BRCM COLLEGE COMPUTER CENTRE:

Notes for fybba:

Note: sentences within // ------// are just for general knowledge.
Computer languages:
Computer languages can be divided into two groups:
high-level languages
low-level languages.
High-level languages are designed to be easier to use, more abstract, and more portable
than low-level languages.
Syntactically correct programs in some languages are then compiled to low-level
language and executed by the computer. Most modern software is written in a high-level
language, compiled into object code, and then translated into machine instructions.

Block Diagram of Computer :

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly
complicated problems quickly and accurately.
Input Unit:
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore
we need to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of
one or more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device.
Other commonly used input devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc.
All the input devices perform the following functions.
Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.

 Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
Storage Unit:
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the
input unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before
these are sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various
storage devices of a computer system are divided into two categories.
1. Primary Storage:
Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the program being
currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the
intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in
nature. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data
permanently, the data has to be transferred to the secondary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore
most
computers
have
limited
primary
storage
capacity.
2. Secondary Storage:
Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs, documents, data
bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the primary
memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in
the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary
memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD,
etc.,
Memory Size:
All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0s and 1s. Each character or a number
is represented by an 8 bit code.
The set of 8 bits is called a byte.
A character occupies 1 byte space.
A numeric occupies 2 byte space.
Byte is the space occupied in the memory.
The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabyte). One
KB is equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1000KB. The size of the primary
storage in a typical PC usually starts at 16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 128 MB,
256MB memory are quite common.
Output Unit:
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output
devices. Other commonly used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and
magnetic tape drive.
Arithmetic Logical Unit:
All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It
also does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as

addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations viz, >, <, =,
etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage
unit to ALU once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage unit
by the control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.
Control
Unit:
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where
to store the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and
instructions from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the
ALU to the storage unit. The control unit is generally referred as the central nervous
system of the computer that control and synchronizes its working.

Internal parts of CPU:

Central Processing Unit:
The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
It performs all calculations.
It takes all decisions.
It controls all units of the computer.
A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron, Pentium,
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and AMD etc.
The CPU has two main parts.
1. The Control Unit.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit.
The parts of the CPU are usually connected by an electronic component referred to as a
Bus, which acts as an electronic highway between them. The CPU has special purpose
storage devices called registers, helps in storing data and instructions.
1. Control Unit:
It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of the computer system activities. It
does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other parts of the computer system what to
do. It determines the movement of electronic signals between the main memory and
arithmetic logic unit as well as the control signals between the CPU and input/output
devices.
2. Arithmetic logic Unit:
ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical functions i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and certain comparisons. These comparisons include greater than,
less than, equals to etc. The ALU controls the speed of calculations.
3. Registers:
It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU. Registers quickly, accept, store
and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately (main memory hold
data that will be used shortly, secondary storage holds data that will be used later). To
execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it from main memory and

places it onto a register. The typical operations that take place in the processing of
instruction are part of the instruction cycle or execution cycle. The instruction cycle
refers to the retrieval of the instruction from main memory and its subsequence at
decoding. The process of alerting the circuits in CPU to perform the specified operation.
The time it takes to go through the instruction cycle is referred to as I-time.
4. Bus:
The term Bus refers to an electrical pathway through which bits are transmitted between
the various computer components. Depending on the design of the system, several types
of buses may be present. The most important one is the data bus, which carries the data
through out the central processing unit. The wider the data bus, the more data it can carry
at one time and thus the greater the processing speed of the computer.
Ex: Intel 8088 processor uses a data bus of 8 bits wide. Some super computers contain
buses that are 128 bits wide.

What is RAM?
The main memory of the computer is called as Random Access Memory (RAM). The
name derives from the fact that data can be stored in and retrieved at random, from
anywhere in the electronic main memory chips in approximately the same amount of
time, no matter where the data is.
Main memory is in an electronic or volatile state. When the computer is off, main
memory is empty, when it is on it is capable of receiving and holding a copy of the
software instructions, and data necessary for processing.
Because the main memory is a volatile form of storage that depends on electric power
can go off during processing, users save their work frequently on to non volatile
secondary storage devices such as diskettes or hard disk.
The main memory is used for the following purposes:
1. Storage of the copy of the main software program that controls the general
operation of the computer. This copy is loaded on to the main memory when the
computer is turned on, and it stays there as long as the computer is on.
2. Temporary storage of a copy of application program instruction, to be received by
CPU for interpretation and processing or execution.
3. Temporary storage of data that has been input from the key board, until
instructions call for the data to be transferred in to CPU for processing.
4. Temporary storage of data, which is required for further processing or transferred
as output to output devices such as screen, a printer, a disk storage device.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM:
ROM (Read only memory)
1. You can only read the data.

1. Data cant be written every time, to write the data we need PROM, EPROM, OR
EEPROM.
2. ROM is non volatile in nature. The data stored in ROM is permanent in nature.
3. Size of the ROM has nothing to do with processing.
RAM (Random access memory):
1. You can read and write data on the chip.
2. RAM has volatile memory. It looses its contents when the power is switched off.
3. Size of the RAM makes difference in the processing i.e., bigger the size of the
RAM more is the speed of processing.
4. The data can be read and written at anytime.
What is ROM?
Instructions which are critical to the operation of a computer are stored permanently on
Read only Memory. (ROM) chip installed by the manufacturer inside the computer.
This ROM chip is also called firm ware, retains instructions in a permanently accessible
nonvolatile form. When the power in the computer is turned off, the instructions stored
in ROM are not lost.
It is necessary and also convenient to have instructions stored in ROM.
The more instructions in ROM, the fewer diskettes you may have to handle.
//Until recently the process of manufacturing ROM chips and recording data on them was
more expensive than the process of producing RAM chips. As a result the manufacturers
tended to record in ROM only those instructions that were crucial to the operation of the
computer.
Today, due to improvements in the manufacturing process of ROM chips have lowered
the cost to the point where manufacturers are beginning to include additional software
instructions.//
ROM, three additional categories of non volatile memory are used in some computer
systems.
They are PROMs, EPROM, and EEPROM. PROM stands for programmable read only
memory.
It works similar to that of ROM. PROM chips are custom made for the user by the
manufacturer. The user determines what data and instructions are to be recorded on them.
The data on PROM is permanent and cannot be erased.
Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM), developed as an
improvement over PROM. The data on the EPROM can be read with the help of a
special device that uses ultra violet light. The data or instructions on the EPROM are
erasable and new data can be entered in its place. EPROM functions exactly same as
PROM.
Electronically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) avoids the
inconvenience of having to take chips out of the computer to change data and
instructions. Changes can be made electrically under software control. These are used in
point of sale terminals to records price related data for products. The prices recorded on

them can be easily updated as needed. The only disadvantage of EEPROM is, the regular
ROM

What is operating system?

The operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It is a collection of programs that coordinates the operations of computer
hardware and software.
Functions of an operating system:
1. Starting the Computer:
When the computer is turned on, it automatically begins to execute the boot program.
The BIOS and the diagnostic routines are contained in ROM. They are permanently
available to other programs to check equipment and perform input/output tasks. ROM
contains a bootstrap loader program that is used to start a computer.
The remainder of the operating system is contained in secondary memory.. This program
first runs diagnostic programs to check the status of RAM and of each of the attached
system devices.
The boot program then reads in the operating system executive program from the disk.
The layout of the memory at this stage is shown in figure.

2. Running application programs:

 To run an application programs such as word processing program, the user types the
name of the program after getting the Dos prompt on the screen.
Ex C:\>WS.
The operating system accepts the command WS and reads the program into RAM. When
the application program is in RAM, the operating system executive program gives control
of the computer system to the applications programs. The computer then executes the
application program. When the application program ends, control is restored to the
operating system executive program, which monitors the keyboard for the users next
command.
When the application program is running the operating system manages the allocation of
memory. When a user requests that a program be run, the operating system allocates the
memory required for the program instructions and for data.
3. Running utility programs:
An operating system includes utility programs that give the user control over various
features of the computer system. The utility programs are either residient or transient.
Residient programs are always present in RAM; transient program must be read into
RAM, as they are requested.
Ex. CON: name of the keyboard, or console.
PRN: name of the printer.
Disk Copy A: B: (copies the contents of the disk in drive A, onto the disk on drive B)
4. Managing files:
Information on the disk is organized into files. A file is collection of Bytes.

What is utility software?

Utility software consists of programs which are frequently used to carry out routine jobs
like sorting, merging, and core dump/list, programmed debugging etc, and are normally
provided by the manufactures to make the machine work gainfully.
Certain jobs are performed by every computer and it is a tedious task to write separately
for each installation and there will be enormous waste of programmers time. Software
houses recognized this problem and have produces, wide range of programs to perform
these routine jobs, with sufficient inbuilt flexibility to handle all user requirements.
Utility programs are general in nature. Parameters can be used to make them specific to a
particular application.
The main types of utility software available are:
1. File conversion: Transferring file data from one medium to another.
2. File copying: Copying records, files, related files from one storage medium to
another storage medium.

1. at periodic intervals and of something goes wrong the application program can be
restarted at the last check point.
2. File organization: when a disc file becomes too unwieldy to use, for instance if
the over flow areas are almost full, it has to be reorganized in to its original
format.
3. File maintenance: Enables the user to create, delete and rename records, amend
standing data etc.
4. Debugging: Provides for outline program testing and error correction during
program development.
5. Sorting/Merging: Enables records to be reorganized into desired key field
sequence. The parameters of a sort program which are to be supplied for each
application are:

The key field size and position.

Number and size of records.
Number of tape or disc units available for the sort.
The desired key field sequence.

The sort is carried out by sorting small groups of records into the desired sequence in
main storage and writing each group on to backing storage, and then merging the strings
in to larger ones in main storage, and so on, until the file is stored.

What is File organization:

File organization refers to the relationship of the key of the record to the physical location
of that record in the computer file.
File organization may be either physical file or a logical file. A physical file is a physical
unit, such as magnetic tape or a disk.
A logical file on the other hand is a complete set of records for a specific application or
purpose.
A logical file may occupy a part of physical file or may extend over more than one
physical file.
The objectives of computer based file organization:
Ease of file creation and maintenance
Efficient means of storing and retrieving information.
The various file organization methods are:
Sequential access.
Direct or random access.
Index sequential access.

The selection of a particular method depends on:

Type of application.
Method of processing.
Size of the file.
File inquiry capabilities.
File volatility.
The response time.

1. Sequential access method: Here the records are arranged in the ascending or
descending order or chronological order of a key field which may be numeric or both.
Since the records are ordered by a key field, there is no storage location identification. It
is used in applications like payroll management where the file is to be processed in
entirety, i.e. each record is processed. Here, to have an access to a particular record, each
record must be examined until we get the desired record.
Sequential files are normally created and stored on magnetic tape using batch processing
method.
Advantages:

Simple to understand.
Easy to maintain and organize
Loading a record requires only the record key.
Relatively inexpensive I/O media and devices can be used.
Easy to reconstruct the files.
The proportion of file records to be processed is high.

Disadvantages:
Entire file must be processed, to get specific information.
Very low activity rate stored.
Transactions must be stored and placed in sequence prior to processing.
Data redundancy is high, as same data can be stored at different places with different
keys.
Impossible to handle random enquiries.
2. Direct access files organization: (Random or relative organization). Files in his type
are stored in direct access storage devices such as magnetic disk, using an identifying
key. The identifying key relates to tits actual storage position in the file. The computer
can directly locate the key to find the desired record without having to search through any
other record first. Here the records are stored randomly, hence the name random file. It
uses online system where the response and updation are fast.
Advantages:

Records can be immediately accessed for updation.

Several files can be simultaneously updated during transaction processing.
Transaction need not be sorted.
Existing records can be amended or modified.
Very easy to handle random enquiries.
Most suitable for interactive online applications.
Disadvantages:
Data may be accidentally erased or over written unless special precautions are taken.
Risk of loss of accuracy and breach of security. Special backup and reconstruction
procedures must be established.
Les efficient use of storage space.
Expensive hardware and software are required.
High complexity in programming.
File updation is more difficult when compared to that of sequential method.
3. Indexed sequential access organization: Here the records are stored sequentially on a
direct access device i.e. magnetic disk and the data is accessible randomly and
sequentially. It covers the positive aspects of both sequential and direct access files.
The type of file organization is suitable for both batch processing and online processing.
Here, the records are organized in sequence foe efficient processing of large batch jobs
but an index is also used to speed up access to the records.
Indexing permit access to selected records without searching the entire file.
Advantages:
Permits efficient and economic use of sequential processing technique when the
activity rate is high.
Permits quick access to records, in a relatively efficient way when this activity is a
fraction of the work load.
Disadvantages:
Slow retrieval, when compared to other methods.
Does not use the storage space efficiently.
Hardware and software used are relatively expensive.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of computerization of business

activities (electronic data processing)?

The main advantages of computerizing the activities of business organization are as

follows:
Advantages:
1. Speed: Computerisation helps in processing the data placed in several data files in
no time. This is possible due to the high speed of computers for processing data
and CPU of the computer works at the speed of electricity which is the highest
ever attainable speed.
2. Accuracy: The data processed by the computer are highly accurate. The programs
written on the system checks and controls data before and during processing. It
detects invalid data and ensures high degree of accuracy and reliability of output
reports.
3. Flexibility: The modern digital computers can be used for a variety of purposes.
E.g. online processing, multiprogramming etc.
4. Choice of Configuration: Wide ranges of peripherals are available for many
computer systems, which allow business organization to select those which most
suit its processing requirements.
5. Storage capacity: Large volumes of data can be conveniently stored, accessed and
altered.
6. Management information: They can be used to provide useful information of
management for control and decision making.
7. Data Processing: Computer has lifted the heavy data processing constraint with
the manual system and has opened up new avenues for planning, control and data
experimentation.
8. Volume: Computers can store volumes of data and can retrieve the desired
information quickly. This is very useful in the areas like insurance, bank accounts
etc where large number of documents is handled every day.
9. Database: Computer facilities the establishment of database. Such a database
integrates data records and reduces data redundancy.
10. Reduction in paper work: The use of computers for data processing has helped the
management of business organizations to cope with increasing problem of paper
handling. The computers have speeded up the process and have eliminated the
paper needs through the storage of data in elaborately constructed data bases and
files.
11. Reduced cost: Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, but
it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction. Cost reduction occurs
due to processing of huge data and record keeping.
12. Facilitates report preparation: Computer facilitates the preparation of various
types of reports required by organizational executives for the purpose of decision
making and control.
13. Reduce the space requirements: The use of computer for office activities reduces
the requirements of office space which otherwise is required.
14. Reduces the manpower requirement: The number of persons required for
performing various organizational activities will be reduced by using a computer
system.

1. Increased ability to perform computations: Computers perform computations with

a very high speed.
Diligence: Being a machine, it does not suffer from boredom, tiredness or lack of
concentration, even if millions of computations are to be performed by a
computer. It performs the calculations with same accuracy and speed.
Disadvantages:
1. Installing the computer requires a grueling and expensive task of system analysis
and design. There is a scarcity of computer professionals to do this.
2. Management tends to treat computer like ordinary equipment Viz., air
conditioning equipment, and keep themselves aloof from the system development
effort. Computer pervades the working of the entire organization and unless
managements involve themselves fully during the system development effort and
the employees, the customers, the vendors etc. are willing to accept the
computerized system and its outputs the system is bound to prove a failure.
3. The initial investment can be very high though this can be mitigated to some
extent by the rental and tax concessions.
4. Since the lead-time of installing is long and the hardware technology is a rapidly
advancing field, some of the peripherals/components may be rendered obsolete
before even they are installed.
5. The need to obtain stand by facilities in the event of breakdown of any
computerized systems. Manual systems, though slow, are vastly flexible. If the
format of a report, for example has to be changed, it can be readily done by
communicating the necessary instruction to the concerned staff whereas in a
computerized system, this would have to go through all the stages of systems
analysis and design before it is effected.
How do you classify the various Computers?
Computers can be classified into two categories on the basis of the type of data they are
designed to process.
Data may be obtained either as a result of counting, in which case it is called as discrete
data or by using some continuous signal measuring instruments, in which case it is called
continuous data.
The classification of computers on the basis of type of data is as follows:
1. Digital Computers:
These computers operate on discrete data and are commonly used in business
applications. Digital computers can be further classified into general purpose and special
purpose computers.
General purpose Computers: A general purpose computer is one that can be used for a
variety of applications. Its versatility enables execution of programs of almost any time.
These are used in business applications.
Special Purpose Computers: These are designed to perform a specific task. Such
computers lack versatility. They perform the task for which they are designed very
efficiently. E.g. Air craft control system, missile guidance system etc.

2. Analog Computers:
This type of computers work on continuous data measured along a continuous scale. E.g.,
a speedometer is a mechanical device that works on a continuous data. Analog computers
are used in process control systems which monitor pressure, temperature etc.
3. Hybrid Computers:
This type of computers combines the properties of both analog and digital computers. A
typical example is found in medicine where analog properties are sued to record the
patients data, while digital properties help in the analysis of the data as well as in
monitoring the patients health.
Computers are also classified on the basis of their physical size, memory and processing
speeds.
Five of these categories are described below:
1. Micro computers:
These are based on the use of micro processors. A microprocessor is a programmable
large scale integrated circuit chip containing all the elements required to process binary
encoded data. A micro computer performs all arithmetic and logical functions of a
computer. They are also referred as personal computers.
2. Mini Computer:
These systems are more powerful than micro computers and are also more expensive.
The word length is generally 16 bits or more. The processing speed of a computer is often
measured in terms of MIPS-Millions of Instructions per Second.
3. Super mini computers:
These are faster than mini computers. The word length is generally 32 bits and
processing speed is more than 1.5 MIPS. These systems have efficient time sharing
operating systems with multiprogramming features.
4. Mainframe computers:
These are machines with word length of 32 bits or more. The processing speed is of the
order of 10 MIPS. These computers support a large main memory. In the time sharing
mode, due to fast processing speed, they can support hundreds of terminals. Memory size
may be 10Mb to 128 Mb.
5. Super Computers:
They are the fastest computers and can be used to solve a wide range of large scale
problems which require extensive numeric computations like complex molecular
structural analysis, weather forecasting etc. The processing speeds are of the order of 100
MIPS. These machines have word lengths of 64 bits or more. These computers have a
very large memory, ranging from 8 Mb to 10 gigabytes.
What is system software and application software?
Software is a set of instructions, programs which enable the computer to perform
specified task. In other words, software is nothing but binary code instructions which
control the hardware.
//In most of the organizations the computer is a valuable resource. Among the resources
that a computer has are processing time, storage space, printers, terminals and
information. The management of these resources is performed largely by a type of system

software called an operating system. When users interact with the computer the
interaction is with system software.
There are two broad categories of software, system software and application software.
System software is a set of programs that manage the resources of a computer system, so
that they are used in an optimal fashion, provide routine services such as copying data
from one file to another and assist in the development of applications programs.//
System software consists of programs that assist the computer in the efficient control,
support, development and execution of application programs. Application software on the
other hand, performs specific tasks for the computer user.
System software:
They can be broadly classified in to three types.
1. System control programs control the execution of programs, manage the storage
and processing resources of the computer and perform other management and
monitoring functions. Other examples are DBMS and communication monitors.
2. System support programs provide routine service functions to the other computer
programs and computer users. Ex. Libraries, utilities, job accounting etc.
3. System development programs assist in the creation of application programs.
System programs are developed and sold by both computer companies and
specialized software firms.
Application Software:
It is a program written for, or by, a user to perform a specific job. General purpose
application software such as electronic spreadsheet has a wide application. Specific
purpose application software, such as payroll and sales analysis is used only for the
application for which it is designed.
The system software controls the execution of the application software and provides other
support functions such as data storage.

What are low level languages? What are its features?

Computers can understand only binary system i.e., programs or instructions given in 0s
and 1s. Low level language based programs can be executed directly on the machine
without any additional software, as the programs are written in machine understandable
form.
Features of low level languages:
Low level languages use 0s and 1s to write a code, which computers can understand.
A simple task requires large number of instructions, hence not user friendly.

 The code is machine dependant. Hence a program written on one machine, will not
work on other machine.
They are highly efficient and speed as they are directly executed on the computer.
What are high level languages? What are its features?
A computer cannot work by itself. It has to be instructed to perform a task, using a
language which it can understand. A machine can understand only 0s and 1s. But it is
very difficult for the user to create instructions, or programs using 0s and 1s. In order to
make the process easy, scientists have developed a high level language, which uses
simple English for programming. The programs written in high level language are then
translated in to machine language or low level language by a compiler.
Features of high level language:
A high level language is very user friendly.
Enables programmer to write in simple English and mathematical notations.
The languages are machine independent. Hence they can be executed on different
machines.
All these programs require compilers to translate the program in to machine
understandable form, vice versa.
COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN are the some of the examples of high level languages.
Advantages:
Uses simple mathematical and lain expressions making it easy to learn them. They are
procedure oriented; hence they take less time to write.
Easy to test and correct errors.
Program in this language can be written without the knowledge of internal structure of
the computer.
High level language programs are machine independent. They can be written on any
computer and can be used on any computer.
Easy to make modifications in the program.
Disadvantages:
Programs written in high level languages are less efficient in the use of CPU and
facilities. As they are not in machine understandable form, the program is first converted
in to machine understandable form and then it is executed.
Runs slower due to the generality of statements and the fact that they are portable
between different machines provided a suitable compiler is available.
As the program is written in high level language, it needs a compiler to translate the
program in to machine understandable form and the compiler occupies enough of
memory space, and the memory space available to the program is reduced.

Examples of high level languages are:

BASIC (Beginners all purpose symbolic instruction code), COBOL (Common business
oriented language), PASCAL, FORTRON (Formula Translator), PL/I (Programming
Language), ALGOL.
What are assembly languages? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Assembly Languages are structurally similar to machine language and the programmer
uses symbolic names than numerical representation of operations. This reduces coding
time and the amount of information the programmer has to remember. They use
assembler to convert the program in to machine language (object program).
Assembly languages are also known as symbolic languages as they use symbols to
represent the arithmetic and logical operations. Instead of using machine code operation
numbers, the programmer can use mnemonics and symbolic operands which are very
easy to learn and remember.
The programs written in Assembly Languages are machine dependant. They are not
portable. There are many low level languages. They are machine dependant. For example
IBM Assembly language.
ICL System 4 user code.
Honey well Easy coder.
Advantages:
Programs written in machine language are replaced by mnemonics which are easier to
remember.
It is not required to keep track of memory locations.
Easy to make insertions and deletions.
Requires fewer instructions to accomplish the same result.
Disadvantages:
Programs written in such languages cannot be executed on small sized computers.
It takes lot of time to code or write the program, as it is more complex in nature.
Lack of portability of program between computers of different makes.
What are middle level languages? What are its features?
Low level languages are highly efficient and give you direct control of the operation but
they are not user friendly. It is not easy to read, write, remember whereas high level
languages are very user friendly, easy to read, write and remember but do not give you
direct control of the operation.
Middle level languages have the features of both low level and high level languages.
They are user friendly and are written in simple English. They are highly portable i.e.,
they are highly machine independent. They are highly efficient and allow you to have

direct control of each operation by using simple English. These languages are used in
scientific applications e.g. C language.
Hard disk is one of the storage devices, developed to store huge amount of data. The
introduction of high capacity hard disks for micro computer system solved two serious
problems related to the limited storage capacity of diskettes.
First, as a business begins to use micro computers extensively, the amount of software
acquired and data collected tends to grow substantially. As a result the number of
diskettes required, increases, dramatically second, the largest file that can be accessed at
one time is limited to the capacity of the main memory and the storage medium. A hard
disk can store huge amount of data in a most convenient way.
In hard disk system, data is stored in the same way as it is on diskettes. A series of tracks
are divided in to sectors when the disk is formatted. Hard disk is made out of a rigid
substance that is capable of storing a greater amount of data than the soft material used
for diskettes. The hard disk drives for the micro computer can be internal or external.

In a disk pack, the access mechanism can position itself to access data from each of the
200 cylinder is a set of all tracks with the same distance from the axis about which the
disk pack rotates. In this example there are 10 tracks in each cylinder.
The capacity of diskettes in wide use today ranges from 360KB to 144MB each.
Microsoft hard disk capacity ranges from 10MB to 1GB or higher. Hard disks larger
capacity allows the user to store larger files and larger programs than can be used with
diskettes. Access time with the hard disk is much lower than that of diskette i.e., data
retrieval is much faster with the hard disk than a diskette.
Characteristics of a Hard disk:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

They are rigid metal platters connected to a central spindle.

The entire disk unit is placed in a permanently sealed container.
Air that flow through the container is filtered to prevent contamination.
The disks are rotated at a very high speed (usually around 3600 RPM)
These disk drives can have four or more disk platters in a sealed unit.

1. In most of the disk units, the read/ write head does not touch the surface of the
disk. Instead they are designed to float from 0.5 to 1.25 millionth of an inch from
the disk surface. (Flying head design). Because the heads float so close to the
sensitive disks, any contamination such as dust particle or hair, cause a head crash
or a disk crash, which destroys some or all the data on the disk. Therefore hard
disks are handled under sterile conditions.
2. Hard disk technology was introduced by IBM (1970) since then they have become
the most necessary memory hungry software.
Various data storage and retrieval methods
It deals with the storage and retrieval of data in computer usable form. The three principal
methods of storing and retrieving the data are
1. Sequential: Meaning that the records are stored and retrieved in a sequential
order.
2. Direct: Meaning that the records are not stored or retrieved in any special order.
3. Indexed sequential access method: Indexed sequential is a combination of the
preceding two methods where by, records are stored in sequential order but with
an index that allows both sequential and random retrieval.
Each of them is suited to different applications and processing requirements.
1. Sequential storage and retrieval: This method is suitable for situations in which
comprehensive reports are generated. The data is generated in the sequence in
which it was recorded on the storage media. The records must be accessed one
after the other. The user cannot jump from one record to another. It is not
accessible to the CPU until it has been loaded on to an input device. Punched
cards are the earliest types of storage media which are sequential access.
2. Direct access storage and retrieval: It is also called as random access, is best
suited to situations in which only few records directly in no particular order. The
most common approach is to use a unique element of data called a key field or
key contained in each record as a basis for identifying the record and for
determining which storage location on the disk the record should be stored in or
retrieved from.
3. Indexed sequential storage and retrieval: To access the data in either a sequential
or direct fashion, a third storage and retrieval methodology was developed.
Indexed sequential access method. It is used with direct access micro computer
storage devices to provide maximum flexibility for processing and has proved to
be the most flexible for business applications. In this approach, each file contains
an index of the records stored in it. This index is some what like the index at the
back of the book. When you want to look up something in the book, you check
the index for the item you want and locate the page number. In the case of on the
disk. The file can be indexed using any key field. Multiple indexes can be created
on the same file using one or more fields as primary key field.

Scanners have become an important part of the home office over the last few years.
Scanner technology is everywhere and used in many ways:

Flatbed scanners, also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and
commonly used scanners. In fact, this article will focus on the technology as it
relates to flatbed scanners.
Sheet-fed scanners are similar to flatbed scanners except the document is moved
and the scan head is immobile. A sheet-fed scanner looks a lot like a small
portable printer.
Handheld scanners use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but rely
on the user to move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner
typically does not provide good image quality. However, it can be useful for
quickly capturing text.
Drum scanners are used by the publishing industry to capture incredibly detailed
images. They use a technology called a photomultiplier tube (PMT). In PMT,
the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder. At the center of the
cylinder is a sensor that splits light bounced from the document into three beams.
Each beam is sent through a color filter into a photomultiplier tube where the light
is changed into an electrical signal.

The basic principle of a scanner is to analyze an image and process it in some way. Image
and text capture (optical character recognition or OCR) allow you to save information to
a file on your computer.
Major types of printer

Printers can be divided into two main groups, impact printer and non-impact printer.
Impact printer produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink
ribbon by physically contacting the paper. Non-impact printer produces text and graphics
on paper without actually striking the paper.
Printers can also be categorized based on the print method or print technology. The most
popular ones are inkjet printer, laser printer, dot-matrix printer and thermal
printer. Among these, only dot-matrix printer is impact printer and the others are nonimpact printers.
Some printers are named because they are designed for specific functions, such as photo
printers, portable printers and all-in-one / multifunction printers. Photo printers and
portable printers usually use inkjet print method whereas multifunction printers may use
inkjet or laser print method.
Inkjet printers and laser printers are the most popular printer types for home and business
use. Dot matrix printer was popular in 70s and 80s but has been gradually replaced by
inkjet printers for home use. However, they are still being used to print multi-part forms
and carbon copies for some businesses. The use of thermal printers is limited to ATM,

cash registers and point-of-sales terminals. Some label printers and portable printers also
use thermal printing.
Due to the popularity of digital camera, laptop and SoHo office (small office / home
office), the demand for photo printers, portable printers and multifunction printers has
also increased substantially in recent years.
Popular Printers:
Inkjet printers
Laser printers

Less Popular Printers:

Dot-matrix printers
Thermal printers

Specialty Printers:
Photo printers
Portable printers
Multifunction / all-in-one printers