Workbook

and Learning
Aid for
Complete
Air Brake
Systems
L20013

Rev. 4/04

A I R B R A K E S Y S T E M S T R A I N I N G M AT E R I A L S

www.hbsna.com

Inside Front Cover is Blank

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of an air brake system on heavy duty
vehicles is to convert air pressure to mechanical energy
to activate the foundation brakes. FMVSS-121 dictates
how this is to be done for over-the-road vehicles.
The purpose of this workbook is to help you gain an
understanding of how the complete air brake system
operates. This will be accomplished by learning the
function of each sub-system.
Included in this workbook are:

TRUCK SYSTEMS
Air Supply
Secondary Service
Primary Service
Parking
Anti-Compounding
Emergency (Prior to 3/1/98)
Emergency (After 3/1/98)
TRACTOR/TRAILER SYSTEMS
Tractor Parking & Trailer Air Supply
Trailer Control
Trailer - Full Function Valve
Trailer - FFABS
FOUNDATION BRAKES
NOTE:

The systems described within are merely

typical air brake systems.
-1-

-2-

TRUCK - AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM

-3GOVERNOR

LOW PRESSURE SWITCH

AUTOMATIC DRAIN VALVE

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

WET TANK (AIR RESERVOIR)

CONDENSER/SEPARATOR

AIR DRYER

COMPRESSOR

TRUCK - AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

-4-

TRUCK - SECONDARY SERVICE SYSTEM

-5AUTOMATIC BRAKE ADJUSTER

SERVICE CHAMBER

ABS IN-LINE VALVE (MODULATOR VALVE)

QUICK RELEASE VALVE

DUAL FOOT VALVE

AIR GAUGE

MANUAL DRAIN VALVE

PRESSURE CONTROLLED CHECK VALVE

SECONDARY SERVICE TANK (RESERVOIR)

ONE-WAY CHECK VALVE

TRUCK - SECONDARY SERVICE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

-6-

TRUCK - PRIMARY SERVICE SYSTEM

-7STOPLIGHT SWITCH

TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE

AUTOMATIC BRAKE ADJUSTER

SPRING BRAKES

ABS IN-LINE VALVE (MODULATOR VALVE)

SERVICE RELAY VALVE

DUAL FOOT VALVE

AIR GAUGE

MANUAL DRAIN VALVE

PRIMARY SERVICE TANK (RESERVOIR)

ONE-WAY CHECK VALVE

TRUCK - PRIMARY SERVICE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

-8-

TRUCK - PARKING SYSTEM

-9SPRING BRAKE

QUICK RELEASE VALVE

DASH VALVE (YELLOW DIAMOND KNOB)

TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE

TRUCK - PARKING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

-10 -

TRUCK - ANTI-COMPOUNDING SYSTEM

-11 -

Inlet or
Control 1

Delivery

Check
Valve
Disc.

Inlet or
Control 2

Delivery

Inlet

Delivery

Inlet

QUICK RELEASE WITH TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE

TRUCK - ANTI-COMPOUNDING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

- 12 -

TRUCK - EMERGENCY SYSTEM (Prior to March 1, 1998)

- 13 -

Supply
Port

Secondary
Control
Port

Delivery
To Spring
Brake

Exhaust
Check
Valve

Delivery Port

Primary
Reservoir
Supply

Primary Balance Port

Dash Valve
Supply

Control
Inlet

NEW INVERSION VALVE (AFTER MARCH 1, 1998)

OEM#N20950CA - AM#KN28032

INVERSION VALVE (PRIOR TO MARCH 1, 1998)

OEM#N20950AA - AM#KN28030

TRUCK - EMERGENCY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

- 14 -

TRUCK - EMERGENCY SYSTEM (Prior to March 1, 1998)

- 15 -

TRUCK - EMERGENCY SYSTEM (After March 1, 1998)

- 16 -

TRUCK - EMERGENCY SYSTEM COMPLETE (After March 1, 1998)

- 17 -

TRUCK - SELF-TEST (Prior to March 1, 1998)

- 18 -

TRUCK - SELF-TEST (After March 1, 1998)

NOTES

- 19 -

- 20 -

TRACTOR PARKING AND TRAILER AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM

- 21 -

(2 Line)

(3 Line)

TRAILER SUPPLY GLADHAND (RED)

(2 LINE) TRACTOR PROTECTION VALVE -- OR -(3 LINE) TRACTOR PROTECTION VALVE

QUICK RELEASE WITH TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE

MANIFOLD DASH CONTROL

(YELLOW DIAMOND KNOB & RED OCTAGON KNOB)

TRACTOR PARKING AND TRAILER AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

-22 -

TRACTOR - TRAILER CONTROL SYSTEM

-23 STOPLIGHT SWITCH

TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE

HAND CONTROL VALVE

TRACTOR - TRAILER CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

- 24 -

TRACTOR - AIR SYSTEM COMPLETE

- 25 -

TRACTOR - SELF-TEST

- 26 -

AXLE BY AXLE FFV

TWO TANK FFV

SINGLE AXLE FFV

JUMBO TANK FFV

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION VALVE SYSTEMS (PRIOR TO MARCH 1, 1998)

- 27 TRAILER SERVICE GLADHAND (BLUE)

SPRING BRAKE

JUMBO RESERVOIR

STANDARD RESERVOIR

FULL FUNCTION VALVE

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION VALVE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

- 28 -

AXLE BY AXLE FFV

TWO TANK FFV

SINGLE AXLE FFV

JUMBO TANK FFV

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION VALVE COMPLETE SYSTEMS

- 29 -

JUMBO TANK FFV

SINGLE AXLE FFV

TWO TANK FFV

AXLE BY AXLE FFV

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION VALVE SELF TEST

- 30 -

JUMBO TANK FFABS - SPRING SUSPENSION

SINGLE AXLE FFABS

TWO TANK FFABS - AIR SUSPENSION

AXLE BY AXLE - MOD II SYSTEM

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION ABS (AFTER MARCH 1, 1998)

- 31 TRAILER SERVICE GLADHAND WITH QUICK RELEASE

SPRING BRAKE

JUMBO RESERVOIR

STANDARD RESERVOIR

ABS RELAY VALVE

FULL FUNCTION ABS TRAILER VALVE

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION ABS SYSTEM COMPONENTS

- 32 -

JUMBO TANK FFABS - SPRING SUSPENSION

SINGLE AXLE FFABS

TWO TANK FFABS - AIR SUSPENSION

AXLE BY AXLE - MOD II SYSTEM

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION ABS COMPLETE SYSTEMS

- 33 -

JUMBO TANK FFABS - SPRING SUSPENSION

SINGLE AXLE FFABS

TWO TANK FFABS - AIR SUSPENSION

AXLE BY AXLE - MOD II SYSTEM

TRAILER - FULL FUNCTION ABS SELF TEST

Automatic Brake Adjuster Installation Instructions

AA1 Model - S-ABA Model
ABA - IDENTIFICATION
Two versions of brake adjusters are available from Haldex. The easiest way to identify each is by the shape of the cover plate
assembly, as shown below in Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1. AA1

Figure 2. S-ABA

The control arm of the AA1 Model

must be placed with the pointer in
the notch, for proper initial setup.
All AA1 Model setups must occur
with air chambers fully released.

The control arm on the S-ABA

Model can be located anywhere
within the range of the mounting
hardware. No installation pointer
is required with the S-ABA Model
due to the flexible positioning of
the control arm. All other S-ABA
Model installation procedures are
the same as the AA1 Model.

ABA - TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Figures 3 and 4 show typical brackets for automatic brake adjuster applications on trailer axle brake assemblies.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Integral cam support anchor bracket for

12 1/4 and 16 1/2 brakes.

Bolt-on cam support anchor bracket for 12 1/4 and 16 1/2 brakes. Slotted
adjustment plate is mounted to the S cam bushing. Plate for Rockwell/Meritor,
Dana and Fruehauf axle requires two bolts. Eaton requires one bolt (see inset).
Position plate on adjuster side of the S cam support. Added plate thickness
may require the use of longer mounting bolts. (Refer to torque chart included in
these instructions.)

-34 -

ABA - INSTALLATION INSTRUCTIONS

STEP 1.
Assure brake chamber
push rods are fully
retracted. Mount slotted
adjustment plate, if
needed, to cam support.
Apply anti-seize type
lubricant to camshaft
splines. Torque anchor
plate fasteners per torque
chart included in these
instructions.

STEP 3. Secure adjuster to shaft with

snap ring. Install enough washers (per
TMC recommended practice) to reduce
end play to less than .060.

STEP 4. Rotate the 7/16 hex

clockwise to move adjuster into
clevis. (Do not pull push rod out to
meet clevis).

STEP 2.
Place at least one inner cam
washer on shaft then install
adjuster with the 7/16
adjusting hex pointing away
from the air chamber.

STEP 5. Coat clevis pin with

anti-seize type lubricant and
install. Secure clevis pin with
cotter pin.

STEP 6A. With the S-ABA Model Brake Adjuster (shown in Figure 2), the control arm position can be set anywhere
within the slotted area of the bracket and the adjuster will function properly. Haldex recommends a common position for
all installations -- all the way towards the axle, until the control arm comes to the end of the slotted bracket. This common
position should help to avoid confusion for the end user.
STEP 6B. With the AA1 Model Brake Adjuster
(Figure 1), rotate the control arm away from
adjustment hex, toward the air chamber until it
comes to an internal stop. The Installation
Indicator must fall within the slotted area with
the brake fully released. The view of the
indicator varies from side to side. Haldex AA1
Trailer Adjusters are unhanded and are used
on both axle sides.

- 35 -

ABA - INSTALLATION INSTRUCTIONS (CONTD)

STEP 7.
Insert the flat end of the
anchor stud through the
control arm bushing. Push
the threaded end into the
anchor plate slot and
loosely install flange nut.

STEP 8. After positioning control

arm and anchor pin to desired
location, tighten the flange nut to
40-50 Ft. Lbs.

STEP 9.
Adjust
brakes by
rotating the
7/16
adjustment
hex clockwise until
the lining
just
contacts
the drum.

Note: S-ABA control arm position

is all the way toward the axle.
AA1 control arm position is such
that the installation indicator falls
within the control cover slot.
These common positions work
well for most applications.

Parts List
2
1
1
2
2
1

. . . .3/8 x 1 1/4 Long Bolt (Meritor)

. . . .5/16 x 1 Long Bolt (Fruehauf)
. . . .3/8 x 1 1/4 Long Bolt (Fruehauf)
. . . .1/4 x 1 1/4 Long Bolt (Dana)
. . . .1/4 Flat Washer (Dana)
. . . .1/4 x 1 1/4 Long Bolt (Eaton)

Torque Chart
STEP 10. Rotate adjustment hex counter clockwise
1/2 turn. A ratcheting sound will occur on backoff and
is normal. Re-check all fasteners for proper installation.
Note: Final push rod stroke may not be reached until
trailer is put into service and the brakes are burnished.

3/8 - 16 . . . . .20-25 Ft. Lb.

5/16 - 18 . . . . .10-15 Ft. Lb.
1/4 - 20 . . . . . .5-7 Ft. Lb.

- 36 -

Recommended Procedure For

Cutting Brake Chamber Push-Rod
(Service Brake Chamber or Double Diaphragm Spring Brake Chamber)
This procedure is applicable to
Haldex Automatic and All Manual Brake Adjusters

WARNING: Always chock wheels to prevent vehicle from

moving. Vent vehicle system air pressure to zero psi.

A. When preparing to install a spring brake chamber, ensure that the unit is fully released
(power spring caged) and the service brake push-rod is fully retracted to zero stroke
position. Thread the clevis jam nut onto the push-rod.
B. Place the brake chamber into the appropriate brake assembly bracket. Tighten the holding
nuts to the bracket studs (100 - 140 lb. ft.).
C. Measure the distance from the centerline of the S-Cam to the centerline of the push-rod
(See Figure 2 - Dimension A). This measurement should be equal to the length of the
brake adjuster being used (See Figure 3 - Dimension A).
Figure 1
NOTE: If Dimension A - Figure 2 and Dimension A Figure 3 are not identical, the chamber mounting bracket is
either bent and must be straightened or replaced, the chamber
has been mounted improperly in the bracket or the length of
the adjuster installed is incorrect. Make any necessary
corrections before going to Step D.

Figure 2
D. Measure and record the length of clevis to
be used. This measurement should be taken
from the center of the clevis pin hole, to the
bottom of the yoke assembly (See Figure 1).

E. Using a square, mark the push-rod at the 90o

setting (See Figure 2 - Mark #1). From
this mark, subtract the measurement recorded
in Step D and make a second mark on the
push-rod (moving toward the brake chamber
mounting surface). (See Figure 2 - Mark #2).

F. From Mark #2, measure toward the brake chamber

mounting surface the distance listed in Table 1 Column D (See Reverse Side) for the brake
chamber type being installed. Mark and cut the
push-rod.

- 37 -

Figure 3

BRAKE ADJUSTER

G. Install the clevis onto the push-rod and secure the jam nut (33 - 90 lb. ft.) Connect the
clevis to the brake adjuster using the clevis pin and cotter pins (See Figure 1).
Uncage the spring brake.
H. Release spring brakes and adjust the brake adjuster to the manufacturers
recommendation.
Important Note: Some automatic brake adjusters require a
slightly different rod length. Always refer to the original
manufacturers installation guidelines.

Table 1
Stroke Values
Column

Column

Column

Column

Chamber
Type

Available
Stroke

Maximum
Readjustable
Stroke

Set-Up
Stroke

09

1 3/4

1 3/8

1 3/8

12

1 3/4

1 3/8

1 3/8

16

2 1/4

1 3/4

1 3/8

20

2 1/4

1 3/4

1 3/8

20LS*

2 1/2

1 1/2

24

2 1/4

1 3/4

1 3/8

24LS*

2 1/2

1 1/2

24XLS**

2 1/2

1 3/4

30

2 1/2

1 1/2

30LS*

2 1/2

1 3/4

36

2 1/4

1 3/4

Long Stroke

** Extra-Long Stroke

DANGER A spring brake or combination

service/spring brake must be disarmed before
disposal, or forceful release of the compression
spring may occur in the future without warning.

- 38 -

Recommended Procedure For

Cutting Brake Chamber Push-Rod
(Service Brake Chamber or Double Diaphragm Spring Brake Chamber)
This procedure is applicable to
CSI Midland/Gunite and CSII Midland/Crewson Automatic Brake Adjusters

WARNING: Always chock wheels to prevent vehicle from

moving. Vent vehicle system air pressure to zero psi.

A. When preparing to install a spring brake chamber, ensure that the unit is fully released
(power spring caged) and the service brake push-rod is fully retracted to zero stroke
position. Thread the clevis jam nut onto the push-rod.
B. Place the brake chamber into the appropriate brake assembly bracket. Tighten the holding
nuts to the bracket studs (100 - 140 lb. ft.).
C. Measure the distance from the centerline of the S-Cam to the centerline of the push-rod
(See Figure 1 - Dimension A). This measurement should be equal to the length of the
brake adjuster being used (See Figure 2 - Dimension A).
NOTE: If Dimension A - Figure 1 and
Dimension A - Figure 2 are not identical,
the chamber mounting bracket is either bent
and must be straightened or replaced, the
chamber has been mounted improperly in the
bracket or the length of the adjuster installed
is incorrect. Make any necessary corrections
before going to Step D.
D. Using a square, mark the push-rod at the
90o setting (See Figure 1 - Mark #1).

Figure 1

Figure 2

E. From Mark #1 measure back toward the brake

chamber mounting surface in accordance with
Chart A (X Dimension), make a second
mark and cut the push-rod at Mark #2 - See
Figure 1).
F. Install the clevis onto the push-rod and secure
the jam nut. Connect the clevis to the brake
adjuster. Uncage the spring brake.
G. Release parking spring brakes and adjust the
brake adjuster to the shortest possible stroke
without the brakes dragging. Proper set-up
stroke should now be established.

BRAKE ADJUSTER

Chart A
Brake
Adjuster Length

X
Dimension

5 - 5 1/2
6 - 7

2 1/4
2 1/2

DANGER A spring brake or combination service/spring brake must be disarmed before disposal, or
forceful release of the compression spring may occur in the future without warning.

- 39 -

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAKES

All types of automotive brakes are
mechanical devices for retarding the
motion of a vehicle by means of friction,
and perhaps the most important requisite
in respect to the fundamentals of brakes
is an understanding of the laws of friction.

WEIGHT
100 LBS.

Heat is always present where friction is being

developed. For example, when a bearing is not
properly lubricated, the lack of lubrication causes
a rise in the coefficient of friction with a resultant
rise in the heat that causes the bearing to fail.

If Pull Required Is 60 Pounds

C.O.F. 60% or .6

WEIGHT

WEIGHT
100 LBS.

If Pull Required Is 50 Pounds

C.O.F. 50% or .5

WEIGHT
100 LBS.

If Pull Required Is 35 Pounds

C.O.F. 35% or .35

FIG. 1 Coefficient of Friction

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Friction is the resistance to relative motion
between any two bodies in contact, and it
varies not only with different materials but
also with the condition of the materials. The
amount of friction developed by any two
bodies in contract is said to be their
coefficient of friction, and this is expressed
by stating the amount of force required to
move the one body while it remains in
contact with the other; the amount of force
being expressed in relation to the weight of
the moving body.

ENERGY OF MOTION TO
HEAT ENERGY
Since friction is the resistance of relative motion
between two bodies in contact and since friction
results in heat, a more complete definition of a
brake would be that it is a mechanical device
for retarding the motion of a vehicle by means
of friction, thereby changing the energy of
motion into heat energy.
Thus, when the speed of a vehicle is reduced
by applying the brakes, the energy of motion
is actually changed into heat energy and the
brakes must dissipate or absorb the heat
developed.
100 HORSEPOWER

100 HORSEPOWER

STOPPED - TO 60 M.P.H. - IN ONE MINUTE

100 HORSEPOWER

100 HORSEPOWER

60 M.P.H. - TO STOPPED - IN LESS THAN SIX SECONDS

Thus, if the moving body weighs 100

pounds, and a force of 60 pounds is
required to keep it moving while it remains
in contact with another body, the coefficient
of friction between the two bodies is said to
be 60% or .6. If 50 pounds force is
necessary to keep on moving, the
coefficient of friction is said to be 50%
or .5. If only 35 pounds force is required,
the coefficient of friction is 35% or .35.

FIG. 2 Forces Involved In Braking

FORCES INVOLVED IN BRAKING
It is difficult to appreciate the tremendous forces
involved in stopping a modern commercial vehicle,
particularly from the higher speeds.
A simple method of explaining this is to make a
comparison between the horsepower required to
accelerate a vehicle and the horsepower required
to stop it. A truck with an engine capable of
developing 100 horsepower will require about one
minute to accelerate to 60 miles per hour. The
same vehicle should be capable of easily stopping
from 60 miles per hour in not more than six
seconds. Ignoring the unknown quantities, such as
rolling friction and wind resistance which play a part
in all stops, the brakes must develop the same
energy in six seconds; in other words, the brakes do
the same amount of work as the engine in one-tenth
the time and must develop approximately 1,000
horsepower during the stop.

The coefficient of friction between any two

surfaces changes with any variation in the
condition of one or both surfaces. As an
example, the introduction of oil and grease
between two dry, flat metal surfaces will
greatly reduce the friction between them,
which proves that the condition of these
surfaces plays a great part in the actual
friction they develop. This possible variation
in the coefficient of friction is always present
when any factor contributing to the frictional
value of any material is subject to change
either permanent or temporary.

- 40 -

Another way of illustrating the effect of speed on

stopping ability is to compare the stopping
distance if the speed is increased without the
stopping power also being increased.

IF WEIGHT IS DOUBLED

STOPPING POWER MUST BE DOUBLED

IF SPEED IS DOUBLED

STOPPING POWER MUST BE INCREASED 4 TIMES

IF WEIGHT AND SPEED ARE DOUBLED

STOPPING POWER MUST BE INCREASED 8 TIMES

FIG. 3 Effect of Weight and Speed on Brakes
EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON BRAKES
Another factor to be considered is the effect on
braking when the weight and speed of a vehicle are
increased. Brake systems are designed to properly
control a vehicle loaded to its gross vehicle weight
(GVW). If the GVW is exceeded, braking
performance is affected; if the weight of the vehicle
is doubled, the energy of motion to be changed into
heat energy is also doubled. The brake cannot
properly dissipate and absorb the increased heat
and braking performance of the vehicle is lessened.
EFFECT OF SPEED ON BRAKES
The effect of higher speeds on braking is much
more various. Not so many years ago the average
speed of a commercial vehicle was only 20 miles
per hour. Today, even conservative estimates
place the average speed of commercial vehicles
at 40 miles per hour. Comparing stops from a
speed of 20 miles per hour with stops from a
speed of 40 miles per hour, engineering
calculations show there is actually four times as
much energy of motion to be changed to heat
energy during a stop from 40 miles per hour as
there is during a stop from 20 miles per hour.
Thus, if the speed is doubled, four times as
much stopping power must be developed, and
the brakes must absorb or dissipate four times
as much heat.
It naturally follows that if both the weight and
speed of a vehicle are doubled, the stopping
power must be increased eight times and the
brakes must absorb or dissipate eight times as
much heat.
30 FT.
20 M.P.H.
120 FT.

As shown in Fig. 4, a vehicle which will just stop

in 30 feet from 20 miles per hour will require 120
feet to stop from 40 miles per hour and 270 feet
to stop from 60 miles per hour. Introducing both
weight and speed into the comparison again, a
10,000 pound vehicle traveling 60 miles per
hour has 18 times as much energy of motion as
a 5,000 pound vehicle traveling at 20 miles per
hour. If a stopping power is used on both
vehicles which will only stop the 5,000 pound
vehicle from 20 miles per hour in 30 feet, the
10,000 pound vehicle from 60 miles per hour
will require 18 times as much distance or 540
feet to stop.
1 FT.

3 FT.

2 FT.

200 LBS.
1 FT.

3 FT.

A
100 LBS.
100 LBS.

2 FT.

2 FT.

300 LBS.
300 LBS.
3 FT.
1 FT.
200 LBS.

FIG. 5 Leverage
LEVERAGE
Having reviewed the forces involved in braking a
vehicle, consideration must also be given to how
these forces are developed and directed to do
the braking work. It is difficult even to imagine a
braking system which does not, in some way,
make use of one of the oldest mechanical
devices governing the transmission and
modification of force and motion; the lever.
A lever is defined as an inflexible rod or beam
capable of motion about a fixed point called a
fulcrum. It is used to transmit and modify force
and motion.
Fig. 5 illustrates three simple types of levers; the
only difference in them being the location of the
fulcrum in relation to the applied force and the
delivered force. All shapes and sizes of levers
used in a brake system are one of these three
types.
The simple law of levers is that the applied force
multiplied by the perpendicular distance between
the line of force and the fulcrum always equals
the delivered force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance between the fulcrum
and the line of force. Thus, with a leverage

40 M.P.H.
270 FT.
60 M.P.H.
FIG. 4 Stopping Distances

- 41 -

arrangement as shown in view 5A, an applied

force of 100 pounds two feet from the fulcrum
will give a delivered force of 200 pounds at a
point one foot from the fulcrum. With a leverage
arrangement as shown in view 5B, an applied
force of 100 pounds three feet from the fulcrum
will lift 300 pounds at a point one foot from the
fulcrum.
Note that in both cases the delivered force
exceeds the applied force because the applied
force is farther from the fulcrum than the
delivered force. With a leverage arrangement
as shown in Fig. 5C, the delivered force is the
farthest from the fulcrum; therefore, it is less
than the applied force. If the applied force in this
case is 300 pounds at a point two feet from the
fulcrum, the delivered force at a point three feet
from the fulcrum will be 200 pounds.
The delivered force of any lever is determined by
multiplying the applied force by the distance it is
from the fulcrum and then dividing this answer by
the distance the delivered force is from the
fulcrum.
In determining the distance at which any force is
acting on a lever, the true length of the lever arm
is the perpendicular distance from the force to the
fulcrum, regardless of the shape of the lever. The
lever arm is always measured at right angles to
the direction of the force.
The product of the force acting on a lever,
multiplied by the distance the force is from the
fulcrum, is called the turning moment; when this
relates to a shaft it is called torque. The turning
moment or torque is usually expressed in inch
pounds, foot pounds, foot tons, etc., depending
upon whether the force is measured in pounds or
tons and whether the distance is measured in
inches or feet. As an example a force of 100
pounds acting on a lever arm five inches long
would result in a turning moment or torque of
500 inch pounds.
The most easily recognized lever in an air
system is the brake adjuster. The length of the
lever arm of a brake adjuster is always the
perpendicular distance between the center line
of the brake camshaft opening and the center
line of the clevis pin opening in the arm.
Another form of lever not always recognized
is the brake cam. All brake cams are levers and
are used to transmit and modify the torque and
turning motion of the brake camshaft in such a
way that the brake shoes are spread and forced
against the brake drum, not only in the proper
direction but also with the proper force.
Spreading the shoes in the proper direction, of
course, depends on the proper location of the
cam in respect to the location of the brake shoes.

- 42 -

The transmission of the proper force is partially

determined by the effective lever length of the
cam. If the effective lever length of the cam is not
considered and is too long or too short, the brake
shoe force will be correspondingly too little or too
much. Full consideration must therefore be given
to the effective lever length of any brake came, if
the final shoe pressure is to be correct. It is also
important that the effective lever length of the
cam remains constant as the lining wears and the
shoes have to be spread further; otherwise, the
brake performance will vary as the lining wears.
Another form of lever found in all forms of braking
systems is the brake shoe. This is one of the
simpler forms because it is easily recognized as
a beam, fulcrumed at one end on the hinge pin,
which forces the brake lining against the drum
when the brake cam force is applied to the other
end.
Perhaps the least easily recognized lever in a
brake system is the relation of the brake drum
diameter to the tire diameter. In order to
understand this fully you must remember that
although the brakes stop the brake drums and
wheels, it is always the tires and road surface
that stop the vehicle. This is clearly
demonstrated when quick stops are attempted
on wet or icy roads. Under these conditions the
brake equipment may still be as efficient as ever
in stopping the wheels, but its ability to stop the
vehicle quickly disappears because there is not
sufficient friction between the tire and road to
develop the necessary retarding force.
Returning to the principles of leverage involved
in the relation of the tire and brake drum size,
the retarding force developed by the brake shoes
acting against the drum is working on an effective
lever length of the brake drum radius.
Counteracting this is the retarding force
developed between the tire and the road,
working on an effective lever length of the rolling
radius of the tire. Since it is not practical to have
brake drums as large as the tires, the principles
of leverage require development of a greater
retarding force between the brake shoes and the
drums than between the tire and the road. Also,
since a rubber tire on a good road surface has a
higher coefficient of friction than brake lining
against a brake drum, it is necessary to develop
additional retarding force between the brake
shoes and brake drum in order to overcome the
difference in friction.
DECELERATION
In discussing brakes, the term deceleration is
often used. This term expresses the actual rate
at which a vehicle is losing speed and usually
denotes the speed being lost each second, in
terms of miles per hour or feet per second.

second, it will be traveling ten feet per second,

and at the end of the third second, it will be
stopped. Thus, by losing speed at the rate of
ten feet per second per second, it would lose its
initial speed of 30 feet per second per three
seconds.

BRAKES
APPLIED

1ST SECOND

SPEED

20 M.P.H.

2ND

18 M.P.H.
- 2 MILES

DECELERATION RATE

SPEED

30

FEET

PER SECOND

SECOND

20

FEET

PER SECOND

3RD

SECOND

16 M.P.H.

14 M.P.H.

Similarly, if the initial speed is 20 miles per hour

and the deceleration rate is two miles per hour
per second, the stopping time will be ten
seconds.

PER HOUR PER SECOND

10

FEET

PER SECOND

FEET

PER SECOND

FIG. 6 Deceleration
For example, as shown in FIG. 6, if a vehicle is moving
at the rate of 20 miles per hour, and one second later
its speed is only 18 miles per hour, the vehicle has lost
a speed of two miles per hour during one second. Its
speed has dropped two miles per hour in one second,
therefore, its deceleration rate is two miles per hour
per second.

One important thing to remember in respect

to stopping vehicles is the fact that while the
deceleration rate may be constant for each
second during the stop, the distance the
vehicle travels each second during the stop
varies greatly as the speed decreases. This
is illustrated in Fig. 7 which also shows a
vehicle decelerating at the rate of ten feet
per second per second from an initial speed
of 30 feet per second, but the positions of the
BRAKES

In the same way, if a vehicle is moving at a rate

of 30 feet per second, and one second later its
speed is only 20 feet per second, then it is
decelerating at the rate of ten feet per second
per second.
Therefore, the change in the rate of speed of a
vehicle during a slow-down or stop is expressed
by first stating the rate of speed being lost, such
as miles per hour or feet per second and then
by stating the time required for this rate of speed
to be lost.

APPLIED

1ST SECOND
25

SPEED

Thus, in examining the expression covering a

deceleration rate of say, ten feet per second per
second the first part ten feet per second is the
rate of speed being lost, and the second part per
second is the time in which the loss of ten feet per
second takes place.
If a vehicle is moving at a known rate and is
decelerating at a known rate, the stopping time will
be the initial speed divided by the deceleration rate,
provided both the rate of speed and the deceleration
rate are expressed on the same basis. As an
example if a vehicle is moving at the rate of 30
feet per second and is decelerating at the rate of ten
feet per second, the stopping time will be the initial
speed of 30 feet per second divided by the
deceleration rate of ten feet per second per second
or a stopping time of three seconds.
This perhaps can be more easily understood if
explained in the following manner; if a vehicle is
moving at the rate of 30 feet per second and begins
to decelerate at the rate of ten feet per second per
second, at the end of the first second it will be
traveling 20 feet per second; at the end of the second

- 43 -

30

FEET

PER SECOND

2ND

SECOND

15

FEET

20

FEET

PER SECOND

3RD
5

FEET

10

SECOND

FEET

FEET

STOPPED

PER SECOND

FIG. 7 Deceleration
vehicles are shown in relation to the distance
traveled each second during the stop. This
shows that although the rate of deceleration
remains constant throughout the stop, the
vehicle actually travels 25 feet during the first
second after the brakes were applied, 15 feet
during the second second and only 5 feet during
the third second.
The distance being traveled each second during
the stop is always greater at the beginning of
the stop. To keep stopping distance as short as
possible, it is important that the brakes become
fully effective when the pedal is depressed by
the driver.
Any time lost between the instant the brake
pedal is depressed and the instant actual
deceleration begins is important because the
vehicle continues to travel at close to its initial
speed. In this case, the loss of only one second
between the instant the driver depresses the
brake pedal and the point where the brakes are
really applied will result in lengthening the actual
stopping distance by 30 feet. Thus, if four

It is this part of brake fundamentals which is not often

considered in judging brake performance, particularly
when different forms of brakes are involved. A
common method of testing brakes is by the use of a
seconds instead of three elapse between the instant
the driver depresses the brake pedal and the instant
the vehicle stops, the actual stopping distance will be
increased from 45 feet to 75 feet. In other words, by
reducing the stopping time under these conditions by
only one second or 25%, the actual stopping
distance is reduced by 30 feet or 40%.
decelerometer a device that determines the
maximum rate of deceleration developed during a
stop and which shows a calculated stopping distance
from a speed of 20 miles per hour based on the
maximum rate of deceleration developed during a
stop. Such instruments do not, however, make
allowances for lost time before the braking system
develops full power and therefore are not suitable for
analyzing time lag factors in brake performance.
The true performance of any type of brake system in
terms of stopping time or stopping distance can only
be determined by actually measuring the time and
distance the vehicle travels from the instant the driver
depresses the brake pedal to the point where the
vehicle actually stops. Such tests can, of course, be
made comparative only by using instruments to
determine accurately the speed of the vehicle at the
instant the brake pedal is depressed.
In so far as brakes are concerned, a driver is mainly
interested in the amount of time and the distance
required to bring his vehicle safely to a stop under
emergency conditions as measured from the instant
he depresses the brake pedal. Any lag in the time
between the instant he does his part and the instant
the brakes become effective affects stopping
distance.

- 44 -

Brake Calculations
(Typical 20,000 lb. Rated Axle)
Coefficients: (2020 - .42 - 23,000)--(2015 - .34 - 21,000)--(2030 - .51 - 20,000)
Make

Year

Model

Load:Pass

Pay

Axle - Front or Rear: Empty Weight on Axle

Lbs. Load on Axle
Total Axle Load

% Load Transfer Lbs. Load Transfer

20,000 lbs.

Brake Drum Diameter

Long Arc. 8

16 1/2

7/8A; 9C

30

5 1/2

Axle Number

Thickness

4625A

21.4

3/4T

Diameter 8

3/32

.5

Cam B.C. Rad.

Effective Area

30

Rockwell

Make of Axle

CP (531)

Suggested Lining Type

Total Weight on Wheel X Rolling Radius (in.)

Drum Diameter2 (in.) X Brake Width (in.)

Timken
Bus. Max. 85
Truck Max. 110

10,000 X 21.4 = 214000

16.52 X 7 = 1905.7

GROSS WEIGHT:
LINING AREA,
RATIO

Rolling Radius

Lining Size: Width

FMSI No.

Brake Chamber Type

WORK FACTOR

11.00R24

Tire Size

Degrees of Segment

Lining Part No.

Brake Adjuster

% Load on Axle

= 112

Wheel Load (lbs.)

Lining Area (Per Wheel)

10,000
4 X 7 X 8.9375

- 45 -

10,000

250.25

= 40 lbs/in2

K FACTOR

Road-Tire Adhesion (.6) X Weight on Wheel

.6 X 10,000

= 6,000 lbs.

The Retarding Force Per Wheel

BRAKE FORCE
PER WHEEL

2 X Line Pressure X Chamber Area X Lever Length X Lining F X Drum Radius

Cam Base Circle X Tire Rolling Radius

2 X 60 X 30 X 5.5 X .393 X 8.25 = 64197
.5 X 21.4
DEC, FT/SEC.2

= 6,000 lbs.

10.7

32.16 X Retarding Force on Axle

Total Axle Load

32.16 X 6000 X 2
10000 X 2
REQUIRED
AL FACTOR

=
=

385920
20000

= 19.3 Ft./Sec.2

Tire Rolling Radius X .6 X Weight on Wheel X Cam Radius

Drum Radius X Lining Friction X 2 X Air Pressure

Westinghouse

21.4 X 6 X 10000 X .5 = 64200

8.25 X .393 X 2 X 60

REQUIRED
COEFFICIENT
OF FRICTION

389

= 165

Tire Rolling Radius X .6 X Weight on Wheel X Cam Radius

Drum Radius X Chamber Area X Lever Length X 2 X Air Pressure

21.4 X 6 X 10000 X .5

64200

8.25 X 30 X 5.5 X 2 X 60

= 163350

= .393

This brake calculation sheet is required only when there is some doubt as to whether brake
input is satisfactory. It is used to determine required brake input, lining coefficient of friction,
etc.
- 46 -

NOTES

- 47 -

NOTES

- 48 -

NOTES

- 49 -

NOTES

- 50 -

NOTES

- 51 -

NOTES

- 52 -

NOTES

- 53 -

NOTES

- 54 -

NOTES

- 55 -

NOTES

- 56 -

inside back cover is blank

Haldex (www.haldex.com), headquartered

in Stockholm, Sweden, is a provider of proprietary and innovative solutions to
the global vehicle industry, with focus on
products in vehicles that enhance safety,
environment and vehicle dynamics.
Haldex is listed on the Stockholm Stock
Exchange. Haldex has a yearly turnover of
close to 5.6 billion SEK and employs 4,300
people.

Disclaimer: The products described within

this literature, including without limitation,
product features, specifications, designs,
availability and pricing are subject to
change by Haldex and its subsidiaries at
any time without notice.
This document and other information from
Haldex, its subsidiaries and authorized distributors provide product and/or system
options for further investigation by users
having technical expertise. It is important
that you analyze all aspects of your application and review the information concerning
the product or system, in the current literature or catalog. Due to the variety of operating conditions and applications for these
products or systems, the user, through their
own analysis and testing, is solely responsible for making the final selection of the
products and systems and assuring that all
performance, safety and warning requirements are met.

2010, Haldex AB - This material may contain

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