Control of a DC Microgrid

Marko Gulin
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Control and Computer Engineering
Unska 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
marko.gulin@fer.hr

AbstractA microgrid is a part of a distribution network

embedding multiple distributed generation systems (mostly nonconventional renewable energy sources like photovoltaic panels,
small wind turbines etc.) and storage systems with local loads,
which can be disconnected from the upstream network under
emergency conditions or as planned. The microgrid concept
naturally arose to cope with the penetration of renewable energy
sources, which can be realistic if the final user is able to generate,
store, control and manage part of the energy that it will consume.
The power connection between microgrid components can be
done through a direct current (DC) link or an alternating current
(AC) link. In this paper we describe operation modes (gridconnected, islanded) and control methods of a DC microgrid.
Index TermsDistributed generation and storage, DC microgrid, Microgrid operation modes, Active load sharing, Droop
control methods

I. I NTRODUCTION
Around the world, conventional fossil-fuelled power system
is facing problems of gradual depletion of fossil fuel resources,
poor energy efficiency and environmental pollution [1]. These
problems have led to a new trend of generating power locally
at distribution voltage level by using small-scale conventional
biomass-fuelled energy sources like gas and diesel microturbines, together with non-conventional renewable energy
sources like photovoltaic panels, wind turbines etc., and other
non-conventional sources like fuel cells. This type of power
generation is termed as distributed generation and the involved
energy sources are termed as distributed generation sources.
Distributed generation can offer considerable social and economic benefits, including reduced power network losses and
the exploitation of renewable energy resources [2].
The integration of renewable energy sources poses a challenge because their output is intermittent and variable and
in principle requires an energy storage to enable time-shift
between energy production and consumption. If only one renewable energy source is considered, the integration is simple
for stand-alone use the source is connected with a storage
and load, while in the grid-connected case the source injects
the power directly into the power network, whereas the issues
of power balancing are left to be handled by distribution and/or
transmission system operators. Considerable improvements
may however be achieved when heterogeneous distributed
energy sources are used in a bulk for local or grid power
supply, like easier grid integration and smart power management, with benefits both locally and on the grid-side. The
required power and information communication infrastructure

to enable it is called a microgrid. Most commonly used energy

storage devices in a microgrid are batteries, supercapacitors,
flywheels, and fuel cells with electrolyser (EL). This type of
energy storage is termed as distributed storage and the energy
storage devices are termed as distributed storage devices.
Microgrid is defined as a cluster of distributed generation
sources, distributed storage devices and distributed loads that
operate so as to improve the reliability and quality of the
local power supply and of the power system in a controlled
manner [3]. The microgrid concept naturally arose to cope
with the penetration of renewable energy sources, which can
be realistic if the final user is able to generate, store, control
and manage part of the energy that it will consume [4].
The power connection between microgrid components, i.e.
distributed generation sources, storages and loads, can be done
through a direct current (DC) link or an alternating current
(AC) link. In this paper a DC link microgrid is considered,
with emphasis on its control and power management in gridconnected and islanded operation mode.
Microgrid control must insure that: (i) new distributed
generation and storage systems can be added or removed from
the microgrid seamlessly, (ii) equal and stable current sharing
between parallel power converters (i.e. sources) is enabled, (iii)
output voltage fluctuations can be corrected, and (iv) desired
power flow from/to the microgrid together with technically
and economically viable operation is enabled. There is a fairly
large number of methods for paralleling power converters
(PCs). From the viewpoint of the operating mechanism to
current sharing and output voltage level management, control
methods are classified into two basic categories: (i) active load
sharing, and (ii) droop control methods.
The report is structured as follows. In Section II a microgrid concept is introduced. In Section III a microgrid power
management in grid-connected and islanded operation mode
is described. In Section IV a commonly used DC microgrid
control methods are described.
II. A MICROGRID CONCEPT
Due to the ever-increasing demand for high-quality and
reliable electric power, the concept of distributed generation
and energy storage has attracted widespread attention in recent
years. Distributed generation and storage systems consist of
relatively small-scale generation and energy storage devices
that are interfaced with low- or medium-voltage distribution
networks through power converters and can offset the local

power consumption, or even export power to the upstream

network if their generation surpasses the local consumption.
An upcoming philosophy of operation which is expected to
enhance the utilization of distributed generation and energy
storage is known as the microgrid concept.
The main benefits of microgrids are high energy efficiency,
high quality and reliability of the delivered electric power,
more flexible power network operation, and environmental
and economical benefits [5]. However, to achieve a stable
and secure operation, a number of technical, regulatory and
economic issues have to be resolved before microgrids can
become commonplace. In this paper we deal with control
methods for integrating distributed generation and energy storage systems into a microgrid, as well with power management
in grid-connected and islanded operation mode.
The main components of a microgrid are: (i) distributed
generation sources such as photovoltaic panels, small wind
turbines, fuel cells, diesel and gas microturbines etc., (ii)
distributed energy storage devices such as batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels etc., and (iii) critical and non-critical
loads. Energy storage devices are employed to compensate
for the power shortage or surplus within the microgrid. They
also prevent transient instability of the microgrid by providing
power in transient. The transient power shortage in a microgrid
can be compensated for by fast energy storage devices in the
microgrid, or by the utility grid through a bidirectional power
converter when operating in grid-connected mode.
The issue of the power quality in microgrids is an important issue due to the presence of an appreciable number
of sensitive loads whose performance and lifespan can be
adversely affected by voltage sags, harmonics and imbalances.
In a microgrid, most distributed generation sources and storage
devices employ power converters which can rapidly correct
indicated imperfections, even in the presence of nonlinear and
unbalanced loads [5]. The selection of an appropriate power
converter mainly depends on the generation source and storage
device type, and on the used power connection between the
microgrid components.
The power connection between microgrid components can
be done through a DC link or an AC link. Many nonconventional energy sources generate low-voltage DC power,
e.g. photovoltaic panels, fuel cells etc. Most of these sources
supply power to an AC utility grid and require costly and
inefficient power converters, even where the power may
ultimately be delivered to a DC device. However, power
transmission through a low-voltage DC link produces more
losses than transmission through a high-voltage AC link.
With development of a microgrid control methods along
with cost-effective and efficient power converters, a DC link
microgrid can become a promising solution for integrating
distributed generation sources, storages and loads. Adding
intelligence to a DC microgrid controllers further enables
consumer engagement with utility grid through smart metering
and ultimately with dynamic demand management, and this
could reduce costs associated with periods of high and low
power consumption.

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a microgrid which

embeds (i) distributed generation sources such as photovoltaic
panels, small wind turbine, and fuel cells, (ii) distributed
storage devices such as batteries, supercapacitors and flywheel,
and (iii) distributed loads. Each distributed generation source
and storage device is interfaced with a common link through
a power converter. The microgrid is galvanically isolated from
the utility grid and can be easily disconnected from the grid
through the main switch for maintenance purposes. In a case of
power shortage that can occur when utility grid is not available,
non-critical loads can be disconnected from the microgrid
through an emergency switch. Worth noting, microgrid can
also embed combined heat and power systems that exploit
waste heat for domestic purposes where heat flows can be
managed in addition to electrical energy flows.
Distributed generation systems
PV panels Wind turbine Fuel cells

H2 tank
EL

PC

PC

PC

PC
DC LINK

PC

Utility grid

PC

PC

Batteries

Flywheel

Distributed storage systems

Fig. 1.

PC

FER building
Distributed loads

Schematic diagram of a DC microgrid

III. M ICROGRID OPERATION MODES

A microgrid is connected into the utility grid through a
bidirectional power converter, that continuously monitors both
sides and manages power flow between them. If there is a
fault in the utility grid, the power converter will disconnect the
microgrid from the grid, creating an islanded energy system.
The microgrid can continue to operate in the islanded mode,
that is primarily intended to enhance system reliability and
service continuity, and it is typically unplanned. However, it
can also be introduced intentionally for maintenance purposes
through the main switch. In some cases, islanded operation is
the only mode of operation, e.g. in off-grid remote electrification system. Concludingly, there are two operation modes for
a microgrid: (i) grid-connected, and (ii) islanded mode.
Consider a DC microgrid that consists of (i) distributed
generation sources such as photovoltaic panels, wind turbine
and fuel cells stack with electrolyser, (ii) distributed storage
devices such as batteries and supercapacitors, and (iii) critical
and non-critical loads, all connected in parallel into the common DC link through corresponding power converters. The
power flow of the systems in the considered DC microgrid is
shown in Figure 2.

WT

H2

FC

B. Islanded mode
HT

EL

PLOAD

PGRID
AC grid Bidirectional
power converter

BAT

SC

Storage systems

Fig. 2.

Critical loads Non-critical loads

A DC microgrid power flow

The sum of the output power of the photovoltaic panels,

the wind turbine and the fuel cells, i.e. distributed generation
sources, is defined as:
PDG = PP V + PW T + PF C ,

(1)

where PP V , PW T and PF C are photovoltaic panels, wind

turbine and fuel cells output power.
The distributed generation systems supply unidirectional
power to the DC microgrid and play a role as the main energy
source. Since energy storage devices control the power balance
of a DC microgrid by charge and discharge, the power flow
is bidirectional and the reference power for energy storage
devices is defined as:
PDS = PBAT +PSC +PEL = PGRID +PDG PLOAD , (2)
where PBAT and PSC are batteries and supercapacitors charging power, PEL is the electrolyser power, PLOAD is required
power of all loads connected into the DC microgrid, critical
and non-critical, and PGRID is the utility grid power.
The loads are assumed to demand unidirectional power
from the microgrid. According to a varying local demand,
the distributed storage systems realize a power balance, and
thus make a continuous high-quality power supply to the
load possible [6]. In a case of power shortage that can occur
when utility grid is not available, non-critical loads can be
disconnected from the microgrid.
In the following subsections, a simple algorithm of power
management for DC microgrid is described. It must be noted
that this is not the only option power management. In future
work, the problem of the optimal power management will be
handeled by the control algorithm.
A. Grid-connected mode
In the grid-connected operation mode, the grid-tied power
converter has control over the DC link voltage level. If the
output sum of the power of the distributed generation systems
is sufficient to charge the storage devices, any excessive power
is supplied to the utility grid. If the sum of the power of the
distributed generation and storage systems is deficient with
respect to the load demand, the required power is supplied
from the utility grid. In the grid-connected mode, power management is performed in a complementary manner between
storage devices and as a result a DC microgrid can operate
safely and efficiently.

When a DC microgrid must be separated from the utility

grid and switch to the islanded mode, the grid-tied power
converter releases control of the DC link voltage level, and one
of the converters in the microgrid must take over that control.
Since each converter of distributed generation sources is used
for optimal control of its belonging source, only the converters
of the energy storage elements are free to regulate the DC link
voltage level. During the islanded mode, the battery plays the
main role in regulating the DC link voltage level, and the
supercapacitor plays a secondary role in responding of the
sudden power requirement as an auxiliary source/sag, i.e. for
peak shaving during transients.
IV. M ICROGRID CONTROL METHODS
Microgrid control must insure that: (i) new distributed
generation and storage systems can be added or removed from
the microgrid seamlessly, (ii) equal and stable current sharing
between parallel power converters (i.e. sources) is enabled, (iii)
output voltage fluctuations can be corrected, and (iv) desired
power flow from/to the microgrid together with technically
and economically viable operation is enabled. There is a fairly
large number of methods for paralleling power converters.
From the viewpoint of the operating mechanism to current
sharing and output voltage level management, control methods
are classified into two basic categories: (i) active load sharing,
and (ii) droop control methods. It is also possible to design
a hybrid control method combining good aspects of active
load sharing and droop control method, but this will not be
further discussed. A microgrid control is often implemented in
a hierarchical manner, with three control loops: (i) tertiary loop
manages the power flow from/to the microgrid, (ii) secondary
loop corrects output voltage fluctuations, and (iii) primary loop
performs current sharing control between power converters.
Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit of two DC power
supplies connected in parallel sharing a common load through
resistive output impedances. If there is some voltage difference
between sources, this will circulate a current between DC
sources, and in order to reduce the circulating current a
primary control loop is applied.
R1

Vo

V1

R2
I2

I1

PV

Fig. 3.

IL

Generation systems

V2

Two parallel-connected DC power supplies

The output voltage Vo , i.e. the DC link voltage, can be

expressed as:
Vo
V1
V2
=
+
IL ,
(3)
Rp
R1
R2

where IL is the total load current, and Rp is the parallel

resistance defined as:
1
1
1
=
+
.
Rp
R1
R2

(4)

In a case of sudden rise of the load current IL , the output

voltage Vo drops. In order to restore its nominal voltage level,
a secondary control loop is applied.
V. ACTIVE LOAD SHARING
The first category of control methods, named the active load-sharing technique [7][26], need intercommunication
link. Although these links limit the flexibility of the microgrid
and degrade its redundancy, both tight current sharing and
low-output-voltage fluctuations can be achieved. The following
section provides a review of the existing active load sharing
control methods for parallel converters available in literature
[4]. The active load sharing control methods can be classified
into three different types: (i) centralized control, (ii) masterslave control (MS), and (iii) circular chain control (3C).

C. Circular chain control

The circular chain control, shown in Figure 4(c), consists
of the current reference of each module taken from the other
module, forming a control ring. Note that the current reference
of the first unit is obtained from that of the last unit to form a
circular chain information. This strategy can be expressed as:

iN ,
k = 1,
ik =
(7)
ik1 , k = 2, . . . , N.
The current limitation control is a variant of the circular
chain control. In this case, the load voltage is controlled by
the master module, whereas the slave modules are only for
sharing the load current. Except for the master module, the
current command of the slave is generated by its previous
module and limited in amplitude. In this scheme, any module
can be the master (dedicated, rotating, high-crest current).
i1
CL

The centralized control, shown in Figure 4(a), consists of

dividing the total load current iL by the number of modules
(MODs) N , so that this value becomes the current reference
ik of each module k:
k = 1, 2, . . . , N.

(5)

B. Master-slave control

vref
iN
iNiload
vo CCB
CL

i2

MOD
2

MOD
N

Load

(a) Centralized control of a DC microgrid

is

im
CL

The current reference value is subtracted by the current

of each module, obtaining the current error ik , which is
processed through a current control loop (CL). An outer
control loop in the centralized control, i.e. voltage control
loop (VL), adjusts the load voltage. Using this approach, it
is necessary to measure the total load current iL , so it cannot
be used in a large distributed systems. Consequently, a central
control board (CCB) is necessary.

CL

vref

MOD
M

VL

MOD
S2

is

is2

CL

isN

MOD
SN

Load

vo
(b) Master-slave control of a DC microgrid

i1
CL

i2
CL

i1
MOD
2

MOD
1

iN
CL

i2

iN

MOD
N

Load

(c) Circular chain control of a DC microgrid

In the master-slave control, the master module regulates

output voltage. Hence, the master current im fixes the current
references of the rest of the modules (slaves) as:
is = im ,

CL

MOD
1

A. Centralized control

iL
ik = ,
N

i2

i1

s = 2, . . . , N.

(6)

Consequently, as shown in Figure 4(b), the master acts as a

voltage source converter, whereas the slave works as a current
source converter. If the master unit fails, another module will
take the role of master in order to avoid the overall failure
of the system. There exist different variants of this control
method, depending on the role of the master: (i) dedicated,
where the master is one fix module, (ii) rotary, where the
master is arbitrarily chosen, and (iii) high-crest current, where
the module that brings the maximum current automatically
becomes the master.

Fig. 4.

Active load sharing control methods

VI. D ROOP CONTROL METHOD

The second category of control methods, named the droop
control method [27][34], is able to avoid critical communication links. The absence of critical communications between
the modules improves the reliability without restricting the
physical location of the modules. The droop method is based
on a well-known concept in large-scale power systems, which
consists of drooping the frequency of the AC generator when
its output power increases [4]. The droop method achieves
higher reliability and flexibility in the physical location of the
modules since it only uses local power measurements.

A. Virtual output impedance

In the virtual output impedance control, shown in Figure 5,
current at the module output is sensed and sent back to the
module input via virtual impedance RD , where is compared
with the output voltage reference at no load:
vo = vref io RD ,

(8)

where io is the module output current, RD is the virtual output

impedance, and vref is the output voltage reference at no load.
vref
vo

vo
VL
CL

RD

io1

MOD
1

Fig. 5.

vref
vo

vo
RD

VL
CL

ioN

MOD
N

vM G

VL

vM
G

Load

Droop control of a DC microgrid via virtual output impedance

This control loop has the inherent load-dependent voltage

deviation. To solve the problem of the voltage deviation, the
voltage level in the microgrid vM G is sensed and compared

with the voltage reference vM

G , and the error processed
through a compensator is sent to all the modules to restore the
output voltage. The controller can be expressed as follows:
Z
vo = kp eV + ki eV dt,
(9a)

e V = vM
G vM G ,

(9b)

where kp and ki are the control parameters of the microgrid

voltage level compensator. Finally, equation (8) becomes:
vo = vref + vo io RD .

(10)

B. Series resistor
In the series resistor control, a resistor is placed in series
with the module output to provide a voltage drop in the output.
In this control method, all of the paralleled modules have
an initial setting that, via a potentiometer, are made almost
identical. Obviously, the major disadvantage of this approach
is the high power dissipation in the series resistor if the droop
in output voltage is large. Because of added power dissipation,
this method is used only for low-power linear post-regulators
[35]. Microgrid voltage level deviation is corrected in the same
way as in virtual output impedance control method.
VII. C ONCLUSION
A microgrid is a part of a distribution network embedding multiple distributed generation systems (mostly nonconventional renewable energy sources like photovoltaic panels, small wind turbines etc.) and storage systems with local
loads, which can be disconnected from the upstream network
under emergency conditions or as planned. The microgrid concept naturally arose to cope with the penetration of renewable
energy sources, which can be realistic if the final user is able

to generate, store, control and manage part of the energy that

it will consume. The power connection between microgrid
components can be done through a direct current (DC) link or
an alternating current (AC) link.
In this paper we describe operation modes and control
methods of a DC microgrid. A microgrid can operate in a gridconnected mode or in an islanded operation mode. From the
viewpoint of the operating mechanism to current sharing and
output voltage management, control methods can be classified
as an active load sharing and droop methods. The main difference between aforementioned control methods is that droop
control methods do not require fast communication between
components (i.e. generation sources and storage devices), thus
improving system reliability and flexibility at the cost of the
DC link voltage level stability.
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