Types of renewable energy

In this chapter we will talk about the types of renewable and will make
comparison between them(cost , output &application)

types

1. photovoltaic
2. thermal solar
3. hydroelectric
4. wind
5. biomass
6. sea`s wave
photovoltaic
Lighting, or PV-powered lighting, is lighting that is at least partially
powered by
electricity generated from PV panels (often called solar panels). A
popular example of PV lighting is
the solar garden or pathway light. Other examples include post-top
luminaires and parking lot
luminaires carrying a solar panel on top. These PV lighting systems are
usually off-grid, or "standalone"
systems; their only power source is solar energy. Utility-connected and
hybrid systems are
more complicated because solar power is combined with other power
sources such as a utility generated
grid, wind-powered generators, or fossil fuel-powered generators. This
Lighting Answers
considers only stand-alone/off-grid PV lighting technologies that are
intended for nighttime lighting.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Main components

PV lighting system components include PV panels, batteries, electronics

(including battery charge
controller, inverter or ballast/driver, and timer or switch), light sources
(lamps), and luminaries.

applications.
A PV lighting system collects solar energy using one or more PV panels,
stores that energy in a battery or series of batteries, and then releases the
energy to power light sources at night. Typically,
. The initial purchase cost and maintenance cost for many of these
components are high compared to traditional lighting systems powered by
a grid. Designing and installing a PV lighting system are also more
complicated than traditional grid-powered lighting systems. As a result,
lighting applications suitable for PV lighting systems are currently
somewhat limited. However, successful PV lighting applications can be
developed through a carefully planned design process and educated
choices between PV power and grid power. PV lighting applications are
generally most successful where low light levels and limited electric
power are acceptable and/or where access to a grid is expensive or
difficult. Some examples of these types of applications are campgrounds,
rural pathways, and parking lots in remote areas.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

There are many photovoltaic power plants used for produce a large
amount of power but we will talk about it later.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Types of photovoltaic
Amorphous cells
There are basically two categories of amorphous cells: high
efficiency non silicon thin film amorphous, and low efficiency silicon
amorphous. Both types of amorphous cells are manufactured using
physical vapor, chemical vapor or electrochemical deposition techniques.
These compounds are usually deposited on low cost substrates such as
glass, stainless steel, or a polymer.
Low efficiency amorphous silicon cells are generally used for trickle
charging batteries and low power needs. They are not recommended for
serious power systems when space is at a premium as their efficiency at
present ranges from 4% to 8%. Although silicon amorphous panels are
not as efficient as mono, poly, and non-silicon thin film, amorphous
silicon panels produce more power under scattered, diffuse, and cloudy
conditions. They are more responsive to the blue end of the light
spectrum which is dominant under these conditions.
Non-silicon thin film amorphous cells are generally high output. Some
types can reach efficiencies of up to 25%. They are excellent choices for
all power applications, however at present they are more expensive than
other types of cells available.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

 Crystalline solar cells

There are two types of crystalline solar cells: polycrystalline
and monocrystalline.
They have an efficiency of 8% to 15%. Of these two types of silicon
cells, the single crystal (monocrystalline) cell produces more current from
a given area of exposed surface than the same area on a polycrystalline
cell. Single crystal cells are also more expensive to manufacture. This is
of course reflected in the cost of the cells to the end buyer.
Solar Systems has developed the worlds highest performing concentrated
photovoltaic (CPV) solar power receiver.
The first receiver of this type is now operating in Hermannsburg solar
power station in the Northern Territory, Australia. The receiver has
demonstrated 30% efficiency in generating electricity from concentrated
sunlight similar to the efficiencies of current fossil fuel power stations.
As well as being the most efficient, it is also the largest high efficiency
array in the world. The patented receiver in the photograph is generating
over 30kWDC of electricity from less than 0.25m2 of photovoltaic
material.
Complementing the high efficiency PV cells, the unique combination of
the mirrored concentrator dish and patented tracking system captures the
suns energy from the start to the end of the day. The pictured receiver has
been operating continuously since March 2006 and continues to exhibit
excellent stability and performance.
The results were presented at the recent IEEE 4th World Conference on
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Hawaii, May 2006 by John Lasich and
Pierre Verlinden of Solar Systems.
This new high level of output is the result of two years research and
development work at Solar Systems. The company successfully
developed the methodology to incorporate new generation multijunction (non-silicon) photovoltaic cells in a solar concentrator power
plant to get maximum power output.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Wind Energy
in this type the source of energy is the air which
moving rapidly in the form of wind that mean kinetic
energy so the turbine can capture it but in this case
the turbine blades are designed to capture the kinetic
energy in wind.
When the turbine blades capture wind energy and start
moving, they spin a shaft that leads from the hub of
the rotor to a generator. The generator turns that
rotational energy into electricity. At its essence,
generating electricity from the wind is all about
transferring energy from one medium to another.
Wind power all starts with the sun. When the sun heats
up a certain area of land, the air around that land mass
absorbs some of that heat. At a certain temperature,
that hotter air begins to rise very quickly because a
given volume of hot air is lighter than an equal volume
of cooler air. Faster-moving (hotter) air particles exert
more pressure than slower-moving particles, so it takes
fewer of them to maintain the normal air pressure at a
given elevation, When that lighter hot air suddenly
rises, cooler air flows quickly in to fill the gap the hot
air leaves behind. That air rushing in to fill the gap is
wind a rotor blade in the path of that wind, the wind
will push on it, transferring some of its own energy of
motion to the blade. This is how a wind turbine
captures energy from the wind.
The same thing happens with a sail boat. When moving
air pushes on the barrier of the sail, it causes the boat
to move. The wind has transferred its own energy of
motion to the sailboat.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Parts of a Wind Turbine

The simplest possible wind-energy turbine consists of
three crucial parts:

Rotor blades - The blades are basically the sails of

the system; in their simplest form, they act as
barriers to the wind (more modern blade designs go
beyond the barrier method). When the wind forces
the blades to move, it has transferred some of its
energy to the rotor.

Shaft - The wind-turbine shaft is connected to the

center of the rotor. When the rotor spins, the shaft
spins as well. In this way, the rotor transfers its
mechanical, rotational energy to the shaft, which
enters an electrical generator on the other end.

Generator - At its most basic, a generator is a

pretty simple device. It uses the properties of
electromagnetic induction to produce electrical
voltage - a difference in electrical charge. Voltage is
essentially electrical pressure - it is the force that
moves electricity, or electrical current, from one point
to another. So generating voltage is in effect
generating current. A simple generator consists of
magnets and a conductor. The conductor is typically
a coiled wire. Inside the generator, the shaft
connects to an assembly of permanent magnets that
surrounds the coil of wire. In electromagnetic
induction, if you have a conductor surrounded by
magnets, and one of those parts is rotating relative
to the other, it induces voltage in the conductor.
When the rotor spins the shaft, the shaft spins the
assembly of magnets, generating voltage in the coil
of wire. That voltage drives electrical current
(typically alternating current, or AC power) out
through power lines for distribution. (See How
Electromagnets Work to learn more about
electromagnetic induction, and see How Hydropower

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Plants Work to learn more about turbine-driven

generators.)
Now that we've looked at a simplified system, we'll move
on to the modern technology you see in wind farms and
rural backyards today. It's a bit more complex, but the
underlying principles are the same.

Abstract about History of wind energy

As early as 3000 B.C., people used wind energy for the
first time in the form of sail boats in Egypt. Sails
captured the energy in wind to pull a boat across the
water. The earliest windmills, used to grind grain.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Modern Wind-power Technology

When you talk about modern wind turbines, you're looking at two
primary designs: horizontal-axis and vertical-axis. Vertical-axis wind
turbines (VAWTs) are pretty rare.

In a VAWT, the shaft is mounted on a vertical axis, perpendicular to the

ground. VAWTs are always aligned with the wind, unlike their horizontalaxis counterparts, so there's no adjustment necessary when the wind
direction changes; but a VAWT can't start moving all by itself -- it needs a
boost from its electrical system to get started. Instead of a tower, it
typically uses guy wires for support, so the rotor elevation is lower.
Lower elevation means slower wind due to ground interference, so
VAWTs are generally less efficient than HAWTs. On the upside, all
equipment is at ground level for easy installation and servicing; but that
means a larger footprint for the turbine, which is a big negative in
farming areas.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

VAWTs may be used for small-scale turbines and for pumping water in
rural areas, but all commercially produced, utility-scale wind turbines are
horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs).

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Large HAWT components:

Rotor blades - capture wind's energy and convert it to rotational energy
of shaft
Shaft - transfers rotational energy into generator
Nacelle - casing that holds:
Gearbox - increases speed of shaft between rotor hub and generator
Generator - uses rotational energy of shaft to generate electricity using
electromagnetism
Electronic control unit (not shown) - monitors system, shuts down
turbine in case of malfunction and controls yaw mechanism
Yaw controller (not shown) - moves rotor to align with direction of wind
Brakes - stop rotation of shaft in case of power overload or system
failure
Tower - supports rotor and nacelle and lifts entire setup to higher
elevation where blades can safely clear the ground
Electrical equipment - carries electricity from generator down through tower and
controls many safety elements of turbine.Calculating Power

The max power will produce from wind turbine at wind's speed 33mph
and vary with diameter
Rotor diameter(m)

Power Output(kw)

10

25

17

100

27

225

33

300

40

500

44

600
Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

48

750

54

1000

64

1500

72

2000

80

2500

Geothermal Energy
?What is geothermal
Geothermal energy is heat from deep in the earth. The heat is brought near
the surface by underground circulation of water and by the intrusion into
the earths crust of molten magma. The portion of geothermal energy that
can be developed easily is trapped in cavities beneath the earths surface. A
geothermal plant
pumps the steam or hot water from these cavities to the surface, uses
it to run an electrical generator, then returns the fluids to the
underground cavities.

?How it works
There are several types of geothermal power technologies. Most of the
in stalled geothermal electrical generating plants use either flash or
binary technologies. Generally, flash technologies are used when the
geothermal resource has temperatures of 350F and higher, and
binary technologies are used with temperatures below 350F. In both
technologies, the geothermal fluids are returned to the underground
reservoirs and natural reheated for reuse.

System Integration

Geothermal plants are one of the most reliable of all electricity sources,
Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

regularly operating at 90 percent or more of their rated capacity

year- round. Because they can run continuously, geothermal plants are
most. Often used for providing base load energy. In addition, some
plants in Italy and at The Geysers in California have been used to help
meet daily peak loads. Geothermal power can provide significant
system diversity, stability and transmission benefits, thereby increasing
system reliability and lowering overall operating costs

Environmental Impacts
Although geothermal is one of the more benign power sources, it
must be properly sited to prevent possible environmental impacts. Ne
w geothermal systems re-inject water into the earth after its heat is
used, in order to preserve the resource and to contain gases and heavy
metals some- times found in geothermal fluids. Care must be taken in
planning geo thermal projects to ensure that they dont cool nearby
hot springs or cause intermixing with ground water. Geothermal
projects can produce some carbon dioxide emissions, but these are up
to 35 times lower than the cleanest fossil-fuel power plants of the same
size.

Components of a Geothermal Resource

1. Heat
2. Water
3. Permeability
Conditions that Create a Geothermal Reservoir

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Electricity Production from Geothermal Energy

Steam from production well powers turbine generator. The steam
condenses in the cooling tower and is pumped down an injection well to
return to the reservoir.
All water is recycled back to the reservoir.
The only emission is a small quantity of steam

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Biomass
Renewable Energy from Plants and Animals

Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass

contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants gets passed
.on to animals and people that eat them
Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow more
trees and crops, and waste will always exist. Some examples of biomass
.fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

When burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. If you

have a fireplace, the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel. Wood waste or
garbage can be burned to produce steam for making electricity, or to
.provide heat to industries and homes

Converting Biomass to Other Forms of Energy

Burning biomass is not the only way to release its energy. Biomass can be
converted to other useable forms of energy, such as methane gas or
.transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel
Methane gas is the main ingredient of natural gas. Smelly stuff, like
rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas
". also called "landfill gas" or "biogas
Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce ethanol.
Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over
.food products like vegetable oils and animal fats

?How Much Biomass Is Used for Fuel

Biomass fuels provide about 4% of the energy used in the United States.
Researchers are trying to develop ways to burn more biomass and less
fossil fuel. Using biomass for energy may cut back on waste and
.greenhouse gas emissions

Burning Wood Is Nothing New

The most common form of biomass is wood. For thousands of years
people have burned wood for heating and cooking. Wood was the main
source of energy in the United States and the rest of the world until the
mid-1800s. Wood continues to be a major source of energy in much of the
.developing world
In the United States, wood and wood waste (bark, sawdust, wood chips,
.and wood scrap) provide about 2% of the energy we use today

Using Wood and Wood Waste

About 84% of the wood and wood waste fuel used in the United States is
consumed by industry, electric power producers, and commercial
businesses. The rest, mainly wood, is used in homes for heating and
.cooking

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Many manufacturing plants in the wood and paper products industry use
wood waste to produce their own steam and electricity. This saves these
companies money because they don't have to dispose of their waste
.products and they don't have to buy as much electricity

Energy from Garbage

Garbage, often called municipal solid waste (MSW), is the source of
about 10% of the total biomass energy consumed in the United States.
MSW contains biomass (or biogenic) materials like paper, cardboard,
food scraps, grass clippings, leaves, wood, and leather products, and other
non-biomass combustible materials, mainly plastics and other synthetic
materials made from petroleum.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Since 1985, recycling and composting programs in the United States have
reduced the share of biogenic material in MSW that is land filled or

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

burned, while the share of non-biogenic content has increased. About

60% of the MSW (by weight) that is now land filled or burned is
biogenic. The biogenic material contributes about 55% of the energy
when MSW is burned in waste-to-energy facilities. Decomposing
biomass in MSW landfills produces methane, which is captured and used
to generate electricity at many large landfills.
Americans produce more and more waste each year. In 1960, the average
American threw away 2.7 pounds of trash a day. Today, each American
throws away about 4.5 pounds of trash every day. What are we going to
do with all our trash? One solution is to burn it. (Burning is sometimes
called combustion.) Organic waste is waste that is made from plant or
animal products. All organic waste contains energy. People have burned
one type of organic material wood for hundreds of thousands of
years. Ancient peoples burned wood to keep themselves warm and to
cook their food.

Waste-to-Energy Plants Make Steam and Electricity

Today, we can burn garbage in special waste-to-energy plants and use its
heat energy to make steam to heat buildings or to generate electricity.
There are about 90 waste-to-energy plants in the United States. These
plants generate enough electricity to supply almost 3 million households.

Waste-to-Energy Plants Also Dispose of Waste

But providing electricity is not the major advantage of waste-to-energy
plants. It actually costs more to generate electricity at a waste-to-energy
plant than it does at a coal, nuclear, or hydropower plant.
The major advantage of burning waste is that it reduces the amount of
garbage we bury in landfills. Waste-to-energy plants dispose of the waste
of 40 million people.
The average American produces more than 1,600 pounds of waste a year.
If all this waste were land filled, it would take more than two cubic yards
of landfill space. That's the volume of box 3 feet long, 3 feet wide and 6
feet high. If that waste were burned, the ash residue would fit into a box 3
feet long, 3 feet wide, but only 9 inches high.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Solid Waste Incinerators Simply Dispose of Waste

There also are solid waste incinerators that simply burn trash. They don't
use the heat energy to make steam or electricity.
Between waste-to-energy plants and solid waste incinerators, the United
States burns 14% of its solid waste.

Collecting Gas from Landfills

Landfills can be a source of energy. Organic waste produces a gas called
.methane as it decomposes, or rots
Methane is the same energy-rich gas that is in natural gas, the fuel sold by
natural gas utility companies. It is colorless and odorless. Natural gas
utilities add an odorant (bad smell) so people can detect seeping gas, but
it can be dangerous to people or the environment. New rules require
.landfills to collect methane gas as a pollution and safety measure

Some landfills simply burn the methane gas in a controlled way to get rid
of it. But the methane can also be used as an energy source. Landfills can
collect the methane gas, treat it, and then sell it as a commercial fuel. It
.can then be burned to generate steam and electricity

Landfill Gas Energy Projects

Today, there are almost 400 operating landfill gas energy projects in the
United States. California has the most landfill gas energy projects in
.operation (73), followed by Illinois (36), and Michigan (27)
Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Using Animal Waste

Some farmers collect biogas from tanks called "digesters" where they put
all of the manure, dirt, and waste from their barns. A biogas digester can
convert animal waste into useable energy. On some dairy farms, the muck
from inside the barn is collected and put into a large digester, or tank.
Inside the digester, methane gas is separated from the liquid and solid
waste. The methane gas can then be used to generate electricity to light a
.barn, or to sell to the electric power grid

Each Form of Biomass Has a Different Impact

Biomass pollutes the air when it is burned, but not as much as fossil fuels
do. Burning biomass fuels does not produce pollutants such as sulfur that
can cause acid rain. When burned, biomass releases carbon dioxide, a
.greenhouse gas

But when biomass crops are grown, a nearly equivalent amount of carbon
.dioxide is captured through photosynthesis
Each of the different forms and uses of biomass impact the environment
.in a different way

Burning Wood
Because the smoke from burning wood contains pollutants like carbon
monoxide and particulate matter, some areas of the country won't allow
the use of wood-burning fireplaces or stoves on high pollution days. A
special clean-burning technology can be added to wood-burning
fireplaces and stoves so that they can be used even on days with the worst
.pollution

Burning Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) or Wood Waste

Burning municipal solid waste (MSW, or garbage) and wood waste to
produce energy means that less of it has to get buried in landfills. Like
coal plants, waste-to-energy plants produce air pollution when the fuel is
burned to produce steam or electricity. Burning garbage releases the
chemicals and substances found in the waste. Some of these chemicals
can be dangerous to people, the environment, or both, if they are not
.properly controlled

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Plants that burn waste to make electricity must use technology to prevent
harmful gases and particles from coming out of their smoke stacks. The
particles that are filtered out are added to the ash that is removed from the
bottom of the furnace. Because the ash may contain harmful chemicals
.and metals, it must be disposed of carefully

Controlling Air Emissions

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) applies strict environmental
rules to waste-to-energy plants. The EPA requires waste-to-energy plants
to use anti-pollution devices, including scrubbers, fabric filters, and
.electrostatic precipitators
The EPA wants to ensure that harmful gases and particles don't go out the
smokestack into the air. Scrubbers clean chemical gas emissions by
spraying a liquid into the gas stream to neutralize the acids. Fabric filters
and electrostatic precipitators remove particles from the emissions. The
particles are then mixed with the ash that is removed from the bottom of
.the waste-to-energy plant's furnace when it is cleaned
A waste-to-energy furnace burns at such high temperatures (1,800 to
2,000F) that many complex chemicals naturally break down into
simpler, less harmful compounds. This chemical change is a kind of built.in anti-pollution device

Disposing of Ash
Another challenge is the disposal of the ash after combustion. Ash can
contain high concentrations of various metals that were present in the
original waste. Textile dyes, printing inks, and ceramics, for example,
.contain the metals lead and cadmium
Separating waste before combustion can solve part of the problem.
Because batteries are the largest source of lead and cadmium in the solid
.waste stream, they should be taken out of the mix and not burned
The EPA tests ash from waste-to-energy plants to make sure it's not
hazardous. The test looks for chemicals and metals that would
contaminate ground water by trickling through a landfill. Ash that is safe
.can be reused for many applications
About one-third of all the ash produced is used in landfills as a daily or
final cover layer, to build roads, to make cement blocks, and even to
.make artificial reefs for marine animals
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Collecting Landfill Gas or Biogas

Biogas is a gas composed mainly of methane and carbon dioxide that
forms as a result of biological processes in sewage treatment plants, waste
landfills, and livestock manure management systems. Methane is one of
the greenhouse gases associated with global climate change.1 Many of
these facilities capture and burn the biogas for heat or electricity
generation. Burning methane is actually beneficial because methane is a
stronger greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. The electricity generated
from biogas is considered "green power" in many states and may be used
.to meet state renewable portfolio standards (RPS)

Ethanol
Ethanol was one of the first fuels used in automobiles, and now nearly all
gasoline sold in the United States contains some ethanol. The Federal
government has set a renewable fuel standard (RFS) that mandates
increasing bio fuels use through 2022, most of which will probably be
ethanol. Ethanol and gasoline fuel mixtures burn cleaner and have higher
octane than pure gasoline, but have higher "evaporative emissions" from
fuel tanks and dispensing equipment. These evaporative emissions
contribute to the formation of harmful, ground-level ozone and smog.
Gasoline requires extra processing to reduce evaporative emissions before
it is blended with ethanol. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, forms when
ethanol burns, but growing plants like corn or sugarcane to make ethanol
may offset these carbon dioxide emissions because plants absorb carbon
.dioxide as they grow

Biodiesel
Biodiesel was the fuel used in the first diesel engines. Compared to
petroleum diesel, biodiesel combustion produces less sulfur oxides,
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and unburned and other
hydrocarbons, but more nitrogen oxide. Similar to ethanol, biodiesel use
may result in lower net-carbon dioxide emissions if the sources of
.biodiesel are oils made from plants, which absorb carbon dioxide

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Hydropower
Energy from Moving Water

Hydropower Generates Electricity

Hydropower is the renewable energy source that produces the most
electricity in the United States. It accounted for 6% of total U.S.
.electricity generation and 67% of generation from renewable in 2008

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Hydropower Relies on the Water Cycle

Understanding the water cycle is important to understanding hydropower.
:In the water cycle
.Solar energy heats water on the surface, causing it to evaporate
This water vapor condenses into clouds and falls back onto the surface as
.precipitation (rain, snow, etc.)
The water flows through rivers back into the oceans, where it can
.evaporate and begin the cycle over again

Mechanical Energy Is Harnessed from Moving Water

The amount of available energy in moving water is determined by its
flow or fall. Swiftly flowing water in a big river, like the Columbia River
that forms the border between Oregon and Washington, carries a great
deal of energy in its flow. Water descending rapidly from a very high
.point, like Niagara Falls in New York, also has lots of energy in its flow
In either instance, the water flows through a pipe, or penstock, then
pushes against and turns blades in a turbine to spin a generator to produce
electricity. In a run-of-the-river system, the force of the current applies
the needed pressure, while in a storage system, water is accumulated in
reservoirs created by dams, then released as needed to generate
.electricity

History of Hydropower
Hydropower is one of the oldest sources of energy. It was used thousands
of years ago to turn a paddle wheel for purposes such as grinding grain.
Our Nation's first industrial use of hydropower to generate electricity
occurred in 1880, when 16 brush-arc lamps were powered using a water
.turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory in Grand Rapids, Michigan
The first U.S. hydroelectric power plant opened on the Fox River near
.Appleton, Wisconsin, on September 30, 1882

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Because the source of hydroelectric power is water, hydroelectric power

plants must be located on a water source. Therefore, it wasn't until the
technology to transmit electricity over long distances was developed that
.hydropower became widely used

Most U.S. Hydropower Is in the West

Over half of U.S. hydroelectric capacity for electricity generation is
concentrated in three States: Washington, California, and Oregon.
Approximately 31% of the total U.S. hydropower is generated in
Washington, the location of the Nation's largest hydroelectric facility
.the Grand Coulee Dam
Most hydropower is produced at large facilities built by the Federal
Government, such as the Grand Coulee Dam. The West has most of the
largest dams, but there are numerous smaller facilities operating around
.the country

Most Dams Were Not Built for Power

Only a small percentage of all dams in the United States produce
electricity. Most dams were constructed solely to provide irrigation and
.flood control

Hydropower Is Nonpolluting, but Does Have Environmental

Impacts
Hydropower does not pollute the water or the air. However, hydropower
facilities can have large environmental impacts by changing the
environment and affecting land use, homes, and natural habitats in the
.dam area
Fish Ladder at the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River Separating Washington
and Oregon

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Most hydroelectric power plants have a dam and a reservoir. These

structures may obstruct fish migration and affect their populations.
Operating a hydroelectric power plant may also change the water
temperature and the river's flow. These changes may harm native plants
.and animals in the river and on land
Reservoirs may cover people's homes, important natural areas,
agricultural land, and archeological sites. So building dams can require
relocating people. Methane, a strong greenhouse gas, may also form in
.some reservoirs and be emitted to the atmosphere

Fish Ladders Help Salmon Reach Their Spawning Grounds

In the Columbia River, along the border of Oregon and Washington,
salmon must swim upstream to their spawning grounds to reproduce, but
the series of dams gets in their way. Different approaches to fixing this
problem have been used, including the construction of "fish ladders"
which help the salmon "step up" the dam to the spawning grounds
.upstream

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the
rotation of the Earth. Near shore, water levels can vary up to 40 feet due
.to tides
Tidal power is more predictable than wind energy and solar power. A
large enough tidal range 10 feet is needed to produce tidal energy
.economically

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Tidal Barrages
A simple generation system for tidal plants involves a dam, known as a
barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates (gates commonly used to control
water levels and flow rates) on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on
the incoming high tides and to empty through the turbine system on the
outgoing tide, also known as the ebb tide. There are two-way systems that
.generate electricity on both the incoming and outgoing tides
A potential disadvantage of tidal power is the effect a tidal station can
have on plants and animals in the estuaries. Tidal barrages can change the
tidal level in the basin and increase turbidity (the amount of matter in
.suspension in the water). They can also affect navigation and recreation
There are currently two commercial-sized barrages operating in the
world. One is located in La Rance, France; the other is in Annapolis
Royal, Nova Scotia, Canada. There is a third experimental 400 kW tidal
.barrage operating in Kislaya Guba, Russia

The United States has no tidal plants and only a few sites where tidal
energy could be produced economically. France, England, Canada, and
.Russia have much more potential to use this type of energy

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Tidal Fences
Tidal fences can also harness the energy of tides. A tidal fence has vertical
axis turbines mounted in a fence. All the water that passes is forced
through the turbines. Tidal fences can be used in areas such as channels
between two landmasses. Tidal fences are cheaper to install than tidal
barrages and have less impact on the environment than tidal barrages,
.although they can disrupt the movement of large marine animals
.A tidal fence is planned for the San Bernardino Strait in the Philippines

Tidal Turbines
Tidal turbines are basically wind turbines in the water that can be located
anywhere there is strong tidal flow. Because water is about 800 times
denser than air, tidal turbines have to be much sturdier than wind
turbines. Tidal turbines are heavier and more expensive to build but
.capture more energy

Waves Have Lots of Energy

The Pelamis Wave Power Device in Use in Portugal

Wave Energy Site
Energy Device

CETO Underwater Wave

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean.
There is tremendous energy in the ocean waves. It's estimated that the
total potential off the coast of the United States is 252 billion kilowatt
hours a year, about 7% of the United States' electricity consumption in
2008. The west coasts of the United States and Europe and the coasts of
.Japan and New Zealand are good sites for harnessing wave energy

Different Ways to Channel the Power of Waves

One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a
narrow channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be
.channeled into a catch basin or used directly to spin turbines
Many more ways to capture wave energy are currently under
development. Some of these devices being developed are placed
underwater, anchored to the ocean floor, while others ride on top of the
waves. The world's first commercial wave farm using one such
.technology opened in 2008 at the Aguadora Wave Park in Portugal

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion System

The energy from the sun heats the surface water of the ocean. In tropical
regions, the surface water can be much warmer than the deep water. This
temperature difference can be used to produce electricity. The Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system must have a large
temperature difference of at least 77F to operate, limiting its use to
.tropical regions
Hawaii has experimented with OTEC since the 1970s. There is no largescale operation of OTEC today, mainly because there are many
challenges. The OTEC systems are not very energy efficient. Pumping
.water is a major engineering challenge
Electricity generated by the system must be transported to land. It will
probably be 10 to 20 years before the technology is available to produce
.and transmit electricity economically from OTEC systems
EIA does not forecast the commercialization of OTEC systems in its most
recent Annual Energy Outlook (March 2009). However, the U.S.
Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy is currently funding research and development on OTEC cold
water pipe manufacturing techniques to help create a more cost-effective
.OTEC system
.

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat

Super visior:Prof.DR. Osama Ezzat