CHIP TYPE

1. Discontinuous chip

Brittle work materials

Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of cut
High tool-chip friction

2. Continuous chip

Ductile work materials

High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip friction

3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

4. Serrated chip

Semi continuous - saw-tooth appearance

Cyclical chip forms with alternating high shear strain then low shear strain
Associated with difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting speeds

TURNING
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylinder
Facing

Tool is feed radially inward

Contour turning

Instead of feeding tool parallel to axis of rotation, tool follows a contour that is other than
straight, thus creating a contoured shape

Chamfering

Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"

Cutoff

Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to cut off end of part

Threading

Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at
a large feed rate, thus creating threads

IMPORTANT FORMULA

Do Df = 2d
fr = Nf
Tm = L/fr
MRR = vfd
MRR = material removal rate, mm3/min, f = feed, mm

MILLING
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges.Axis of tool
rotation is perpendicular to feed
Peripheral Milling
Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter

. Face Milling
Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter

Method Of Milling
Up Milling

Up milling is also referred to as conventional

milling. The direction of the cutter rotation
opposes the feed motion. For example, if the
cutter rotates clockwise , the work piece is fed to
the right in up milling.

Down Milling

Down milling is also referred to as climb milling.

The direction of cutter rotation is same as the feed
motion. For example, if the cutter rotates
counterclockwise , the work piece is fed to the
right in down milling

Type Of Milling Process

Slab Milling

Basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter

width extends beyond the work piece on both
sides

Slotting

Width of cutter is less than workpiece width,

creating a slot in the work

Conventional Face Milling

Cutter overhangs work on both sides

Profile Milling

Form of end milling in which the outside periphery

of a flat part is cut

Pocket Milling

Another form of end milling used to mill shallow

pockets into flat parts

Surface Contouring

Ball-nose cutter fed back and forth across work

along a curvilinear path at close intervals to create
a three dimensional surface form

End Milling

Cutter diameter is less than work width, so a slot is

cut into part

IMPORTANT FORMULA

fr = Nnt f
MRR = wdfr
A d (D d )

Tm

L A
fr

A = O = D/2
A O w(D w)

INVESTMENT CASTING
Process
(1) Wax patterns are produced,
(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to
form a pattern tree

(3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of

refractory material,
(4) The full mold is formed by covering the coated
tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid

(5) The mold is held in an inverted position and

heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip
out of the cavity

(6) The mold is preheated to a high temperature,

the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies

(7) The mold is broken away from the finished

casting and the parts are separated from the
sprue

Advantages
Complex shapes which are difficult to
produce by any other method are possible
Very fine details and thin sections can be
produced
Very close tolerance and better finish can
be produced
Very little or no machining required
Since no parting line, dimensions across it
would not affect

Disadvantaged
Size is limited to weight of the casting
More expensive process because manual
labor is required

DIE CASTING
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure . Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is removed
COLD WORKING

Performed at room temperature or slightly above

Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
(These operations are near net shape or net shape processes)

Advantages
Better accuracy, closer tolerances

Better surface finish

Strain hardening increases strength and

hardness

Disadvantages
Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be
free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done

HOT WORKING

Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature

Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot
working above this level

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working

Why?

Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temperature

Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased

Advantages
Workpart shape can be significantly
altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold
working can be hot formed

Disadvantages
Lower dimensional accuracy

Shorter tool life

Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)

Types of Forging Dies

Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally
with minimum constraint

Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is imparted to workpart

Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created

Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die

No excess flash is created

IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING

Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step
Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and desired metallurgical
structure in subsequent steps
Final steps bring the part to final geometry
Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled operator under adverse
conditions

Sequence in impression-die forging:

(1) Just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) Partial compression
(3) Final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

Advantages
Higher production rates
Less waste of metal

High strength

Limitation
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve
accuracies and features needed

Sheet and Film Production Processes

Most widely used processes are continuous, high production operations
Processes include:

Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film

Blown-Film Extrusion Process
Calendering

BLOWN-FILM EXTRUSION PROCESS

Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a tube of thin film

Process sequence:

Extrusion of tube
Tube is drawn upward while still molten and simultaneously expanded by air inflated into it
through die
Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film thickness and tube diameter

CALENDERING

A typical roll configuration in calendering

Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to reduce thickness to desired gage

Expensive equipment, high production rates
Process is noted for good surface finish and high gage accuracy
Typical materials: rubber or rubbery thermoplastics such as plasticized PVC
Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable boats
and toy

Criteria

Cost of the equipment is high

Production rate is high
Close control is required over all temperatures and rotational speed.
Good surface finish and high accuracy in film making process.
Eg. PVC flooring, shower curtains, table cloths, inflatable boats and toys.

Others Type of Molding

COMPRESSION MOLDING
Molding materials:

Phenolics, melamine, urea-formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and elastomers

Typical compression-molded products:
Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles, and dinnerware plates

Simpler than injection molds

No sprue and runner system in a compression mold

Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries due to lower flow capabilities of TS
materials

Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance, steam, or hot oil circulation

Compression molding for thermosetting plastics:

(1) Charge is loaded
(2) And (3) charge is compressed and cured
(4) Part is ejected and removed.

BLOW MOLDING

Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic into a mold cavity
Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles
Because these items are used for consumer beverages in mass markets, production is typically
organized for very high quantities

Blow Molding Process

Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected molded around a blowing rod; (2) injection mold is
opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow
mold; and (4) blow mold is opened and blown product is removed.
Accomplished in two steps:

Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison

Inflation of the tube to desired final shape

Forming the parison is accomplished by either

Extrusion or Injection molding

POWDER METALLURGY

Metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metallic powders
Usual PM production sequence:
1. Pressing - powders are compressed into desired shape to produce green compact
Accomplished in press using punch-and-die tooling designed for the part
2. Sintering green compacts are heated to bond the particles into a hard, rigid mass
Performed at temperatures below the melting point of the metal
Powder metallurgy products

Iron and steel

Copper and alloys
Aluminum
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Tungsten carbide
Nickel
Tin

Why Powder Metallurgy is Important ?

PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or reducing the
need for subsequent machining
PM process wastes very little material - ~ 97% of starting powders are converted to product
PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce porous metal parts
o Examples: filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be shaped by powder
metallurgy

Advantages
Reduction in the production time.

Close dimensional tolerances can be

maintained

Composition of product can be controlled.

No risk of contamination.
Although the cost of metal powder is high,
there is no loss of material. The parts can
be produced clean & bright, ready for use

Useful for magnetic core having special

desirable properties
Composition, structure and properties can
be controlled more easily and closely than
any other fabricating process.

Disadvantages
Pure metal powders are very expensive to
produce.
Dies required are very expensive and
needed large quantities of products.
Volume must be justified.
Size of the products to be produced is
limited because of the large presses are
required.
Lack of metals powder like steels, bronzes,
brasses etc.
Strength properties are lower than those
of similar article produced by conventional
methods.
Poor plastic properties impact strength
and elongation.
Die design limit the size of products.

FUSION WELDING ARC WELDING

Arc Welding

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work
Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any
metal
Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume and strength of weld joint
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit
It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma) through which the current flows
To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into contact with work and then quickly separated
from it by a short distance
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

Consumable consumed during welding process (Source of filler metal in arc welding)

No consumable not consumed during welding process(Filler metal must be added separately)

Arc Shielding

At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded by these reactions
To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in AW processes

Arc shielding is accomplished by:

Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2

Flux

Power Source in Arc Welding

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally noted for better arc control

SOLID STATE WELDING (SSW)

Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

Pressure alone, or
Heat and pressure

If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not enough to melt work surfaces

For some SSW processes, time is also a factor

No filler metal is added
Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond at the faying surfaces

Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the two faying surfaces must be:

Very clean
In very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic bonding

Processes under SSW group

Forge welding
Cold welding
Roll welding
Hot pressure welding
Diffusion welding
Explosion welding
Friction welding
Ultrasonic welding

FRICTION WELDING

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure
When properly carried out, no melting occurs at faying surfaces
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
Process yields a narrow HAZ
Can be used to join dissimilar metals
Widely used commercial process, amenable to automation and mass production

Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to generate friction
heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
Applications:
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be taken into consideration in product design)