Академический Документы
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Part 2:
Toolkit
Table of Contents
Tool 1: Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality .......................................................... 3
Tool 2: Urban Air Quality Profile ............................................................................ 6
Tool 3: Air Quality related Activity Sectors .............................................................13
Tool 4: Overview of Air Pollutants ........................................................................16
Tool 5: Mapping Air Quality Issues .......................................................................26
Tool 6: World Health Organizations (WHO) and National Air Quality Guidelines............31
Tool 7: Health and Other Adverse Effects of Common Air Pollutants ...........................39
Tool 8: Estimating the Health Effects of PM10 ........................................................42
Tool 9: Estimating the Health Effects of Lead .........................................................52
Tool 10: Estimating the Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) ..................................57
Tool 11: Estimating the Health Effects of Ozone (O3) ..............................................61
Tool 12: Measuring City Air Quality ......................................................................66
Tool 13: Calculating Air Pollution Near Roads Using CAR-International Model...............73
Tool 14: Using IMMIS LUFT and CALINE Models to Assess Air Quality Pollution due to
Traffic .............................................................................................................80
Tool 15: Rapid Inventory Assessment Technique (RIAS): A Decision Support Tool for
Selecting Options to Address Traffic Related Air Pollution..........................................85
Tool 16: Calculating Air Pollution near Industrial Activities........................................93
Tool 17: Decision Support System for Industrial Pollution Control (DSS/IPC) ...............97
Tool 18: Assessing Indoor Air Pollution..................................................................98
Tool 19: Preparing an Emissions Inventory .......................................................... 105
Tool 20: Management Strategies for Air Pollution due to Transport .......................... 108
Tool 21: Management Strategies for Air Pollution Due to Industries.......................... 121
Tool 22: Management Strategies for Indoor Air Pollution ........................................ 130
Tool 23: Managing Air Pollution from Natural Sources............................................ 134
Tool 24: Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost Effective Analysis ...................................... 136
Tool 25: Indicators for Air Quality Management Capabilities.................................... 139
Tool 26: Some Environmental Management Principles............................................ 143
Tool 27: Environmental Management Instruments ................................................ 149
Tool 28: Some Technical Concepts and Terms Explained ........................................ 150
Tool 29: Where to Find Further Information on Air Quality Management ................... 157
Tool 30: Software ........................................................................................... 162
Conversion Table
163
dense central business districts - high rise buildings cause street canyon effects;
inner city highways and other transport infrastructure - with individual cars and
freight transport;
inner city forests, green areas and urban agriculture - absorbing the greenhouse
gas CO2 (and, in turn, releasing oxygen) and filtering particles and dust.
To assist the establishment of issue specific working groups who will in turn
identify the critical air quality issues in their city.
To provide city managers with the necessary background information for strategy
formulation
(this
includes
factors
influencing
policy
formulation
and
implementation).
an introductory part,
2.
3.
4.
The urban air quality management systems include the individuals, sectors, groups or
organizations involved in development activities that interact with air as a resource.
The volume of a typical profile depends on the size and complexity of the urban setting.
In order to make it accessible to technicians as well as decision makers, it should not be
textbook length. A good profile is well illustrated (photos, maps, charts) to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the issues. Technical details can be further elaborated in
separate annexes or in proposition papers.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
The summary gives a concise overview of the content of the document. It will allow toplevel decision makers to quickly assess the content of the document without going into
technical details.
areas) should be indicated as well. These features are important because they affect the
air quality situation of a city.
Climatological and Meteorological Aspects:
This section includes the climatological and meteorological factors of the city, such as
wind speed and direction, as well as turbulence. Including information on precipitation
and humidity is relevant because they influence the dispersion of air pollutants. This type
of information needs to be sufficiently detailed for smaller geographical areas in order to
be able to assess the micro-climatic dynamics within a settlement. Refer to the box below
for brief examples.
Quito, Ecuador:
The city is located in a narrow valley between two mountain ridges which only allow air
flow in north-south directions. Frequent inversion conditions cause high concentrations of
pollutants in the air. Due to the geomorphology, the city expansion concentrates in the
north and in the south. Increasing high rise buildings at the edges of the city block the air
circulation which aggravates the air condition in the city centre.
Chennai, India:
The Southern Indian City of Chennai is located in a coastal area with relatively high wind
speeds. Therefore, the dispersion conditions are good and the city-wide concentrations of
air pollutants are generally lower than other Indian cities with comparable polluting
activities. However, this does not mean that there is no air pollution in Chennai. High
pollution originates from large amounts of pollutive activities, such as vehicular traffic.
City Planning and Design:
City planning and design is also a very important factor that influences the citys air
quality. This section gives an overview of the characteristics of settlements, such as the
nature of buildings (e.g. skyscrapers, proximity of structures to one another, and spread
of buildings with respect to the area of the city), land use designation, (e.g. industrial,
residential, commercial, open spaces, road, and rail networks) and green areas. All these
features are best shown in maps.
such as people living in polluted areas; the tourism sector; vulnerable parts of the
population; the urban farming, etc.
10
11
for investors to establish new industries in, such as high technologies, car manufacturing
and service industries than clean cities.
What next?
12
The Urban Air Quality Profile will be used as the key document for organizing consultative
processes, establishing focused working groups on particular air quality issues and set the
consultative process itself in motion. The document will be freely available to all
stakeholders who participate actively in environmental planning and management.
13
Type of activity
Mining
Industrial mining;
Intensity of farming;
Soil composition;
Type of fertilising;
Power plants;
Incinerators
Traffic
Road traffic;
Rail traffic;
Water traffic;
Air traffic;
Activity Sector
Type of activity
14
Housing
Type of heating;
Type of fuels used for heating (coal,
oil, gas, biofuels);
Quality of fuels (sulfur, particulates);
Type of stoves used for cooking;
Type of fuels used for cooking;
Ventilation of houses / kitchens
(degree of indoor pollution);
Urban services
Waste management;
Sewerage treatment;
Human
activities
influencing
dust emissions
from natural
sources**
15
16
Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox), i.e. Nitrogen Oxide, (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2);
Ozone (O3);
Lead (Pb).
Combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources usually leads to the production of SO2,
NOx, and Particulates. Domestic fuel use, mainly coal and wood, represents a significant
source of the air pollution in cities, particularly cities in developing countries. Petrolfuelled motor vehicles are responsible for the emissions of NOx, CO, and Pb (where
leaded petrol is still used), whereas diesel- fueled engines lead to significant emissions of
SO2, NOx, and Particulates. VOCs are emitted from various anthropogenic sources
including road traffic, production and the use of organic chemicals (e.g. solvents),
transport and the use of crude oil, the use and distribution of natural gas, and from waste
disposal sites and waste water treatment.
Ozone is a secondary pollutant. It is not emitted directly from combustion sources but
forms in the lower atmosphere from NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the
presence of sunlight. Ozone is the main constituent of photochemical smog.
Apart from these traditional air pollutants, there is an increasing number of other toxic
and carcinogenic chemicals being detected in the urban atmosphere. These include
certain heavy metals like beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg); trace organics
like benzene (C6H6), polychlorodibenzo-dioxins and -furans, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride
(VCl) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); radionuclides like radon; and fibres
like asbestos. These chemicals are emitted from various sources including waste
incinerators, sewage treatment plants, industrial manufacturing processes, solvent use,
building materials, and motor vehicles. Although the absolute concentration of these
chemical pollutants is usually low in the atmosphere, the toxicity or carcinogenic effects
or a combination of the two can be dangerously high for humans.
Concentrations of such chemicals in the air affect human health. Health effects vary with
the intensity and the duration of exposure and with the health status of the exposed
person. Certain sectors of the population like the elderly, children, and those already
suffering from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, are usually at greater risk.
Air pollutants usually affect the respiratory and cardiovascular system. SO2 and SPM
bring about increased mortality, morbidity, and impaired pulmonary function. NO2 and
O3 also affect the respiratory system with acute exposures causing inflammatory and
permeability responses, decreased lung function, and increases airway reactivity. O3
causes headaches and eye and nose irritation. Due to its high affinity for haemoglobin,
resulting in blood oxygen displacement, CO can lead to cardiovascular and
neurobehavioral effects. Very high levels of CO exposure also cause death. Lead (Pb)
inhibits the synthesis of haemoglobin in the red blood cells in bone marrow, impairs
kidney and liver function, and causes neurological damage.
Apart from having human health impacts, air pollution also adversely affects the natural
environment. The atmospheric reactions of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen lead to their
17
corresponding acidic transformation (into sulfuric acid and nitric acid). This leads to the
acidification of soil and freshwater and adverse effects on the terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. NO2 and O3 are phytotoxic (toxic to plants). O3 is associated with crop
losses and forest damage. SO2 and O3 are also associated with damages to buildings,
materials, and works of art.
Sulfur Dioxide, SO2
Sulfur dioxide (or Sulphur dioxide) has the chemical formula SO2. The gas can
cause upper respiratory irritation such as nasal irritation is frequently described as
smelling of burning sulfur.
It is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. In particular, lowquality coal and petroleum contain sulfur compounds, and generate sulfur dioxide
when burned: the gas reacts with water and atmospheric oxygen to form sulfuric
acid (H2SO3) and thus acid rain (source: Wikipedia).
Description:
Colourless heavy gas
Pungent and irritating smell
Reacts on the surface with a variety of airborne solid particles.
Readily soluble in water and can be oxidized within airborne water droplets. Upon
reaction with water, it forms sulfuric acid (H2SO4) which reacts with organic
matter, metals, and materials.
Sources:
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal burning accounts for 50% of annual global SO2
emissions, making it the largest source, with oil burning as second at 25 30%.
Oil refineries
Power houses
Metallurgical operations: smelting of non ferrous ores of copper, lead, nickel, and
zinc
Manufacture of sulfuric acid
Conversion of wood pulp to paper
Refuse incineration
Element sulfur production
Domestic fuel burning
Natural sources include volcanoes
Effects:
Human Health Effects
Increased breathing rate and feeling of air starvation
Suffocation
Aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis
Impairment of pulmonary functions
Respiratory irritation
Sensory irritation
Irritation of the throat and eyes
Decline in children lung function
Increased mortality
Environmental Effects
Concentrations of 50 100 g/m3 affect some plant species with various tree
species exhibiting effects at concentrations of less than 50 g/m3.
Contributes to the formation of acid rain which may cause extensive damage to
18
19
20
Lead (Pb)
Leaded petrol, responsible for the vast majority of airborne lead, is not used in most
countries worldwide. Check your national regulations regarding fuel quality.
Description:
Bluish or silver-gray soft metal.
Two of its most important components in terms of air pollution are tetraethyl lead
(TEL, found in leaded gasoline) and tetramethyl lead. These two are used as anti
knock additives in petrol.
Sources:
Vehicle emissions
Car batteries
Production of metals like lead, copper, nickel, zinc, cadmium, iron, and steel
Thermal power plants and other coal combustion plants
Mining, cement production, refuse incineration, wood combustion, and lead-based
paints
Secondary lead smelters (especially cottage/informal industries)
Zinc and silver smelters
Dust and soil in and around industrial sites may contain toxic metals such as lead.
Effects:
Human Health Effects
Liver and kidney damage
Gastro-intestinal damage
Mental retardation in children
Abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy
Children are the most vulnerable group to lead poisoning. They are most sensitive to
lead poisoning, which leads to behavioural problems, lower IQs, and decreased
ability to concentrate.
Environmental Effects
Lead is generally toxic to both plants and animals.
Lead in dust and soil does not deteriorate. Long-distance atmospheric transport of
lead particles has been well documented.
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Before you start collecting air quality data, make sure that you have a reliable and up-todate basic map of your municipal area. Such maps can be obtained in hard copy or in
digital format from official mapping / survey institutions. Before you purchase such base
maps, make sure that you have the appropriate technical equipment and the necessary
human capacities to utilise such maps.
There are different types of data which you then can collect for creating thematic air
quality maps:
climatical data;
All this information can be plotted onto maps. Such maps will give an overview of the
impact of emissions in the different areas of the city.
There are many ways of analysing and interpreting such maps. Some are very specialized
and quite complicated to look at. Members of issue specific working groups, however,
usually prefer clear, simple and significant maps.
Thematic Maps
It is advisable that you clearly separate factual information from policy related
information. For example, plotting the results from monitoring stations, such as the PM10
concentration on a map shows objectively verifiable facts. But relating these figures to
certain standards and labelling certain areas as highly polluted makes a map political decision makers may like this or may not like this information to be shown to the public.
Firstly, we concentrate on factual data. For air quality issues, factual data include for
example the location of the monitoring stations, the traffic flow, the congested areas (in
terms of both people and traffic), or the location of industries. Maps showing the amount
of lead or NOx in different areas of the city are thematic maps.
28
Industrial emissions can have a great impact on surrounding areas. For an evaluation of
the aerial distribution of industrial emissions you can easily prepare a map. First you
must calculate or estimate the distance the emission will be transported. Once you know
how far the emission will be distributed, you can then show the impact near the factories
following the yearly wind patterns. This can be done through the following steps:
1.1
1.2
Calculate distance for distribution of certain pollutants (refer to TOOL 12 & 13
modelling techniques);
29
1.3
Use a buffering tool for visualising the potential coverage of a certain pollutant in a
certain concentration;
1.4
1.5
Classify the information according to standards, rules and conditions (which will
result in, for example, good, medium or bad air quality zones);
1.6
Overlay this map on a land use map and you will be able to determine the
residential areas which are affected by certain pollutants.
Data required for these steps include:
Location of factories
Height of chimneys;
Wind directions.
2.
Vehicular emissions have a great impact on adjoining housing areas. The higher the
number of cars passing by, and with congestion at peak hours, the higher the impacts on
the surroundings. The following are the steps to map the traffic flow of the city:
2.1
2.2
Link traffic counting data to the streets (for example width of street line could
indicate the number of vehicles and the colour of the street line could indicate the level of
pollution of the vehicles);
2.3
Create buffers along the streets according to the expected dispersion of vehicular
pollutants;
2.4
Adjust the buffers according to the street physiognomy (street canyons with
limited dispersion, or low housing estates with extensive dispersion of pollutants);
2.5
Classify the information according to standards, rules and conditions (which will
result in for example good, medium or bad air quality zones);
2.6
Overlay this map on a landuse map and you will be able to determine the
residential areas which are affected by certain pollutants.
Data required:
Similar maps can be prepared for emissions from waste and domestic pollution.
3.
Overlaying the above maps will show the levels of environmental pressure citywide. For
example, some residential areas might be affected by traffic pollution, industrial pollution
as well as severe indoor pollution. Other areas might receive none of such pollutants. The
steps to create this map include interpretation of factual data found in Thematic Maps,
evaluation of the findings, drawing conclusions about conditions in specific areas, and
applying rules and regulations based on these conditions. The most crucial point at this
30
step is to link the areas of the maps to the rules and regulations decided on by the
working groups. This can be verified by the results from air quality monitoring stations.
Utilising a GIS which is well operated and maintained has the flexibility to include new
emission sources or new (and maybe more accurate) information which can easily be
integrated in such a city-wide Air Quality Map.
Figure 3.1 Air Quality in Shenyang: Map shows aggregated pollution levels derived from
monitoring stations
4.
To evaluate the impact of air pollution on development activities, the city-wide Air Quality
Map can be used for overlays with existing and planned land-uses. Severely affected
areas can be prioritized for implementing remedy actions. In order to do that, a ranking
technique needs to be applied (see EMIS Handbook). Such a map then will be related to
large-scale cadastral maps for effective works and improvements.
31
32
Example:
In summer 2004, the levels of ground-level ozone were high in southern Europe with
widespread exceedances of the information threshold value (180 g/m3), as laid down in the
ozone directive (2002/3/EC). The exceedances of the information threshold were similar to
earlier years, except for summer 2003, when there was a record number of exceedances. Also
the directive's long-term objective to protect human health, 120 g/m3 of ozone
concentration over 8 hours, was extensively exceeded in the EU and other European countries.
The target value to protect human health was also exceeded in southern and part of central
Europe. The highest levels were reported from Italy and Spain, with a maximum ozone level of
417 g/m3.
Air pollution by ozone in Europe in summer 2004 (Technical report No 3/2005), published at
EEA (European Environment Agency) OPOCE (Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities).
33
Annual Mean 2
Annual Mean
98
Percentage 3
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging Time
60 90
230
150 230
200
400
360
500
India R
200
400
140
200
India S
100
70
100
90
260
1
Hour
Average
Indonesia
75
State of California
55
China Class 1
150
Class II
300
420
Class III
500
680
Korea
150
300
Mexico
275
Philippines
180
Russia
150
Thailand
100
Brazil
80
330
240
Particulate Matter- PM 10
WHO
30
70
Turkey
60
150
Brazil
50
150
Japan
100
Air quality standards and guidelines are expressed in ug/m3. It is very common to express air quality in units
of weight to volume ratio, such as g/m3. However, sometimes a volume to volume ratio is used, such as parts
per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb). Annex 3 gives an overview of some conversion factors in order to
compare different units expressing concentrations of air pollutants.
2
The annual mean is calculated as the sum of each daily mean divided by the numbers days measurements
were taken (UNEP/WHO 94 95, Vol.1)
3
Annual mean 98 percentage = ninety eight percent (98%) of all daily means should be at or below this
value. Where measurements are taken on 365 days a year, values should not rise above the 98 percentile on
more than 7 days. Where fewer measurements are made, the number of days in which levels are allowed to
exceed this guideline falls proportionally (UNEP/WHO 94 95, Vol. 1).
4
India R= Residential, rural and commercial city center; India I= Industrial and mixed zones;
India S=Sensitive areas (hill stations, national parks, and monuments)
WHO S=Guidelines based on effects on terrestrial vegetation (national parks)
These are proposed Indonesian standards (see Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants, World Bank,
1994)
6
China, Class I = Tourist, historical and conservation areas; Class II = Residential, urban and rural areas; Class
III = Industrial areas and heavy traffic
34
50
150
State of California
30
50
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
Standard
Annual Mean
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
WHO
50
150
125
WHO S
30
100
India I
80
80
120
655
India R
80
60
80
655
India S
30
20
30
Indonesia
60
EPA
80
State of California
60
Turkey
60
150
Egypt
60
200
350/250
European Community
(UK)
Secondary
80
365
40
100
China Class I
50
Class II
150
Class III
250
Philippines
369
Russia
150
Thailand
300
450
350
Mexico
Brazil Primary
350
850
350ugm-3 if black smoke is less than 150ugm-3, and 250 ugm-3 if black smoke is > 150ugm-3
Standard
Annual Mean
35
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
100 8
60 9
10
30
India - I
40
India - R
40
India S
China Class I
Class II
Class III
Brazil
10
40
Philippines
10
85
Thailand
20
50
EPA
10
40
120
150 - 200
Russia
Ozone (O3)
WHO
150
WHO S
65
200
Indonesia
200
160
EPA
240
235
State of California
180
180
Argentina
200
Brazil
160
China Class I
120
Class II
160
Class III
200
Japan
Korea
120
40
200
Mexico
220
Philippines
120
Thailand
200
8
9
15 minutes average
30 minutes average
Standard
Annual Mean
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
36
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2)
WHO
40 50
WHO S
30
India I
100
20
120
470
India R
100
60
80
470
200
95
30
India S
Indonesia
150
EPA
100
100
China Class I
50
Class II
100
Class III
150
European Union
200
Mexico
395
Philippines
190
Thailand
320
100 10
60 11
10
30
India - I
40
India - R
40
India S
China Class I
Class II
10
11
15 minutes average
30 minutes average
37
Summary of Air Quality Guidelines* for the WHO European Region Member
12
States
Pollutant
Annual
mean
24 Hours
Averaging
Time
8 Hours
Averaging
Time
1 Hour
Average
Benzene
Formaldehyde
30 Minutes
Average
0.1mg/m3
Vinyl Chloride
Arsenic
Asbestos
No safe level can be proposed as the threshold level is not known and
it is a proven human carcinogen. Exposures therefore must be kept
as low as possible.
Carbon Monoxide
10mg/m3
Hydrogen Sulfide
0.15mg/m
3
Lead
0.5 -1.0
g/m3
Manganese
1g/m3
Nitrogen dioxide
12
30mg/m3
150ug/m3
60mg/m3
7g/m3
400ug/m
Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia, United Kingdom and
Yugoslavia and Montenegro.
38
3
Ozone
Sulfur dioxide
100 -120
g/m3
50g/m3
125g/m3
150 - 200
g/m3
350g/m
3
500g/m3
(10 min.)
Particulate Matter
-TSP
-black smoke
-thoracic particles
120g/m3
50g/m3
125g/m3
70g/m3
Vanadium
1 g/m3
*NOTE: The WHO Air Quality Guideline values are valid as of the preparation of this tool.
However, the guideline values for pollutants may have changed during publication of this
tool in 2005-2006 and may not be included in their revised forms in this tool.
Please consult the 2nd Edition of the World Health Organization's Air Quality Guidelines at
http://www.euro.who.int/air/activities/20050223_4) for updated values. One important
update to note is that the WHO no longer specifies a guideline limit value for particulate
matte (PM), reflecting recent research which indicates that there is no 'safe' lower
threshold for this pollutant.
39
Other Effects
Carbon
Monoxide
Nitrogen
Dioxide (NO2)
Ozone (O3)
with
most
Attacks paints,
and rubbers.
elastomers,
Pollutant
40
Other Effects
A lung irritant and sensitizer to other Can damage plants and trees.
pollutants and allergens.
Smog can cause reduced
Can produce teary eyes and sore throats. visibility.
Hydrocarbons
(CnHn)
Polyaromatic
Hydrocarbons
(PAHs),
notably
benzo(a)pyren
e
(BaP)
Benzene
(C6H6)
Lead (Pb)
Increased
bronchitis.
prevalence
to
chronic
reduce
PM10 (part of
SPM and refers
to
those
particles with
a
diameter
equal to or
smaller
than
10 microns)
can
41
The report Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities
(UNEP/WHO 96);
The Air Guide, Chapter 3, included as a word file in the ISIS97 CD ROM; developed by the
WHO etc.
Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: World Wide Experience and Policy Implications, The
World Bank 1996
42
43
Some results focus on children, adults or asthmatics. You need to insert the respective
population ratio (or asthma ratio). For example, in Chennai, 38% (also enter 0.38) of the
urban population is 18 or younger. 5% is asthmatic (also enter 0.05). The average
mortality rate is 6 persons for every 1000 (0.6 % or 0.005 of the total).
Then, please fill in the total PM10 concentration four your city. Usually, PM10
concentrations are higher during dry seasons than during wet seasons. Here some
examples from Indonesia:
Wet Seasons: Concentration of PM10
44
This first worksheet automatically calculates the expected health effects based on the
central scenario of dose-response coefficients. In the result box, the number of affected
citizens is displayed.
STEP 2: View detailed results:
45
150
Commercial Areas
118
Residential Areas
78
Near streets
2740 1470
Note that as of 2005 the WHO no longer indicates a guideline level for SPM as research indicates
that there is no safe lower threshold of particulate matter in the air (see the second edition of the
WHO Air Quality Guidelines at http://www.euro.who.int/air/activities/20050223_4). India's own
national standard per 24 hours is 200 g/m3 for residential areas (140 g/m3 annual arithmetic
mean standard, see http://www.cpcb.nic.in/as.htm for full ambient air quality standards).
Therefore, this model should only be used on a citywide scale. When reducing the scale to
a specific number of streets or certain areas of the city, the percentage of error in the
estimations may increase significantly.
Mortality effects on the population can be generated using two methods. The first,
described above, uses results of estimates of the impact of PM10 on the percent change
in total (all-causes) mortality. The second method uses results on the impact of PM10 on
disease-specific (i.e., respiratory and cardiovascular) mortality.
46
Each method has certain advantages. It is advisable to use both. Using total mortality
ensures that all mortality cases affected by air population are included in the doseresponse function. If only cardio-vascular and respiratory - specific mortality are used in
the dose-response function the mortality effect may be underestimated.
The use of disease-specific mortality may provide more accurate estimates of the effect of
air population if the disease patterns are very different from those in the original studies.
For example, if a developing country has much higher infant and childhood mortality not
related to air pollution and/or higher rates of accidental deaths, the application of the
dose-response functions for total mortality may not be appropriate. In that case, it is
better to use the disease specific method.
There is an alternative way for calculating the expected mortality: r/(1+r)*CM. This
formula can be used when the expected annual concentration is very large (i.e. more
than 100 g/m3. Specific formulas are also available to split up the mortality between
respiratory and cardiovascular mortality. However, this is only usable if cardiovascular
and respiratory mortality information is available in the cities.
Table 8.1 City Example: Santiago, Chile
SANTIAGO PM10
Scenarios
4,700,000
Population
112.6
Concentration in ug/m3
82.6
PM 10 Concentration exceeding 30
ug threshold
Citizens
Low
0.005
2,388
Average
0.005
5,241
High
0.005
8,153
Whole Population
Respiratory Hospital
Admissions
Low
2,562
Average
466
High
6,056
Whole Population
Emergency
Visits
Low
45,810
Average
91,232
High
97,831
Population
Ratio Restricted
Above Age 18
Activity Days
Room
Adult
47
Low
0.618
9,596,798
Average
0.618
13,675,438
High
0.618
21,592,796
Population
Ratio Acute Bronchitis
Below Age 18
Children
Low
0.363
112,739
Central
0.363
225,478
High
0.363
338,217
in
0.05
640,563
Average
0.05
1,145,249
High
0.05
3,804,556
Whole Population
Respiratory
Symptoms
Low
35,328,020
Average
69,879,600
High
104,819,400
0.6
6,988
Average
0.6
14,255
High
0.6
21,383
Mortality Rate
Respiratory Mortality
Low
Average
High
0
Mortality Rate
Cardiovascular
Mortality
Low
Average
High
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and populations, as such
graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution. This is an indicative tool that
will however be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
If no computer with spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft EXCEL, is available, this tool
offers you a method to calculate the effects for the individual city manually.
48
Explanation
City example:
Santiago, Chile
(taken from the Air
Guide of WHO)13
Abbreviation
1
POPj
Population in area j
(the area one wants
to focus on because
of the high
concentrations of
PM10)
POPG25j
Population greater
than age 25 in area j
60% of the
population
POPG18j
and POPL18j
Population greater
than and less than
age 18 in area j
POPa j
Asthmatic population
in area j (usually
about 5% of POPj). It
can be higher in
developing countries.
In Indonesia, it is
about 8%. (World
Bank 1994)
5%
PMj
Difference between
PM10 concentration in
g/m3 in area j and
the desired standard
(e.g. of WHO)
Measured urban
concentration is about
112.6 g/m3, WHO
guideline is 30 g/m3.
Therefore 112.6
minus 30 = 82.6
g/m3
13
To be Filled in by
Individual Cities
Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities GEMS/AIR, UNEP,WHO
49
MR
Number of people
that die annually as a
percentage of the
total population
MRr
Number of people
that die due to
respiratory diseases
compared to the total
population
MRc
Number of people
that die due to
respiratory diseases
compared to the total
population
Difference in
PM 10
Population in
Specific Area
Population
Counted
Predicted
Health
Formula
Benefits
Used to estimate
Annual Effects of
Annual Average
Change in PM10
Mortality
Increase per 1
g/m3
Citys PM10
conc. in
g/m3 minus
ambient
standard of
30)
when
meeting the
PM10
Standard
Average
mortality
rate (MR)
Mortality
C*(POP)*MR*
(PMj) or
Whole
population
Respiratory
Hospital
Admissions
C*(POP)*
Whole
population
Emergency
room visits
C*(POP)*
R/(1*)*CM
Low 0 .001223
Central 0.0027
High 0.0042
Respiratory
Hospital
Admissions
(PM)
Increase per 1
g/m3
Low 0.0000066
Central 0.000012
High 0.0000156
Emergency Room
Visits
Cases per 1
g/m3
Low 0.0001180
Central 0.000235
(PM)
50
High 0.0003530
Restricted Activity
Days
Cases per 1
g/m3
Population
ratio above
18
Restricted
activity days
in adults
C*(POPG18j)*
(PM)
Population
Counted
Predicted
Health
Formula
Low 0.04
Central 0.057
High 0.09
Dose Response
Coefficients
Difference in
PM 10
Population in
Specific Area
Benefits
Used to estimate
Annual Effects of
Annual Average
Change in PM10
Citys PM10
conc. in
g/m3 minus
ambient
standard of
30)
Respiratory
Symptoms
when
meeting the
PM10
Standard
Whole
population
Respiratory
symptoms
C*(POPj)*
Percentage
above 25
years
(POPG16)
Chronic
Bronchitis
C*(POPG25j)*
(PM)
(PM)
0.27
Chronic Bronchitis
Cases per 1
g/m3
Low 0.00003
Central 0.0000612
High 0.0000918
POPj
population in area j
POPL18j
POPG25j
PMj
POPaj
MR
mortality rate
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating
the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in
Policy Working Paper Series, The World Bank.
51
52
53
The results focus on children, younger and older adults. You need to insert the respective
population ratio.
Then, please fill in the total Lead concentration for your city.
This first worksheet automatically calculates the expected health effects based on the
central scenario of dose-response coefficients. In the result box, the number of affected
citizens is displayed.
STEP 2: View detailed results:
Open the second worksheet (Lead Your City).
The relevant percentage of the population within your targeted age bracket in your city is
displayed in column C. Column C is the part of the urban population for which the health
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the adult males that
experience hypertension, we would place the percentage of the entire population that is
an adult male. In this example we have used males between the ages of 20 and 70.
54
For IQ loss per child the relevant percentage is 100% or 1 because we are considering all
children.
Column C shows the health effect for every microgram per cubic meter. Three scenarios
are included: low, central, and high.
Column D will show the estimated health effects of Lead in your city for the specified
group. It will indicate:
How many citizens suffer from hypertension due to exposure to levels of lead in
the city
55
56
0.0448
Average
0.0726
High
0.0978
Part
of Number
Population to be Citizens
Counted
Effected
of
Non-fatal
Heart Population Ratio
Attacks (Adult Males) Ages 40-59
Low
0.00018
Average
0.00034
High
0.0005
Deaths (Adult Males) Population Ratio
Ages 40-59
Low
0.0002
Average
0.00035
High
0.00065
IQ Loss per Child
Low
none
Average
0.975
High
none
All
Children
Counted
1
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and populations,
as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution. This is an
indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating
the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in
Policy Working Paper Series, The World Bank.
57
58
The results focus on children and adults. You need to insert the respective population
ratio and the average mortality rate.
Then, please fill in the total SO2 concentration four your city.
This first worksheet automatically calculates the expected health effects based on the
central scenario of dose-response coefficients. In the result box, the number of affected
citizens is displayed.
STEP 2: View detailed results:
Open the second worksheet (SO2 Your City).
The relevant percentage of the population within your targeted age bracket in your city is
displayed in column C. Column C is the part of the urban population for which the health
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the children that experience
59
respiratory illness, we would place the percentage of the population below 18 years.
Column D shows the results for the three scenarios.
5,000,000
Concentration in ug/m3:
106
Scenari Part
os
Population
be Counted
of Number
to Citizens
Effected
of
0.005
530
Average 0.005
1272
High
3207
0.005
Children
Low
0.5
265000
Average 0.5
47965
High
69430
0.5
All
Low
26500
Average 1
53000
High
79500
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios
and populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the
seriousness of pollution. This is an indicative tool that will however
be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
60
Manual Application
Working Groups can also use the table for manual calculations. The number of citizens
affected is a product of the population, concentration of SO2, dose-response coefficient,
and the part of the population to be counted.
Formula:
number of citizens effected = population * concentration of lead * dose-response
coefficient * percentage of the population to be counted
Table 10.2 to Aid Manual Calculations
Blank Sheet For Your City to Fill In: Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Population:
Concentration in ug/m3:
Dose-Response Part
of Number
of
Coefficients
Population to Citizens Effected
be Counted
Mortality
Low
0.0002
Average
0.00048
High
0.00121
Average
Mortality Rate
Respiratory
Children
Illness
and
Cough
Low
0.0001
Average
0.000181
High
0.000262
Chest
Discomfort
Low
0.00005
Average
0.0001
High
0.00015
All
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and
populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution.
This is an indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and
stakeholders.
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating
the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in
Policy Working Paper Series, The World Bank.
61
62
The results focus on adults. You need to insert the respective population ratio and the
average ratio of asthmatics.
Then, please fill in the total Ozone concentration four your city.
This first worksheet automatically calculates the expected health effects based on the
central scenario of dose-response coefficients. In the result box, the number of affected
citizens is displayed.
STEP 2: View detailed results:
Open the second worksheet (Ozone Your City).
63
The relevant percentage of the population within your targeted age bracket in your city is
displayed in column C. Column C is the part of the urban population for which the health
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the number of people with eye
irritations we would place the percentage of the population above 18 years. Column D
shows the results for the three scenarios.
64
Hospital
Admissions
All
0.000038
Average 0.000077
High
Low
0.00012
of
0.0001
Average 0.34
High
0.000262
Respiratory
Symptoms
All
0.00005
Low
Average 0.5475
High
0.00015
Eye Irritations
Adults
Low
0.00005
Average 0.26
High
0.00015
Asthma
Exacerbation
Low
Asthmatic
Persons
0.00005
Average 0.6844
High
0.00015
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and
populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution.
This is an indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and
stakeholders.
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating the
Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in Policy
65
66
Selection of pollutants
Averaging times
Monitoring techniques
Quality assurance
Passive samplers,
Active samplers,
Remote sensors.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. A monitoring technique
may be assessed as most appropriate depending on the objective for which
measurements are to be taken, as well as the resources available. At present, no
methodology is appropriate for all circumstances and all requirements. State-of-the-art
continuous analyzers and remote sensors are able to provide considerable amounts of
raw data that can be used to produce excellent decision-relevant information. However,
these instruments are expensive to purchase, operate and maintain and require
considerable technical support. The problem is further exacerbated by the fact that skills
required to make maximum use of continuous data outputs are not always available,
particularly in developing countries. Consequently, the use of automated air quality
measurement networks is either not appropriate or cost-effective for most developing
countries.
67
Less sophisticated active and passive sampling techniques are not able to produce hourly
continuous data, but are very reliable. They also require considerably low level of
technical support than automated samplers. They are considerably cheaper to purchase,
operate and maintain. Passive and active sampling methodologies are able to provide
data to meet most monitoring objectives and are therefore more appropriate for most
countries. As long as the monitoring methodology is able to meet the objectives of the
AQM network, the technique adopted is not critical. The selection of equipment should
therefore be based upon the availability of resources (both human and financial) to
purchase and operate instruments most effectively.
Table 12.1 Instrumental Air Quality Monitoring Techniques
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Capital cost
per
sampler
Passive samplers
US$ 2 - 4
Integrated sample
Low cost
Integrated
samples
Laboratory
analysis required
Labor intensive
Laboratory
analysis required
Proven high
performance
Complex and
expensive
Continuous on-line
measurement
US$ 2,0004,000
US$ 10,000
- 20,000
High recurrent
costs.
Provides path or
range resolved data
Useful for near
sources and for
vertical
measurements
Multi-component
Difficult to support
operate, calibrate
and validate
Not always
comparable with
fixed point
sampling analyzers
greater
than US$
200,000
68
measurements
Source: UNEP/WHO, 1994a
Table 12.2 Monitoring Methods for Various Air Pollutants
Pollutant
Monitoring
Method(s)
Particulates
Hi-Volume
Sampler
Smoke Shade
Reflections
Method
Beta-Gauge
Method
Chemiluminescence
Method
Christie
Arsenite
Method
NO2
Diffusion tube
Method
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
(DOAS)
SO2
69
Hydrogen
Peroxide
Acidimetric
and
Calorimetric
Methods
Calorimetric
Pararosaniline
Method
O3
70
Gas Phase
Fluore-scence
Method
Flame
Photometric
Method
Ultra-violet
Photometry
Method
This technique is based on the fact that O3 absorbs ultraviolet radiation at 253.7nm. Sample air is drawn through an
absorption cell across the path of beam of ultra-violet light.
The concentration of O3 is determined from the degree of
absorption at 253.7nm. This instrument typically gives a
reading every 30 seconds and has a detection limit of
6g/m3
Cheminuluminescence
Method
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
The DOAS technique makes use of the fact that gases e.g.
O3 absorb light at precise wavelengths which are unique to
themselves. In operation, a beam of light with a known
spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere from a
source to a receptor. The concentration of a number of
gases can be determined by analysis of the spectrum of
light incident at the receptor. This involves comparison of
the intensity of light at that wavelength absorbed uniquely
by a specific gas (e.g. O3) with the intensity of light at a
wavelength that is not absorbed by any gas. The data is
integrated over a period of 5 minutes. This method has a
detection limit of 3g/m3
(DOAS)
CO
VOC
Benzene
71
Infra-red
Absorption
Method
Electrochemical Cell
Method
Total
Hydrocarbon/
Non-methane
Hydrocarbon
Analyzer
Method
Specific
Hydrocarbons/
Halocarbons/
Oxygenates
Method
Gas
Chromatography
Method
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
The DOAS technique makes use of the fact that gases e.g.
benzene absorb light at precise wavelengths which are
unique to themselves. In operation, a beam of light with a
known spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere
from a source to a receptor. The concentration of a number
of gases can be determined by analysis of the spectrum of
light incident at the receptor. This involves comparison of
the intensity of light at that wavelength absorbed uniquely
by a specific gas (e.g. benzene) with the intensity of light at
a wavelength that is not absorbed by any gas. The data is
integrated over a period of 5 minutes. This method has a
detection limit of 5g/m3
72
PAH
High
Performance
Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC)
Method
Lead &
Cadmium
Atomic
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
X-Ray
Fluorescence
Method
73
Tool 13: Calculating Air Pollution Near Roads Using CARInternational Model
CAR International is a simple to use air quality dispersion model. This model has been
developed by the Dutch Institute Environmental, Energy and Process Innovation (TNO) in
cooperation with the Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environmental
Protection (RIVM). Although CAR International is not supported at the moment it is still
helpful in calculating concentrations of a number of air pollutants such as:
benzene
lead
black smoke
The model, CAR International, is contained in this CD-ROM. Please read the instructions
for installation and the guidance notes for Car International.
Average annual and peak concentrations of CO, NO2 and benzene can subsequently be
compared with the (WHO) air quality guidelines in order to identify potential air pollution
problems.
The model
This version of the CAR International model requires Microsoft Windows operating system
(95, 98, 2000, XP).
Please extract the car_int.zip file and click on start.bat. The following window will open.
74
75
Input Data:
The model is easy to use, as long as the necessary parameters and input data are
available. It requires few data, as follows:
Table 12.2 Factors That Users Can Change
PARAMETER
UNIT
g/m/s
---
g/m3
m/s
76
Table 12.2 above presents those factors that users can change. These factors have been
fixed based on an average Dutch situation. In case of developing countries, the factors
have to be adopted locally, especially the emission factors. However the program as we
have received it from RIVM has one computer mistake - it is not possible to adapt the
emission factors (see above at parameters given) for the Dutch situation to that of the
situation in the developing city. Cities applying this model could solve this problem with a
trick. For example, the average bus emission factor of NOx in, let us say, Bombay is 2
g/vehicle/km, whereas in the Netherlands, it is 0.8 g/vehicle/km. If, the number of
vehicles passing in a street is 500, one could adjust the number of vehicles in the street
in order to correct the fact that the emission factors cannot be changed. Therefore, in this
example, the number of vehicles as input data (of course not for real) is 2/0.8 x 500.
The following tables give the necessary parameters that have to be fed into the model in
order to calculate the pollutant concentrations.
Average
(Km/h)
Speed
Description
100
44
77
22
13
Tree Factor: The tree factor represents the influence of trees on the dispersion of air
pollutants. There are three options described as below:
Value
Description
1.00
1.25
1.50
Description
A road through an open field lined with very few or no buildings within a
distance of 100m from the traffic lanes
3a
Roads lined with buildings on both sides. The buildings are more than 3m high
and the distance between them and the center of the carriageway is less than
3 times the height of the buildings
3b
Roads with buildings on both sides. The buildings are more than 3m high and
the distance between them and the carriageway center is less than 1.5 times
the height of the buildings
Roads lined with buildings on one side. The buildings are more than 3m high
and the distance between them and the road axis is less than 3 times the
height of the buildings
78
The TNO Environmental Sciences developed the CAR International computer programme.
For further information on this programme, please contact TNO-MEP, Department of
Environmental Quality, P.O Box 6011, 2600 JA Delft, The Netherlands. Tel +31-152696035, fax +31-15- 2616812, Email: O.Weinhold@mep.tno.nl
79
80
Input Data
The description of this model uses data from Berlin, Germany.
a)
Type of Road
porosity (0 to 90%)
81
In Berlin estimates for the inner city are mainly based on a building height of 22 m. The
width of the street canyon and the porosity are variable.
(b)
Calculation Site
The characteristic values for air quality are determined using the sum of concentration
values at fixed sites on both sides of the street canyon. They are assumed to be at a
height of 1.5m and a distance of 1.5m from the facades of the buildings.
Taking the most common wind direction in Berlin (12%N, 22%E, 26% S and 40% W) into
account, it can be expected that the concentrations would systematically be about 10%
higher on the climatically unfavorable sides of roads and about 10% lower on the
climatically favorable sides of roads than the values determined using IMMIS-Luft. Other
configurations can be pre-set by the supplier at the request of the user.
(c)
Emissions
Mean daily volume of traffic (the number of motor vehicles per day),
Proportion of time with slow traffic as a percentage (the proportion of time during
which traffic is slow is used in the programme to undertake a linear interpolation
of the emission factors between the values for slow traffic, corresponding to a
driving speed of 19 km/h, and flowing traffic, corresponding to a driving speed of
34 km/h),
Set of emission factors for the four pollutants total nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and particulates (TSP) divided
into the following types of vehicle: passenger car with a combustion engine and no
emission reduction technology, passenger car with closed-loop catalytic converter,
passenger car with diesel engine, night duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles, and
three representative driving speeds of 19 km/h, 34 km/h and 78 km/h.
Meteorology
The average wind speed in a built-up area at a height of 10 meters above the buildings
must be given as a characteristic value for the weather. In dense urban areas on flat land
this value is about 75% of the wind speed measured at 10 m above the ground in an
open place or airport [Toen e.a., 1987, European Wind Atlas].
For further information, contact;
82
IVU Gesellschaft fr Informatik, Verkehr und Umweltplanung mbH, Burgweg 10, D 79350 Sexau, Germany. Tel: +49 (0) 7641 530 46, Fax: +49 (0) 7641 530 47
83
2. CALINE Model
CALINE is a line dispersion model developed by the state of California, Department of
Transport. CALINE 4 (Caltrans, 1989) is a dispersion model that predicts carbon
monoxide (CO) impacts near roadways. Its purpose is to help planners protect public
health from the adverse effects of excessive CO exposure. CALINE 4 is a simple line
source Gaussian plume dispersion model. The user defines the proposed roadway
geometry, worst-case meteorological parameters, anticipated traffic volumes, and
receptor positions. The user must also define CO emission factors for each roadway link.
CO emission factors should be generated with the California Air Resources Boards
EMFAC7f model or CT-EMFAC1, which was adapted from EMFAC7f by Caltrans to be easier
to use. (Note that CT-EMFAC modeling requires a similar level of user-effort as CL4.)
Note: The Caltrans publication, Transportation Project-Level Carbon Monoxide Protocol
(CO Protocol) (Garza et al., 1997), recommends the use of CALINE 4 when a proposed
transportation project fails an initial screening analysis, and therefore, requires a more
detailed analysis.
The model is designed to simulate the profile of concentrations on the downwind side of
roads in areas where airflow is not affected by buildings lining the street like a canyon.
The concentration patterns up to 150m from the road are computed for specified
short-term meteorological conditions. The wind can blow across or along the street, or at
any angle to the street. For comparison with criteria for yearly means and percentiles of
concentrations, climatological information of the combination of wind direction, wind
speed, stability and mixing height must be provided. The user has to combine this with
adequately designed sets of modeled concentrations to compile the characteristic yearly
values of air pollution. As CALINE does not take into account the effects of rotating wind
vortices in street canyons, which tend to produce higher concentrations than in open
areas, it should be used carefully in built-up areas.
CL4 is a graphical windows-based user interface, designed to ease data entry and
increase the on-line help capabilities of CALINE4. The CL4 setup program is self-contained
with both programs (the CL4 interface and the CALINE4 dispersion model), so the user
only needs to complete a single installation step. The original CALINE4 executable files
are copied to the CL4 program directory.
84
85
Where:
EMISSION FACTOR
VOLUME
= In Santiago, there are about 12,400 of the above mentioned cars; the
Annual distance driven averages 12,000 kilometers per vehicle.
Total Emission =
86
For clearer understanding on the use of RIAS in selecting response options to trafficrelated air pollution, a case study of Chennai, India is presented in this tool.
How to use RIAS for the selection of appropriate response options to address
traffic related air pollution: The case of Chennai India
Chennai is a city with a relatively comprehensive ambient air monitoring network
operating since more than 30 years. This field monitoring provides information on the
urban air quality or more specifically, on the concentrations of the most common air
pollutants shown in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1. Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Chennai in Comparison with the Air Quality
Standards (Red numbers exceed standards)
Air Quality Standards
of Air Pollutants in
3
g/m
Measured
Concentrations
3
Chennai in g/m
WHO
Indian
Standards
Dust (SPM)
60 -90
200
150
118
78
274 -1470
Sulfur Dioxide
50
80
10
Nitrogen Dioxide
---
100
40
47
31
Ozone
150 -200
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Carbon Monoxide
no monitoring data
0.01
70000
R =
Residential Areas
I=
C =
Commercial Areas
S=
Near streets
in
0.042
70000
1370080200
*Source: UNEP/WHO 96, and transport proposition paper for SCP consultation)
As shown in the table, the concentrations of dust, carbon monoxide, and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons far exceed both the Indian and WHO guidelines. Policy should focus on
these three pollutants. In the case of dust (SPM) and carbon monoxide (CO), two very
serious air pollutants, it is clear that policy should focus on transport management
because the highest concentrations have been measured near streets.
Given such information, the next step should be to determine what type of transport
management strategies would be effective in addressing air pollution and which motor
87
vehicles: scooters, buses, or cars are responsible for the high concentrations of dust, CO,
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Information from relevant sources such as UNEP and the
Sustainable Chennai Project indicate that Chennai has not carried out emission
assessments of the activity sectors. Therefore, the exact link between the degraded air
quality and the responsible polluting activities is missing.
As mentioned earlier, RIAS is a tool to carry out emission assessments for all kinds of
activity sectors such as industries, households, and the transport sector. This case study
will show how to apply RIAS for the evaluation of different transport management
strategies. The following steps were executed:
Step 1: Selecting the air emission factors from the RIAS tables that correspond with the
cars in the individual city
Step 2: Converting the emission factors into an appropriate unit such as emissions per
trip per person.
Step 3: Calculating the total emissions by multiplying the unit by the total number of
trips made.
Step 4: Assessing the emission reduction effects of different response options by
adapting the emission factors or the total number of trips made.
Step 1:
The RIAS reports contain tables that provide an overview of the emission factors of all
types and ages of vehicles. The user should select those emission factors that correspond
to the average type of vehicles in the individual city. The emission factors are expressed
in i.) grams of air pollutant per km driven with a specific vehicle or in ii.) grams of air
pollutant per kg of fuel consumed. In Table 15.2, emission factors have been selected
that correspond to the transport modes used in Chennai.
Table 15.2: Information on Transport Modes in Chennai
TRANSPORT MODE
EMISSION
FACTOR
IN
GRAM
AIR
POLLUTANT PER KM
DRIVEN
TRIPS IN MILLION IN
1992
AVERAGE NUMBER
OF
PEOPLE
PER
TRANSPORT MODE;
THE
OCCUPANCY
RATE
SPM
CO
Buses
1.4
5.3
2.84
60
Trucks
1.6
7.3
0.03
Car/Taxi
0.07
23.4
0.11
Scooters
0.12
10
0.52
Autorickshaw
0.12
22
0.16
Bicycle
1.06
Cycle rickshaw
0.24
Walk
2.21
TOTAL
88
Average production year of the cars is between 1985-1992, and the average
engines are smaller than 1400cc
The two wheelers have engines smaller than 50cc, and are two stroke
The motorized rickshaws have engines bigger than 50cc, and are also 2 stroke.
Step 2:
Subsequently, the emission factors per km driven were converted into emissions per trip
per person per transport mode (ETP) by using the information contained in Table 15.2.
The results are shown in Figure 15. 2.
ETP = (EF per Transport Mode * Average Length of Trip)
Average Number of Persons per Transport Mode
A common assumption is average trip of 8km.
89
bicycle
SPM (dust)
autorickshaw
scooters
car/taxi
buses
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
90
Figure 15.3 Total SPM Daily Emissions of Different Transport Modes in Chennai
TOTAL
autorickshaw
scooters
car/taxi
trucks
buses
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
in KG
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
in KG
In the case of SPM, scooters emit 3 times more pollution per trip per person than
cars
Scooters are by far the main contributors to the carbon monoxide problem
Scooters and buses are the main contributors to the SPM emissions in Chennai
(without taking industries and households into account). However, on a per trip
per passenger, the two-wheeler emits about 5 times as much as a bus. Because
91
most passengers still travel by bus, the urban SPM emissions of two-wheelers do
not exceed those of buses. This can change quickly because many passengers
have shifted to two-wheelers and the number of trips is increasing at 10% per
year. The underlying reasons for this are because two-wheelers have become
affordable and because the people are annoyed by overcrowded buses and long
travel time
Step 4:
Based on the information collected above, the cost-effectiveness of response options can
be evaluated with RIAS by adapting the volume (or the emission factors) of the polluting
activities.
Appropriate Response Options and Their Impact on Urban Air Quality.
Measure 1: Prevent trucks from passing through the city center by re-routing them. As
the contribution of trucks to the total SPM emissions is 20%, the maximum SPM
reduction will be about 20% (see figure 15.5).
Measure 2: Set up efficient maintenance programs for motorized vehicles. If all motorized
vehicles are better maintained, the overall SPM emission reduction can be about 20%
(see figure 14.5). The carbon monoxide emission reduction per scooter can be about 2030%. As the contribution of all scooters to the carbon monoxide pollution is 60%, better
maintenance of these scooters could result in a total emission reduction of 0.2 - 0.3 *
60%, which is about 12% to 18%.
Example Quezon City, Philippines
An example on this measure is from Quezon City, Philippines, where a successful
Auto Anti-Smoke Campaign began in 1993. The first phase of 6 months consisted
of a public education program about the health effects of pollution, and the need to
reduce auto emissions. During the second phase, two teams tested about 200
vehicles on the street daily. If vehicles did not pass the tests, licenses and
registrations were taken away and the owners were given 24 hours to have their
vehicles fixed. More than 95% of vehicles passed the second test.
Measure 3: Replace heavy diesel buses with gas buses. This has been done successfully
on other Indian cities, such as Delhi.
Measure 4: Increase the purchase taxes on scooters without clean engine technology. It
is difficult to assess in advance whether this will reduce the purchase of scooters.
However, the funds generated can be used for pollution control measures. Also, the
conversion of scooter to CNG has been successfully demonstrated in other cities.
Figure 15. 5. The Expected Emission Reduction after Implementing Transport ResponseOptions for
Chennai (Chennai)
92
Conclusion
RIAS is a good tool to identify the main polluting activity sectors. The quantification of
their contribution to urban air pollution facilitates the justification of the polluters pays
principle.
RIAS:
Is easy to use and quick (the calculations can be done by computer containing
spreadsheet software such as lotus or excel)
Can serve as a database to record and keep track of the emissions of activity
sectors
Is flexible (it can easily be adapted to local circumstances and different geographic
areas within the city)
Results may be presented in city maps and clear figures which will facilitate
understanding among stakeholders about the development-environment
interaction
Because of the above mentioned advantages RIAS can support the design of various
environmental pollution prevention oriented strategies, e.g., Environmental Impact
Assessments, Strategic Urban Development Plans, and Environmental Management
Information Systems.
Those readers who wish to experiment with the calculation sheets can access the
spreadsheet on this CD. Please note that those sheets are not elaborated tools but
provide you ideas in how to perform the calculations of the charts on this page.
93
Concentration
0-5 m, 0 Mw
100
18
5-15 m, 0 Mw
100
13
5-15 m, 1 Mw
100
15-40 m, 0 Mw
H (m), W (Mw)
Distance
Concentration
From Source
35
100
35
19
1.9
35
3.33
100
1.4
35
2.22
15-40 m, 5 Mw
100
0.33
35
0.55
40-70 m, 0 Mw
100
0.22
70
0.31
40-70 m, 10 Mw
600
0.033
70-215 m, 0 Mw
600
0.031
70-215m, 10 Mw
1600
0.008
94
*** The data in italics is outside the validity area of the model because the model is not
accurate within 100 m of the source. However, it still gives a rough indication of the
expected concentrations.
The correlation factors was calculated with the Operational Atmospheric Transport Model
(OPS), a dispersion model for industrial sources developed by the Dutch National Institute
of Public Health and Environment (RIVM). The correlation factors are based on the
general Dutch situation. This means a wind speed of 4 m/s and a south to west wind
direction for about 40% of the time. During the rest of the time, the wind directions are
equally divided.
If the wind speed and directions in your city is not completely different, this table will
give a good indication of the enhanced concentrations of pollutants near industrial
activities. If the wind speed in a specific city is very different, one must make an
assumption about whether the occurring concentrations will be higher or lower. This
method will give developing countries a good indication of pollution dispersion.
STEP 3: Calculate the concentration based on the annual emission and the amount of
working hours of each factory.
STEP 4: The above calculations are based on the assumption that the wind speed is
4m/sec, and about 40% of wind flows from the southwest. Assess whether the
concentrations will be higher or lower in your individual city.
STEP 5: Compare the concentration to the (WHO) air quality guidelines for annual mean
SPM concentrations (of 60-90 g/m3 ).
STEP 6: Assess the extensiveness of the areas, where the air quality guidelines are
exceeded. The table gives factors to make rough assumptions about the surface size
where guidelines are being exceeded. The Dar es Salaam example will give an example of
how to use the table.
Box C.16.a City Example: A Cement Factory in Dar es Salaam
95
Step 1:
The following data were collected in Dar es Salaam:
Step 2:
See the correlation factor in the table for 70 210 m and 0 MW. The maximum
concentration will be found around 600m from the source, and the concentration will be
0.03 g/m3 per 1kg SPM/hour.
Step 3:
Step 4:
The average wind speed in Dar is about 5 to 8 m/sec. Since the city is situated near the
coast, the dispersion conditions will be better than average. Therefore, it is expected that
96
the concentrations due to the emissions of the cement factory will be somewhat lower
than the calculated 375 ug SPM/m3. We assume that it will be about 300-350 g/m3 .
Step 5:
The emissions of the cement factory lead to a serious SPM problem in the city. The
average calculated concentration at 600m from the source does exceed the guideline
(200- 300 g/m3 versus the guideline of 60-90 g/m3 (WHO) or 200 g/m3 (Indian)). In all
probability, the concentrations will exceed the WHO guidelines in a large area around the
cement factory, especially if other sources, e.g., transport, will further increase the SPM
concentrations.
Step 6:
As calculated in steps 1 to 5, the average calculated concentration at 600m from the
source is seriously exceeding the guideline. Therefore at least 50% emission reduction is
necessary to reduce the concentrations to the guideline level.
The table in step 6 shows that about 4,440,000 m2 = 4.44 km2 around the factory will
exceed the guideline (see the factor in the table at a chimney height of 100m, and a
needed emission reduction of at least 50%).
***A spreadsheet with the example of Dar es Salaam City has been included for easy
adoption by the cities.
97
Please note: the software has not been updated and the authors do not release
it prior to update and validation.
98
The Database
From the database, one can obtain a rough idea of the ranges of pollutant levels to which
Chinese are exposed, as well as the importance of various factors, such as location,
season and fuel type. The database cites over 110 papers published between 1980 and
1984 in Chinese journals and some in Western scientific journals. It gives all the
measured concentrations and is organized on the basis of:
(i) pollutants (particulates, SO2, CO, NOx and BaP);
(ii) Fuel type (coal, gas and biomass); and
(iii) Location (urban and rural)
Furthermore, a lot of additional information about each study is also included.
The Tables
As studying the database takes an appreciable amount of time, the information contained
therein has been simplified here by calculating the average concentrations per pollutant,
location and fuel type of all the measurements included in the database. The average
concentrations have been included in the tables below together with the total number of
measurements. In cases where there are many measurements, one could expect that the
average outcome is more reliable. The results are discussed per table. These tables also
99
contain an overview of the air quality guidelines of both WHO and China. The Chinese
guidelines are divided in three classes as follows:
Class 1:
Class 2:
Class 3:
As indoor air pollution takes place in residential areas where citizens get directly exposed,
Class 2 contains the most appropriate guidelines to compare the measured
concentrations with.
Table 18.1 below illustrates that burning coal indoor leads to serious SO2 concentrations.
All guidelines are exceeded, both in the urban and in the rural areas. This table only gives
a rough average indication because different sulfur contents in coal can change the
concentrations substantially.
Using gas instead of coal can solve the problem as the WHO and China Class II guidelines
are not exceeded. Biomass is not as bad as coal but it still impacts on human health as
the WHO guidelines are exceeded by a factor of 4.
Table 18.1 SO2
SULFUR DIOXIDE (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
0.90
2.59
0.11
0.04
0.54
No. of Measurements
174
98
102
31
0.125
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.5
0.25
0.7
100
Table 18.2 below illustrates that burning coal and biomass indoor leads to serious TSP
concentrations. All guidelines (with the exception of those of class III) are exceeded, both
in the urban and in the rural areas. Using gas instead of coal can solve the problem
considerably. The concentration as a result of using gas in rural areas is more or less
below the guidelines (0.19 mg/m3 versus 0.15 - 0.23 mg/m3). In rural areas, the
monitored concentrations emanating from using gas are higher. This is probably because
of the high background concentration from other polluting sources.
Table 18.2 TSP
Total Suspended Particulates (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas
Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
0.89
1.08
0.34
0.19
1.86
No. of Measurements
75
48
16
11
0.15 - 0.23
0.15
Class I: maximum
anytime
0.3
0.3
1.5
101
Table 18.3 illustrates that indoor coal burning leads to serious CO concentrations. All
guidelines are exceeded, both in the urban and in the rural areas. Gas and biomass are
cleaner fuels, although the CO concentrations can increase substantially in case of
incomplete combustion. For example, moisturized biomass (such as wood or dung) will
hamper the combustion process.
Urban areas have higher CO background concentrations because of traffic. Therefore, the
monitored CO indoor concentrations are also higher than in rural areas.
Table 18.3 CO2
CARBON MONOXIDE (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
21.53
15.61
7.32
2.38
4.39
No. of Measurements
194
76
99
25
10
4.58
Class I: maximum
anytime
11.45
4.58
11.45
6.87
22.9
Table 18.4 below illustrates that indoor coal burning leads to serious NOx concentrations.
The relevant guidelines (WHO and Chinese Class II) are exceeded both in the urban and in
the rural areas. Gas and biomass are cleaner fuels. Although, the emission of nitrogen
dioxides depends largely on the combustion process, urban areas have much higher NOx
background concentrations mainly because of traffic. Therefore, the monitored NOx indoor
concentrations are also higher than in rural areas.
102
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.04
0.06
No. of Measurements
131
42
117
14
0.15
0.050
0.100
0.100
0.150
0.150
0.300
The figures in the Table 18.5 cannot be explained. Unknown external factors determine the
Benzo(a)pyrene concentrations.
Table 18.5 BaP
Benzo -a- Pyrene (ng/m3)
Coal & Mixed
- Urban
Gas - Urban
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
23.73
2523.13
23.53
1022.70
No. of Measurements
43
31
103
1000
Factors that should be taken into account when assessing Indoor Air Pollution
The tables provided above only give a rough average indication of the pollutants
concentrations due to the indoor burning of fuels. The following factors may considerably
influence indoor air pollution:
Fuel Type and Amount
The type of coal. The emission factors (for example - the sulfur content) for different types
of coal and coal products can vary greatly. If information is available in the individual city,
one could report the coal type and its origin, so that published data on average properties of
coal from different mines and mining regions could be collected.
Whether the coal is in raw form (run-of-mine containing dust and dirt), sorted, washed or
formed into briquettes. If briquettes are used, it is useful to report the composition and
manufacturer. What percentage of what types of coal is used? Are they home made coal
cakes? Was lime or any other ingredient added to reduce sulfur emissions?
If LPG is used, it is generally unnecessary to report details of the fuel type since LPG is quite
uniform compared to coal. Investigators might make an effort to find out and report the
type of piped gas, since natural gas is different from coal gas. This is less important though
than if one compares gas and coal, since the difference in pollutant level between types of
gas is much less than that between coal and gas.
Biomass has, of course, very different properties even among fuels (such as wood or dung)
of the same type. Moisture content, for instance, will affect the heat value per unit of fuel,
combustion efficiency, and the composition of the products of incomplete combustion.
Studies in the individual cities should note the type of biomass used and describe, if
possible, its fuel characteristics (e.g. moisture content and species).
Stove Type
The type of stove used makes a lot of difference, especially whether the stove has a flue or
a kang (a heated bed, through which the flue gases from a stove or a fire pit pass).
Smoking
104
Smoking can have a tremendous impact on levels of indoor air pollutants. One study in the
database (Wang and Zhang, 1990) compared pollutant levels in households in which
smokers were and were not present.
Ventilation
Information on the ventilation conditions and type of houses is also important in assessing
the level of indoor air pollution. Look whether windows are usually open or closed and the
number and placements of rooms.
Season
The time of the year during which measurements were taken often gives clues to the state
of some of the above variables. During winter, for example, northern households are likely
to have low rates of air exchange and detached houses can be expected to be heated with a
small coal stove and perhaps a kang. The level of indoor air pollution is therefore expected
to be higher during this time.
Background Concentration and Household Location
The outdoor pollution is added to the indoor pollution. Therefore, it is important to indicate
whether households are situated in a heavily polluted district, or in an area where all
households are heated with coal. This could increase the individual indoor air pollution level
considerably.
105
Stack height
Discharge temperature
These data may be found among a facilitys engineering records or from stack sampling
reports.
Data on emission concentrations may not be immediately available in some countries where
the law does not require firms to report them, or where enforcement is lax. Owners of small
boilers and generators may also be exempt from reporting them. But even when firms do
have the information on their emissions, they may sometimes be reluctant provide the data
for their own reasons. Estimating emissions would therefore have to rely on indirect
methods.
In cases where the stack gas analysis results are unavailable, the emissions inventory must
instead collect other information about the firm that could be used to estimate the emission
rate. Such information includes any or all of the following:
106
Note that some industrial facilities may have multiple products, or may operate their own
power plants in addition to their manufacturing lines. In such cases, there must be data
available for each power plant and each production line.
To translate these quantities into air pollutant discharge rates, appropriate emission factors
must be gathered. Emission factors for a host of manufacturing processes have been
collected by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in the document
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, or more often called AP-42 (more information
at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/). Emission factors typically have units of tons of
pollutant emitted per unit of product or per quantity of raw material consumed. Other
emission factors are also available for such activities as material transfer or road use.
It is critical to select the correct emission factor to assign to a source. This can be difficult
since factors can differ for two facilities with the same product if their manufacturing
process is not identical or if one has more efficient pollution controls than the other does.
For some sources, no emission factors are available, and some judgment must be exercised
in choosing a suitable one. Generally, the more is known about the source, the easier the
selection.
In addition to point sources, area emissions should also be included in the stationary source
inventory. For landfills, construction sites, mines and similar bare areas, appropriate
emission factors that are to be multiplied to the size of the area source are available. Area
sources in the form of storage facilities such as coal yards or fuel tank farms may also be
part of the total emissions from industries depending on the pollutant being studied.
Household cooking and garbage burning within a community can cause that community to
also become an area source. Although emission factors can be obtained for air pollutants
released by residential areas (to be multiplied to the size of the area and its population
density), household emissions are typically too small relative to point and line sources to be
worth the computational effort.
Line Sources
Determining the contribution of motor vehicles to total emissions requires the following:
The average amount of pollutants each type of vehicle emits per kilometre travelled
The number of vehicles of a given type that use a road in the area of interest.
For each road and vehicle type, these three quantities are multiplied to yield the amount of
pollutants generated by all vehicles of that type travelling along that particular road.
Summing up the contributions of all the types of vehicles and all the roads, the total
contribution of mobile sources can be estimated.
The first item in the list above is the mobile source emission factor. Emission factors for
many types of vehicles are also available in AP-42 and may be used for most estimates.
However, emission factors can vary from one country to another since emissions are
affected by the typical state of vehicles, local fuel quality, driving habits, climate, traffic
flow, and road conditions. If vehicular emission factors have not been measured for a
country being studied, values from another country with similar conditions should be used
instead of AP-42.
The second item in the list, total road length, should be readily available from local
government agencies. Most towns and cities have records on the length, types of pavement,
and number of lanes on the roads they maintain.
The third item should also be available from national transportation or public works
agencies that conduct traffic counts for planning and project monitoring. The data are often
presented as annual average daily traffic (AADT) counts. How easily and accurately the total
emissions along these roads can be estimated depends on the coverage of the counts. In
some areas only the heavily used roads are included; cities with more resources may have
total coverage. In other locations, or if the data from an extensive AADT archive is not
107
stored on computer, it may suffice to approximate the traffic along each type of road in a
network with a value taken from a similar road in or outside the network.
Since the AADT is the sum of all types of vehicles passing through a road daily, the number
of each type may be estimated by assuming the same percentage composition for all roads.
This is of course a weak assumption, and actual counts should be used whenever possible.
But if this simplification cannot be avoided, vehicle registration records should be consulted
regarding the proper breakdown of the AADT by type.
It will be necessary to determine the number of such types as motorcycles, cars, buses,
trucks, or utility vehicles. Because each of these may vary with size, sub-classifications
based on engine capacity should also be used in the vehicle count whenever possible.
Emissions from private motorcycles, for one, will vary significantly from those used for
public transportation (which often carry three or more people other than the driver) and the
two should be separately counted. Private cars can also be registered as light, medium or
heavy. More important, country-specific motor transport modes such as the jeepneys in the
Philippines or river ferries in Thailand may have to be included as independent
classifications.
The number of vehicles per type should also be separated between those that run on diesel
fuel and those that run on gasoline. As many classes may be used as there are fuel types
used in the market for transportation.
In addition to those from land vehicles, emissions from other types of transportation may be
included. Airport emissions are often approximated on the basis of the daily number of
landings and takeoffs of various classes of aircraft. Ship emissions can be significant mainly
because they often run on low-grade oil. They are however best treated as point sources
since they are stationary or slow moving most of the time. What is needed in the inventory
are the typical numbers and sizes of ship engines that are kept running while docked. An
appropriate emission factor may then be assigned to their emissions.
The data contained by an emissions inventory should be stored in a computer for easy
access. The amount of data can be massive, particularly when inventories for many
pollutants are being prepared. Seldom can an emissions inventory be called complete, as it
should undergo a continuous process of crosschecking, improvement, addition, and
updating.
108
Developing countries have a high proportion of older vehicles, as they are passed down the economic chain. An old, badly
maintained vehicle can emit 100 times the pollutants of a properly maintained modern vehicle. As a result, any air quality strategy
that does not take vehicle maintenance into account is inherently flawed. Effective response options include setting up privatized
and effective maintenance programmes and promoting the disposal of old and inefficient cars. Chapter 4 "Controlling Emissions
from In-Use Vehicles" of World Bank 1996 is dealing with this subject. It discusses inspection procedures, the institutional setting,
and the costs and benefits for Inspection and Maintenance.
Disadvantages
Effectiveness up to 50%
depending on statistical
distribution of mal-adjustments.
109
The most relevant examples for developing countries are reducing the lead and sulfur content of fuels or focusing on alternative
fuels such as compressed natural gases. Chapter 5 "Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions" of World Bank 1996 (TOOL 15) is
dealing with this subject.
In case of traffic related lead pollution it is clear that the only effective measure is eliminating the use of lead additives in gasoline.
Travel demand management measurements could of course also reduce the problem, however not as effectively as programmes
focussed on phasing out leaded gasoline. City experiences have illustrated that these programmes could be implemented in a
cost-effective way. The World Bank report: "Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: World Wide Experience and Policy Implications"
(TOOL 4) is very useful if cities are involved in this process.
It should be borne in mind that the potential contribution of fuel changes to the reduction of emissions of HC, CO and NOx is
small when compared with the reductions achieved by improved vehicle maintenance or by emissions control devices.
110
Using biofuels
111
transport.
Austria uses recycled cooking oil for bus fleets (from the
pan into the tank).
- LPG fuel tanks taking up more Retrofitted LPG vehicles are widely in use
space in the car;
the logistics system (fuel
availability remains a problem;
LPG is a byproduct of
refineries;
112
113
Measure
Disadvantages
114
Reduces congestion
115
network
road quality
- road maintenance
- negative health effects and
- productivity losses incurred by
traffic delays
116
cities
Parking controls
Parking controls are the most effective when they are used
as part of a more comprehensive program and when strict
enforcement is possible.
- Enforcement is needed
117
Measure
Disadvantages
118
- System inflexibility
- Construction and operation
costs are huge (e.g. $40 million
per km in Santiago, $64 million
in Osaka, and $117 million in
Caracas. In comparison, a
surface light rail system in
Tunis, costs $29 million per
km)
Disadvantages of a completely
deregulated and competitive
public transport market: i)
119
120
Promoting non-motorized
transport as a link in an integrated
public transportation system, e.g.
by building safe bicycle parking
outside train and bus stops
same
same
Above mentioned
disadvantages are less with
this measure
- It is safer;
- Cyclists are not anymore in
between the unhealthy exhaust
gases.
121
Expected
improvement of
air quality and
other
advantages
Disadvantages
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Alienates
potential
investors and
decrease of
economic basis.
Controlling the
emissions in
sensitive areas
(establishment of
e.g. special
control areas or
smoke free
zones).
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Financial
implications due
to setting up
emission
monitoring and
enforcement.
Relocation of
existing industries
out of sensitive
areas.
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Area planning
based on
emission
Effective if being
done in a
consultative
Financial
implications in
terms of
compensations
or higher
infrastructure
costs.
High acceptance
risks.
assessments and
air quality
objectives (for all
areas not only the
sensitive ones)
process.
Environmental
Impact
Assessment for
new industries
Sensitising
potential
investors in
introducing
cleaner
production
122
Guard against
'end-of-pipe'
solutions that
will transfer the
problem from
one media to
another (e.g.
the fly ash from
power stations,
such as that in
Chennai was
mixed with
water and
dumped off the
coast).
The
effectiveness
depends very
much on proper
operations and
regular
maintenance;
enforcement
together with
commitment of
the industries is
required.
Very effective;
city examples
have shown that
this could
solve/reduce the
air pollution
considerably.
Especially if the
air pollution is
caused by only a
few factories.
* many
developing
countries have
emission
standards.
However they
123
are seriously
exceeded
because the
enforcement is
weak (no
serious
penalties), and
sometimes
industries are
not well
informed or are
not committed
to change.
Furthermore,
there are no
regular
emission
inspections to
monitor and
control the
performance of
the industries.
Licensing of
specified strongly
polluting
processes
Compulsory
emission limits
Requires strict
enforcement in
order to be
effective.
124
125
Enforcement of
best available
techniques
126
Compulsory
notification of
accidents
127
128
Very effective if
sulfur dioxide
has been
identified as a
major problem
129
130
2.
3.
4.
Importing better
quality coal
Expected
improvement of air
quality and other
advantages
Disadvantages
It requires a good
knowledge of the
coal market (of the
properties and
prices of coal from
different mines and
mining regions).
Improving the
coal by adding
an SO2
absorbing
substance or by
washing it (the
coal is
subsequently
sold in the form
of briquettes)
It requires some
technical know-how
in treating the coal;
Strong enforcement
makes sure that the
response options
Enforcement could
be difficult
eventually higher
prices;
fuels
131
If citizens indeed
transfer, it will have
a positive effect on
the indoor
environment as gas
is much cleaner than
coal
It is difficult to
implement as long
as the alternative is
not cheaper.
132
Making cleaner
stoves
compulsory
Very effective
Requires strong
enforcement; it
could also be too
expensive to afford
for the poor
Encourage the
use of cleaner
stoves
Could be very
effective in reducing
the air pollution
levels if citizens
indeed use the
cleaner stoves.
measures.
climates where
heating is required.
133
adopted this.
134
Strategies
Expected
improvement of
air quality and
other advantages
Disadvantages
Paving of
unpaved
roads
Expensive, needs to be
balanced against
alternative infrastructure
improvements, such as
sanitation.
Establishment
of speed
control
devices on
unpaved
roads
Reduces
Requires enforcement
effectively the
and/or physical devices
dust raised by
speeding vehicles;
also increases the
traffic safety
Establishment
of dust
control areas
with planted
vegetation
Regular street
sweeping
(manual or
with sweeping
equipment)
Reduces the
amount of lose
dust in the paved
streets
no known disadvantage
135
136
137
measurers are considered and the benefits are expressed in physical terms, such as
reduced emissions or reduced concentrations. For each set of measures, a determination is
then made as to whether the goals are met and at what cost. A set of measures that meets
the goals at the lowest cost is then selected.
When carrying out a CBA under a fixed budget for air pollution reduction, the selected set
of measures should be those whose costs do not exceed the fixed budget, and which best
meets the guidelines or goals for a certain pollutant, beginning with the least cost measure.
Procedures for a CBA
The procedure for putting up a least cost set of measurers from available options is as
below.
3. Calculate the costs per unit of reduction from the ration of (1) and (2)
OR:
The total cost, C, across all of the most cost-effective measurers required to meet the
selected target, T, is then given by
C1X1 + C2X2 + C3X3 + ............CtXt = C
138
Select the measure which has the least cost per unit of reduction
14
Effectiveness
Costs
P300 million
Benefits
Avoided Mortality: 94
Instruments and
Institutions
DENR NCR
Term
Target groups
Petroleum industry
14
Urban Air Quality Management in Asia, Metro Manila Report, World Bank Technical Paper No. 380
139
Realistic - presenting an appropriate view of the system in terms of accuracy, knowhow and cost-benefit;
Sensitive - responsive
demonstrate trends);
to
changes
in
the
system
(especially
over
time
to
The target audience for indicators of air quality management capability depends on the type
of information dissemination.
Decision makers in government or the municipal authorities with responsibility for
controlling air pollution levels in urban environments depend on accurate indicators for
policy making. Decision makers need to identify deficiencies in the capabilities of cities in
air quality management and develop appropriate responses.
Environmental activists in turn require indicators which allows them to pin-point air
pollution issues which are ignored by the formal decision makers. This can be community
groups, residents associations or even individual legal persons.
Research institutions require air quality indicators for scientific analysis, preparation of
scientific documents and as teaching materials.
Indexes representing the principal components of air quality management for which specific
indicators could be developed include the following:
Air quality measurement capacity index - assessing the ambient air monitoring
taking place in a city and the accuracy, precision, and illustrative accuracy of the
data produced.
Data assessment and availability index - assessing how the air quality data are
processed to enhance their value and provide information in a decision-relevant
form. The index also assesses the extent to which there is access to the air quality
information and data through different media.
140
Indicators for
kerbside
concentrations
Indicators of data
dissemination
Indicators of
pollutant emissions
estimate
Indicators of the
accuracy of
141
emissions estimates
142
Indicators of the
availability of the
emissions estimate
Management
and
Assessment
Capabilities
in
http://themes.eea.eu.int/Environmental_issues/air_quality/indicators/#
20
Major
Cities-
143
1.
2.
144
3.
disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort
and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner.
increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources,
or
The Pollution Prevention Act defines "source reduction" to mean any practice which:
145
reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the
release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants.
In the energy sector, pollution prevention can reduce environmental damages from
extraction, processing, transport, and combustion of fuels. Pollution prevention approaches
include:
4.
5.
146
6.
7.
8.
147
This principle is based on the best technique that is available and is applicable when dealing
with air quality standards. The technology in question should be Best at preventing
pollution and Available in the sense that it is procurable by the operator of the activity
concerned. Technology itself includes techniques and the use of techniques, such as
training and maintenance. NEEC sets out the balance between environmental benefit and
financial cost. It was commonly used in the European Union.
9.
IPPC Directive
The European Union has a set of common rules on permitting for industrial installations.
These rules are set out in the so-called IPPC Directive of 1996. IPPC stands for Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control. In essence, the IPPC Directive is about minimising
pollution from various point sources throughout the European Union. All installations
covered by Annex I of the Directive are required to obtain an authorisation (permit) from
the authorities in the EU countries. Unless they have a permit, they are not allowed to
operate. The permits must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques (or BAT),
which is defined in Article 2 of the Directive. In many cases BAT means quite radical
environmental improvements and sometimes it will be very costly for companies to adapt
their plants to BAT. To impose new and considerably tougher BAT rules on all existing
installations in the European Union could jeopardise many European jobs, and therefore the
Directive grants these installations an eleven year long transition period counting from the
day that the Directive entered into force.
(see also: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/)
Distance - Stay as far away from radioactive sources and fields as possible.
148
For example, in 1995, the Netherlands Government opened an Information Centre for
Environmental Licensing. The centre has been set up primarily to provide licensing
authorities with information, but industry can also make use of it. The idea is that licensing
authorities, by using appropriate and up-to-date information, should be able to apply the
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle as referred to in the Environmental
Protection Act. The information centre has started by integrating existing information
facilities regarding air pollution, energy, soil remediation technology and the helpdesk of
the facilitating organization for industry. Information regarding legal aspects is also
provided. According to the plans, the scope of the information centre will be broadened to
cover the information needs of licensing authorities regarding all environmental aspects.
The information centre will be extended, with information on water, waste prevention and
environmental care systems. A further assessment of the "market" for information will be
performed, the results of which will lead to further completion of the information system.
Quality, accessibility and cost-effectiveness are also under the permanent attention of the
management. A connection to Internet is planned. An easily accessible data base of stateof-the-art technology has to be created. Up to now information has been available only by
telephone or mail (see further information under:
http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/nether/eco.htm).
149
These are instruments based on the mandate of the government to force people to comply
with rules and directives issued by the government. Examples of these instruments are
laws, policy directives, licences, permits, local government ordinances, and physical plans.
It is clear that these instruments need a system of inspection, monitoring and enforcement,
to ensure compliance and penalize those that do not comply.
2.
Economic Instruments
These are instruments that use the market mechanism to influence peoples behaviour.
They are based on incentives or disincentives. Examples of economic instruments are
grants, taxes, fees such as emission fees and road users fee, etc. This needs an effective
delivery system to provide the appropriate incentives and disincentives.
3.
Communication Instruments
These are instruments that try to convince the audience of the necessity to do something or
not to do something. They include advertising, television programmes and commercials,
public meetings, brochures, etc. Media campaigns on the ill effects of using leaded gasoline
are a concrete example of a communication instrument.
Experiences in many countries have shown that the best strategies use a mix of
instruments, preferably as many as possible from the different categories, whenever they
are applicable. These instruments actually complement each other. For example, economic
incentives work best when people know that there is strong enforcement. Thus, if used
appropriately, this mix of instruments will ensure more effective environmental
management.
Compound
Explanation
BaP
CO
Carbon Monoxide
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
NOx
Oxides of Nitrogen
PAH
PAN
Peroxyacetyl nitrate
PVC
Polyvinyl Chloride
PM10
SPM
SO2
Sulfur Dioxide
TSP
VOC
NMVOC
Units
m
metres
gram
mg
150
ppm
ppb
mg/m3
g/m3
151
152
Units
Mass:
gram
Length:
metres (m)
Area:
Volume:
Capacity:
litre (l)
Time:
Energy:
Watt (W)
atmosphere (atm)
Conversion Factors
Sulfur dioxide
0oC, 1 atm
25oC,1 atm
2,856g/m3
1 ppm = 2,860g/m3
SO2
Carbon Monoxide
CO
Nitric Oxide
1 ppm = 1.145mg/m3
1mg/m3 = 0.873 ppm
1,340g/m3
2,050g/m3
1 ppm = 1,880g/m3
NO
Nitrogen Dioxide
NO2
Benzene
1 ppm = 3.19mg/m3
C6H6
Hydrogen Sulphide
1ppm = 1.5mg/m3
H2S
Vinyl Chloride
1ppm = 2.589mg/m3
VC
Toluene
153
Trichloroethylene (TCE)
1ppm = 5.4mg/m3
C2HCl3
Tetrachloroethylene
1ppm = 6.78mg/m3
C2Cl4
Styrene
1 ppm = 4.2mg/m3
C6H5.CH=CH2
Formaldehyde
1 ppm = 1.2mg/m3
HCHO
1mg/m3 = 0.833ppm
Peroxyacetyl nitrate
1 ppm = 5mg/m3
PAN
Carbon Disulphide
1 ppm = 3.13mg/m3
CS2
Ethylene dichloride
(1,2-Dichloroethane, DCE)
C2H4Cl2
Dichloromethane
1 ppm = 3.47mg/m3
CH2Cl2
Ozone
2,140g/m3
1 ppm = 2mg/m3
O3
*For conversions between ppm, ppb, mg/m3 and ug/m3: MolWeight x PPM = 24.45 x
mg/m3 or MolWeight x PPB = 24.45 x ug/m3
For additional unit conversions see the attached Conversion Table.
154
Terms:
Acute Health Effects:
Those immediate health effects resulting from exposure to an episode of air pollution e.g.
asthma attack. In certain conditions, acute episodes of air pollution are also associated with
an overall increase in respiratory and cardiovascular mortality.
Adverse Effect:
Any effect that may affect the performance of the whole organism or that reduces an
organisms ability to respond to an additional pollutant.
Background Concentration:
The normal concentration of a particular air pollutant occures naturally in the environment
(also without any human activity). This is determined by the natural characteristics of an
area like the presence of deserts, volcanoes, etc.
Carcinogenic:
A substance that causes abnormal, uncontrolled growth of cells or cancer, like lung cancer
or leukaemia. This includes benzene, benzo-a pyrene (BaP) and heavy metals like lead,
arsenic, nickel, cadmium etc.
Carcinogenic and Toxic Health Effects:
Those health effects resulting from exposure to carcinogenic (cancer causing) substances.
Cardiovascular Disease:
Heart related disease
Chronic Health Effects:
Those health effects owing to long term exposure to lower levels of pollution e.g. bronchitis
resulting from SO2 exposure, or the increased respiratory and cardiovascular mortality
observed in a number of epidemiological studies due to exposure to particulate matter.
(ENDS, 1994)
Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA):
An analysis of the costs of pollution abatement versus the benefits to be derived from such
abatement measure: both of which are expressed in monetary terms.
Cost Effective Analysis (CEA):
An analysis of the costs of abatement measures whose benefits are expressed in physical
terms such as reduced emissions or reduced concentrations.
Dispersion Model:
A dispersion model is a software programme that assesses/calculates the concentrations of
a specific pollutant on the basis of the emissions of the polluting activity sectors, at a
certain point in time and space. These models account for geographic factors such as wind
speed, temperature and direction. e.g. CAR International, IMMIS LUFT, BLB etc., Dispersion
155
models help to limit the complex and often expensive ambient air monitoring since it
calculates the ambient air quality in a given area and identifies where the emissions are
likely to have an impact. However, regular monitoring will remain important to validate the
models and determine the natural background concentration.
Emission:
Any measurable air contaminant, pollutant, gas stream, or unwanted sound from a known
source which is passed into the atmosphere
Emission Control Device:
Any device that is placed in a system to reduce the amount of air pollutants released into
the environment.
Emission Factor:
This is a constant which relates the emission of a certain compound to the input or output of
another compound by the same source, e.g. the emissions of SO2 by a factory can be
estimated from its coal consumption. Emission factors are useful in cases where emissions
data are missing. They can be used to make a rough estimate of emissions, based on
economic activities, traffic and number of households, followed by the use of dispersion
models to assess concentrations.
(OR: a numerical estimate of the mass of one or more air contaminant produced by a given
amount of material processed by an industrial facility or, in the case of transportation
sources, per mile driven (by a given vehicle using a particular fuel). It is important to note if
the emission factor is for an uncontrolled source or one with properly functioning air
pollution control equipment. This factor is used to arrive at a rough estimate of the total air
emissions for a facility or a geographical area.)
Emission Inventory:
A compilation of estimated air emissions by pollutant from smokestacks, cars and other
emission sources in a given area.
Emission Standards:
Legal limits on the degree or quantities of pollutants that are permitted to be discharged to
the atmosphere from specific sources or process, e.g. emissions from vehicles or from
industrial sources.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
The process of analyzing the probable environmental effects, both positive and negative, of
a proposed project, programme or policy and suggesting ways to mitigate the adverse
effects, including the identification of alternatives or other ways of implementing parts of it.
Episode:
A series of short-term air pollution events that significantly alter the ambient air quality of
an affected area.
Lowest Achievable Emission Rate:
Any technology or combination of technologies and process controls that result in the lowest
possible emission of a given air pollutant. The technology must be reasonably demonstrated
to be appropriate and reliable for the given application.
156
157
Local Governments
Mexico City Air Quality Report
http://www.sima.com.mx/valle_de_mexico/reporte.htm
This site informs the public on the actual air quality situation of the various parts of Mexico
City. It provides concentrations of O3, NO2, SO2, CO, PM10 and UV-Index on an hourly
basis and classifies them in a popular way (satisfactory, not satisfactory, bad, very bad). It
also contains general information on atmospheric pollution, explanation of units and indexes
used in air quality management. The information is available in English and Spanish.
Stockholm Environment and Health Protection Administration - Stockholm Air
Quality
http://www.slb.mf.stockholm.se
The site contains descriptions of Stockholm's air quality management system. It gives an
overview of the air quality situation in Stockholm on a regular basis with daily, monthly and
yearly levels of pollutants. Data are obtained form the monitoring stations and generated
through advanced modelling.
Moscow City Government: State of the Environment in Moscow
http://www.md.mos.ru/eng/
A report produced within the Sustainable Cities Programme. The site informs for example
about the air pollution situation in Moscow, and about the Moscow Integrated Environmental
Action Programme. Available in Russian only.
Jakarta, Indonesia:
Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants, A Method with Application to Jakarta, The
World Bank, 1994. Apart from dust, lead and sulfur dioxide, it can also be used to predict
the health effects of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and ozone. The methods discussed are illustrated
with a city example of Jakarta.
158
National Initiatives
Pollution Control Department in Thailand: Air Quality and Noise Information System for
Thailand
http://www.aqnis.pcd.go.th/
The site presents daily air quality reports, and gives an overview of the management
system for air quality management in Thailand. Available in English and Thai.
Environment Canada: Smog Facts
http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/smog_e.html
This is a homepage presenting information about smog and its components, as well as the
smog situation in Canada.
Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand
http://www.casanz.org.au
The society promotes the protection of the environment through organising training
courses, conferences etc. The site contains many useful links and addresses.
Clean Cities Program
http://www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/
The mission of the Clean Cities Program is to advance the nation's economic,
environmental, and energy security by supporting local decisions to adopt practices that
contribute to the reduction of petroleum consumption. Clean Cities carries out this mission
through a network of more than 80 volunteer coalitions, which develop public/private
partnerships to promote alternative fuels and vehicles, fuel blends, fuel economy, hybrid
vehicles, and idle reduction.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) - Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/index.html
This U.S. EPA site provides a lot of information on air quality in the U.S.
International Organisations
World Health Organisation (WHO)
http://www.who.int/phe/en/
WHO dedicates a health topic section at the Protection of the human environment (PHE)
site. WHO Air Quality Guidelines and other tools can be found there.
Various air quality initiatives of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
www.unep.org
UNEP's Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), France
www.unepie.org
UNEP's International Environment Technology Centre(IETC), Japan
159
www.unep.or.jp
Clean Air Initiative
http://www.cleanairnet.org
The Clean Air Initiative (CAI) advances innovative ways to improve air quality in cities by
sharing knowledge and experiences through partnerships in Latin America, Asia and SubSaharan Africa. It is a support programme of the World Bank and regional Development
Banks that brings air quality managers and other stakeholders together in the development
and implementation of air quality action plans.
The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) promotes and demonstrates innovative
ways to improve the air quality of Asian cities through partnerships and sharing
experiences.
The Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa was launched in 1998 as a response to an
increase in air quality problems in the region. Urban air pollution tends to increase with the
rate of urbanization.
EMMA, Integrated
Metropolitan Areas
Environmental
Monitoring,
Forecasting
and
Warning
Systems
in
http://www.axp.mdx.ac.uk/emma/index.html
The site is a presentation of EMMA, a project financed by the European Commission. The
project compiles data on air quality in four European cities. The site provides further links to
sites with air pollution information, and online air quality data from several cities in (mostly
European) countries. Available in English, French, Italian, and Spanish.
ISIS: Integrated System for Sustainability, Life Environment Programme, European
Commission, 1997. This report contains a guide on the general health and social impacts of
one specific activity sector, i.e. road transport. It explains how the broad adverse health
effects of traffic-related air pollution can be assessed. It also covers the health and social
effects of transport.
Research Institutions
World Resources Institute:
www.wri.org
The World Resources Institute's programme on Health environment and development
provides useful input into the efforts to understand the impacts of air pollution and climate
change.
School of Environment, Resources and Development, AIT
http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/
Through its academic programs and outreach units, SERD, AITs largest School, has been
working towards capacity building and human resource development in the areas of
environmental and resources management, poverty alleviation and socio-economic/gender
development.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Quality Glossary
http://www.shsu.edu/~chemistry/Glossary/glos.html
Senior level class students created this glossary at Sam Houston State University, U.S.A. It
contains words and expressions, from Abatement to Zeolite. References and hyperlinks are
160
being updated on a continuous basis. The current 2005 version marks the tenth year of this
project.
Air quality modelling
http://www.dar.csiro.au/
A CSIRO Atmospheric Research site describing air quality modelling using the Lagrangrian
Atmospheric Dispersion Model (LADM).
Non-Governmental Organisations
Center for Science and Technology (CSE)
www.cseindia.org
CSE is an NGO with programmes including air pollution and climate change. Useful insight
on the impact of this popular sector on environmental management issues, especially in
terms of policy research, advocacy, public awareness raising, education and training, is
provided in their website
Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning /Global Lead Network
www.globalleadnet.org
Global Lead Network provides resources and support for those working on lead poisoning
prevention around the world. The site is designed to assist agencies, NGOs, researchers,
concerned citizens and all stakeholders interested in developing solutions. It features
information, tools, on-line translations and a searchable database of organizations and
individuals with relevant expertise and experience. The global lead Network is sponsored by
the Alliance to end Childhood Lead Poisoning.
Public/private organisations
The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI)
http://www.smhi.se/en/index.htm
SMHI offers extensive know-how in air pollution control in many countries globally. SMHI is
using an environmental information AIRVIRO software system for e.g. acquiring data,
analyses of data and modelling (http://www.airviro.smhi.se/)
Air and Waste Management Association (A&WMA)
www.awma.org
A & WMA is an organisation that provides training, information and networking opportunities
to 12,000 environmental professionals in 65 countries. The association publishes
publications and arranges conferences and workshops. It is based in U.S.A., but has
sections and members worldwide. The site is also of use for non-members, and it contains
many useful links.
International
(IPIECA)
Petroleum
Industry
Environmental
Conservation
Association
http://www.ipieca.org
IPIECA includes both petroleum companies and associations at the national, regional or
international levels. The association is involved in global environmental issues related to the
161
petroleum industry. It has developed an urban air quality management toolkit, and has
activities in Latin America and South East Asia.
Spare The Air
http://www.sparetheair.org
The Spare the Air Program was established by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District
to educate people about air pollution, and to encourage them to change their behaviour to
prevent it.
162
OpenOffice 1.1.4
Firefox 1.0.4
WinZip 9
Models
CALINE4 model
see TOOL 14
CAR model
see TOOL 13
IEUBK
Indoor Pollution
ver 1997; ver 2000
Nairobi, 2005
163
VOLUME, MASS
AND LENGTH
C O N V E R S I O N S A N D O T H E R UN I T S
TO CONVERT
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
centimeters
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
inches
kilograms
liters
liters
liters
microns
miles/hour
milligrams
pints
pounds
pounds of water
pounds/cubic ft
quarts
tons (metric)
tons (short)
tons (short)
watts
INTO
feet of water
inches Hg
kilogram/square meter
lb/sq inch (psi)
mm Hg
inches
cubic meters
gallons
liters
cubic centimeter
liters
liters
centimeters
pounds
cubic yards
cubic feet
ounces (fluid)
meters
feet/minute
micrograms
milliliters
grams
cubic feet water
kg/cubic meter
liters
kilograms
pounds
tons (metric)
BTU/hour
MULTIPLY BY:
33.90
29.92
10,332
14.70
760
0.3937
0.02832
7.48052
28.32
16.39
1000
3.785
2.540
2.205
1.308 E-3
0.03531
33.814
1 E10
88
1000
473.2
453.6
0.01602
16.02
0.9464
1000
2000
0.9072
3.4129
=
=
=
=
Capacity
Liter
=
Liter
=
Liter
=
Cu in
=
Cu ft
=
Gal
=
Weight
0.610 cu in
16.39 cu cm
35.31 cu ft
0.0283 cu m
Gram
Oz
Kg
Lb
=
=
=
=
0.0353 oz
28.3 gram
2.204 lb
454 gram
Length
2.205 lb of pure water at 4 C
0.0353 cu ft
0.2642 gal (US)
0.0164 liter
28.32 liter
3.785 liter
cm
in
meter
ft
km
mile
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.3937 in
2.540 cm
3.281 ft
0.3048 m
0.6214 mile
1.610 km
Used with permission of Dr. Jack Caravanos, as excerpted from Appendix A of "Quantitative Industrial Hygiene:
A Formula Workbook".