan subproblems) ([2]).

5.1 Humanoid OSG (One Step to Goal) Inverse

Kinematics Algorithm.
The idea behind the new OSG (One Step to Goal) algorithm is to
develop a general purpose statically-stable solution for the inverse kinematics
problem of a humanoid moving one step towards a given goal.
The algorithm uses the concept of humanoid SKD (Sagital Kinematics
Division), for a divide and conquers approach, and the problem is separated on
solving the inverse kinematics for two independent half-humanoid manipulators,
subject to the following constraints at any time: keep the balance of the
humanoid ZMP and impose the same position and orientation for the common
parts (pelvis, thoracic, cervical) of the left and right humanoid manipulators.
The OSG receives as inputs the goal and the humanoid present
position, giving as outputs the values for each DoF (joint rotations), which make
the humanoid to move one step towards the desired goal. The total movement is
generated by five phases: the first is to Orientate the humanoid body towards the
goal, the second is to Tilt the ZMP on a stable position over the pillar foot, the
third is to Elevate the flying foot, the fourth is to Lean the flying foot according
with the footstep planning and the fifth is to Balance the humanoid body to leave
the ZMP in the center of the convex hull.
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Figure 3: The five phases for the OSG (One Step to Goal)
Algorithm: 1-Orientate, 2-Tilt, 3-Elevate, 4-Lean and 5-Balance.

5.2 Humanoid Footstep Planning.

The objective of the footstep planning is to define the position and
orientation for the humanoid feet along the five phases of the OSG algorithm.
Actually, as the OSG algorithm only solves the inverse kinematics for one step of
the humanoid, the footstep planning consists on solving the position and
orientation for the flying foot, because the pillar foot remains unmoved at its
present position. Obviously, when the OSG is repeated for a new goal, there is a
switch in the algorithm, and the foot previously considered as flying becomes
pillar, to allow a natural humanoid gait between the right and left feet.
There are several data to be taken into account for the calculation of
the footstep planning, mostly related with the gate definition (robot hip height on
walking, flying foot maximum height, step width and step length), but some
others are necessary, as world definition for obstacle avoidance and the
orientation of humanoid body. The latter is very important, and is obtained after
the phase one of the OSG algorithm; whether the humanoid body can be oriented
towards the goal then the footstep planning will permit a step forward, but if the
humanoid body can not be sufficiently turned in order to be directly orientated
towards the goal, then the method will planned a humanoid step only to turn
around the present humanoid axis to correct the orientation of the robot.

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5.3 Half-Humanoid/Sagital-Manipulator Inverse

Kinematics Algorithm.
The OSG gives the humanoid ZMP position and orientation values for
each of the five phases of the algorithm (orientate, tilt, elevate, lean and balance.
Besides, the position and orientation for the feet are given from the footstep
planning. At this point, the last remaining problem to solve is the inverse
kinematics for the left and right half-humanoid sagital-manipulators, which
constitute the humanoid according with the SKD (Sagital Kinematics Division)
approach, for the five phases of the OSG algorithm.
Hereafter we develop a general method, which is the core of this
paper, to solve the inverse kinematics problem for one humanoid sagitalmanipulator in an analytical and complete way, using techniques from the Lie
groups, these are, PoE and the Paden-Kahan subproblems ([21],[22]).
It is possible to consider the half-humanoid as and open-chain
manipulator and to generalize the leg forward kinematics map with 12 DoF
(112). The first six DoF correspond to the position (1,2,3) and orientation
(4,5,6) of the foot; beware that these DoF do not correspond with any real joint
and for that reason we call them non-physical DoF. The other DoF are called
physical DoF because they correspond with real motorized joints, these are: 7
for the hindfoot, 8 for the ankle, 9 for the knee, 10 for the hip on the x axis, 11
for the hip on the z axis and 12 for the hip on the y axis. Let S be a frame attached
to the base system and T be a frame attached to the humanoid ZMP. The reference
configuration of the manipulator is the one corresponding to = 0, and gst(0)
represents the rigid body transformation between T and S when the manipulator is
in its reference configuration. For any joint, is a unit vector in the direction of
the twist and q is any point on the axis. Then, the product of exponentials formula
for the manipulator forward kinematics is gst().

g st ( ) = e1 1 e 2 2 L e12 12 g st (0 )
^

q
i = = i i
i

Figure 1: RH0 Humanoid and Sagital Kinematics Division (SKD) .

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Our inverse kinematics problem consists on finding the joint angles,

this is, the six physical DoF (712), given the non-physical DoF (16) from
the humanoid footstep planning, which achieve the ZMP humanoid desired
configuration gst(). Using the PoE formula for the forward kinematics map
presented above, it is possible to develop a geometric algorithm, numerically
stable, to solve this problem, by the use of the Paden-Kahan geometric
subproblems. For being able to apply them, we must define four interesting points
in the humanoid leg geometry: p is a common point for the axis of the last three
DoF, q is a common point for the axis of the two first physical DoF, t is a point on
the axis of the last DoF and s is a point not on the axis of the last physical DoF.
Now, it is straightforward to solve the inverse kinematics problem in an analytic,
closed-form and geometrically meaningful way, with the following formulation.
We obtain 9 using the third P-K subproblem.

e6 6 e1 1 gst ( ) gst (0) p q = e7 7 e12 12 p q

^

9^9

= e

pq

K 3
P
9

We obtain 7 and 8 using the second P-K subproblem.

e6 6 e1 1 gst ( ) gst (0) p = e7 7 e12 12 p

^

7^7

q' = e

8^8

K 2
p' P
7 ,8

We obtain 10 and 11 using the second P-K subproblem.

9^9

1^1

gst ( ) gst (0) t = e

10^10

10^10

q' = e

11^11

12^12

K 2
e11 11 p' P
10,11

Finally, we obtain 12 using the first P-K subproblem.

e11 11 e1 1 gst ( ) gst (0) s = e12 12 s

^

K 1

q' = e12 12 p' P

12

That is it!

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6 Conclusion
We believe that abstraction saves time in the end, in return for an
initial investment in learning some mathematics. Therefore, this paper presents a
slightly more abstract formulation, for humanoid robot kinematics modeling using
the theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras. These techniques allow elegant, fast
and efficient calculations for real-time applications.
The main development of this work is to introduce the new OSG (One
Step to Goal) algorithm, for generating statically stable humanoid motions
through the solution of the inverse kinematics problem, by imposing balance
constraints of the ZMP trajectory. We present the new approach called SKD
(Sagital Kinematics Division), which from the kinematical point of view,
considers the humanoid divided by its sagital plane into two synchronized
manipulators. We solve the problem by an analytical method using techniques
from the theory of Lie Groups, such us the PoE (Product of exponentials
formula), and the Paden-Kahan subproblems.
Besides, this paper investigates the path planning problem for the
collision-free WBT (Whole Body Trajectory) of the humanoid, by developing the
new FM3 (Fast Marching Method Modified) algorithm, based on techniques for
analyzing evolving interfaces in computational geometry.
For testing our results we worked with the 21 DoF humanoid robot
RH0 (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid), we use a graphical simulation
environment based on the H-Anim (Humanoid Animation) definition, and VRML
for the building of the virtual world.
We hope that with the use of new mathematical developments, goallevel planning algorithms and interactive simulation software, the capabilities of
humanoid robotics technology will enter mainstream society during the next
several decades.

2004 J.M. Pardos - Universidad Carlos III - Ingeniera de Sistemas y Automtica

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2004 J.M. Pardos - Universidad Carlos III - Ingeniera de Sistemas y Automtica