SIGNAL CONDITIONING:

Many applications require environment or structural measurements, such as temperature and

vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning before a data
acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the signal. Key signal conditioning
technologies provide distinct enhancements to both the performance and accuracy of data
acquisition systems.

Signal conditioning is basically the process of making modification in the original

signal. This modification may be carrying different types of purposes along with it
like making the signal usable at the oncoming stages of the particular system,
changing it from one form to another one so that required processing may be done
over it
The measurand, which is a physical quantity as is detected by the first stage of the
instrumentation or measurement system. The first stage, with which we have become
familiar is Detector Transducer Stage. The quantity is detected and is transduced into an
electrical form in most of the cases. The output of the first stage has to be modified before it
becomes usable and satisfactory to drive the signal presentation stage which is the third and
the last stage of a measurement system. The last stage of the measurement system may
consist of indicating, recording, displaying, data processing elements or may consist of
control elements.
Measurement of dynamic physical quantities requires faithful representation of their analog
or digital output obtained from the intermediate stage I;e signal conditioning stage and this
places a severe strain on the signal conditioning equipment. The signal conditioning
equipment may be required to do linear processes like amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition, and subtraction. They are also required to do non-linear processes
like modulation, demodulation, sampling, filtering, clipping and clamping, squaring,
linearisation or multiplication by another function etc.
Signal condition or also called data acquisition equipment in many a situation is an
excitation and amplification system for passive transducers. It may be an amplifier
system for active transducer. In both the applications the transducer output is brought
up to a sufficient level to make it useful for conversion, process indication and also
for recording the result for future use. Excitation used for passive transducers because
of the reason that these transducers do not make the voltage and current of the ir own.
So this is the reason that the transducers like stain gauss, potentiometer, resistance
thermometer, inductive transducer, capacitive transducer requires excitation from
some external mean.

There are also many active transducers like technogenerators, thermocouple, inductive
pick up and piezo-electric crystals, on the other hand, do not requires an external
source of excitation since they produce their own electrical output on the account of
application of the physical quantities. But these signals usually have low voltage level
and hence need amplification to make it possible to feed to oncoming stages of the
system so that required result may be obtained. The excitation sources may be an
alternative or direct (D.C.) voltage source. The D.C. system is comparatively simpler
and this can also shown with the help of the following figure which is actually a block
diagram of the functioning which actually occurs.

Transducers:
Transducers are devices that convert one type of physical phenomenon, such as temperature,
strain, pressure, or light into another. The most common transducers convert physical
quantities to electrical quantities, such as voltage or resistance. Transducer characteristics
define many of the signal conditioning requirements of your measurement system. Table 1
summarizes the basic characteristics and conditioning requirements of some common
transducers
.

Sensor

Electrical Characteristics

Signal Conditioning Requirement

Thermocouple

Low-voltage output
Low sensitivity
Nonlinear output

Reference temperature sensor (for

cold-junction compensation)
High amplification
Linearization

RTD

Low resistance (100 ohms typical)

Low sensitivity
Nonlinear output

Current excitation
Four-wire/three-wire configuration
Linearization

Strain gauge

Low resistance device

Low sensitivity
Nonlinear output

Voltage or current excitation

High amplification
Bridge completion
Linearization
Shunt calibration

Current output
device

Current loop output (4 -- 20 mA

typical)

Precision resistor

Thermistor

Resistive device
High resistance and sensitivity
Very nonlinear output

Current excitation or voltage

excitation with reference resistor
Linearization

Active
Accelerometers

High-level voltage or current

output
Linear output

Power source
Moderate amplification

AC Linear
Variable
Differential
Transformer
(LVDT)

AC voltage output

AC excitation
Demodulation
Linearization

The Analog Front End:

Most analog-to-digital systems include an analog front end that serves as the interface
between the sensor/input analog signals and the ADCs. Incoming signals are very rarely in a
state where they can be sent directly to the ADC and usually require some sort of
transformation or adaptation to ensure that they will be digitized under optimal conditions.
The main elements commonly found in analog front ends are illustrated in the figure below.

A typical configuration and is only intended to present the various building blocks that are
usually found in acquisition system analog front-ends. doesnt An actual implementation is
very application dependent and will consist of a multi-stage assembly-line configuration,
where different instances of these blocks will be combined to provide an optimal analog
processing chain between the input signals and the ADCs.
The location of the analog front end is also very application specific, but will necessarily be
one of three possible configurations: near or integrated with the sensor; integrated in a
dedicated unit located between the sensor and the ADC; and near or integrated with the
ADC. The ideal location for the front end is normally determined by a series of electrical,
mechanical and economic considerations, which are outside the scope of this discussion.
Well leave that subject open for other discussions in the future.

SIGNAL CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES:

FILTERING:
Filters play a vital role in data acquisition systems to remove selected frequencies
from an incoming signal and minimize artifacts (i.e. baseline wander, mains
,interference and noise). Analog/hardware filters are used to filter the incoming,
continuous signal before it is sampled by the analog to digital converter (ADC). These
filters are included in ADInstruments front-ends (Bio Amps, Bridge Amps etc) and in
some of the PowerLab units themselves. ADInstruments front-ends initially amplify
the signal to a level suitable for filtering. The analog filters are then used to remove
unwanted frequencies, following which further amplification is performed before
digitization. Filtering the signal prior to full amplification is essential for biopotential
measurements to improve the signal to noise ratio. The analog/hardware filters
included in the S, SP and 30 series PowerLabs provide additional filtering to remove
high frequency components (anti-aliasing low-pass filters) before the signal is
digitized. Additional Digital/Software filters are included in Chart and filter the data
after it has been sampled and recorded by the PowerLab.
Digital filters are used post data acquisition and are advantageous because:
It is possible to design digital filters that are impractical to make in analog form
They are stable over time and provide consistent, reproducible signal filtering
In Chart, they can be applied post data acquisition while the raw data is retained

However, a disadvantage of post-acquisition, digital filtering is that unless

analog/hardware filters have also been used prior to digitization, any noise or
baseline offset present in the signal has also been amplified and will have a negative
effect on signal resolution.
Filters reject unwanted noise within a certain frequency range. Oftentimes, lowpass filters
are used to block out high-frequency noise in electrical measurements, such as 60 Hz power.
Another common use for filtering is to prevent aliasing from high-frequency signals. This
can be done by using an antialiasing filter to attenuate signals above the Nyquist frequency.

Low-Pass Filter:
A low-pass filter allows signal frequencies below the low cut-off frequency to pass
and stops frequencies above the cut-off frequency. It is commonly used to help reduce
environmental noise and provide a smoother signal.

A simple way to understand how a filter works is to plot signal frequency against
signal gain When a signal is unfiltered, it is recorded at a gain of 1, that is, the full
signal is being recorded. However, when a signal is filtered, the gain (amount of
signal is reduced)

1). The frequency at which the gain starts to decrease by a reasonable amount is the
cut-off (corner) frequency (fc).
Ideally, low-pass filters would provide a gain of 1 below the cut-off frequency and a
gain of zero above this cut-off value (i.e. no signal is recorded). However, filters are
imperfect and some level of the signal is always recorded. This reduction in signal
gain after the cut-off frequency is commonly referred to as signal attenuation and is
commonly presented in decibel (dB) units. While signal attenuation is progressive
rather than an ideal all-or-none process, all low-pass filters have a frequency (fa;
Figure 1) above which the gain is very small (the signal is virtually non -existent).
Note: Decibels are not units of measurement in the conventional sense (ie meter or
joule) but represent a ratio, thereby describing how much bigger or smaller one thing
is compared to another.

All signal frequencies below the cut-off frequency are referred to as the passband. All
signal frequencies above the cut-off frequency are referred to as the stopband. The
region between the pass- and stop-bands is referred to as the transition band or
transition width. This width (in Hz) depends on how sharply the filter response drops
from the pass band to the stop band. Related to this is the roll-off rate, which, for lowpass filters is the rate at which the signal gain decreases when the signal is above the
cut-off frequency. The narrower the transition band, the steeper the roll-off.

ISOLATION:
Voltage, current, temperature, pressure, strain, and flow measurements are an integral part of
industrial and process control applications. Often these applications involve environments
with hazardous voltages, transient signals, common-mode voltages, and fluctuating ground
potentials capable of damaging measurement systems and ruining measurement accuracy. To
overcome these challenges, measurement systems designed for industrial applications make
use of electrical isolation. This white paper focuses on isolation for analog measurements,
provides answers to common isolation questions, and includes information on different
isolation implementation..

Understanding Isolation:
Isolation electrically separates the sensor signals, which can be exposed to hazardous
voltages1, from the measurement systems low-voltage backplane. Isolation offers many
benefits including:

Protection for expensive equipment, the user, and data from transient voltages

Improved noise immunity

Ground loop removal

Increased common-mode voltage rejection

Isolated measurement systems provide separate ground planes for the analog front end and
the system backplane to separate the sensor measurements from the rest of the system. The
ground connection of the isolated front end is a floating pin that can operate at a different
potential than the earth ground. Figure 1 represents an analog voltage measurement device.
Any common-mode voltage that exists between the sensor ground and the measurement
system ground is rejected. This prevents ground loops from forming and removes any noise
on the sensor lines.

Need for Isolation:

Consider isolation for measurement systems that involve any of the following:

Close vicinity to hazardous voltages

Industrial environments with possibility of transient voltages

Environments with common-mode voltage or fluctuating ground potentials

Electrically noisy environments such as those with industrial motors

Transient-sensitive applications where it is imperative to prevent voltage spikes from being

transmitted through the measurement system

Industrial measurement, process control, and automotive test are examples of applications
where common-mode voltages, high voltage transients, and electrical noise are common.
Measurement equipment with isolation can offer reliable measurements in these harsh
environments. For medical equipment in direct contact with patients, isolation is useful in
preventing power line transients from being transmitted through the equipment.
Based on your voltage and data rate requirements, you have several options for making
isolated measurements. You can use plug-in boards for laptops, desktop PCs, industrial PCs,
PXI, panel PCs, and CompactPCI with the option of built-in isolation or external signal
conditioning. You also can make isolated measurements using programmable automation
controllers (PACs) and measurement systems for USB, Ethernet and wireless.

Methods of Implementing Isolation:

Isolation requires signals to be transmitted across an isolation barrier without any direct
electrical contact. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), capacitors, and inductors are three
commonly available components that allow electrical signal transmission without any direct
contact. The principles on which these devices are based form the core of the three most
common technologies for isolation optical, capacitive, and inductive coupling.

Optical Isolation:
LEDs produce light when a voltage is applied across them. Optical isolation uses an LED
along with a photodetector device to transmit signals across an isolation barrier using light as
the method of data translation. A photodetector receives the light transmitted by the LED and
converts it back to the original signal.

Optical isolation is one of the most commonly used methods for isolation. One benefit of
using optical isolation is its immunity to electrical and magnetic noise. Some of the
disadvantages include transmission speed, which is restricted by the LED switching speed,
high-power dissipation, and LED wear.

Capacitive Isolation
Capacitive isolation is based on an electric field that changes with the level of charge on a
capacitor plate. This charge is detected across an isolation barrier and is proportional to the
level of the measured signal.

One advantage of capacitive isolation is its immunity to magnetic noise. Compared to optical
isolation, capacitive isolation can support faster data transmission rates because there are no
LEDs that need to be switched. Because capacitive coupling involves the use of electric
fields for data transmission, it can be susceptible to interference from external electric fields.

Inductive Coupling Isolation:

In the early 1800s, Hans Oersted, a Danish physicist, discovered that current through a coil
of wire produces a magnetic field. It was later discovered that current can be induced in a
second coil by placing it in close vicinity of the changing magnetic field from the first coil.
The voltage and current induced in the second coil depend on the rate of current change
through the first. This principle is called mutual induction and forms the basis of inductive
isolation.

Inductive isolation uses a pair of coils separated by a layer of insulation. Insulation prevents
any physical signal transmission. Signals can be transmitted by varying current flowing
through one of the coils, which causes a similar current to be induced in the second coil
across the insulation barrier. Inductive isolation can provide high-speed transmission similar
to capacitive techniques. Because inductive coupling involves the use of magnetic fields for
data transmission, it can be susceptible to interference from external magnetic fields.

Analog Isolation and Digital Isolation

Many of the commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components available today incorporate one
of the above technologies to provide isolation. For analog I/O channels, you can implement
isolation either in the analog section of the device before the analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) has digitized the signal (analog isolation) or after the ADC has digitized the signal
(digital isolation).

Figure 6a. Analog Isolation

Analog Isolation:
The isolation amplifier is generally used to provide isolation in the analog front end of data
acquisition devices. ISO Amp in Figure 6a represents an isolation amplifier, which, in
most circuits, is one of the first components of the analog circuitry. The analog signal from a
sensor is passed to the isolation amplifier, which provides isolation and passes the signal to
the analog-to-digital conversion circuitry. Figure 7 represents the general layout of an
isolation amplifier.

In an ideal isolation amplifier, the analog output signal is the same as the analog input signal.
The section labeled isolation uses one of the techniques discussed in the previous section
(optical, capacitive, or inductive coupling) to pass the signal across the isolation barrier. The
modulator circuit prepares the signal for the isolation circuitry. For optical methods, you
need to digitize or translate this signal into varying light intensities. Because you perform
analog isolation before the signal is digitized, it is the best method to apply when designing
external signal conditioning for use with existing non-isolated data acquisition devices. In
this case, the data acquisition device performs the analog-to-digital conversion and the
external circuitry provides isolation. With the data acquisition device and external signal
conditioning combination, measurement system vendors can develop general-purpose data
acquisition devices and sensor-specific signal conditioning. Figure 8 shows analog isolation
being implemented with flexible signal conditioning that uses isolation amplifiers. Another
benefit to isolation in the analog front end is protection for the ADC and other analog
circuitry from voltage spikes.

Digital Isolation

ADCs are one of the key components of any analog input data acquisition device.
For best performance, the input signal to the ADC should be as close to the original
analog signal as possible. Analog isolation can add errors such as gain, nonlinearity,
and offset before the signal reaches the ADC. Placing the ADC closer to the signal
source can lead to better performance. Analog isolation components are also costly
and can suffer from long settling times. Despite better digital isolation performance,
one of the reasons for using analog isolation in the past was to provide protection for
the expensive ADCs. Because ADC prices have significantly declined, measurement
equipment vendors are choosing to trade ADC protection for the better performance
and lower cost offered by digital isolators.

Compared to isolation amplifiers, digital isolation components are lower in cost and
offer higher data transfer speeds. Digital isolation techniques also give analog
designers more flexibility to choose components and develop optimal analog front
ends for measurement devices. Products with digital isolation use current- and
voltage-limiting circuits to provide ADC protection. Digital isolation components
follow the same fundamental principles of optical, capacitive, and inductive coupling
that form the basis of analog isolation.

Cold-Junction Compensation:
Cold-junction compensation (CJC) is a technology required for accurate
thermocouple measurements. Thermocouples measure temperature as the
difference in voltage between two dissimilar metals. Based on this concept, another
voltage is generated at the connection between the thermocouple and terminal of
your data acquisition device. CJC improves your measurement accuracy by
providing the temperature at this junction and applying the appropriate correction.
The terms hot junction and cold junction, as applied to thermocouple devices, are
mostly historical. You don't need to have any junctions to get thermocouple effects.

If you heat one end of a metal conductor and hold the other end at a constant
reference temperature, two important things occur.
1. Heat flow. There is a thermal gradient, so heat flows from the hot end to the cold
end. With small-gage thermocouple wire, very little thermal energy actually reaches
the cold end, and the thermal gradient is typically not constant along the wires
because of heat loss.
2. Seebeck effect. Energetic electrons at the hot end diffuse toward the cold end,
pushing less energetic electrons along with them, resulting in a higher static
potential at the hot end relative to the cold end. The larger the temperature gradient
the larger the potential difference. (There are additional contributing effects when
dissimilar materials are joined.)
In practice, it is difficult to measure the Seebeck effect directly. When you attach
measurement probes, there is a thermal difference across the probe leads,
producing additional thermocouple effects that interfere with the measurements.
Classical thermocouple loop configuration
To make the thermal effects measurable, two different metal conductors are used.
They must be chemically, electrically, and physically compatible. They produce
different electric potentials when subjected to the same thermal gradient.
In the classical configuration, the dissimilar thermocouple wires are welded together
at the measurement end (hot junction), and again at the reference end (cold
junction), forming a loop. The hot junction assures that the potential at that point
matches in the two metals. Immersing the reference-end junction in an ice-water
slurry assures that the temperature gradients are the same across both materials.
The ice-water slurry establishes a reference temperature at 0 degrees C.

Welding the thermocouple wires at the cold junction also equalizes the potentials
there. To make the potential difference observable again, it is necessary to break
the loop. Pick a location in one of the thermocouple wires where the temperature
matches the temperature of the measurement leads. Break the loop there, and
attach matching leads to the two sides of the gap to measure the potential.

By maintaining uniform temperatures where the leads connect, thermal gradients

are unaffected.
By avoiding thermal gradients across lead wires, stray thermocouple effects are kept
small.
By matching the leads well, any residual effects cancel out of differential
measurements.

Cold junction in practice

Maintaining an ice water slurry and actual cold junction is rarely feasible. Typically,
the cold junction is omitted, and the potential is measured directly across the two
terminal ends of the thermocouple wires at ambient temperature. For historical
reasons, we speak of the terminal ends of the thermocouple wires as the cold
junction, despite the fact that there is no longer an intentional junction. (For the
same historical reasons, we refer to the measurement junction of the thermocouple
as the hot junction even if it is used to measure below-zero temperatures.) The
measured potential indicates the temperature difference between the hot junction
point and the unknown cold junction terminals. To complete the temperature
measurement, you must determine the terminal temperature in some manner.

Cold Junction Compensation

There are two commonly used approaches.
1. Simulate the potential effects that would result for a thermocouple wire pair between
the terminals, at their measured temperature, and another junction at a reference
temperature of 0 degrees. Measure the potential across the thermocouple wire pair
in series with the simulated potential. Apply the linearizing curve to the sum, thus
obtaining an estimated absolute temperature directly. This is known ascold junction
compensation. Usually, the simulation is done electronically with specialized
integrated circuit devices.

This approach makes two approximation errors, one for estimating the cold junction
temperature, and one for approximating the effects on junction potential. Beyond
what is already built into the electronic simulation, calibration is tricky and probably
limited to offset adjustment.
2. Independently measure the temperature of the cold junction. Measure the
thermocouple potential and apply conversion curves to determine the temperature
difference across the thermocouple. Then add the known cold junction temperature
to the measured temperature difference to determine the absolute temperature
measurement.

This approach uses one less estimate, but it still depends on accurate
measurements of the cold junction temperature

Excitation:
Excitation is required for many types of transducers. For example, strain gages,
accelerometers thermistors, and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) require external
voltage or current excitation. RTD and thermistor measurements are usually made with a
current source that converts the variation in resistance to a measurable voltage.
Accelerometers often have an integrated amplifier, which requires a current excitation
provided by the measurement device. Strain gages, which are very-low-resistance devices,
typically are used in a Wheatstone bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source
Input transducers, or sensors are classified as either active or passive. Passive sensors, such
as thermocouples or photodiodes (in the voltage-output mode) are two-port devices that
transform physical energy to electrical energy directly, generating output signals without the
need for an excitation source. Active sensors (like active circuits in general) require an
external source of excitation. Examples can be found in the class of resistor-based sensors,
such as thermistors, RTDs (resistance-temperature detectors), and strain gages; they require a
current or voltage for excitation in order to produce an electrical output.
This article will consider a variety of excitation methods that can be used in active
sensor/transducer applications and will show some typical circuits. The discussion includes
the benefits and shortcomings of ac and dc excitation techniques using current and voltage.
Accurate measurement of low-level analog signals with a data-acquisition system generally
requires more than simply wiring the output of the transducer to the signal conditioning
circuitry and then to the analog to digital converter. To maintain high-resolution and
accuracy within the measurement system, the designer must exercise care in selecting the
excitation source for the transducerand in the field-wiring scheme used in conveying the
low-level analog signal from the transducer to the A/D converter. Figure 1 shows a
generalized block diagram of a transducer-based data acquisition system. The integrity of the
data acquired in these systems depends on all parts of the analog signal path shown here.

For a given excitation source, the system designer is faced with the challenge of measuring
the output signal and dealing with the issues that may arise. For example, wiring resistance
and noise pickup are among the biggest problems associated with sensor based applications.
A variety of measurement techniques are available for employment in quest of optimum
performance from the measurement system. Principal choices include ratiometric vs. nonratiometric operation, and 2-wire vs. 3-, and 4-wire Kelvin force/sense connections.

Excitation Techniques:
Active transducers can be excited using a controlled current or voltage. The choice between
voltage and current excitation is generally at the discretion of the designer. In dataacquisition systems, it's not uncommon to see constant-voltage excitation used for strain and
pressure sensors, while constant current excitation is used to excite resistive sensors such as
RTDs or thermistors. In noisy industrial environments, current excitation is generally
preferable due to its better noise immunity.
AC or dc excitation sources can be used in transducer applications; each offers advantages
and disadvantages. The advantages associated with dc excitation include simplicity of
implementation and low cost. The downside of dc excitation includes the difficulty of
separating the actual signal from unwanted dc errors due to offsets and parasitic induced
thermocouple effects. DC offsets are not fixed; they vary unpredictably due to temperature
drift and both thermal and 1/f noise sources.

Amplification:
Amplifiers increase voltage level to better match the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
range, thus increasing the measurement resolution and sensitivity. In addition, using external
signal conditioners located closer to the signal source, or transducer, improves the
measurement signal-to-noise ratio by magnifying the voltage level before it is affected by
environmental noise
Amplification is the set of techniques used to boost a signal's strength. Figure 2 shows a
combination of an idealized transducer and an idealized amplifier. The key features of the
transducer model are an open-circuit voltage (VOCT) and an output impedance (rOT). The
amplifier has an input impedance rIN, an output impedance rOA, and an open-circuit output
voltage defined as VOCA = AVVIN, where AV is the amplifier's gain.

Maintaining Accurate Gain :

While the overall goal is to increase the amplitude of the transducer's output signal, there are
a number of secondary goals that must be considered when selecting or designing an
amplifier. One of the most important of these in many sensor systems is to maintain accurate
gain. In the system of Figure 2, there are two fundamental ways you can achieve this.
The first is to simply make the amplifier's input impedance much higher than the transducer's
output impedance. The signal seen at the amplifier's input will be VOCT [rIN/(rIN+rOT)],
which is about equal to VOCT when rIN >>rOT. For example, with transducer output
impedances less than a few megohms, a simple op amp amplifier circuit such as the one can
often be used. When implemented with a suitable FET-input op amp, this circuit can provide
in excess of 1010 of input impedance at DC. Using a very high input impedance amplifier
is often an adequate and simple solution to many interface problems.

Special Cases:

In some cases, especially those involving high-frequency signals or very small signals, the
high-input impedance solution may not be adequate. At high frequencies, an amplifier's input
impedance may be dominated by a reactive component. For example, a FET-input amplifier
that provides 1012 input impedance at DC may have a 1 pF input capacitance, which
appears as roughly 160 k at 1 MHz. So much for the benefit of high DC impedance.

LINEARISATION AND CALIBRATION PROCESS:

LINEARISATION:
Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly related
to the physical measurement. Linearization is the process of interpreting the signal from the
sensor and can be done either with signal conditioning or through software. Thermocouples
are the classic example of a sensor that requires linearization.
Many sensors are used m automated systems m industrial plants They need to be calibrated
when first installed and they need recalibration as they drift with age and process conditions
(such as temperature and pressure) After some change is made to a new instrument or when
old sensors are being replaced with new sensors, a recalibration is needed m order to
compare the sensor signal with previous measurements of the reference data base In practice,
the sensor cahbration is performed by putting the sensor m a con-trolled environment .

LINEARISATION AND CALIBRATION PROCESS:

A certain number of measurements need to be taken m order to determine and
correct a sensors nonlmeanty The number of measurements necessary to re
duce the heavy error depends on the linearising calibration method used and
to reduce the costs of calibration it is important to minimize the number of measurements Costs refer to the expense of processing power and time This is
an important criterion m the selection of an appropriate linearising calibration
method for sensor calibration

Sensor characteristic linearization:

Bridge Completion
Bridge completion is required for quarter- and half-bridge sensors to comprise a four
resistor Wheatstone bridge. Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide halfbridge completion networks consisting of high-precision reference resistors. The
completion resistors provide a fixed reference for detecting small voltage changes
across the active resistor(s).

Amplificat Attenuat
ion
ion

Isolati
on

Filteri
ng

Excitati Linearizat CJ
on
ion
C

Thermoco
uple
Thermistor
RTD
Strain
Gage
Load,
Pressure,
Torque
(mV/V)
Load,
Pressure,
Torque (5
V, 10 V,
4-20 mA)
Accelerom
eter
Microphon
e
Proximity
Probe
LVDT/RVD
T
High
Voltage

Thus the output of the signal conditioning circuit is given to the DAS.

Bridge
Complet
ion