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14
Marine Mammals
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
DESCRIBE the basic characteristics and behaviors of the cetaceans.
DISCUSS adaptations of pinnipeds and other marine mammals.
IDENTIFY unique diving response features of marine mammals.
14.1
Cetaceans: Whales
and Dolphins
14.2
Whale Adaptations
and Behaviors
14.3
Seals and Other
Marine Mammals
14.4
The Diving Response
330
According to the fossil record, about 50 million years ago some terrestrial mammals began to make the transition from a life on land to a
life in the sea. In the vastness of the ocean, these animals found new
sources of food and plenty of room. Over time, their bodies evolved
into forms that were more suitable for swimming and diving than for
walking on land.
One type of animal that made a successful and complete transition from land to water in the course of its evolution is the whale.
The whale is an air-breathing animal that spends its entire life in the
ocean. Like humans, whales are mammals. The humpback whale
(Megaptera novaeangliae), for example, feeds her offspring milk from
her mammary glands, a distinguishing characteristic of all mammals.
Another characteristic shared by mammals is the four-chambered
heart. All mammals are placed in the class Mammalia. Mammals that
live in the ocean are called marine mammals. In this chapter, you will
learn about the whale and other marine mammals that have adapted
to life in the sea.
14.1
CETACEANS: WHALES
AND DOLPHINS
Common dolphin
(Delphinapterus leucas)
Harbor porpoise
(Phocoena phocoena)
Baleen Whales
The whales are classified into two main groupsthe baleen whales
and the toothed whales. The baleen whales, which belong to suborder Mysticeti, are filter feeders that eat plankton and small fish.
They include such species as the blue, finback, humpback, right, and
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Humpback whale
(Megaptera novaeangliae)
Gray whale
(Eschrichtius robustus)
Baleen
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Marine Vertebrates
Pleats
(on throat)
Blue whale
(Balaenoptera musculus)
Toothed Whales
The toothed whales, which belong to suborder Odontoceti, include
all other whales (such as the sperm, killer, pilot, and beluga), dolphins, and porpoises. These whales have peglike teeth on their jaws,
with which they catch prey such as fish, seals, penguins, and squid.
The toothed whales are active hunters. After seizing its prey, a
toothed whale usually swallows it whole. Compartments in the
stomach chew the food. The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus)
is the largest of the toothed whales; it grows to about 15 meters in
length. The smallest whale (not counting dolphins and porpoises) is
the narwhal (Monodon monoceros), which grows to about 5 meters
in length. (See Figure 14-4.) Each of these whales has unique teeth.
The sperm whale has large cone-shaped teeth, but only on its long,
narrow lower jaw. The male narwhal has an elongated front tooth
that grows out of the left side of its upper jaw. This long spiral tusk,
which was once thought to belong to the mythical unicorn, is used
at breeding time to attract females and to fend off rival males.
Sperm whale
(Physeter macrocephalus)
Narwhal
(Monodon monoceros)
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Reproduction in Whales
Cetaceans are fully aquatic animals; they do not return to the land
to breed. Fertilization and development are internal. The period of
embryonic development, or gestation period, may last from about
11 months in some species to as long as 18 months in the largest
whales. Whales breed about once every 3 years and usually give birth
to one calf at a time.
Mother whales invest a great deal of parental care in their offspring. As a result, a close bond develops between a whale and her
calf. Whales are born tail-first. So that it will not drown, the newborn whale is pushed by its mother to the surface to get its first
breath. The whale nurses her calf for about 6 to 10 months. The
milk of whales is rich in protein and fat; this helps the newborn
grow fast and add on layers of insulating fat. For example, a blue
whale feeds her calf the equivalent of 400 glasses of milk a day. The
milk contains about 50 percent fat. At this rate, the blue whale calf
gains about 90 kg a daya good start for the worlds largest animal!
Breathing in Whales
The whale breathes through an opening on the top of its head
called the blowhole, which is its nose or nostrils. As early whales
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Marine Vertebrates
evolved and became more fully aquatic, their nostrils moved from
the front (snout) to the top of the head. This position is more adaptive for an animal that lives in the water but must surface to
breathe; the whales body (including its eyes and mouth) can
remain underwater while it breathes.
Toothed whales have one nostril; baleen whales have two nostrils. A whale breathes in air at the surface through its blowhole; the
air is then carried to the lungs. The whale also breathes out through
its blowhole. Water that is present in the exhaled air and in the
blowhole produces a visible plume of water vapor, thus giving rise
to the sailors expression, There she blows.
Swimming in Whales
Perhaps you have seen a killer whale performing in an aquarium
show and have been impressed with its swimming and leaping.
Whales are powerful swimmers. The killer whale, or orca (Orcinus
orca), is the fastest of all the marine mammals, having been clocked
at 55 km per hour. (See Figure 14-5.) Vigorous contractions of its
body muscles cause the up-and-down movements of the powerful
hind flippers, or tail flukes, which propel the animal through the
water. The dorsal fin, which varies from 2 meters tall in the killer
whale to very small in the baleen whales (and nonexistent in the
narwhal), is used for staying on course. The pectoral fins, which
range from the small, stubby flippers of the narwhal to the 5-meterlong winglike flippers of the humpback, are used for steering, braking, and balance. Although the pectoral fins of a whale or dolphin
may resemble the fins of a shark, they have a different internal
Dorsal fin
Tail flukes
Peglike
teeth
Pectoral fins
Killer whale
(Orcinus orca)
Marine Mammals
335
Hipbone
structure. Inside the pectoral fins of cetaceans are bones that are
similar in structure to those of their land-dwelling ancestors; in fact,
they resemble the bones of a human hand. Note: Rear limb buds in
whale embryos, and floating hipbones in the adults, are all that
remain of the ancestral hind limbs. (See Figure 14-6.)
Marine Vertebrates
Right whale
(Eubalaena glacialis)
Diving
Lobtailing
Spyhopping
Breaching
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337
Whale Migrations
Whales are great long-distance swimmers. Over the course of a year,
whalestraveling in their extended family group, or podcan
cover a course thousands of kilometers long. It is thought that
whales find their way by locating geological features along the
seafloor and by sensing changes in ocean currents, water chemistry,
Earths magnetic field, and the position of the sun. Look at the
migratory route of the California gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus),
shown in Figure 14-8, which is the longest of any whale species.
Gray whales migrate in a north-south direction, from Alaska to Baja
California, then back to Alaska again, a round-trip distance of more
than 12,000 km.
Why do whales migrate? Many whales migrate between their
feeding and breeding grounds, just as many species of birds do. Gray
whales spend their summers feeding in the cold waters of the Bering
Sea and Arctic Ocean. These nutrient-rich Arctic waters produce
great quantities of plankton, on which the whales feed. They
migrate to overwinter in the warm, shallow (and relatively secluded)
Figure 14-8 Migratory
routes of two whale
speciesthe humpback
and the gray whale.
Arctic
Ocean
Alaska
Iceland
Canada
USA
Caribbean Sea
South
America
Gray whale
Humpback whale
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Marine Vertebrates
waters around Baja California, where they bear their young and
breed. Whale babies lack the thick fat layers of the adults, so it is
most adaptive for them to be born in the warmer water. The adult
gray whales do not feed at this time; they live off the fat they accumulate during the summer in the Arctic.
Another baleen whale that migrates between feeding and breeding grounds is the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Trace
the migratory route of the Atlantic humpback whale, also shown in
Figure 14-8. The Atlantic population of humpback whales migrates
each year between Iceland and the Caribbean Sea. The Pacific populations of humpbacks (not shown in the figure) include those that
migrate between the Bering Sea and southern Mexico (alongside
California) and those that migrate between the Aleutian Islands and
Hawaii.
339
smaller than it used to be.) Sperm whales also migrate through the
worlds oceans in search of rich feeding grounds, from the North
Pole to south of the equator.
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Marine Vertebrates
Seal
(Phoca)
Sea lion
(Callorhinus)
Reproduction in Pinnipeds
Unlike whales and dolphins, which are fully aquatic and can breed
in the water, pinnipeds have to return to land to mate and give
birth. During the breeding season, pinnipeds swim onto the shore,
where they often congregate by the thousands. Females come
ashore to give birth and to nurse their young. Mature males fight
for access to the females, and the dominant males acquire harems
of females with which they mate. Interestingly, seals and sea lions
have evolved the ability to delay the development of their embryos,
so that the birth of their single offspring occurs exactly 12 months
after matingwhen they come ashore again to breed.
The Walrus
The walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) inhabits the frigid Arctic and subArctic waters. Notice the tusks of the walrus, shown in Figure 14-10.
The tusks are overly developed canines that are used for digging up
mollusks from the seafloor and for hauling the walrus up onto the
ice. Tusks are found in both male and female walruses. In males, the
tusks are longer and are used to establish dominance. Walruses use
their sensitive, stiff facial whiskers to locate clams and mussels on
the sandy seafloor. They can dive more than 90 meters deep to find
their food.
Walrus
(Odobenus rosmarus)
Adaptations of Pinnipeds
Although seals, sea lions, and walruses are not as fully aquatic as
whales, they have many characteristics that indicate a life spent
much of the time in the sea. Pinnipeds are intelligent, social animals. Recent research has shown that, like whales, pinnipeds communicate with one another by using a variety of sounds. It is
possible that pinnipeds also use echolocation, since the sounds they
produce are similar to those of the whales. Pinnipeds also have the
ability to dive to great depths in search of food. (See Section 14.4.)
The deepest diver of all the pinnipeds may well be the elephant seal;
one was recorded diving more than 1500 meters below the surface.
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343
Sea otter
(Enhydra lutris)
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Marine Vertebrates
Sea otters are commonly found in the giant kelp forests along
the rocky California coast. Kelp is the huge seaweed that grows from
the seafloor to the ocean surface. As they float at the surface, sea
otters hold onto the kelp, often wrapping it over their bodies to help
anchor themselves in the choppy water. With their webbed hind
feet, flattened tail, and streamlined body, sea otters are efficient
swimmers and divers. On a typical dive, a sea otter swims to the bottom, locates a mussel, crab, abalone, or sea urchin, and returns to
the surface where it rolls over to float on its back. Taking a rock that
it also picked up from the bottom and placing it on its chest, the
sea otter cracks open the shellfish by smashing it against the rock.
After several whacks, the shell is opened and the sea otter consumes
the contents. Sea otters have to repeat this process many times each
day to supply their energy needs. The otters also eat fish and snails
that live on the kelp. By eating snails and sea urchins, which graze
on the kelp, sea otters help to maintain and promote growth of the
seaweeda great benefit to the kelp harvesting industry.
Sea otters spend most of their time in the oceanthey eat,
sleep, mate, and rear their young in the water. Only on rare occasions does a sea otter venture on land at low tide to forage for mollusks among the rocks. Sea otters move awkwardly on land and
quickly return to the water. Unlike the cetaceans and pinnipeds, sea
otters have no blubber under their skin. In the chilly waters along
the Pacific Coast, the sea otter can retain its body heat because it
has incredibly thick fur, which it constantly grooms with oils from
its skin. As the otter grooms its fur, air bubbles are trapped within it,
thus greatly increasing its insulating ability.
345
better shape, with about 20,000 and 120,000 otters, respectively. Sea
otters are also at risk of predation by great white sharks and killer
whales, although they are not their main prey item.
Another type of otter that is sometimes found in the sea is the
river otter, populations of which are found in Europe and in North
and South America. Although they live mainly in freshwater, as
their name implies, river otters are sometimes found on coasts,
where they scramble along the rocks and venture into the ocean for
food. River otters, which are closely related to sea otters, need protection too. Their numbers are dwindling due to loss of habitat, pollution, and the hunting of them for their fur.
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Marine Vertebrates
RESEARCH
The Migrating Manatee
QUESTIONS
1. Why was Chessies behavior considered so unusual?
2. By what means have scientists been tracking this manatee?
3. Why is the public interested in this marine mammal?
Marine Mammals
347
Threats to Manatees
Manatees and dugongs are endangered species, vulnerable to hunting, loss of habitat, and pollution. Unrestricted use of powerboats
and continued development along Floridas coastal waterways are
both responsible for a decline in the manatee population. As of the
mid-1990s, there were about 2500 manatees left in Florida waters.
Although protected by law, dozens of manatees are accidentally
killed each year by powerboats hulls and propellers when they surface to breathe. The impact of the hulls can kill them; and propeller
blades cause deep wounds in the backs of the animals, either killing
them directly or causing them to die from infection. Manatees that
survive are left with permanent scars. In addition, a potent toxin
from red tide algal blooms caused numerous manatee deaths in
Florida in the mid-1990s.
348
Marine Vertebrates
Polar bear
(Ursus maritimus)
Marine Mammals
349
Marine Vertebrates
Sea otter
55
Porpoise
305
Sea lion
168
30
True seal
575
73
2200
90
Sperm whale
350
Depth
(meters)
The concentration of oxygenated blood and glucose in their important organs allows diving mammals to maintain their vital functions during the critical period of breath-hold. The cells of diving
mammals can also increase energy production during breath-hold
by carrying out anaerobic respiration. In this way, glucose can be
metabolized in the absence of oxygen to produce small amounts of
chemical energy (ATP).
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Marine Vertebrates
Laboratory Investigation 14
Diving Response in Humans
PROBLEM: Can a diving response be demonstrated in humans?
SKILL: Measuring pulse rates.
MATERIALS: Basin or bucket of warm water (about 25 to 30C), catch basin,
stopwatch, ear plugs, towel, swim cap.
PROCEDURE
1. Work with a partner. Locate the pulse in your partners wrist. (The pulse rate
is the rate at which the heart beats.) Take your partners pulse while he/she
holds his/her breath for 15 seconds. (Either you or your partner can look at
the stopwatch.) Multiply by 4 to get the pulse rate per minute. In your notebook, record the result in a copy of Table 14-2. (See page 354.)
2. Switch roles and have your partner take your pulse for 15 seconds, while you
hold your breath. Again, multiply by 4 to get the pulse rate per minute.
Record the result in your table. If time permits, repeat this procedure for a
total of six trials (three per partner). Calculate the average by adding the
results for each trial and dividing by the number of trials. These data serve as
the control group, since the experimental factor (water pressure) was not
involved.
3. Fill a basin or bucket to the top with warm water and place it in a container
large enough to catch the overflow. Put on a swim cap and ear plugs. Now
submerge your face in the water for 15 seconds, while your partner takes
your pulse. (In this case, your partner will watch the time!) Multiply by 4 to
get the pulse rate per minute. (If 15 seconds feels too long, submerge and
time the pulse for 10 seconds, then multiply by 6 to get the pulse rate per
minute.) Record the result in your table.
4. Repeat for a total of six trials (with partners taking three turns each, alternating at submerging and timing) and calculate the average. These data represent the experimental group, with facial submersion in water (water
pressure) being the experimental factor. Compare with above (control
group) results to see if there is any difference.
5. Write all students results on the chalkboard. Compute a class average to see
if the overall results appear to be significant.
Marine Mammals
353
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
Average
354
Marine Vertebrates
Chapter 14 Review
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.
Vocabulary
The following list contains all the boldface terms in this chapter.
baleen, baleen whales, blowhole, blubber, bradycardia, breaching,
carnivores, cetaceans, diving response, dugong, echolocation,
herbivores, lobtailing, manatee, melon, myoglobin, pinnipeds,
pod, sea otter, sirenians, spyhopping, stranding, tail flukes,
toothed whales
Fill In
Use one of the vocabulary terms listed above to complete each sentence.
1. The term ____________________ refers to the seals, walruses, and sea lions.
2. The ____________________ have special plates to filter feed on plankton.
3. Humpbacks may be seen ____________________, or leaping out of the
water.
4. Layers of fat, or ____________________, enable whales to live in cold waters.
5. Whales travel in an extended family group, or ____________________.
Think and Write
Use the information in this chapter to respond to these items.
6. List some characteristics that marine mammals and humans
have in common.
7. How are pinnipeds adapted for food-getting underwater?
8. In what kinds of environments are the sirenians now found?
Inquiry
Base your answers to questions 9 through 12 on the graph on page 356
and on your knowledge of marine science.
A student hypothesized that a human underwater would show a
similar diving reflex (bradycardiathe slowing of the heart rate) to
that of a whale or a seal. She tested her hypothesis by recording
her pulse rate at different depths in a swimming pool of uniform
temperature and light intensity. The results of her experiment are
shown in the following graph.
Marine Mammals
355
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
2
3
Depth (meters)
Marine Vertebrates
Research/Activity
Choose one baleen whale and one toothed whale, or one true
seal and one sea lion, and prepare a chart that illustrates the distinguishing features of each group.
Investigate the breathing rate of a dolphin or whale in an aquarium. Record its breathing rate in several trials at different times
of the day to see if daylight is a factor. Prepare a report based on
your results and additional research.
Marine Mammals
357