Northeastern Political Science Association

On the Role of Christianity in the Political Philosophy of Francis Bacon

Author(s): Timothy H. Paterson
Source: Polity, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Spring, 1987), pp. 419-442
Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals
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On theRole of
Christianity
in thePolitical
Philosophyof
FrancisBacon*
TimothyH. Paterson
St. John'sCollege

Theaim ofBacon'spoliticalphilosophy,
mostclearlyin his
expressed
NewAtlantis,
a
thatwillprois to makea place insociety
science
for
ducepowerfor man. Thisproposalfora power-generating
science
to be
the
How
the
thus
created
is
necessarily
poses
power
question:
directed
and controlled?
Bacon is generally
to havesaid
understood
thatChristianity
wouldbe an important
partof anysolutionto this
This
The
article,
however,
problem.
questionsthatinterpretation.
and evenhostileto
authorarguesinsteadthatBacon wasindifferent
and thathe did notregarditas a decisiveanswerto the
Christianity
moralandpoliticalquestionsraisedbyhisscience.
H. Patersonholdsa Ph.D. fromYale University,
has beena
Timothy
lecturer
at BostonCollege,a Postdoctoral
ResearchFellowat DalhousieUniversity,
and ispresently
a tutorat St. John'sCollegein
Annapolis,MD.
As one of thefirstattempts
to arguethelegitimacy
of a sciencewhich
wouldincreasehumanpower,Bacon's politicalphilosophy
necessarily
thequestionof how suchpowerwas to be
posed,howeverindirectly,
controlled.
Baconsought"to establish
andextendthepoweranddominionofthehumanraceitselfovertheuniverse"
(4:114).'Yetheknewthat
*The author wishes to thankthe Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Fund for Advanced
Studies forsupportin the researchand writingof thisarticle.
'Unless otherwisespecified,all referencesto Bacon's writingsare to J. Spedding,R.L.
Ellis, and D. D. Heath, eds., The Worksof FrancisBacon (London: Longmansand Co.,
1857-1870). Parentheticalreferencesin the textare to volume and page numberalone;
referencesin thesenotes to Worksfollowedby volumeand page number.

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in FrancisBacon
420 Christianity
thehumanracewasdividedinmanyways,itsfactions
moreconcerned
to
dominateeachotherthanto unitein anycollective
domination
of nonhumannature(4:372-373).Bacon foresaw,forexample,the dangers
insucha dividedworld,andthose
posedbyscientific
military
technology
were
the
most
dramatic
ofpower'sabilityto
manifestation
only
dangers
increasethepracticalconsequences
of foolish,selfish,
or evilimpulses.2
in
Baconrepliesto doubtsaboutthewisdomoftechnological
progress
whose
of
the
first
of
a
129
book
The
New
Aphorism
Organon, passage
forunderstanding
hisintentions
He
is generally
recognized.
importance
human
raisesthehypothetical
that
powerthrough
objection augmenting
sciencerisksthe "debasementof arts and sciencesto purposesof
wickedness"
(4:115).Yethe urgesthat"no onebe moved"byanysuch
be madewithequalvalidity
againstmanyother
objection,sinceitmight
thisappears
seek.On reflection,
"earthly
goods" whichwe nevertheless
in
to be a strangereply.It solvestheproblemonly thesensethatit
the
concedesthatthefearsunderlying
it,and byimplication
generalizes
Bacon at thispointturnsto
originalobjectionare not unreasonable.
rhetoric
and counter-assertion:
"Only let thehumanrace recoverthat
rightovernaturewhichbelongsto itbydivinebequest,andletpowerbe
willbe governed
thereof
bysoundreasonand true
givenit; theexercise
religion"(4:115).
basedon a
to a humanpowerovernatureallegedly
Thesereferences
"divinebequest"and guidedin partby "truereligion"indicatethe
sourcesof
here.Baconproposestwoultimate
I wishto consider
problem
the controland guidanceof scientific
power,one secular("sound
of
reason"),the otherreligious.We who livewiththe consequences
of any
of nature,one of whichis thedisappearance
Baconianmastery
inhope that"true religion"could serveas its guide,are primarily
inhow"soundreason"might
terested
playthatrole,andlookto Bacon
on thisaspectof theproblem.
histhought
in thehopeof understanding
encountersthe questionof
Any such inquiry,however,inevitably
forif therootsof Baconian
towardChristianity,
Bacon's realattitude
thenitwouldhardlybe surprising
sciencewerefundamentally
religious,
had led Baconto giveinsufficient
enthusiasm
weightto the
if religious
scientific
power.Again,it might
aspectsof future
morallyproblematic
towardChristianity
Bacon's personalattitude
be arguedthatwhatever
ofthecontrolofscientific
mayhavebeen,itseemsclearthatinspeaking

the sociallyproblematiccharacterof Baconian science,and the problemposed by

20On
scientificweaponryin particular,see Works3:163; 4:99, 228; 6:341-345,403-405,419-423,
444-452,734-735,740-743,751-752,756-757; 7:17-36.

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H. Paterson 421
Timothy
powerby "truereligion"he meantthatsomeversionof Christianity
wouldremainorbecomea decisiveguideofscience.If,as mostrecent
inof Bacon assertor assume,Christianity
was at once the
terpretations
foundation
and the moralhorizonof his thought,
thentheeffortto
recover
hisunderstanding
ofthepurelysecularfactors
whichmight
controlscientific
mustnecessarily
technology
appearmisguided
or,at best,
ofminorinterest.
Theexamination
oftheroleofChristianity
inBacon's
is thenecessary
to posingthequestion
politicalphilosophy
preliminary
of mostinterest
to us: Did Baconianmastery
of natureincludeat its
outsetanycoherent
of thesecularfactorswhichmight
understanding
of thepowerto be generated
guidetheapplication
byscience?
In whatfollows,I havecarriedout thispreparatory
and in a sense
is to questiontheprevailing
view
largelynegative
inquiry.
Myintention
whichemphasizes
so strongly
thereligiousfactorin Bacon's thought.3
Beliefin theessentially
Christian
and intention
of Baconian
inspiration
scienceis, in myopinion,thesinglegreatest
obstacleto
contemporary
Bacon's realthought
aboutthemoraland politicalconunderstanding
trol of scientificpower,and hence to understanding
his political
as a whole.
philosophy
BaconsaysofMachiavelli
thatheputcertain
criticisms
ofChristianity
"almost in plain terms" (6:403, emphasisadded). My argument
assumesthatBacontoo conveyed
someofhisthoughts
aboutreligion
in
an indirect
or guardedmanner.
Threeconsiderations
theapplicajustify
tionof thisdeservedly
controversial
methodof interpretation
to Bacon.
of unorthodox
viewson religion
First,theopenexpression
wouldhave
exposedhimto seriousdanger;as Speddingpointsout,Bacon'sEngland
was "a worldinwhichthepublication
of a falseopinionwas heldto be
an offenceand forbidden
underpenalties."4For an ambitious
butimpecuniousman and passionatereformer,
who wishedto be heardon
thelimitsof whatcouldbe said
manysubjectsin additionto religion,
of Bacon as an anti-Christian
'Althoughthe interpretation
writeris at least as old as
Diderot and DeMaistre, the only recentfull-length
studywhichtakes thisview is the late
Howard White's Peace Among the Willows: The Political Philosophyof Francis Bacon
(The Hague: MartinusNijhoff,1968). But WhiteassumesthatBacon's antireligiousintentionis so obvious as not to requireany extendeddemonstration.
Many moderninterpretationsof Bacon's religiousviewsconsciouslyor unconsciouslyrepeattheconclusionsarrived
at byKuno Fischerin themid-nineteenth
century:Bacon was a sincereifperhapssomewhat
tepidChristianwhosefideismunwittingly
openeda pathto thesubsequentsecularizationof
Christianbelief.See Kuno Fischer,FrancisBacon of Verulam:RealisticPhilosophyand Its
Age (London: Longman, Brown,Green,Longmans,and Roberts,1857), 290-347.
4JamesSpedding,ed., The Lettersand theLife of FrancisBacon (London: Longmans,
Green,Reader, and Dyer, 1868), Vol. 4, p. 345.

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422 Christianity
in FrancisBacon
ina private
wereevennarrower
thanthelegalones.As heacknowledged
to
avoid
"harsh
to credit
was
concerned
Bacon
publishing
letter,
things
forthepersonof the writer."'
and opinion,or inconvenient
to an "acroamaticor enigSecond,Bacon makesmanyreferences
to exofdelivery
whichseeks"by obscurity
maticalmethod"ofwriting
cludethevulgarfromthesecretsof knowledge"(4:450). Moreover,he

endorsesdoingso: "The discretionancientlyobserved.

. .

of publishing

it shallnotbe to thecapacitynortasteof all, but

in a mannerwhereby
shallas itweresingleand adopthisreader,is notto be laid aside,both
ofaffecandthestrengthening
fortheavoidingofabuseintheexcluded,
tion in the admitted"(3:248).6

to themost
openchallenges
Finally,Bacon believedthatexcessively
and
undesirable
unwise
were
of
or rulingprejudices society
fundamental

in themselves:"it were good .

. .

that men in theirinnovationswould

but
followtheexampleof timeitself;whichindeedinnovateth
greatly,
and
Politics
to
be
perceived"(6:433).
quietly,and by degreesscarce
not
religion,and hencepublicorder,reston opinionand authority,
one
to
(3:302;4:89). According Bacon, ought
proofsanddemonstrations
to use thenewsciencewhendealingwithnature,but theacceptedor
in dealing
sciences(i.e., thoseof theChristian
established
Aristotelians)
incontactwith
withthepopulace;"everymanofsuperior
understanding
whatBaconwas
wearsa mask."' Aboveall, whenconsidering
inferiors
wemustremember
to sayopenlyaboutChristianity,
andwasnotwilling
toitbyadding
notcontribute
thathesoughttoendreligious
controversy,
witches'brewan openattackon Christianity
to thesectarian
itself.8
I willargue
orprovisionally
tolerated,
The foregoing
granted
premises
wasa blendofscepticism,
towardChristianity
thatBacon'srealattitude
of
a decisivediminution
andthatheexpected
andindifference,
hostility,
as a resultofscientific
progress.
theindependent
politicalroleofreligion
'Ibid., 141. For otherreferencesto the problemof communicatingpossiblyoffensive
ideas withoutendangeringoneself,see Works3:255, 363; 4:42, 53, 371; 6:377-378,456,
701-702.See also BenjaminFarrington'svaluable translationsof severalearlyLatin works
whichBacon leftunpublished:Benjamin Farrington,ed. and trans., The Philosophyof
FrancisBacon (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 62, 77-78.
'See Works4:311; 5:31; 6:387-389,403-404,429-431,695-699,701-702.Even Spedding,
no friendof the esoterichypothesisas he understoodit, feltcompelledby the undeniable
textualevidenceof Bacon's esotericismto attempta refutationof it; see Works1:107-113
discussedthere.Spedding'srefutationfailsbecause
and thepassages fromBacon's writings
it focusestoo much on the claim thatBacon possesseda secretteachingwhichhe entirely
refrainedfromexpressingin writing,even indirectly.
108.
7Farrington,
sFischer,307-308.

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H. Paterson 423
Timothy
It is of coursedifficult
to "prove" thepresence
ofreligious
heterodoxy
in a writer
whowas,accordingto myhypothesis,
concerned
to givean
of religiousorthodoxy.
It is also hardto distinguish
impression
perbetweena subjectively
sincerereinterpretation
of Christianity
suasively
whichunintentionally
doctrinal
and an
stripsitofitshistoric
substance,
insincere
effort
whichcloaksa secularintention
withsociallyacceptable
rhetoric.
HenceI arguemythesisat a lengthwhichprecludes
religious
to theproblemof thesecularguidesof scientific
anydirectattention
thecomplexity
ofwhichdemandsa separatetreatment
power,a problem
inanyevent.Takenseparately,
thearguments
whichfollowwillconvince
different
readersto different
degrees;theirpreciseorderand relative
thanthefactthateachtendsindependently
to
weightarelessimportant
thesameconclusion.
I. Bacon'sEquivocations
Regarding
Religion
Whena first-class
writer
andimportant
thinker
makesequivocalorconremarkson fundamental
tradictory
matters,one mustconsiderthe
thatthishasbeendonedeliberately,
ifthewriter's
possibility
particularly
havejustified
hisdoingthisandifheexplicitly
topicandsituation
might
discussesthepossibility
of writing
in thismanner.The basicpurposeof
suchambiguity
is to confront
and sympathetic
readers
alert,reflective,
withthemostimportant
fundamental
alternatives
whileconcealingto
somedegreefromotherkindsof readerstheauthor'spreference
forthe
less orthodoxamong those alternatives.9
makes
Bacon
many such
on religion.
equivocalremarks
One suchpattern
of equivocation
is particularly
commonin Bacon's
an orthodoxstatement
is followedalmostimmediately
writings:
by a
muchlessorthodox
statement
on thesameora closelyrelatedsubject.In
theNewAtlantis,forexample,we findtwoexplicit
statements
concerningthepurposeofSalomon'sHouse.Thefirst,
madebysomeonewhois
nota member
of theHouse,tellsus thattheinstitution
is "dedicatedto
thestudyof theworksand creatures
of God" (3:145)and is knownas
"the Collegeof theSix Days Works,"out of respectfortheteaching
"thatGod had createdtheworldand all thattherein
is within
sixdays"
(3:146). The secondstatement,
more
authoritative
sinceit
presumably
comes froma memberof the House, completely
lacks any such
9The fundamentalproblemsof method involved here are discussed in Leo Strauss,
Persecutionand theArt of Writing(Westport:GreenwoodPress, 1973), pp. 7-30, and in
the same author's WhatIs Political Philosophy?(Westport:GreenwoodPress, 1973),
pp.
221-232.

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in FrancisBacon
424 Christianity
is the
to theChristian
references
religion:"The endof ourfoundation
of causes,and secretmotionsofthings;and theenlarging
of
knowledge
of all thingspossible"
theboundsof humanempire,to theeffecting
(3:156).
To takeanother
examplefromthesamebook,wearetoldat onepoint
attackagainst
thata nationwhichlongago launchedan unprovoked
Bensalemwas subsequently
destroyed
bya greatflood,andthisfloodis
of "proud enterprises"
at firstdescribedas a punishment
by "divine
revenge"(3:142). But in thesameparagraphwe learnthatperhapsas
conquestand
yearspassedbetweentheattempted
manyas one hundred
thefloodwhichallegedly
it,and thatfloodsarenaturalto the
punished
The
in questionbecauseof itsgreatriversand highmountains.
country
priestwhobeganbyspeakingof "divinerevenge"endshisaccountby
callingtheflood"thismainaccidentof time"(3:143); a speechwhich
of naturewhichpunishesina divinegovernance
beginsby asserting
is at the
thathumanexistence
justicebetweennations,endsbyimplying
or
to ourhumility
reference
ofnaturalforcesthatoperatewithout
mercy
pride,justiceor injustice.
are notmerely
on religionsometimes
Bacon's remarks
equivocalbut
ofthe
The openingsentence
comeverycloseto beingself-contradictory.
essay"Of Atheism"declaresthatBacon would"ratherbelieveall the
fablesin theLegend,and theTalmud,and theAlcoranthanthatthis
of
a mind"(6:413).Buttheopeningsentence
frameis without
universal
bothechoes
and clearlyrelated,essay"Of Superstition"
thefollowing,
"It werebetter
itsbasicprinciple:
thesentence
justquotedandquestions
of
to haveno opinionat all ofGod thansuchan opinionas is unworthy
or
of the firstsentenceis thatunworthy
him" (6:415). The principle
second
of
the
The
to
disbelief.
is
belief
principle
preferable
superstitious
a kindofdisbelief)
frombelief(whichis surely
is thatrefraining
sentence
belief.IIAs forthefundamenor superstitious
to unworthy
is preferable
tal principlethatthe proposition"this universalframeis withouta
it in otherworks:"the
Bacon flatlycontradicts
mind" is incredible,
intonaturethanthe rest"
whichwentfurther
schoolof Democritus,
(4:58) "did notsupposea mindorreasonintheframeofthings"(3:358).
of all formytopic.
One finalexampleis perhapsthemostsignificant
In The Advancement
of Learning,Bacon deniesthattherecan be
conbutexplicitly
tounderstand
intheeffort
nature,
irreligious
anything
to attainmoraland ethicalknowledge
of anyattempt
cedestheimpiety
"Science and Rule in Bacon's Utopia: An In0'Thetensionis notedbyJ.W. Weinberger,
troductionto the Reading of theNew Atlantis,"AmericanPolitical ScienceReview,Vol.
70 (1976): 880.

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H. Paterson 425
Timothy
of revelation:
"It was theproudknowledge
of good and
independent
with
an
intent
in
man
to
law
untohimself,
and to dependno
evil,
give
moreuponGod's commandments,
whichwastheformofthetemptation
in anyef[ofAdam]" (3:265)." Suchan "intent"is necessarily
present
fortto discovera purelyrationalethics,since(accordingto Bacon)
reason is unable to demonstrate
the truthof Christianmorality
But
The
New
(3:478-479).
Organon(4:79, 112)clearlystatesthata new
"ethics,andpolitics"willbe produced
byBaconianscience;itseemsthat
the"proudknowledge
of goodandevil" willbe sought,despitetheadmitted
ofdoingso. Does thisnotargue"an intent
inmanto give
impiety
lawuntohimself,
andto dependno moreuponGod's commandments"?
II. Bacon'sUse oftheBible
Bacon'scharacteristic
mannerof employing
Biblicaltextsforrhetorical
a
certain
inner
distancefromChristianity.
Thereis a
purposessuggests
resemblance
betweenhis sophistical
use of theBibleto lend
revealing
to hisownthoughts
andhismanner
oftreating
classicalmyths
authority
in Of the Wisdomof theAncients.In thatwork,Bacon claimsthat
Greekand Romanmyths
are allegorical
of a lostancient
presentations
now
recovered
hisinterpretive
science,
through
decoding,and usesthis
claimto present
hisownviewsin an attractive
and somewhat
disguised
form.'2His useoftheBiblewasoftenno lessconsciously
insincere.
It apin
both
he
hisownideasinwaysconpearsthat,
cases, soughttopresent
sonantwiththeprejudices
of hisintended
audience.It willbe objected
thatmisuseof theBiblewas not unknownto Christendom,
and that
"In an earlyworkwhichhe leftunpublished,Bacon was even moreemphatic:thedesire
to possess knowledgeof good and evil "ever risethupon an appetiteto electand not to
obey, and so containethin it a manifestdefection"fromGod's will(Works, 3:227, emphases added). The theologicaldifficultywhich resultsfor any Baconian "ethics and
politics" is noted by Lisa Jardine,Francis Bacon: Discovery and theArt of Discourse
(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1974), pp. 150-151.
"The ironyor insincerity
of the interpretive
stanceBacon adopts in Wisdomof theAncientsis clear fromstatementshe made both beforeand afterwritingit, to theeffectthat
theclaim to be recoveringa long-hidden"ancient wisdom" was an
"imposture" designed
to lend creditand authorityto new ideas; see Farrington,86-87, 120-121;
Works,4:108.
Paolo Rossi's theorythat Bacon was entirelysincere,but kept
changinghis mind about
whetheror not such "ancient wisdom" reallyexisted,involvesso many
changesof mind
overso manyyearsas to be quiteimplausible.See Paolo Rossi,FrancisBacon: From
Magic
to Science (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1968),
pp. 81-96. The resemblance
betweenBacon's attitudeto biblical and classical mythsis noted
by Moody E. Prior,
"Bacon's Man of Science," in Brian Vickers,ed., Essential Articles
for the Study of
FrancisBacon (Hamden: ArchonBooks, 1968), pp. 150-151.

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in FrancisBacon
426 Christianity
sincereChristianswho also turnscripture
thereare indisputably
to
thatmyargument
purposes.Whilegranting
strangeand idiosyncratic
I wouldobservethatsuchsincere
and notprobative,
hereis suggestive
and
fromtheirownmisinterpretations
lackdetachment
believers
entirely
do not,as a rule,indicatemoreor lessopenlythattheyknowtheyare
theBible.Bacondoes do this,and to a degreewhichsuggests
misusing
couldhardlyhavebeeninadvertent.
thathisscriptural
sophistry
TheAdvancement
allegedBiblical
ofLearning,forexample,presents
to God's highregardforhumanlearning.The workaptestimonies
pointedto AdambyGod couldhavebeen"no otherthanworkof conin theGardenofEdenwas "experiAdam'smainactivity
templation";
theseincontradicts
ment"(3:296). But a subsequent
chapterdirectly
from
seventh
the
we
see
Enoch
"And
so
claims:
implausible
herently
did
with
walked
and
the
who
was
God,
yet
Adam,
firstcontemplative,
also endow thechurchwithprophecy.. . . But forcontemplationwhich

shouldbe finishedin itself,withoutcastingbeamsupon society,asit not" (3:422; emphasesadded).Again,The

knoweth
suredlydivinity
Advancement
ofLearningassuresus thattheBook of Jobis "pregnant
withnaturalphilosophy"(3:298),but TheNew Organon
and swelling
fromtheBook ofJobas
to recovernaturalphilosophy
citestheattempt
ofphilosophy
(4:65-66).
an exampleof"thecorruption
bysuperstition"
shownby
areallegedly
The divinehonorsaccordedhumanknowledge
of musicand
thefactthattheBiblerecordsthenamesof theinventors
(3:297). Bacon does not mentionthattheverytexthe
metal-working
Genesis
4:17-24,also saysthatboththesemenweredirectdescencites,
of
dants Cain; he turnswhatin factseemto be biblicalreservations
Bacon
intodivinepraiseof suchprogress.
abouttechnological
progress
of
the
confusion
mankind
laid
tongues,
God
that
concedes
upon
was
andknowledge
oflearning
theopentradeandintercourse
"whereby
to
to
reflect
seems
act
which
hostility
an
imbarred"
(3:297),
chiefly
that
mention
he
omits
it.
But
of
than
rather
humanlearning
approval
hadmadepossible
thiswas donebecausethelinguistic
unityofmankind
of Babel, and
the
Tower
of
the
of
feat
building
a great
technology,
from
be
restrained
would
that
was
God
nothing
because
displeased
byBacon
whichitmight
mankind
imagineto do."' Two laterstatements
of TheAdhere.First,intheLatinversion
theissuesinvolved
illuminate
"an
antidote
calls
againstthe
Bacon
vancement
grammar
Learning,
of
of tongues,"and goeson to saythatmostofthe
curseof theconfusion
limitations.
battleagainstdivinely-imposed
artsand sciencessimilarly

"Genesis 11:6.

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H. Paterson 427
Timothy
intheNewAtlantistheultimate
Similarly,
purposeofscientific
research
is said to be "theeffecting
of all thingspossible"(3:156).
Themoststriking
toemploybiblicalor
exampleofBacon'swillingness
in the serviceof secularintentions
is his claimthat
religiousrhetoric
sciencewill recovermankind's"divinebequest" or restoreto some
but significant
unspecified
degreethat conditionof dominionover
natureenjoyedby Adam priorto the Fall. This attemptto present
Baconianmasteryof natureas a preparationfor the millenium
or
ofParadisehas received
a fairamountofscholarly
attention
in
recovery
recentyears,and has been citedas decisiveproofof theprofoundly
Christianroots of Bacon's thought.14There is no doubt that
millenarianism
was an important
elementof thereligiouslifeof early
seventeenth
century
England,andthatBacondoesfromtimeto timesay
whatthemillenarians
weresaying."'Butdo such
thingswhichresemble
remarksprovethatBacon was an exponentof "Protestant-Puritan
one whosefaithled himto investscientific
and technical
eschatology,"
with
Or are theybetter
progress
profoundreligioussignificance?
understood
as a kindof religious
rhetoric
to chanconsciously
designed
nelintosciencethespiritual
arousedbymillenarian
energies
hopes?
The New Atlantisis thedecisivetestcase fordetermining
whether
Bacon'smillenarian
rhetoric
was a sincereexpression
of hisownbeliefs
or merely
an attempt
to enlistthesupportof thosegenuinely
influenced
ideas. The book surelydoes containmillenarian
by millenarian
themes
"4Works,3:129, 135, 136, 217, 222; 4:7, 115, 248, 440-441. On "the recoveryof
Paradise" as a Baconian theme,see Hans Blumenberg,TheLegitimacyof theModernAge
(Cambridge:MassachusettsInstituteof TechnologyPress, 1983),pp. 232, 386; J. C. Davis,
Utopia and theIdeal Society(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press, 1981), p. 125; Farrington,22; WilliamLeiss, The Domination of Nature (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974), pp.
48-57; Prior, 15-152; Rossi, 130-131; CharlesWebster,The GreatInstauration:Science,
Medicine,and Reform,1626-1660(London: Gerald Duckworthand Co., Ltd., 1975), pp.

22-24,326,505-506,andthesameauthor'sFromParacelsusto Newton:Magicand the

Making of Modern Science (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress, 1982), pp. 48-49;

Frances A. Yates, The RosicrucianEnlightenment(London: Paladin Press, 1975), pp.

156-157.

"On millenarianism
in earlyseventeenth
centuryEngland, see BryanW. Ball, A Great

Expectation:
inEnglishProtestantism
Eschatological
to 1660(Leiden:E.J. Brill,
Thought
1975);Bernard
Men:A StudyinSeventeenth
Capp, TheFifthMonarchy
Century
English

Millenarianism(London: Faber, 1972); Paul Christianson,Reformersand Babylon:

Visions
EnglishApocalyptic
to theCivilWar(Toronto:University
fromtheReformation

of Toronto Press, 1978); KatherineR. Firth,The Apocalyptic Traditionin Reformation

Britain,1530-1645(Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress, 1979); WilliamM. Lamont, Godly
Rule: Politics and Religion, 1603-1660(London: Macmillan, 1969); Peter Toon
(ed.),

theMillenium,
andtheFutureofIsrael:Puritan
Puritans,
1600to1660(CamEschatology,
bridgeand London: JamesClarke and Co., 1970).

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428 Christianity
in FrancisBacon
andlanguage.Bensalemis repeatedly
interms
described
whichsuggest
it
to be a kindofearthly
in
ofoursalvation
Paradise;itis called"a picture
heaven," "this happyand holy ground,"and "a land of angels"
(3:136). The amazingpowerswieldedbySalomon'sHouse suggestthat
sciencehasinconsiderable
measurerestored
mankind
to itsprelapsarian
ofruleovernature.Moreover,
theaccountgivenofthemarital
condition
institution
whichBaconwas bold enoughto call "theAdamand Eve's
look uponeach othernaked
pools," wheremenand womenroutinely
shameor sin,clearlyintendsto suggestthatscientific
without
progress
or
thatinnocence
ofgoodandevilwhichwascorrupted
hasalso restored
merof Joabin,a Jewish
lostin theFall (3:154). Finally,thecharacter
likensat onepoint
whomthenarrator
to Christianity
chantsympathetic
to thekeymillenarian
to theprophetElijah, seemsto be a reference
themethatthearrivalof theKingdomofGod on earthwillbe heralded
oftheJewsto ChristianbytheappearanceofElijahandtheconversion
ity(3:151-154).16

of his
For thecarefulreader,however,Bacon providesindications
own distancefromsuch hopes. The overwhelming
emphasiswhich
as the
Bacon placeson humaneffortratherthandivineintervention
himdeciagencywhichis to "recoverParadise"distinguishes
primary
one
millenarians.
of Protestant
Moreover,
sivelyfromthevastmajority
wouldhavebeenwillingto
millenarians
wondershowmanyProtestant
whichmankind
thattheonlymillenialkingdom
accepttheimplication
and its
can helpto establishon earthis one whichowes its existence
rather
to a certainkindof scienceand technology
character
distinctive
and
and
moral
the
of
thanto prayer,
Bible,
study
preaching,
repentance,
ecclesiasticalreform.As for the impliedclaim that science and
as wellas lostpower,wenotethat
lostinnocence
can restore
technology
menin
Joabin'snamerecallsthatofoneofthemostviolentandruthless
withadtheBible(Joab),and thattheimpliedmoralparadisebristles
60Onthe anticipatedconversionof the Jewsas a millenariantheme,see Ball, 107-108,
149-150; Capp, 28-29; Christianson,107, 210-212,214; Davis, 113-114,142, 146; Firth,
160-162,200-201,212; WilfridR. Prest,"The Art of Law and theLaw of God: Sir Henry
Finch, 1558-1625,"in D. Penningtonand K. Thomas (eds.), Puritansand Revolutionaries
(Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1978), pp. 95, 108-109; Toon, passim; Frances A.
Yates, The OccultPhilosophyin theElizabethanAge (London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul,
1979), pp. 174-175. For the role of Elias/Elijah in particularsee Ball, 107; Firth,2, 196,
202; Marion LeathersDaniels Kuntz,"Introduction"to Bodin's Colloquium of theSeven
(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress, 1975), lxi-lxii;GershomG. Scholem,On theKabbalah and Its Symbolism(New York: Schocken Books, 1965), p. 20; Keith Thomas,
Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Penguin Books, 1978), pp. 157, 160;
Webster,GreatInstauration,20.

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H. Paterson 429
Timothy
madepossiblebyscience(3:163).17Finally,theaccount
vancedweaponry
of Bensalem'sJewsmakesclearthat,nineteen
hundredyearsafterthe
establishment
ofBaconianscience,theJewshaveinfactnotconverted
to
hasledthemtosoftentheirdoctoleration
Christianity,
thoughreligious
trinaldifferences
withChristians
tosomeextent
(3:151).Sinceatthetime
Bacon wrotetheNewAtlantisBaconiansciencehad notin hisopinion
inEurope,itwouldseemthateventhatcharacter
beenfirmly
established
whomostclearlyreflects
and appealsto millenarian
hopesconveysthe
that
such
will
remain
unrealized
evenin the
underlying
message
hopes
distantEuropeanfuture.We mayleave the last wordon the alleged
Christian
rootsofBaconianscience"to Baconhimself:
ex"profoundly
amination
of thechronology
of BensalemshowsthatBaconianscience
was established
therealmostthreehundred
yearspriorto thearrivalof
and
hence
must
have
roots
of faith.1"
Christianity,
quiteindependent
ProblemPosedbytheGoalsofBaconianScience
III. The Religious
"the wisestmen" bestwhenwe
Accordingto Bacon, we understand
thegoalswhichtheyhavesetthemselves
comprehend
(3:459);moreover,
"in dealingwithcunningpersonswe musteverconsidertheirendsto
theirspeeches"(6:494). Thosewhowishto interpret
Bacon's
interpret
therefore
consider
thedifficulty
ofreconciling
speechesonreligion
might
theendsor goalspursuedbyBaconiansciencewiththethen-prevailing
Christian
of thehumansituation.
interpretation
For Bacon, theultimateendsor goals of naturalscienceare those
Truesciencewillattaina scope and
positedby alchemyand magic.19
powerof operationwhichwillgiveit thesame relationto magicand
as JuliusCaesarandAlexander
theGreatbearto thelegendary
alchemy
kingsAmadisand Arthur;sciencewilldo greaterthingsin factthan

"'Themorally
natureof Joabinis emphasized
881.
problematic
byWeinberger,
thatEuropeannavigation
'"Thestatement
has greatly
increased
"withinthesesix-score
thattheevents
intheNewAtlantis
described
aretaking
years"(3:140)implies
placein1612
of thesixscoreyearsfrom1492).KingSolamona,whoestablished
(datingthebeginning
Salomon'sHouse,reigned
"aboutnineteen
hundred
was
yearsago" (3:144).Christianity
to Bensalem"abouttwenty
brought
yearsaftertheascensionof ourSavior"(3:137).My
accountof Bensalem's
followsthatgivenbyWeinberger
and White.
chronology
"The bestaccountof Bacon'scomplicated
to magicand alchemy
remains
relationship
Rossi,1-36.See also HaroldFisch,Jerusalem
andAlbion:TheHebraicFactorin SeventeenthCentury
Literature
(New York: SchockenBookc, 1964),pp. 79, 83-86,89-90;
Christopher
Hill,Intellectual
Originsof theEnglishRevolution
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1965),p. 89; Thomas,301-332,792.

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430 Christianity
in FrancisBacon
to havedonein fable(4:85-86).2oIn an
alchemyand magicare feigned
effort
to
redirect
intellectual
apparent
energiesfrommagicto science,
Baconproposedthatonemightregardscientific
as a kindof
technology
"naturaland legitimate
natural
and
in
magic,"
legitimate thesenseof
eschewing
anyclaimto operatewithsupernatural
forces,magicalinthe
sensethatitwouldapply"theknowledge
ofhiddenforms
to theproductionof wonderful
operations"(4:366-367).
Bacon of courseknewthatChristianity
acceptedtheendsof magic
and withprofoundsuspicion,whileremaining
imonly reluctantly
placablyhostileto anydirector impliedclaimthatmagiccouldcommandor coercesupernatural
the
forces.2He tookcareto remainwithin
workedby
boundsoforthodoxy
byrejecting
anyclaimthatthewonders
sciencecouldbe producedbyotherthannaturalmeans;"naturecan be
commanded
onlybybeingobeyed."Fromthepointofviewofthepresof"natural
commondefense
entinquiry,
Bacon'sadoptionofthisfairly
and ratherunconventional
thanthe further
magic" is less interesting
a legitimate
and pious
argument
by whichhe proposedto distinguish
froman impiousandillegitimate
technology,
"magic,"thatis,scientific
variety.
Bacon arguesthatmagicin theusual senseof thetermis impious
obserbecauseitassuresus thatwecanattain"bya feweasyandslothful
vances"thosethingswhichGod has ordainedmustbe "boughtat the
priceof labor" (3:381). Suchmagicdefies"thatfirstedictwhichGod
gaveuntoman,inthesweatofyourfaceyoushalleatyourbread."But
therecan be littledoubtthatBaconiansciencealso seeksto resistor
reversethis divineedict,as Bacon all but openlyadmitswhenhe
theartsand sciencesas efforts
describes
bymankindto "arm and defend" itselfagainst"divinecurses";in thiscontextBacon explicitly
statesthattheartsare meansby whichmankinddefendsitselfagainst
of theearth,and of eating
"the firstgeneralcurseof thebarrenness
breadin thesweatof [one's]face" (4:440-441).SinceBaconianscience
oftheproductive
seeksthelimitless
arts,Bacon's
expansion
indisputably
seemsto be thatthe only"price of labor"
therefore
real argument
mankindmustpay is the effortneededto developa new powernaturalscience,whichcaninturnfreehumanbeingsfromthe
generating
on the
of Bacon'saimsemerges
character
quiteclearlyfromreflection
20Thefantastic
listedin thispassage,and on justwhat"goingfar
promises
specificmagico-alchemical
beyondthesein fact"wouldinvolve.
to theworkbyKeithThomas
attitude
towards
magicsee,inaddition
21'n theChristian
alreadycited,D.P. Walker,Spiritualand DemonicMagicfromFicinoto Campanella
of NotreDamePress,1975).
(NotreDame: University

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H. Paterson 431
Timothy
divineedictorcurse.22"
Thedegreetowhichsuchfreedom
fromlaborcan
everbe completeis leftunspecified,
and theimplication
is thatthisis a
questionwhichcan onlybe resolvedbypractice.Baconsurelyspecifies
no restrictions
on "thereliefofman'sestate"whichmankind
itselfmust
as is so oftenthecase with
on thebasisofrevelation,
respector enforce
on humanprojectsimposedby God turns
Bacon,an allegedlimitation
out on closerinspection
to be indistinguishable
fromthoselimitsimto acposedbywhatthelawsof naturemakeit objectively
impossible
It wouldtherefore
seemthataccording
tothespecific
complish.
criterion
betweenpiousand imbywhichBaconhimself
proposesto distinguish
pious"magic,"hisscienceis self-consciously
impious.23
A secondand morespecificendor goal ofBaconiansciencestrongly
Bacon'sdistancefromtheChristian
tradition.
suggests
By anyreasonable understanding
of thattradition,
theaspiration
to secureliteralimformankind
wasto be regarded
as grossly
mortality
irbyhumanefforts
religious.Yet, fantasticas it mightseem,thereis abundanttextual
evidencethatBacon hopedthatbodilyimmortality
mightbe possible
scientific
medicine
sometimein thedistantfuture.
In an early
through
thetrueorproperendof scienceas "a discovery
work,Bacondescribed
of all operations
and possibilities
of operations
fromimmortality
(if it
werepossible)to themeanestmechanicalpractice"(3:222). We learn
fromWisdomof theAncientsthat"naturalphilosophy
proposesto
itself,as its noblestworkof all, nothingless thantherestitution
and
renovation
ofthings
and(whatis indeedthesamethingina
corruptible,
lowerdegree)theconservation
of bodiesin thestatein whichtheyare,
and theretardation
ofdissolution
and putrefaction"
(6:721).The scientistsofSalomon'sHousedevotean extraordinary
amountofattention
to
thepreservation
ofhealthandtheprolongation
oflife;theyhavegoneso
faras to achievetheresuscitation
of somebodieswhich"seemdead in

appearance" (3:159).24

effort
to arguealongtheselinesproduced
22Anearlyunpublished
thisnotablepieceof
WhentheBiblesaysthatmanmustearnhisbread"bythesweatofhis
scriptural
sophistry:
brow,"it meansthatbreadshouldbe wonprimarily
by mentalas opposedto physical
labor,andhencemandates
thedevelopment
ofa sciencewhichcanmaster
nature!(Works,
3:223).
unusualcharacter
ofBacon'sargument.
He conjectures
23D.P.Walkernotestherather
thatBaconrejected
becausemagic"makesexperiments
magicprimarily
and
unnecessary,
Baconlikeddoingand planning
experiments"
(Walker,202). He does notconsiderthe
thatBacon'sdistinction
possibility
mayhaveembodieda covertantireligious
intention.
Descartesseemsto havegraspedBacon'simplication
here:one of thereasonswe should
makeourselves
"themasters
andpossessors
ofnature"is thatso wemay"enjoywithout
laborthefruits
oftheearth"(DiscourseonMethod,PartSix,towardthebeginning).
tothepossibility
ofindefinitely
4'Forotherreferences
humanlife,see Works,
prolonging

3:157, 158, 159, 160, 167; 4:85, 383-385,390-391,418; 6:721, 749, 761.

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432 Christianity
in FrancisBacon
It mightof coursebe objectedthata desireto achievetheindefinite
to
of humanlifeis hardlythesamethingas an aspiration
prolongation
in principle,
butthree
is undeniable
The distinction
literalimmortality.
in thiscontext.
lead meto questionitssignificance
considerations
First,
canprolonghumanlife,andifthescienceon which
ifscientific
medicine
orindefinite
is to be basedwillitselfbe capableofinfinite
suchmedicine
as an
then
in
the
of
nature,
appears
immortality
surely
mastery
progress
of
fromthejuxtaposition
results
whichlogically
limitpossibility
extreme
twopriorhopeswhichare indisputably
partof Baconianscience.Secofhumanlife
tothislengthening
ond,Bacondoesnotspeakofanylimits
theonly
whichscienceshouldin principle
respect;hereas elsewhere,
or
the
is
for
Bacon
impossibility
possibility
objective
question
significant
ofthegoal,notitspietyor impiety
ifit werepossible").
("immortality,
"to
Bacon
in
work
while
his
speakplainlyandclearThird,
unpublished
is
of
science
the
that
"immortality"
(3:222),
supremegoal
ly" says
in the
found
terms
and
modest
in
the
more
this
plausible
phrasing goal
an
it
was
a
was
works
objechardly
necessity;
surely prudential
published
Giventhegrossimpiety
tivethatcouldhavebeenopenlyacknowledged.
of it are in fact
Bacon's hintedendorsements
of any suchaspiration,
ratherbold.
and openlyassertedgoal of Bacon's
The generally
acknowledged
ofnatureforthereliefofman'sestate.Butexactly
scienceis themastery
needto masternature?Whatis itaboutman'sestate
whydoesmankind
the
to answerthesequestions
Theeffort
relief?
for
out
suggests
thatcries
in
situation
human
the
of
Bacon's
between
tension
conception
profound
of
the
vast
understood
as
biblical
the
majority
natureand
by
conception
I havealludedto perhapsthesingle
Bacon's Christian
contemporaries.
of thistension,theaccountof thedestruction
illustration
moststriking
As thecontextof thataccountmakes
Atlantis.
of Atlantisin theNew
to standforthefateofall
is intended
Atlantis
by
clear,thefatesuffered
naturewhichBensalem
over
the
nationswhichdo not possess
power
ofBacon'sversionof
on
the
details
Reflection
derivesfromitsscience.
withthePlatonicverthe
Baconian
of
andcomparison
theAtlantis
myth
a
of
cosmologyin which
sion revealBacon's apparentacceptance
a
nature
destructions
which,notbeto
is subjected periodic
by
mankind
evenbe called
cannot
or
intentions
of
kind
purposes,
ingguidedbyany
beto thefateof humanbeingsor to themoraldifferences
indifferent
fullof "panicterrors"for
tweenthem.For Bacon,natureis something
too much";forthegood of mankindit mustbe
manand "reverenced
conqueredby science.Bacon's languagewhenhe speaksof thistaskis
consistent and quite revealing: nature must be "made captive,"
"bound," "racked," "conquered," "enslaved and led before us in

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H. Paterson 433
Timothy
chains,"and even"put to death.""2
It is of coursedifficult
to reconcilethisconceptionof natureas
mankind
close
to
a
foe
of
withthatoffered
bytheChristian
something
inBacon'stime.According
tradition
to thattradition,
natureis thework
of a benevolent
creatorwhocontinues
to employhiscreationas an ininstruction
forthemoraland religious
and chastisement
strument
of a
TheFlood,to takethemostobviousexampleandthe
sinfulmankind.26
thosewhichBacondiscusses
onewhichmostresembles
intheNewA tlanto
a
divine
understood
to
be
tis, was
response profoundhuman
Was itreallypossibleforan
not
a
"main
of
time."
accident
wickedness,
orthodoxChristian
of theearlyseventeenth
to endorsetheidea
century
thatthenaturewhichGod has createdrepeatedly
decimatesmankind
without
of
to humanconduct?GivenBacon'sconception
anyreference
innature,onehastowonderwhether
thehumansituation
a certain
grim
of orthodoxbeliefis notconveyed
orthodox
mockery
byhisseemingly
declarationthatscripture
revealsGod's will whilenaturerevealshis
"whereof
the
latter
is a keyuntotheformer"(3:301).If in fact
power,
thereexists"an indissoluble
bond" between"information
concerning
will"
and
"meditation
his power" (4:89), then
[God's]
concerning
Bacon's covertsuggestion
would seem to be thatto the extentone
the
natural
order
as
as orthodox
regards
shapedby divineintentions,
reflection
on
the
that
order
affects
humanbeings
Christianity
does,
way
thatanysuchwillmustbe ill-disposed
towardsman.
suggests
IV. Bacon'sSocialPsychology
ofBeliefandUnbelief
whichBaconproposeddidin facthelpto
Manyof thespecificreforms
weakenChristianity
as a politicalforce.The strictseparation
of reason
and revelation,
thefreeing
of naturalsciencefromthesupervision
of
thedevelopment
of extensive
religiousauthorities,
religioustoleration,
theapplicationof scienceto theproduction
of prosperity,
health,and
the popularization
of the new "non-teleological"
scienceof
security,
nature-whileno singleelementof thisprogramnecessarily
reflects
to Christianity,
in combination
thesechangesdramatically
hostility
narrowedthepublicstatusand relevance
of faith.Moreto thepointhere,
Bacon'sfewbutsignificant
statements
abouttheexperiential
conditions
to
or
weaken
beliefsuggest
thathe foresaw
tending strengthen
religious
and intended
theseconsequences.
" Works4:47; 6:710-713,726, 744. Cf. Essay 58, Works6:512-514.
26See Paul H. Kocher, Science and Religion in ElizabethanEngland (San Marino: The
HuntingtonLibrary,1953), pp. 93-94, 117,218, 263-266,278; Thomas,91-92, 96-97, 101,
105-107.

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434 Christianity
in FrancisBacon
to Bacon,"learnedtimes"are one of theprincipal
causes
According
of thespreadof atheism(6:414). The inverserelationship
also holds:
thrives
on ignorance
ofnaturalcausesin thisworld,and inturn
religion
it (4:76,78, 87-88).Yet,as theverytitleof hisfirstmajorwork
fosters
Bacon undeniably
promoted"learnedtimes";he arguesthat
suggests,
themodernage willbecomethethirdgreatage of learning,
surpassing
ofbothGreeceandRome(notetheomissionofthe
theaccomplishments
ChristianMiddle Ages fromthis honor roll) (4:90-102).It might
theadvanceofscienceis
be objectedthatintheNewA tlantis
reasonably
andthatthe
ofsciencefromsociety,
witha certainseparation
combined
of learning"
an ambitionto combine"the advancement
book reflects
withan avoidanceof"learnedtimes"inthesenseofa
amonga minority
science.
of publicattitudes
transformation
popularized
through
general
notonly
certaindiscoveries
Salomon'sHouse, forexample,withholds
fromthepublicbutevenfrom"thestate"(3:165),andat leastonescienin a quasi-religious
to thecitizenry
himself
tistpresents
guise(3:155;cf.
of theFamily
the
Feast
The
described,
majorpopularceremony
4:390).
is verylittle
citizen
the
of
the
outlook
that
ordinary
(3:147-151),suggests
substanceof the new
affectedby any awarenessof the theoretical
affected
bythepracticalresultswhichthat
science,thoughprofoundly
scienceachieves.
But theseapparenthopesare in suchtensionwiththefundamental
Bacon
of Baconiansciencethatone wondershow seriously
character
to changetheconditions
them.A sciencewhichundertakes
entertained
itsdistancefromsociety,
to maintain
lifewillfinditdifficult
ofeveryday
to higher
and
let alone any air of remoteness,
mystery, consecration
technicians
of
numbers
to
seem
would
"Works"
requirelarge
things.
of
and henceto promotean understanding
of technicians,
and trainers
of
thenonscientific
consciousness
between
sciencewhichis intermediate
the
the
and
genuine
the ordinary
by
possessed
understanding
person
Baconiansciencetherefore
scientists.
impliesan "enlightennecessarily
knowlment"whichinvolvesmanypersonsinthat"littleor superficial
mind
the
incline
to
of
Bacon,
"may
which,according
edge philosophy"
activescientists,
ofmanto atheism"(3:267).In additionto itsthirty-six
attendants,
Salomon'sHouse containsa "greatnumber"of assistants,
of all kinds,bothmenand women(3:165). Moreover,
and apprentices
Bacon is hopelesslyambiguouson the keyquestionof exactlywhat
thenewscience."2
to understand
can be expected
ofmankind
percentage
on
remarks
to be drawnfromhiscontradictory
The clearestconclusion
ofany
andtheeffect
thissubjectis thatthiswillbe resolvedbypractice,
27Compare, forexample, Works4:42, 113 with4:62-63, 109 and 6:756-757.

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H. Paterson 435
Timothy
suchsuggestion
is to removeall predetermined
limitson theeffortto
disseminate
science.
ofbeliefandunbelief
Bacon'ssocialpsychology
describes
consistently
as
the
the
new
will
which
science
overreligion strengthened
by
things
and
weakened
the
conditions
which
that
science
will
come,
by
bring
about. "Learned times"particularly
tendto promoteatheismwhen
joined "with peace and prosperity"
(6:414). The age of Augustus
Caesar,forexample,is saidto havebeenone ofthegreatagesoflearnin thegreatest
ing,a "civiltime"which"had theartof government
it was also a time"inclinedto atheism"(3:274; 6:416).
perfection";
"Troubles and adversities
do more bow men's mindsto religion"
while
"barbarous
(6:414),
times,especially
joined withcalamitiesand
disasters"inclinemento "superstition"
(6:416,514). One of thefundamentalsourcesofthepowerof "superstition"
is thatnatureis fullof
"panic terrors"for humanbeings(6:712). But the New Atlantis
describesa politicalregimewhichhas enduredfornineteen
centuries
andprevent
natural
(3:144)andwhichpossessesa scienceableto predict
disasters
(3:166).
Bacon claimedthatof all existing
ancientatomismofphilosophies
feredthedeepestunderstanding
of nature(4:58). As Bacon knewfull
associatedwiththisschool
well,a critiqueof religionwas intimately
reference
to anygod
(6:384).Ancientatomism
explainednaturewithout
or gods,aggressively
deniedtheimmortality
of thesoul,and offered
a
accountof the sourcesof conventional
psychological
religiousbelief
which by manifestimplicationdenied such beliefsany cognitive
to thisaccount,religion
is strengthened,
at least
significance.
According
withincertainlimits,by fear,anxiety,
and ignoranceof thecausesof
awesomeor terrible
things,
especially
things.One ofthemostimportant
rootsof religionis nature'sincomplete
supportforhumanplansand
andweaknessinthefaceofnaturestrengthen
hopes;poverty,
hardship,
of causes,and theabilityto predictand
it,whileprosperity,
knowledge
controlnatureweakenit. Onlytherationalunderstanding
of naturecan
whichthehumanimagination
on
dispeltheterrors
itself
imposes
through
thereligious
delusion.28
As I havealreadysuggested,
Bacon's understanding
of thereligious
impulseis verycloseto thisaccount.He hintsat an association
between
the progressof the arts and the growthof religious"hypocrisy"
associatedwithgratitude
(6:750-751).Religionis intimately
forgood
On theNatureof Things,
2'Lucretius,
BookOne,lines62-79.See also J.H.Nichols,Jr.,
EpicureanPoliticalPhilosophy:The "De RerumNatura"of Lucretius
(Ithaca:Cornell
University
Press,1976),pp. 101-178.

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in FrancisBacon
436 Christianity
existence
cannotbe assuredby merelyhuman
thingswhosecontinued
The
of
the
arts
weakens
thisrootofreligion
power.
progress
bymaking
theproduction
of suchthingsa predictable
outcomeof humanskill;
everysecurelypossessedgood becomesthe object of boredomand
restless
dissatisfaction
ofthemyth
of
(6:741-743).Bacon'sinterpretation
with
"inPrometheus
that
the
are
arts
associated
suggests
productive
in turn
toward[one's]maker"(6:748).Moreover,
gratitude
ingratitude
who
and
stimulates
the
arts:
those
accuse
unquestionably
"arraign
are "stimulated
natureand thearts,and aboundwithcomplainings"
to freshindustry
while"conceitof
and newdiscoveries,"
perpetually
of
the
causes
want"
is
one
of
principal
(6:747-748)."Sharpand
plenty
ifitinvolvesaccusathe
even
nature
and
of
vehement
accusation"
arts,
is
therefore
"a
maker
and
tionof "our
master,"
thingmoresoberand
and
than. . congratulation thanksgiving"
(6:749).
profitable
Baconsaysthat
of religious
effects
As fortheanticipated
toleration,
to
bothsides,"it
"addeth
zeal
while"anyonemaindivision"ofreligion
introduce
atheism"
is also thecase that "manydivisions
(6:414; emofthe
phasesadded).Butwhenweturnto Bacon'smostdetailedpicture
of
islandkingdom
we findthathisfictional
ofmankind,
future
religious
"few
it allowsthe
Bensalemis a land of extreme
religioustoleration:
in
amongthem"to practicetheirownreligion
stirpsof Jewsremaining
ofBensalem's
alludestoan earlierdescription
peace(3:151).Thisremark
ancientcosmopolitan
origins:"Almostall nationsof mightand fame
ofwhomwe havesomestirpsand littletribeswithus at
resorted
hither,
thisday" (3:141).29If each of thesenationsis stillrepresented
by a
its
inBensalemandis, liketheJews,freeto practice
distinct
community
farbeyondthe
extends
toleration
thenBensalem'sreligious
ownreligion,
tolerationof Judaism(itselfnovel enoughin Bacon's day). The
wearsa turbanadorned
who impartstheabove information
character
witha red cross(3:135); boththe easterngarb and the Rosicrucian
The
of extreme
thesuggestion
reinforce
reference
religious
toleration.30
thatcivilsituaof precisely
establishment
book thushintsat thefuture
thegrowthof
tionof religionwhich,accordingto Bacon,encourages
atheism.
in Bensalem
V. Politics,Science,andReligion
sectionmightbe questionedalongthe
of thepreceding
The argument
29Thenationsspecificallymentionedare Phoenicia, Tyre,Carthage,Egypt,Palestine,
China, Persia, Chaldea, and Arabia.
164.
I3Cf. Yates, RosicrucianEnlightenment,

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H. Paterson 437
Timothy
lines.First,socialconditions
to promoteatheismor
tending
following
indifference
well
established
be
withoutsuchattitudes
might
religious
or
even
common.
the
Second, NewAtlantisseems
general
becoming
very
to depicta landin whichChristianity
continues
to playa majorpublic
role.GrantedthatBacon'sownattitude
to Christianity
havebeen
might
scepticalor hostile,can suchviewshaveanymajorpoliticalsignificance
if theyare confinedto a fairlysmallminority?
Mightpersonalindifference
to faithnothavebeencombined
withan entirely
sincere
expectationthatsomekindof diffuseChristian
sentiment
in a majority
of the
within
populationwould continueto providethe moral framework
whichscientific
powerwouldbe appliedto thesolutionofpractical
problems?To answertheseplausibleobjections,
we mustexaminetherelationbetweenreligion,
in the
politicalpower,and scienceas portrayed
NewAtlantis.
The Christian
toneofthebookis undeniable.
Itsrhetorical
appealto
theChristian
readerduplicates
an important
feature
of thestoryit tells
of a successful
attempt
by Bensalemto converta groupof European
Christians
to Bensalem'swayof life,notleastby meansof Christian
rhetoric.
Butwhilethepublicrhetoric
of Bensalemhas a definite
Christianflavor,closerexamination
indicates
thatBensalem'sis a dilutedand
whichis littlemorethana glossupona more
syncretistic
Christianity
fundamental
veneration
of scienceandscientists,
thefamily,
thenation,
and security.
The majorsemi-public
ritual
peace,prosperity,
longevity,
or ceremony
described
is morepaganthanChristian;
Bacon's narrator
callsit "a ceremony
inwhichnature[does]muchpreside"(3:151).Bensalem'sreligion
seemsto be an exampleof whatBaconcalled"natural
as patriotism
and respectforparents,
piety,"basedon suchsentiments
or unnaturalpietyof traditional
thinlydisguisedby the supernatural
in BenChristianity.
Althoughthe exactpublicstatusof Christianity
salemis ambiguous(it is not clear,forexample,whether
thereis an
established
Baconwasofcoursenotunqualifiedly
hostileto the
church),
Christian
churches
as socialandpoliticalinstitutions,
in the
particularly
shortterm."He wishedto seeChristianity
reformed
to makeit
radically
lessinclined
towardsectarian
conflict
andmeddling
withnaturalscience,
and he believedthatif sucha reform
couldbe effected,
an established
churchmightbe sociallyuseful.At thesametime,he was notat all sure
thatChristianity
couldbe so reformed.
Theambiguity
oftheNewA tlan" Works
3:302, 6:381-384. See also FultonH. Anderson,FrancisBacon: His Careerand
His Thought(Los Angeles: Universityof SouthernCalifornia Press, 1962), pp. 71-98;
White,63-75.

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in FrancisBacon
438 Christianity
tis about theexactpublicstatusof Christianity
this
probablyreflects
uncertainty.
Butthecharacter
of popularreligionin Bensalemis notthedecisive
consideration
fortheproblemof thedirection
of scientific
power.The
crucialpointregarding
therelationof religion
to scienceappearsin the
accountof themannerin whichtheChristian
religionarrivedin Bensalemand wonacceptancethere(3:137-139).Bacon depictsa situation
whichreverses
theactualsituation
in earlymodernEurope:ratherthan
sciencehavingto makea placeforitselfin an alreadyChristian
society,
arrivesin BensalemseveralhundredyearsafterBaconian
Christianity
sciencehas beenfirmly
established
there.The implications
of thistemreinforced
poralsequencearepowerfully
bythedetailsof Christianity's
thesignsand wonderswhichprovethedivineoriginsof the
reception:
Gospel are acceptedas genuinemiraclesonly aftertheyhave been
ofSalomon'sHouse(3:137).Thatis,
as suchbya member
authenticated
ofnewreligious
theintroduction
andreception
sciencecontrols
ideas;in
theservantbutin
scienceis apparently
Bensalem,fromthebeginning,
factthemasterof religion.32
inseveralplaces,Christianity
seemsto playa very
As I haveindicated
andthisis
of Bensalem'sscientists,
minorroleintheself-understanding
the
the futurerole of religionin directing
thecrucialpointregarding
byBaconianscience.TheNewAtlantisunquespowerto be generated
hintsat a dramatic
expansionofthepoliticalroleof scientists;
tionably
as openlyas
inmyopinion,thebookdepictsa defactorulebyscientists
and openly
makean unprecedented
Bacon dared.Bensalem'sscientists
of all
and
to
the
contribution
health,
prosperity
security,
acknowledged
of new
and interpretation
citizens.They controlthe introduction
religiousideas. Theywield amazingand almostdivinepowersover
bythepeoplewitha quasi-religious
nature,and as a resultareregarded
awesome
reverence
(3:163)and
military
technology
(3:155).Theypossess
secrets
whatever
are in a positionto withhold
theywish
technological
from"thestate"(3:165).Theirtruepoliticalpositionis indicated
bythe
in effectrepealingone of the
factthattheworkendswitha scientist
For
on hisowninitiative.
mostfundamental
laws,apparently
kingdom's
a law established
nineteen
centuries
by KingSolamonahas mandated
thatthe island'sexistencebe keptsecretfromthe restof the world
"leave
buttheFatherofSalomon'sHousegivesthenarrator
(3:144-145),
to publish[theaccountof Salomon'sHouse] forthegood of othernareas to whatthegoodofhumanity
tions"(3:166).Scientific
judgments
"3SeeWeinberger,875; White, 157-160.

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H. Paterson 439
Timothy
quirescan securetherepealofeventhemostbasiclaws.TheNewAtlanthattheminority
in whichthereligious
ofBacon
tisintimates
scepticism
is mostto be expectedis also thegroupwhichplaysthemost
himself
role in the applicationof scientific
powerand indeedin
significant
life
political generally.
VI. The Machiavellian
Character
ofBaconianScience
The specifically
to Christianity
Baconianmotiveunderlying
hostility
apmost
when
we
consider
Bacon's
pears
clearly
dependenceon, and
modification
ofMachiavelli.
Bacon'sdebttoMachiavelli
of,thethought
in ethicsand politicswas openlyacknowledged
(3:430),and has been
discussedmanytimes."The Machiavellian
rootsof Baconiannatural
scienceare lesswellknown.Fameis thehighest
humangood (thusfar
fame
but
is
best
won
in scienceand
innovations
Machiavelli),
through
which
and
technology,
(unlikepolitical
military
exploits)benefitall
not
the
citizens
of
one
Baconian
modification
mankind, just
country
(the
ofMachiavelli)
The
is
not
that
of
one
manover
(4:113).
greatest
empire
hisowncountry
or ofhisowncountry
overothercountries,
buttherule
of"mankind"over"theuniverse"(4:114).Scienceandtechnology,
not
warandpolitics,
leadtothemostlastingfamebecausethemosteffective
theirbodies,whilethemost
wayto dominatemen'smindsis to benefit
effective
to
benefit
their
bodies
is
to
master
thenon-human
nature
way
whichthreatens
them(3:316;4:372,379).
societieswhich
Seekingtheacceptanceof thenewsciencebyexisting
werein factChristian,
Bacon promoteda conception
of thescientist
whichtendseventodaytoobscuretheMachiavellian
founpsychological
dationsofBaconianscience.Thenewscientist,
tothisconcepaccording
tion,wouldbe a selflesslaborerforthegood of mankind,
concerned
aboveall with"thegloryoftheCreatorandthereliefofman'sestate.""3
Yet theradicaltensionbetweenthisinspiring
mythand Bacon's own
of thepsychology
of thephilosopher
makesit difficult
description
to
believein thesincerity
of thesehopes.The centerof Bacon'sattackon
existingphilosophy,modernas well as ancient,is a ferocious
ofthephilosopher
as a humantype.According
psychological
to
critique
thisaccount,all philosophers
havebeenmotivated
by vanity,indolent
"On Bacon's relationto Machiavelli,see Farrington,31; Hiram Haydn, The CounterRenaissance (New York: Harcourt,Brace, and World, 1950), pp. 253-258; V. Luciana,
"Bacon and Machiavelli," Italica, Vol. 24, no. 1 (1979), pp. 26-40; Felix Raab, The
EnglishFace of Machiavelli(London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul, 1964), pp. 73-76; Rossi,
110-116.
" Works3:294; 6:403; see also the articleby Prior cited earlier.

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in FrancisBacon
440 Christianity
to wisdom,envyof
narcissism,
"vainglory,"hatredof rivalclaimants
and fratricidal
hiddentyrannical
otherphilosophers,
impulses,and
to rulemen'smindsandbe thought
superior
(aboveall) bytheambition
to others."Butwhythenshouldtheauthorofthe"realistic"psychology
would
thatthemotives
ofBaconianscientists
oftheEssayshaveexpected
Bacon nevergivesthe
be different?
rhetoric,
Despitehis magnificent
willbecomesaints,or saints
reasonto believethatscientists
slightest
scientists.
ofsciencewhichBacon
intheorganization
reforms
In fact,thespecific
of motives
transformation
the
that
seem
to
assume
profound
proposes
will
nottake
science
about
in
Baconian
or
propaganda
predicted urged
and
receive
unless
scientists
will
Science
honor,
position,
stagnate
place.
of
materialrewardfor theirlabors(3:324-325;4:90). The scientists
ofgreatpowerand
Salomon'sHouse,inadditionto occupying
positions
(3:154-156),receive"liberaland honorablereward"forproprestige
statuesare erectedin theirhonor
and inventions;
fitablediscoveries
in prowhichare madeout of morepreciousor lesspreciousmaterials
comThe
scientific
invention
the
worth
of
the
to
(3:165-166).
portion
itself
and
fines"
to
and
must
guard
punish
employ"ignominy
munity
of
motives
the
all-too-human
scientific
previous
charlatanry;
against
seemnotto havebeenovercome
(3:164).In thespiritofthe
philosophers
Machiavelliananalysisof politicallife which he praises,Bacon's
"whatphilosophers
describes
ofthephilosopher
do, andnot
psychology
whattheyoughtto do."
restson
of Christianity
of Machiavelli'scriticism
Bacon's extension
Bacon
scientists.
of
motives
the
about
agreed
theforegoing
assumptions
tendedto makegood menpolitically
thatChristianity
withMachiavelli
or inactive(6:403-404).Unlikethereligionof theRomans,
ineffectual
In Bacon's opinion,
belittles
worldlygloryand strength.36
Christianity
"To
for
reserved
been
had
honors
thehighest
greatinventors:
properly
while
divine
awarded
former
honors,
inventions
of
authors
the
ages]
[the
to thosewho did good servicein thestate... theydecreedno higher
wasjust" (4:113).
ofantiquity
honorsthanheroic.. . . Thisjudgement
creditforthe
who
deserves
knows
that
It is therefore
nobody
puzzling
and consevirtue
and
force
"The
times:
modern
of
inventions
greatest
more
be
seen
nowhere
to
are
.
.
.
conspicuously
discoveries
of
quences
and of which
to theancients,
thanin thosethreewhichwereunknown
"For some typicalpassages, see Works3:294, 352-353,365, 388; 4:16, 64-65,69, 72, 75;
6:705-706. Useful also by virtueof theirgreaterfranknessare the writingstranslatedby
Farrington;see in particularFarrington,63, 64, 70, 115, 127.
'6Works 6:448, 451-452,503, 505-506.

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H. Paterson 441
Timothy
theorigin,thoughrecent,is obscureand inglorious;
namely,printing,
and the magnet"(4:114, emphasisadded). But TheAdgunpowder,
vancement
obscurity:
ofLearninghintsat thereasonforthisundeserved
"In thedegreesofhumanhonoramongst
theheathen,
itwasthehighest
to obtainto a veneration
and adorationas a god. ThisuntotheChristiansis as theforbidden
fruit"(3:301; cf.3:155;4:390).
Thatis to say,whenChristianity
thehighest
forbids
possibledegreeof
thosedeedswhichmostdeserveglory:greatscienglory,it discourages
tificandtechnological
discoveries.
Thehighest
formofhumanambition
is denieditsfitting
reward.Thisis nothyperbole;
consider
whatBacon
daresto sayopenlyabouthisownhopes:"If menhavethought
so much
ofsomeoneparticular
as to regardhimas morethanmanwho
discovery
hasbeenablebysomebenefit
to makethewholehumanracehisdebtor,
howmuchhighera thingto discoverthatbymeansof whichall things
elseshallbe discovered
withease" (4:115,emphasesadded)." In additionto itsundeniableand often-noted
moraland politicaldisgustat a
of sectarian
century
bloodshed,Baconiansciencerejectswhatitregards
as Christianity's
to scientific
and technological
as well as
hostility
virtu.
politicaland military
VII. Conclusion
If,as I haveargued,Baconianscienceis characterized
inbya profound
nerdistancefromChristianity,
and ifin factBaconbelievedthatinthe
future
scientists
wouldplaya politically
crucialrole,thentheproblem
of
themoralandpoliticalcontrolofscientific
repowerinBacon'sthought
fromthatwhichhas dominated
quiresan approachdifferent
thediscussion untilnow. An analysisof Bacon's understanding
of the purely
secularfactors
whichmight
controlsciencewould,I think,
haveto begin
withhisclaimthatatheismneednotproduceovertly
viciousbehavior:
"Atheismleavesa manto sense,to philosophy,
to naturalpiety,to laws,
to reputation,
all whichmaybe guidesto an outwardmoralvirtue,
thoughreligionwere not .

." (6:415-416). Furthermore,

"an external

goodness"(or "outwardmoralvirtue")is sufficient

forall thepurposes
of civilor politicalsociety(3:445). Furtherinquiryalong theselines
wouldtherefore
seekto clarifyBacon's understanding
of the secular
"guidesto an outwardmoralvirtue"of scientists.
The fundamental
problemwhichany suchapproachwouldface is
easierto statethanto solve.Baconappearsto havebeenconfident
that
an increaseinthepoliticalpowerof scientists
couldsolvethemoraland
"The referenceis to Baconian methodin science.

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in FrancisBacon
442 Christianity
politicalproblemsgeneratedby the growthof scientific
powerover
nature.Anysuchconfidence
wouldqua
requiredbeliefthatscientists
be goodmen(at leastin thelimited
scientists
and of necessity
sensejust
and Bacon does indeedseemto teachthisat times.Yet his
indicated),
of the
and of the psychology
own accountof humanpsychology,
in particular,
or scientist
appearsto renderanysuchfaith
philosopher
The realnatureof Bacon's
ifnotcompletely
problematic,
groundless.38
as a genuineproblemwhen
moraland politicalcase forscienceemerges
thatintensereligiouscommitments
we abandonthe easy assumption
If "truereligion"neither
blindedhimto all suchdifficulties.
prevented
himfromseeing,norseemedto himto solve,themoraland political
whathe
problems
posedbyBaconianscience,thenwe mustre-examine
meantwhenhe spokeof theotherpowerwhichwouldgovernscience:
"soundreason."
"Cf. the perceptiveremarksin Davis, 106, 112-113,116, 120.

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